U.S. SStandards && PPractice · 2013-11-08 · Protecting children from life-threatening and...

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Textbook bby

Rolf HHuber, bb.com, cccpi

D

© January 2001Canadian Playground Advisory Inc.2344 Manor House Court • Mississauga,Ontario • Canada L5M 5Y3Phone: 416-410-7506 • Fax: 905-812-8036

Editing & Design: Pat Daley

Table oof CContents

Introduction . .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 11

Injury SSeverity . .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 22

Play SSurface RRequirement . .. .. .. .. .. 33Standards — A Short Discussion . . . . . . . . 4

Playground SSurfaces -- TTypes . .. .. .. 44Advantages and Disadvantages ofPlayground Surfacing Systems . . . . . . . . . . 4Organic Loose Fill Material . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5

Wood Chips and Bark Mulch . . . . . . . . . . 5Engineered Wood Fiber . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6

Inorganic Loose Fill Material . . . . . . . . . . . . 7Sand . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7Gravel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8Shredded Tires . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9

Inorganic Unitary Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . 10Mats or Tiles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10Poured-in-Place . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12Combination Inorganic Loose Rubber Fill and Tile or Poured-in-place . . . . . . . . . . 13In-The-Can Inorganic Surfaces . . . . . . . 14

Considerations regarding Advantages andDisadvantages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15

Performance RRequirements forProtective SSurfacing . .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 115The Test Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16

Types of Tests and Performance . . . . . . 16

Laboratory Testing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17Field Testing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18Results of the Field Tests . . . . . . . . . . . 18

Playground LLayout . .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 220

The TThree HHeights oofPlaygrounds . .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 222

Accessibility . .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 224

Ground Level Play Components . . . . . . . . 24

Elevated Play Components . . . . . . . . . . . 24ASTM F1487, Section 10,Accessibility . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25ASTM F1951 - Standard Specificationfor Determination of Accessibility ofSurface Systems Under andAround Playground Equipment . . . . . . . 25

Best PPractice, DDue DDiligence, aandSupervision. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 226

Application aand EEnforcement oofStandards. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 227

References . .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 330

About tthe AAuthor . .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 330

Introduction

1

This course is intended to provide theparticipant with an overview of the cur-rent standards in effect as well as gov-

ernment guidelines, regulations and rules inplace. The issue of playground safety is relatedto the health and safety of the child using theplayground. However, because playgroundsafety also affects the exercise of professionaljudgement, due diligence, and liability, thecourse will discuss best practices as well.

In her introductory letter to the Handbook forPublic Playground Safety, Ann Brown, chair-man of the Consumer Product SafetyCommission (CPSC) wrote:

“Unfortunately, more than 200,000 chil-dren are treated in U.S. hospital emer-gency rooms each year for injuries associ-ated with playground equipment. Mostinjuries occur when children fall from theequipment onto the ground.”In addition the NRPA in their promotion of the

ASTM F1487-98 Standard Consumer SafetyPerformance Specification for PlaygroundEquipment for Public Use states:

“About three fourths of these injuries resultfrom falls, primarily to the surface on whichthe equipment was located.”Worldwide, statistics indicate that 55% to

75% of all playground injuries result from fallsto the surface.

Protecting children from life-threatening anddebilitating playground injury has been the sub-ject of standards, articles, and handbooksthroughout the world. In some cases, such asthe CPSC Handbook for Public PlaygroundSafety and the Canadian CSA Z614-98Children’s Playspaces and Equipment, the sur-face performance and the specifications for

play equipment are in the same document. Inthe United States, however, there are stan-dards for each topic — the ASTM F1487 (playequipment) and the ASTM F1292 (surface per-formance). In addition there are guidelines foraccessible playgrounds and the associatedstandards ASTM F1951 and ASTM F1487. TheASTM F2000 standard covers playgroundfences.

It is incumbent upon all persons involvedwith design, specification, acquisition, installa-tion, inspection, and maintenance to be familiarwith these standards as a minimum. This ispart of their due diligence obligation wherethere is the potential for harm to oneself or oth-ers. Due diligence is the exercise of profes-sional judgement. The ASTM F1487 Standarddefines professional judgement as:

“The ability of an individual with currentknowledge, skill or experience, or both inthe field of playgrounds/playground equip-ment design, use or operations, whichenable the person to form an opinion ormake a decision, or both, concerning amatter within that field of expertise.”The lack of due diligence may be construed

as negligence — a legal term that is most asso-ciated with liability. You should contact a legalprofessional or risk manager to determine thespecific exposure that would relate to your spe-cific circumstances. For purposes of this dis-cussion it is enough to introduce you to themost commonly held definition. In 1856, BaronAlderson stated that negligence is:

“the omission to do something which a rea-sonable man, guided upon those considera-tions that ordinarily regulate the conduct ofhuman affairs, would do, or something whicha prudent or reasonable man would not do.”

Injury SSeverity

2

The CPSC Handbook for PublicPlayground Safety, in its discussion ofthe Determining Shock Absorbency of a

Surfacing Material, states:“No data are available to predict pre-

cisely the threshold tolerance of thehuman head to an impact injury. However,biomedical researchers have establishedtwo methods that may be used to deter-mine when such an injury may be lifethreatening.

“One method holds that if the peakdeceleration of the head during impactdoes not exceed 200 times the accelera-tion due to gravity (200 G’s), a life threat-ening head injury is not likely to occur. Thesecond method holds that both the decel-eration of the head during impact and thetime duration over which the head deceler-ates to a halt are significant in assessinghead impact injury. This latter method usesa mathematical formula to derive a valueknown as Head Injury Criteria (HIC). Headimpact injuries are not believed to be lifethreatening if the HIC does not exceed avalue of 1,000.”Once the professional becomes knowledge-

able about playground surfacing and the typeand severity of possible injury, the next step isprevention through implementing the standardsand the recommendations of the CPSCHandbook. The standards set minimums forperformance for playground surfaces related tothe allowable impact force to the head. Thoseare:

Gmax <200 and HIC < 1000.An impact force above these levels could

result in a life-threatening head injury.

Remember, the CPSC recommendation andthe threshold levels for pass/fail in the stan-dards are the levels that can produce a life-threatening head injury. Remember to review“Best Practices” at a later point.

Play SSurface RRequirement

3

Knowing what the maximum allowableimpact forces are, you must nowdecide on the test method to use in

determining the impact absorbing properties forthe surface. Section 4.1 of the CPSCHandbook for Public Playground Safety states:

“The most widely used test method forevaluating the shock absorbing propertiesof a playground surfacing material is todrop an instrumented metal headform ontoa sample of the materials and record theacceleration/time pulse during the impact.Test methods are described in ASTMStandard Specification for ImpactAttenuation of Surface Systems Under andAround Playground Equipment, ASTMF1292.”The Standard most related to playgrounds in

the United States is the ASTM F1487,Standard Consumer Safety PerformanceSpecification for Playground Equipment forPublic Use. It is the relationship of this standardto the standards for playground surfacing thatmust be investigated.

The ASTM Standard F1487 states in section9.1.1:

There shall be a use zone for each playstructure, which shall consist of obstacle-free surfacing that conforms toSpecification F1292 appropriate for the fallheight of the equipment.Section 11.2 for Owner/Operator’s

Responsibilities states:11.2.2 The owner/operator shall install pro-tective surfacing within the use zone ofeach play structure in accordance withSpecification F1292 appropriate for the fallheight of each structure.

Section 13 for maintenance states:13.2 Protective Surfacing13.2.1 The owner/operator shall maintainthe protective surfacing within the usezone of each play structure in accordancewith Specification F1292 appropriate forthe fall height of each structure.13.2.2 The owner/operator shall maintainthe protective surfacing within the usezone of each play structure free fromextraneous materials that could causeinjury, infection or disease.13.3 The owner/operator shall establishand maintain detailed installation, inspec-tion, maintenance, and repair records foreach public-use playground equipmentarea.One important consideration in this section is

that surfacing is dynamic. It must first beinstalled to meet the minimum performance ofthe ASTM F1292 and be maintained at or bet-ter than the same minimum performance. Therequirement to keep detailed records impliesthat, should there be an injury of any type,these records can be required in any litigation.Should they not exist, be inadequate or lackspecifics or indicate uncorrected failures, theowner/operator will suffer the consequences.

The reader should be starting to notice thatthere is significant liability on the owner/opera-tor’s shoulders. You will also notice that theword “shall” continues to appear. In the lan-guage of a standard, this is mandatory andtherefore a requirement.

4

Standards —— AA SShort DDiscussion

Before proceeding, it is appropriate to look atthe way standards affect due diligence and theexercise of professional judgement. Standardsset minimum performance and use languagethat is suggestive (recommended or should) ora requirement (shall). It is the role of the user ofthe document to provide a level of care that isat least that of the standard. However, the userof the standard must clearly assess the mini-mums in the standards to determine whetherthey will meet the specific need of a particularcircumstance. This is known as “Best Practice.”We will return to this subject later in our dis-cussions.

There are a number of materials thathave been used as protective surfacingmaterials. Although the manufacturer,

supplier or installer will argue that their surfac-ing system is the best that money can buy,there is no best. Each product has advantagesand disadvantages. It is the buyer’s responsi-bility to exercise due diligence in:• understanding the alternatives• making sure that the advantages meet

their needs • ensuring that the disadvantages can be

dealt with either through a combination ofother materials, warranties or mainte-nance.Playground surfaces are typically of two

types: Loose Fill Materials and UnitaryMaterials

Loose Fill Materials include traditional sur-faces such as sand and pea gravel. Over thepast 20 years, wood chips, bark mulch, engi-neered wood fibers, and shredded tires havebeen installed in playgrounds. Unitary materi-als include mats, tile and poured-in-place sur-faces. The traditional view is that loose fillmaterials have a lower initial cost and higherlong-term maintenance than unitary materials.This is over-simplified and generally wrong.Each system has distinct advantages and dis-advantages.

Advantages aand DDisadvantages oofPlayground SSurfacing SSystems

There are a number of surfacing systemsthat have over many years been utilised as tra-ditional materials or invented for application asa playground surfacing system. Each of these

Playground SSurfaces -- TTypes

5

systems has advantages and disadvantagesrelated to cost, performance, and maintenance.In some cases, a combination of surfaceswould be best suited to a particular circum-stance. Generally combinations use a unitarymaterial and a single loose fill material. Cautionmust be exercised prior to specification orinstallation of any combination of loose fillmaterial. Approval of the compatibility of onematerial with the other must be confirmed withthe manufacturer/ supplier of each.

Each surface type should be considered inlight of the advantages and disadvantages thatfollow. Confirmation of properties and compo-nents or raw materials with themanufacturer/supplier will be of assistance tothe specifier.

The following information is inclusive anddesigned to allow for a thorough discussion ofany single type of surface system. Some prod-ucts overlap in advantages or disadvantages.However, each surface type will have uniquequalities.

Organic LLoose FFill MMaterial

WWoooodd CChhiippss aanndd BBaarrkk MMuullcchhBark mulch generally results from pruning

and disposing of trees as part of an urban treemanagement and landscape maintenance pro-gram or the debarking of trees in the forest ormill. It can contain twigs and leaves from thetrees and shrubbery processed. Wood chipsare generally uniformly crushed shreds orchips that contain no bark or leaves. The woodmust be separated prior to chipping or pro-cessing to ensure that no woods containingtoxic substances or allergens are included inthe final product. An ASTM standard for wood

engineered products went into the ballotingprocess in January 2001. This is discussed inthe following section.

The impact attenuating properties of thewood chips and bark mulch depend on manyfactors. It can only be determined through test-ing the material to the requirements of ASTMF1292. Field-testing the surface once installedand annually, using the ASTM F1292 testmethod, will ensure that the installed materialmeets the contract specification and continuesto provide protection for the user.

Wood chips and bark mulch must not beinstalled over existing hard surfaces such asasphalt or concrete. A method of containment— retaining barrier, excavated pit, etc. — isrequired. A drainage system and geotextile arerequired between the sub-base and the woodchips or bark mulch. Since wood chips andbark mulch can be a broad spectrum of shapesand sizes, maintenance of each site will bespecific to the site. Maintenance will requirecontinuous levelling, raking, grading, sifting,packing, etc. to provide adequate cover andresilience. Inspection of the surface for foreignmaterials is required on a regular basis.Replenishing of the surface to accommodatedecomposition and compression is required.The entire material must be removed andreplaced should the bulk of the surface bedecomposed. Bacteria and moulds can occuras a result of a combination of decomposition,wet or damp materials, and temperatures rang-ing from 35°F to 100°F.

Wood chips and bark mulch provide theowner/operator with a number of advantagessuch as:• low initial cost• easy to install

6

• allows for good drainage• is less abrasive than sand• readily available• is less attractive to cats and dogs as com-

pared to sand• mildly acidic composition of some woods

retards the infestation of insects andretards fugal growth

• generally users of the playground will notuse the wood chips for other purposes orplay with itWood chips and bark mulch provide the

owner/operator with a number of disadvan-tages that may reduce the ability of the surfaceto conform to various performance standardssuch as:• rainy weather, high humidity, freezing tem-

peratures• with normal use over time, combines with

dirt and other foreign materials• over time, decomposes, is pulverised and

compacts. The greater the quantity ofleaves or moisture, the faster the rate ofdecomposition

• depth may be reduced by displacementdue to children’s activity or by materialbeing blown by wind

• can be blown or thrown into children’s eyes• subject to microbial growth when wet• conceals animal excrement and trash (e.g.

broken glass, nails, pencils and othersharp objects that can cause cut or punc-ture wounds)

• spreads easily outside of the containmentarea

• can be flammable

EEnnggiinneeeerreedd WWoooodd FFiibbeerr(new ASTM Standard F2075)

Engineered wood fiber generally results fromgrinding virgin or new wood that has beendebarked and contains no leaves to specificdimensions and performance criteria. Thewood must be separated prior to chipping orprocessing to ensure that no woods containingtoxic substances or allergens are included inthe final product. ASTM F2075 also specifiesother tests to ensure a uniform product.

The impact attenuating properties of theengineered wood fiber will depend on manyfactors. It can only be determined through test-ing the material to the requirements of ASTMF1292. Field-testing the surface once installedand annually, utilising the test method of ASTMF1292, will ensure that the material installedmeets the contract specification and continuesto provide protection for the user.

Engineered wood fiber may be installed overexisting hard surfaces (e.g. asphalt, concrete)provided:• it conforms to the ASTM F2075 standard• it conforms to the ASTM F1951 standard• the initial and maintained depth provides

for a minimum depth of 12 inches aftercompaction

• that in high traffic areas, such as underswings and at slide exits, an impact atten-uating mat that conforms to the require-ments of ASTM F1292 is installed

• a drainage system, such as stone aggre-gate sandwiched within two layers of geo-textile cloth, is installed under the entireengineered wood fiber systemA method of containment (e.g. retaining bar-

rier, excavated pit, etc.) is required. A drainagesystem and geotextile are required between

7

the sub-base and the engineered wood fiber.Maintenance will require regular levelling, rak-ing, grading, sifting, packing, etc. to provideadequate cover and resilience. Inspection ofthe surface for foreign materials is required ona regular basis. Replenishing of the surface toaccommodate decomposition and compres-sion is required. The entire material must beremoved and replaced should the bulk of thesurface be decomposed. Bacteria and mouldscan occur as a result of a combination ofdecomposition, wet or damp materials, andtemperatures ranging from 35F to 100F.

Engineered wood fiber provides theowner/operator with a number of advantagessuch as:• easy to install• allows for good drainage• is less abrasive than sand• readily available• is less attractive to cats and dogs as com-

pared to sand• mildly acidic composition of some woods

retards the infestation of insects andretards fugal growth

• generally users of the playground will notuse the wood chips for other purposes orplay with it

• must conform to ASTM F2075 engineeredwood fiber standard

• must conform to the ASTM F1951 stan-dard (accessibility)

• must conform to the ASTM F1292 standard• is free of bark and leaves• is less likely than other loose fill material to

conceal animal excrement and trash (e.g.broken glass, nails, pencils and othersharp object that can cause cut or punc-ture wounds)

Engineered wood fiber provides theowner/operator with a number of disadvan-tages that may reduce the ability of the surfaceto conform to various performance standardssuch as:• rainy weather, high humidity, freezing tem-


dirt and other foreign materials• over time, decomposes, is pulverised and

compacts. The greater the level of mois-ture, the faster the rate of decomposition


• can be blown or thrown into children’s eyes• subject to microbial growth when wet• can conceals animal excrement and trash

(e.g. broken glass, nails, pencils and othersharp object that can cause cut or punc-ture wounds


• can be flammable

Inorganic LLoose FFill MMaterial

SSaannddSand is a naturally occurring material that

will vary in texture and composition dependingon the source and geographic location fromwhich it is mined. Once mined, the raw sand isprocessed or manufactured to provide specificgrades and classifications through washing,screening, and other actions

The impact attenuating properties of sandwill depend on many factors and can only bedetermined through testing of the material tothe requirements of ASTM F1292. Field-testing

8

the surface once installed and annually, utilis-ing the test method of ASTM F1292, will ensurethat the material installed meets the contractspecification and continues to provide protec-tion for the user.

Sand must not be installed over existing hardsurfaces (e.g. asphalt, concrete). A method ofcontainment (e.g. retaining barrier, excavatedpit, etc.) is required. A drainage system andgeotextile are required between the sub-baseand the sand. Maintenance will require contin-uous levelling, raking, grading, sifting, packing,etc. to provide adequate cover and resilience.Inspection of the surface for foreign materials isrequired on a regular basis. Periodically thecompacted sand must be turned over, loos-ened, and cleaned. Total replacement of thesand will be required when turning and loosen-ing no longer provide the performance requiredby ASTM F1292.

Sand provides the owner/operator with anumber of advantages such as:• low initial cost• easy to install• does not easily support microbial growth• readily available• non-flammable• not susceptible to vandalism except by

contaminationSand provides the owner/operator with a

number of disadvantages that may reduce theability of the surface to conform to various per-formance standards such as:• will not meet the requirements for accessi-

bility and the performance required by theASTM F1951 standard

• finding sand that has passed the ASTMF1292 laboratory testing will be difficult

• rainy weather, high humidity, freezing tem-


dirt and other foreign materials• depth may be reduced by displacement

due to children’s activity or by materialbeing blown by wind

• can be blown or thrown into children’s eyes• may be swallowed• conceals animal excrement and trash (e.g.

broken glass, nails, pencils and othersharp object that can cause cut or punc-ture wounds)


• small particles bind together and becomeless cushioning when wet; when thorough-ly wet, sand reacts as a rigid material

• may be tracked onto other surfaces; wheninstalled in conjunction with a unitary sur-face the fine particles can reduce theshock absorbing properties of porous uni-tary material. The abrasive characteristicof sand can damage most other surfacesincluding non-porous unitary materials andsurfaces outside the playground.

• adheres to clothing

GGrraavveellGravel is a naturally occurring material that

will vary in texture and composition dependingupon the source and geographic location fromwhich is mined. Once mined, the raw gravel isprocessed or manufactured to provide specificgrades and classifications through the wash-ing, screening and other actions. Crushed orbroken gravel is unacceptable, as this materialwill not allow of the displacement of the parti-cles.

The impact attenuating properties of gravel

9

will depend on many factors and can only bedetermined through the testing of the materialto the requirements of ASTM F1292. Field-test-ing the surface once installed and annually, util-ising the test method of ASTM F1292, willensure that the material installed meets thecontract specification and continues to provideprotection for the user.

Gravel must not be installed over existinghard surfaces (e.g. asphalt, concrete). Amethod of containment (e.g. retaining barrier,excavated pit, etc.) is required. A drainage sys-tem and geotextile are required between thesub-base and the gravel. Maintenance willrequire continuous levelling, raking, grading,sifting, packing, etc. to provide adequate coverand resilience. Inspection of the surface for for-eign materials is required on a regular basis.Periodically the hardened gravel must beturned over, loosened and cleaned. Totalreplacement of the gravel will be required whenturning and loosening no longer provides theperformance required by the ASTM F1292standard.

Gravel provides the owner/operator with anumber of advantages such as:• low initial cost• easy to install• does not easily support microbial growth• readily available• non-flammable• not susceptible to vandalism except by

contamination• gravel is less attractive to animals than

sandGravel provides the owner/operator with a

number of disadvantages that may reduce theability of the surface to conform to various per-formance standards such as:

• will not meet the requirements for accessi-bility and the performance required by theASTM F1951 standard.

• rainy weather, high humidity, freezing tem-peratures

• with normal use over time, combines withdirt and other foreign materials

• depth may be reduced by displacementdue to children’s activity

• can be thrown into children’s eyes• may be swallowed• may become lodged in bodily openings

such as nose and ears• conceals animal excrement and trash (e.g.


• spreads very easily outside of the contain-ment area

• small particles bind together and becomeless cushioning and forms hard pan

• may be tracked onto other surfaces. Whenon other hard surfaces, the rolling natureof the gravel can be a contributor to slip-fall injuries.

• difficult to walk on

SShhrreeddddeedd TTiirreessShredded tire materials are the result of

grinding, buffing or crushing the whole tire orany part of the tire. The tire particle must notcontain any metals or foreign contaminants.Some processing techniques provide for thepigmenting of the outside of the black rubber;this must be non-toxic and contain no allergenssuch as latex.

The impact attenuating properties of theshredded tires will vary depending upon theprocess, shape and particle size of the product

10

and can only be determined through testing thematerial to the requirements of ASTM F1292.Field-testing the surface once installed andannually, utilising the test method of ASTMF1292, will ensure that the material installedmeets the contract specification and continuesto provide protection for the user.

Shredded tires must not be installed overexisting hard surfaces (e.g. asphalt, concrete).A method of containment (e.g. retaining barrier,excavated pit, etc.) is required. A drainage sys-tem and geotextile are required between thesub-base and the shredded tire. Maintenancewill require continuous levelling, raking, grad-ing, sifting, packing etc. to provide adequatecover and resilience. Inspection of the surfacefor foreign materials is required on a regularbasis. Periodically the shredded tires must beturned over, loosened and cleaned.

Shredded Tires provide the owner/operatorwith a number of advantages such as:• easy to install• not abrasive• does not easily support microbial growth• not susceptible to vandalism except by

contamination• less attractive to animals than sand

Shredded tires provide the owner/operatorwith a number of disadvantages that mayreduce the ability of the surface to conform tovarious performance standards such as:• will not meet the requirements for accessi-

bility and the performance required by theASTM F1951 standard

• may contain wires or other metal compo-nents


• can be blown or thrown into children’s eyes• may be swallowed• may contain lead and other toxins• small or dust sized particles may enter and

remain in lungs• when wet, small particles will stick to cloth-

ing and skin• may become lodged in bodily openings

such as nose and ears• conceals animal excrement and trash (e.g.


•spreads easily outside of the containmentarea

• difficult to walk on

Inorganic UUnitary MMaterials

MMaattss oorr TTiilleessMats or tiles are generally the result of the

combination of a chemical binder and rubberfiller product. The mats or tiles can be manu-factured using any of a combination of heat,pressure or ambient application of a mixturewithin a form or mould. The mats or tiles canappear to be monolithic in a single or multiplelayer system or have a support or leg structurecombined with a firm top. Mats or tiles can beporous or nonporous to water. Pigmentation ofthe surface can be provided through the pig-mentation of the binder holding the rubber par-ticles or utilising colored rubber particles orchips. Mats or Tiles are manufactured in vari-ous thicknesses, length, and width dependingupon the properties desired by the manufactur-er.

The impact attenuating properties of themats or tiles will vary depending on the partic-

11

ular product and can only be determinedthrough testing of material to the requirementsof ASTM F1292. Field-testing the surface onceinstalled and annually, utilising the test methodof ASTM F1292, will ensure that the materialinstalled meets the contract specification andcontinues to provide protection for the user.

Mats or tiles can be installed over a variety ofbases from compacted crushed granular to ahard surface (e.g. asphalt, concrete). They areon occasion installed within a loose fill materialto reduce compaction or disruption of the loosefill materials in high traffic, repeated impact andentrance areas. The manufacturer’s procedureas to the base preparation must be followed foreach particular mat or tile. The installation pro-cedure may be such as to provide for installa-tion by the owner/operator or specialisedlabour. In addition, methods of fixing the matsor tiles (bonding, pins, interlocking edges,anchors etc) will be specified by the manufac-turer and adhered to. The maintenance of matsor tiles can consist of the removal of largedebris with sweeping or blowing, while theremoval of smaller particles such as sand fromporous mats or tiles will require mechanicalcleaning such as a vacuum. For some mats ortiles, snow can be removed mechanically andde-icing materials can be used as per the man-ufacturer’s recommendations. When a mat ortile has lost its effectiveness to attenuateimpact as a result of degradation or contami-nation, the affected area will have to beremoved and replaced.

Mats or tiles provide the owner/operator witha number of advantages such as:• low maintenance• easy to clean• consistent shock absorbency

• material not displaced by children duringplay activities

• generally low life cycle costs• good footing (depends on surface texture)• harbor few foreign objects• generally no retaining edges required• accessible to people with disabilities

Mats or tiles provide the owner/operator witha number of disadvantages that may reducethe ability of the surface to conform to variousperformance standards such as:• initial cost is relatively high• base materials may be critical for thinner

materials• often must be used on almost smooth uni-

form surfaces without deviation in slope• may be flammable• subject to vandalism (e.g. ignited, defaced,

cut)• may curl up and cause tripping• may shrink and cause the accumulation of

dirt and debris that does not absorb impact• may become hard over time as a result of

environmental degradation. This wouldmean a total removal and replacementand the associated costs unless coveredby warranty or insurance

• some designs are susceptible to frost dam-age.

• location of seams, anchors and other fas-teners may not attenuate impact to thesame degree as the balance of the mat ortile

• mechanical fasteners or anchors canbecome dislodged and present a hazard tothe user

12

PPoouurreedd--iinn--PPllaacceePoured-in-place surface is generally the

result of the combination of a chemical binderand rubber filler product. The poured-in-placesurface can be manufactured using single ormultiple layers of materials and binders andgenerally are monolithic. Poured-in-place sur-faces are generally porous, however can benonporous to water through the application of anon-porous material. Pigmentation of the sur-face can be provided through the pigmentationof the binder holding the rubber particles or util-ising colored rubber particles or chips. Poured-in-place surfaces are manufactured in variousthicknesses depending upon the propertiesdesired by the manufacturer.

The impact attenuating properties of thePoured-in-place surfaces will vary dependingupon the particular chemistry, components,installation technique, etc and can only bedetermined through testing of material to therequirements of ASTM F1292. Since the play-ground site is also the site of manufacture,inconsistencies can develop in the installationprocess, providing for detrimental variation inperformance. The owner/operator may be bestserved with the site testing of the surface toconfirm compliance. Field-testing the surfaceonce installed and annually, utilising the testmethod of ASTM F1292, will ensure that thematerial installed meets the contract specifica-tion and continues to provide protection for theuser.

Poured-in-place surfaces can be installedover a variety of bases from compactedcrushed granular to a hard surface (e.g.asphalt, concrete). Poured-in-place surfacescan also be made to conform to slopes andother shapes provided in the play environment.

They are on occasion installed within a loose fillmaterial to reduce compaction or disruption ofthe loose fill materials in high traffic, repeatedimpact and entrance areas. The manufactur-er’s procedure as to the base preparation mustbe followed for each particular poured-in-placesurface. The installation procedure is almostalways through specialised labour and equip-ment. The maintenance of the poured-in-placesurface can consist of the removal of largedebris with sweeping or blowing, while theremoval of smaller particles such as sand fromthe porous surface will require mechanicalcleaning such as a vacuum. For some poured-in-place surfaces, snow can be removedmechanically and de-icing materials can beused as per the manufacturer’s recommenda-tions. When a poured-in-place surface has lostits effectiveness to attenuate impact as a resultof degradation or contamination, the affectedarea will have to be removed and replaced.

Poured-in-place surfaces provide theowner/operator with a number of advantagessuch as:• low maintenance• easy to clean• consistent shock absorbency• material not displaced by children during

play activities• generally low life cycle costs • does not require smooth uniform surfaces

without deviation in slope• good footing (depends on surface texture)• harbor few foreign objects• generally no retaining edges required• accessible to people with disabilities

Poured-in-place surfaces provide theowner/operator with a number of disadvan-tages that may reduce the ability of the surface

13

to conform to various performance standardssuch as:• initial cost is relatively high• base materials may be critical for thinner

materials• may be flammable• subject to vandalism (e.g. ignited, defaced,

cut)• may shrink and cause the accumulation of

dirt and debris that does not absorb impactat edges

• may become hard over time as a result ofenvironmental degradation. This wouldmean a total removal and replacementand the associated costs unless coveredby warranty or insurance

• some designs are susceptible to frost damage.

CCoommbbiinnaattiioonn IInnoorrggaanniicc LLoooossee RRuubbbbeerr FFiillllaanndd TTiillee oorr PPoouurreedd--iinn--ppllaaccee

Combination inorganic loose fill and tile orpoured-in-place surfaces are generally theresult of the combination of a chemical binderand rubber filler product laid over a layer ofloose shredded tires. Combination inorganicloose rubber fill and tile or poured-in-place sur-faces are generally the result of laying anappropriate depth of rubber granules or shredscovered by a plastic matting, tile or poured-in-place top as previously described. They aregenerally porous, however can be nonporousto water through the application of a non-porous material. Pigmentation of the surfacecan be provided through the pigmentation ofthe binder holding the rubber particles or utilis-ing colored rubber particles or chips.Combination inorganic loose fill and tile orpoured-in-place surfaces are manufactured invarious thicknesses depending upon the prop-

erties desired by the manufacturer.The impact attenuating properties of the

combination inorganic loose fill and tile orpoured-in-place surfaces will vary dependingupon the particular chemistry, components,installation technique, etc and can only bedetermined through testing the material to therequirements of ASTM F1292. Since the play-ground site is also the site of manufacture,inconsistencies can develop in the installationprocess, providing for detrimental variation inperformance. Field-testing the surface onceinstalled and annually, utilising the test methodof ASTM F1292, will ensure that the materialinstalled meets the contract specification andcontinues to provide protection for the user.

Combination inorganic loose fill and tile orpoured-in-place surfaces cannot have theloose fill components installed over a hard sur-face (e.g. asphalt, concrete) whereas the tile orpoured-in-place surface can be installed over ahard surface (e.g. asphalt, concrete). Theinstallation procedure is almost always throughspecialised labour and equipment. The mainte-nance of the combination inorganic loose filland tile or poured-in-place surface can consistof the removal of large debris with sweeping orblowing, while the removal of smaller particlessuch as sand from porous is extremely difficult.When a poured-in-place surface has lost itseffectiveness to attenuate impact as a result ofdegradation or contamination, the affectedarea will have to be removed and replaced.Movement and displacement of the loose fillmaterial as a result of activity or subjection towater will require the removal of the toppingmaterials and reinstallation of the system.

Combination inorganic loose fill and tile orpoured-in-place surfaces provide the

14

owner/operator with a number of advantagessuch as:• lower initial cost to poured-in-place or mats

or tiles• consistent shock absorbency provided the

loose material stays in place• generally low life cycle costs • good footing (depends on surface texture)• harbor few foreign objects• accessible to people with disabilities pro-

vided it remains smooth; ask for testresultsCombination inorganic loose fill and tile or

poured-in-place surfaces provide theowner/operator with a number of disadvan-tages that may reduce the ability of the surfaceto conform to various performance standardssuch as:• initial cost is relatively high• loose fill material can be displaced by chil-

dren during play activities• sub-base materials may be critical for thin-

ner materials•may be flammable

• subject to vandalism (e.g. ignited, defaced,cut)

• surface layer may shrink and cause theaccumulation of dirt and debris that doesnot absorb impact at edges

• generally retaining edges required• may become hard over time as a result of

environmental degradation• some designs are susceptible to frost dam-

age• loose fill material can shift, requiring re-

installation

IInn--TThhee--CCaann IInnoorrggaanniicc SSuurrffaacceessThere has of late been a development of

inorganic surfacing materials that consist of arubber crumb component premixed with a bind-ing agent that is intended for installation by thepurchaser. In most cases, the manufacturer ofthe product provides installation instructions asto thickness and some other techniques. Sincethis system, as with any poured-in-place sys-tem, requires special installation techniquesand skilled labour, it is not recommended foruse by the inexperienced person. Duplicationof original manufacturer’s result will be difficultin the field. These products are typically bestsuited to repairs or small additions to poured-in-place surfaces that are known to comply withthe ASTM F1292 through the use of field test-ing.

In-the-can inorganic surfaces provide theowner/operator with a number of advantagessuch as:• lower initial cost to having a specialist in

poured-in-place or mats or tiles perform arepair

• consistent shock absorbency provided theinstallation procedures are meticulouslyfollowed

• generally low life cycle costs • good footing (depends on surface texture)• harbor few foreign objects• accessible to people with disabilities pro-

vided it remains smoothIn-the-can inorganic surfaces provide the

owner/operator with a number of disadvan-tages that may reduce the ability of the surfaceto conform to various performance standardssuch as:• initial cost is relatively high

15

• sub-base materials may be critical for thin-ner materials

• may be flammable• surface layer may shrink and cause the

accumulation of dirt and debris that doesnot absorb impact at edges

• may become hard over time as a result ofenvironmental degradation

Considerations rregardingAdvantages aand DDisadvantages

As with any product, playground protectivesurfacing systems must be considered on theirmerits. At each stage of selection, specifica-tion, acquisition, installation, maintenance, andrepair, there will be costs that must be bal-anced with the advantages and disadvantagesof the surface system or combination of sys-tems.

Through careful specification, monitoring ofthe installation, and warranties, theowner/operator can shift some of the potentialpitfalls and issues that can be related to pre-mature replacement or liability to the manufac-turer/supplier/installer.

Both the CPSC Handbook for PublicPlayground Safety and the ASTMF1487 require that the playground

protective surface conform to the requirementsand test methods of ASTM F1292. This stan-dard was originally published as ASTM F1292-91. The most recent version is ASTM F1292-99. The highlights of the standard are:• two test methods — ASTM F355,

Procedure C and the Free Fall TestMethod.

• two types of tests — the three-temperaturelaboratory test and field testing surfaces atambient temperature

• two forces measured — Gmax and HIC• three heights to be considered — Critical,

Drop and FallA summary of the ASTM F1292 is found in

section 5 as follows:Representative playground surface sys-tems or surfacing material samples, orboth, are tested in accordance with TestMethod F355 or the free fall test methoddescribed in Annex A.1. Conduct laborato-ry tests at various drop heights and testtemperatures. Conduct the field tests atthe drop height specified and at the ambi-ent temperature of the site within a speci-fied range. The laboratory test method willdetermine the maximum drop height atwhich the g-max does not exceed 200 orthe HIC does not exceed 1000. The fieldtest method will determine the g-max andthe HIC from the drop height specified bythe initial owner/operator at the ambienttemperature of the test.

Performance RRequirementsfor PProtective SSurfacing

16

The TTest MMethods

The traditional test was based on the methodin ASTM F355 Procedure C, which consists ofa head-shaped metal headform mounted to arail or guide wires. The headform is connectedto special electronic equipment that recordsand generates the results of the test. Thisinstrumentation is extremely cumbersome andis very expensive to transport to a site and per-form a field test. During the 1990s, a portabletest instrument was developed, tested, refined,and accepted as equivalent to F355,Procedure C. As a matter of fact, a round-robincomparison in six laboratories across NorthAmerica between the two test methods indi-cates that the results of the Free Fall TestMethod are both more repeatable and repro-ducible than the F355, Procedure C. A summa-ry of the round robin results is published in sec-tion 15 of the ASTM F1292-99.

The free fall test method provides a portableinstrument that allows the owner/operator toreadily test surfaces at the time of installationand during its life. Contractual requirementscan be confirmed and warranty commitmentsenforced. Loose fill materials are more readilymaintained when those responsible for mainte-nance can perform benchmark testing. Theinstrumentation is easily transported to thescene of an injury to record site informationclose to the time that the injury occurred.

TTyyppeess ooff TTeessttss aanndd PPeerrffoorrmmaanncceeSection 4 of the ASTM F1292 describes two

specific styles of tests, the conditions, and theperformance requirements for the surfacebeing tested. It also stipulates the action to betaken when the surface does not meet the

requirements of the standard.This is a very important section for the

owner/operator because it sets out the obliga-tions that must be fulfilled both prior to theinstallation and during the life of the play-ground. That includes the owner/operator’sobligation to specify the height from which thedrop is to be made for each playground surfacesystem and playground site. Failure to complywith this section could be a significant source ofliability.

Section 4.1 requires that “all surface systemsmust be tested in accordance with the perform-ance requirements in 4.2”, the laboratory test.This section contains two key words for theowner/operator: all and must. There are noexemptions or exceptions.

Furthermore, ASTM F1487 Section 13.3(Records) requires that “the owner/operatorshall establish and maintain detailed installa-tion…. records.” The results of the laboratorytests performed on the surface under the playequipment will be the first record that isrequired. Other details that should be recordedinclude any available description of the surfacesystem from the manufacturer/supplier cata-logues that would help to identify it. Thedescription of the surface system —as deliv-ered — must conform specifically to thedescription of the materials tested.

For loose fill materials, descriptive detailshould include information such as the type ofmaterial (sand, pea gravel, etc.), sieve curveanalysis of the materials, source of materials,specific weight, percentage fines. Other infor-mation specific to material such as with looserubber would include whether the materials arefrom recycled tires or industrial waste and thepercentage and chemical make-up of the rub-

17

ber provided. In some cases, recycled rubbercontaining a latex component will be critical tothose with latex allergies. For pea gravel, thefact that it is washed and the maximum andminimum particle size are important. The latteris also true for sand surfaces.

For synthetic surfaces, assurances that theraw materials — binders, rubber crumb, andother components — are identical to thoseused in the tested samples should be included.

For mats, a description of the thickness ofthe structure top compared to legs must berecorded as well as a description of themechanical structure of the mat. This could bethe shape, size, and layout of the support legs.In some cases, records should include the sizeof the rubber, the source of rubber (recycled ornew materials), chemistry of the rubber (SBR,latex, Butyl, EPDM, etc.), type of particle(shreds, buffings or crumb). Changes in any orall of these components will have an affect onthe outcome of the test results for the productin which they are used.

For poured-in-place systems, the samecomponent information must be provided aswell as the assurance that the installationlabour has been trained to exactly duplicatewhat has been provided in the samples sub-mitted for laboratory testing.

These issues raise the reason for the recom-mendation in Section 4.1 of the ASTM F1292Standard that “surfaces may also be tested inaccordance with 4.3.” This is the field test atambient temperature. It allows the owner/oper-ator the opportunity to fulfil the requirement inASTM F1487 Section13.3 for detailed recordsof installation and inspection.

LLaabboorraattoorryy TTeessttiinnggAs discussed above, ASTM F1292 Section

4.2 stipulates that:“When tested in accordance with Test

Method F355 or the free fall test method inAnnex A1, using an average of the last twoof three drops, no value shall exceed 200g-max or 1000 HIC for laboratory tests attemperatures of 30, 72, and 120°F (-1, 23,and 49°C), respectively.” At least nine samples are delivered in a pre-

scribed size. Loose fill systems are tested in abox that is 18”x 18” x a depth sufficient to holdthe materials in the box during the test. Fornon-loose fill materials, the minimum samplesize is 12” x 12” x the thickness of the systemto be installed. In addition, the samples shall berepresentative of the way they are to be foundin the playground, “including seams, partitions,corners and fasteners, or other areas that mayresult in less than optimal impact characteris-tics.”

Each sample is preconditioned at 50±10%relative humidity and 72±5° F for a minimum of24 hours. The samples are then tested at threetemperatures, 30, 72 and 120°F after condi-tioning at that temperature for a minimum offour hours.

The impact tests are carried out to a maxi-mum drop height in one-foot increments, pro-vided that neither the Gmax exceeds 200 northe HIC exceeds 1000. Tests are performed atone foot above and below this maximum dropheight. Three drops are performed at eachincremental drop height. The drop height atwhich either the Gmax exceeds 200 or the HICexceed 1000 at any of the three temperaturesis the critical height for the surfacing system.This is a key measure for the manufacturer,

18

supplier, installer, and the owner/operator sincea head impact with greater forces could resultin a life-threatening injury.

The laboratory test results will provide thecritical height for the surface system. Whendue diligence is applied, no part of the structurethat is determined to be the potential locationfrom which a child could fall shall exceed thecritical height of the surfacing system.

FFiieelldd TTeessttiinnggThe field test differs from the laboratory test

in a number of respects. The most important isthat it determines the Gmax and HIC for thesurfacing system from the drop height original-ly stipulated by the owner/operator prior to pur-chase. This test is to be performed at the ambi-ent temperature at the time of the test withoutany preconditioning of the area for tempera-ture, humidity or compaction.

The field test is important in that it providesthe owner/operator with a number of opportuni-ties. The first is to confirm that the contractualobligation regarding the performance of thematerials purchased is greater or equal to theperformance specified in the contract and canbe recorded. The second is to provide mainte-nance staff with the opportunity to see how thesurface system should be maintained to pro-vide adequate performance. Thirdly, annualtesting can go a long way to meeting therequirements set out in ASTM F1292, ASTMF1487, and the CPSC Document 325. A fourthopportunity is for the owner/operator to deter-mine compliance to warranty performancewhere this forms part of the warranty.

The field test is performed at ambient tem-perature at the time of the test. The tempera-ture of the surface is recorded. In Northern

areas, this could mean that the surface tem-perature is well below that of the lower labora-tory test temperature. In southern areas orareas of high solar radiation, the surface tem-perature could exceed the laboratory high tem-perature threshold. For the field test, this hasno bearing on the collection or recording ofdata. There must also be no preconditioning ofthe surface and, specifically, the person per-forming the test shall select impact sites thatinclude areas displaying less than optimumimpact characteristics. The test generally is todetermine failures, should there be any at theplayground location. Therefore, areas of hightraffic, compressed or worn materials, or areascontaining seams, partitions, corners and fas-teners/anchors are to be sought out.

For the field test, a minimum of three loca-tions at each playground are tested. At eachlocation, three drops are performed from theheight specified by the original owner/operator.The Gmax, HIC, and velocity at the point ofimpact are determined and recorded. TheGmax and HIC results for the last two of thethree drops for each value are averaged andthe Gmax and HIC for the location are deter-mined. The velocity reading is important indetermining that the velocity and the theoreticalvelocity do not vary by more than ±0.5 ft/s atthe drop height used.

RReessuullttss ooff tthhee FFiieelldd TTeessttssFor interpretation of the results of the field

test, ASTM F1292Section 4.4 provides that“the surface system should be made to complyor the playground equipment on the surfaceshould not be used until the surface complies”when the test is performed at ambient temper-ature and the results exceeds 200 Gmax or

19

1000 HIC at the height specified by theowner/operator. The reasons for the failurecould include frozen and winter conditions;however, the standard does not make anyexception for these circumstances. Thisbecomes a matter of risk management and theexercise of professional judgement as to howto take a playground structure out of service.This will b a consideration for all owners andoperators where freezing is a fact of life.

In any event, a failure of the field test meansowner will be required to take action. Thisshould include closing the playground until thesurface can be maintained or replaced. Failureto do so could place the user at risk and raisethe exposure to liability for the owner/operator.Where it is determined that the surfacing sys-tem must be replaced, the Field Test Procedurecan be used to map the specific areas thatwould be the subject of the replacement. Thiscan reduce the cost of the replacement, as theentire area would be otherwise replaced.Follow-up testing is to be used to determinethat the playground surfacing system from thedrop height as originally determined does con-form to the requirements of the Standards.Detailed records of the process are to be madeand kept.

It is important that all repairs or replacementsthat do not cover the entire playground bemade with original materials and by the originalmanufacturer/supplier. Failure to do this maycause contamination of or conflict with theexisting or replacement materials.

To-Fro Swings 90° to directionof motion

9.4.1.49.4.1.5

At least thespan width ofsupport beamand > 72 inch-es from supportstructure

At least aswide as thelength of thesuspendingbeam

Support struc-ture zones mayoverlap

Distance froma swing sup-port to anotherstructure >108inches

Playground LLayout

20

The ASTM F1487 Standard, Section 9outlines the extent to which protectivesurfacing must be provided for each

piece of playground equipment in general andcertain specific pieces of equipment. These are

minimums. It is incumbent upon theowner/operator to exercise due diligence in theareas that would best accommodate theirusers. The specifics for layout are in the follow-ing table.

SSttrruuccttuurree TTyyppee SSeeccttiioonn iinnAASSTTMM FF11448877

UUssee ZZoonneemmeeaassuurreedd ffrroommuunnllooaaddeeddssttrruuccttuurree

UUssee ZZoonneeSSppeecciiaall RRuulleess

UUssee ZZoonneeOOvveerrllaapp ooffootthheerr UUsseeZZoonneess

UUssee ZZoonneeOOvveerrllaappSSppeecciiaall RRuulleess

Stationary 9.2.1 9.2.3

> 72 inches May overlapprovided adja-cent designat-ed surfaces are≤ 30 inches

No when adja-cent designat-ed surfaces are>30 inches;then spacingmust be ≥108inches

Rotates aroundvertical axis

9.3.1 >72 inches No

Rotates aroundhorizontal axis

9.3.2 > 72 inches No

To-Fro Swingsopen seat direction of themotion

9.4.1.19.4.1.3

2X to front andback where Xis the distancefrom protectivesurface to pivotpoint

No

To-Fro SwingsEnclosed seatdirection of themotion

9.4.1.29.4.1.3

2W to front andback where Wis the distancefrom the sittingsurface to pivotpoint

No

21

Slides indirection of nomotion

9.6.1 > 72 inches Yes

Slides in direc-tion of motion

9.6.29.6.39.6.2.1

≥ X from lowerexit, where X isthe vertical dis-tance from theprotective sur-face at the exitto the highestpoint of thesliding surfaceand a minumof 72 inches.

Lower exit iswhere transi-tion is to lessthan 5° or fromthe end of theslide; minimumdistance fromslide exit is 72inches andneed not ex-ceed 96 inchesfrom the exit.

No

Track Rides 9.9.1 ≥ 72 inches inall directions

No

RotatingSwings

9.4.2.1 > Y+ 72 inch-es, where Y isthe distancebetween thetop of the seatand the pivotpoint

Width is >72inches fromthe extent ofthe supportbeam

No overlap toother struc-tures nor theseat zone of Y+ 30 inches

May overlapwith supportuse zone;minimum dis-tance fromswing toanother struc-ture >108inches

Rocking/SpringingFor sitting

9.5.1.1 >72 inches May when sit-ting surface is≤30 inchesabove protec-tive surface

May not whensitting surfaceis >30 inchesabove protec-tive surface

Rocking/SpringingFor standing

9.5.2.1 >84 inches No

SSttrruuccttuurree TTyyppee SSeeccttiioonn iinnAASSTTMM FF11448877

UUssee ZZoonneemmeeaassuurreedd ffrroommuunnllooaaddeeddssttrruuccttuurree

UUssee ZZoonneeSSppeecciiaall RRuulleess

UUssee ZZoonneeOOvveerrllaapp ooffootthheerr UUsseeZZoonneess

UUssee ZZoonneeOOvveerrllaappSSppeecciiaall RRuulleess

22

Section 9.8.1 requires that the spacebetween all play structures allow for play andcirculation. Exercising due diligence meansplayground layout should consider the dis-tances from the structure that a child might fallduring any anticipated activity. The extendedprotective surface perform in the same way asthe immediately adjacent surface in relation toASTM F1292. Since this stipulation exists, it isimportant to document the considerations thatled to the provision of the minimum quantity ofsurface, especially when the adjacent surfaceis a hard surface such as concrete, asphalt ortimber.

In addition, Sections 9.8.2 and 9.8.3 outlinethe need for circulation of traffic without inter-fering with the users of the play structures. Thedesigner of the playground or the owner/oper-ater must exercise professional judgement inproviding this additional space. Again, docu-mentation in the playground file would includethe reasons for locating various pieces ofequipment with regard to the free flow ofpedestrian traffic. This would also includeroutes to parts of the play structures with cross-ing areas, where a child leaving a part of astructure could inadvertently impact with a tra-versing child.

In the previous sections, the noun “height”has been used repeatedly with one ofthree adjectives: critical, drop or fall. Each

of these has a specific meaning within the stan-dards, their application, and their relationshipto the exercise of due diligence.

The Fall Height is the height that has beendefined in the ASTM F1487 standard and theCPSC Handbook on Public Playground Safetyas the vertical distance between a designatedplay surface and the protective surfacingbeneath it. The designated play surface is anyelevated surface for standing, walking, sittingor climbing or any flat surface greater that twoinches wide and having an angle of less than30° from horizontal. For swings, the fall heightis the vertical distance from the protective sur-face to the pivot point where the swing isattached to the supporting beam.

The Critical Height is the maximum heightfrom which the instrumented headform couldbe dropped at any one of the three laboratorytest temperatures and either the Gmax ≥ 200 orthe HIC ≥ 1000. This is also the height fromwhich it can reasonably be expected that, whenforces exceed those allowed in the test, a life-threatening head injury could occur.

The Drop Height is the vertical unobstructeddistance from the underside of the instrument-ed headform to the surface being tested. In thelaboratory, the Drop Height is incrementallyraised until the Critical Height is determined. Inpurchase specifications, contracts, and thefield test procedure, the Drop Height is theheight specified by the original owner/operatorof a playground surface, prior to purchase,from where the instrument head is to bedropped for data acquisition and reporting and

The TThree HHeightsof PPlaygrounds

23

recording the Gmax and HIC for that specificsurface.

Since the scope of ASTM F1292 states thatthis Standard covers minimum impact attenua-tion requirements, the owner operator has theoption of setting both the Drop Height andallowable performance, provide that perform-ance is better than the requirement of theStandard.

All of the data indicate that for forces greaterthan the pass/fail of the Standard, a life-threat-ening head injury could occur. In addition everyplayground surface is dynamic and subject tochange resulting from either active play or envi-ronmental influences — with the likely result ofworsened impact attenuation properties. Sincethe CPSC Handbook for Public PlaygroundSafety and ASTM F1487 both require that theprotective surface be maintained to the mini-mum performance of ASTM F1292, it is onlyprudent that the surface system — when initial-ly installed and as much as possible while inuse— provide forces lower than those requiredin the Standards. The owner/operator, theirconsultants, and risk managers should setthese performances.

The determination of the Drop Height for thepurpose of specifications, contracts, war-ranties, and the field tests are totally at the dis-cretion of the owner/operator, provided thedetermination is made prior to the purchase ofthe protective surface. As a minimum, the dropheight for each piece of playground equipmentmust not be less than the fall height as deter-mined in the CPSC Handbook for PublicPlayground Safety or ASTM F1487. Since theforces tested are related to gravity, it is onlylogical that the higher the point from which achild falls, the higher and worse the forces will

be. As a result the owner/operator must set theDrop Height and the point from which the sur-face performance will be measured. It shouldbe a height which the children using the play-ground can be expected to “climb to, or jumpfrom” during active play.

As a result of the exercise of due diligence,the owner operator makes various determina-tions of the playground under consideration,the relevant Standards, the design of the struc-tures, and the expected pattern of play expect-ed from the children using the structures. Anexample of this process could be as follows:

A particular structure has been designed tomeet the requirements of ASTM F1487. It hasraised platforms with the appropriate protectivebarriers, which are designed to prevent bothinadvertent and deliberate attempts to passthrough, but could still be climbed. The circum-stances that lead the child to climb the barrierare not material. Everyone has seen children,from time to time, pass over a barrier. If this isdetermined to be likely, then the Drop Heightwould be set at the top of the barrier railing andabove the Fall Height — the platform, in thiscase — provided the railing does not have a flatsurface greater than two inches.

The process of real-world assessment of theplayground is the responsibility of all thoseinvolved in the specification, design, and acqui-sition. With this process in place, a combinationoffield inspections of both the structures andsurface systems — at the time of installationand throughout the life of the playground —and the provision of financial, labour, and mate-rial resources to maintain the playground cankeep it within the originally intended design andspecifications.

Accessibility

24

Although good practice should promoteaccess to facilities, this has becomethe jurisdiction of a federal agency

know as the Access Board, established in1973. The board’s role is to promote federaldesign standards to remove architectural barri-ers for people with disabilities, to make rules orguidelines, and to enforce implementation.Detail on the Access Board can be found onthe internet at www.access-board.gov. Duringthe 1990s, interested stakeholders cametogether to develop Accessibility Guidelines forPlay Areas. At ASTM, one new standard(ASTM F1951) was developed by the F08.63sub-committee for playground surfacing.ASTM F1487 has included a requirement thatprovides for accessibility.

Under the standard:• at least one accessible route must be pro-

vided within the use zone — from theperimeter to all accessible play structuresor components — when the protective sur-face is not made entirely of accessiblematerial

• where the entrance and exit are not thesame, there shall be an accessible routeat both locations

• the clear width of an accessible route shallbe less than 60 inches

• where the accessible route has a slopegreater than 1:20, it is a ramp and crossslopes shall not exceed 1:50.In late 2000, the Access Board published a

new section (15.6) to its ADA AccessibilityGuidelines (ADAAG) that covers all newly builtor altered playgrounds. Now that these havebeen adopted, the Department of Justice willbe tasked with enforcement.

In this course, we look at accessibility as itrelates to surfacing for the use zone and circu-lation, including the accessible route, materialsthat can be used, and the maintenancerequired to meet Section 15.6 (ADAAG).

The Access Board has determined that aplayground consists of a collection of individualplay components. A minimum number arerequired to be accessible. Of the total numberof play activities in a playground, a certainnumber must be accessed at ground level. Thisrule changes under certain circumstances. It isincumbent upon the designer, manufacturer,installer, and owner/operator to become famil-iar with the detail of the Guidelines. The follow-ing tables provide an overview of the require-ments:

GGrroouunndd LLeevveell PPllaayy CCoommppoonneennttssTwo criteria must be met with Ground level

components:• Access is required to at least one of each

type provided• The number of elevated components also

determines the minimum number and vari-ety to be provided

PPllaayy CCoommppoonneennttss

Number of ElevatedProvided

Ground LevelComponentsRequired

2 - 4

5 - 7

8 - 10

11 - 13

14 - 16

17 - 19

1

2 (at least 2 types)





20 - 22

23 - 25

over 25



8 plus 1 for eachadditional 3 over 25,or fraction thereof (atleast 5 types)

25

EElleevvaatteedd PPllaayy CCoommppoonneennttssAt least one-half of the elevated play compo-

nents must be accessible by either a ramp ortransfer station.

Accessible surfacing must be “firm, stableand slip resistant” as defined in the ADAAGand meet the ASTM Standard F1951, as wellas ASTM F1292-99.

AASSTTMM FF11448877,, SSeeccttiioonn 1100,, AAcccceessssiibbiilliittyyThere is no requirement that all of the pro-

tective surface in the playground must provideaccessibility; however, ASTM F1487 says that“at least one accessible route within the usezone shall be provided from the perimeter to allaccessible play structures or components.”Where necessary, more than one accessibleroute is to be provided. This accessible routemust not be less than 60” in width andmustmeet the requirements of ASTM F1292. As a

result, the surface cannot be a hard materialsuch as asphalt, concrete or structural wood. Inaddition, the accessible route must bedesigned to minimise the possibility of trippingor having a wheelchair slide off the edge and tipover. Combination surface systems may not beable to meet this latter requirement.

AASSTTMM FF11995511 -- SSttaannddaarrdd SSppeecciiffiiccaattiioonn ffoorrDDeetteerrmmiinnaattiioonn ooff AAcccceessssiibbiilliittyy ooff SSuurrffaacceeSSyysstteemmss UUnnddeerr aanndd AArroouunndd PPllaayyggrroouunnddEEqquuiippmmeenntt

As with the ASTM F1292, this is a perform-ance-based standard. At the present time, itonly provides for a laboratory test procedure todetermine the suitability of the surface systemfor use under the ADAAG. The test procedureis laboratory based. A 4ft x 8ft sample of prod-uct is submitted for testing. One procedurerequires a straight traverse, while the secondrequires that a 90° turn be negotiated.

The intent of this test is to provide compara-tive information regarding crossinga 6.56-ft testsurface within seven seconds for a minimum offive trials each on the product sample and on asmooth, hard, 1:14 sloped surface. The wheel-chairuser must be 165, +11, -4.4lb to qualify forthe test. In addition, the surface sample may belevelled and compacted between test runs. Thework required traversing each sample and thecontrol surface are measured and recordedseparately for the straight and turn traverses.

The performance requirements of this stan-dard are such that the work required to traversethe playground system must be less than thetraverse up the sloped, smooth surface.

A part of the test procedure is the completedescription of the playground system tested.Provided enough detail is available at the time

TotalProvided

less than 20

20 or more

Ramp Access

not required

25% min.

Ramp orTransferSystemAccess

50% min.

25% min.

Number of ElevatedProvided

Ground LevelComponentsRequired

26

of the test and when a surface system is pre-sented to an owner/operator, there should besome assurance as to similarity between thesample tested and the product to be delivered.

When assessing the use of a surface thathas passed the requirements of the ASTMF1951, the practitioner and owner/operatormust consider a number of aspects ofboth thesurface being proposed and the test proce-dure. The average weight of the maximum userfor the playground, a 12-year-old child, is 94lbs. for girls and 89 lbs. for boys. Therefore, anexpectation of similar performance to theresults achieved by a 165 lbs. rider may not bereasonable. The test results indicate theamount of work required to traverse the surfacein a specific amount of time. As a result, theremay be a need to accommodate users of theplayground with a combination of loose fillmaterials that have passed ASTM F1951 andunitary materials that have the same or bettertraversing properties.

Standards set the minimum perform-ance for the surfacing system and arethe starting point to determine better

practices and due diligence. This becomes thebest defence in terms of negligence and liability.

Our initial objective in this discussion onplayground surfacing was to eliminate as muchas possible life-threatening head injuries andreduce the severity of all other injuries resultingfrom a fall to the playground surface. The stan-dards and guidelines that have been reviewedare minimum values and at the threshold thatcould lead to the life-threatening head injury.Reduction of injuries in the playground is many-facetted. Virtually all standards throughout theworld recognise that injuries will occur.

ASTM F1292, section 1.2 states:“this specification does not imply that an

injury cannot be incurred if the surface sys-tem complies with this specification.”ASTM F1487 goes further, stating: “Thisconsumer safety performance specifica-tion does not eliminate the need for super-vision of children on public playgroundequipment. It is intended to minimise thelikelihood of life-threatening or debilitatinginjuries, such as those identified by theCPSC.”The CPSC Handbook for Public Playground

Safety states:“Because all playgrounds present somechallenge and because children can beexpected to use equipment in unintendedand unanticipated ways, adult supervisionis recommended. ... A playground shouldallow children to develop progressivelyand test their skills by providing a series ofgraduated challenges. The challenge pre-

Best PPractice, DDueDiligence, aand SSupervision

27

sented should be appropriate for age-relat-ed abilities and should be ones that chil-dren can perceive and choose to under-take.”The reality is that when the playground no

longer provides the challenges that childrenneed to develop mentally, socially, and physi-cally, they will find those challenges outside theplayground and potentially be faced withgreater risks than in the playground.

The practitioner involved in any aspect of theplayground must use professional judgement inhis or her work. Where possible, performanceresults of certain aspects of the playgroundshould be stipulated in specifications, con-tracts, and warranties to be better than the min-imums required in the standards. This is theapplication of “best practice.” Best practice willbe determined by those involved with eachplayground andwill be specific to the needs ofthe users of the playground environment. Sincethe standards require that documentation bedeveloped and maintained, a section thatrelates to the application of the relevant stan-dards should be included.

All of the Standards related to play-grounds and the CPSC Handbook onPublic Playground Safety are volun-

tary. ASTM is a standard writing body that doesnot have the mandate or ability to enforce thepractices, specifications, standards, or guid-ance that are provided in their publications.Although persons with regulatory abilities arewelcome and do sit on various committees, theactivity at ASTM is the development of stan-dards.

Any risk manager will dispel the notion that,since the standards are voluntary, they do nothave to be followed. If nothing else, failure tocomply to standards that have been setthrough a consensus process by persons con-sidered to be expert in a particular subject willdraw considerable liability to everyone involvedin deciding not to implement the standard.Disregard for a standard is a very perilousactivity.

Mandating standards is the purview of thosewith the authority — either through legislativeauthority or contract.

The installation of any playground or compo-nent will involve a contract between theowner/operator and the manufacturer/suppli-er/contractor. Logic dictates that there will be— at minimum —a description of the servicesor product to be provided, an agreed price,delivery date, and some agreement to pay. Thisis a contract. This will also form a major part ofthe documentation required in the ASTMF1487.

It is in the contract and specification that theowner/operator exercises his or her ability tomandate the standards. Beyond the legaldescription of the parties and general terms

Application aandEnforcement oof SStandards

28

and conditions, the detail of the specificationfor a playground surface will include the follow-ing:• Location of the installation site• Layout and other dimensional information

regarding the quantity of material to beinstalled

• Drop height for the field testing of the sur-face; i.e. tops of all horizontal railings forthe composite structure

• Gmax must be less than ### (maximum is200) and HIC must less than ### (maxi-mum is 1000) from the specified dropheight

• The number of years in which the play-ground surface will be field tested andrequired to meet the performance above atthe drop heights specified with this compli-ance being the responsibility of the manu-facturer/supplier/installer

• The number of years the surface manufac-turer/supplier/installer must warrant thesurface and that the warranty must, alongwith defects in materials and workman-ship, cover the maintained surface to meeta stated performance for impact attenua-tion

• The manufacturer/supplier/installer mustprovide a certificate that the materialsused in the playground site are of samelike, kind, and source as the surface sys-tems for which test certificates are beingsubmitted; that unitary surfaces and espe-cially multi-layer surfaces are the sameformulations and percentage used asthose for which test certificates are sub-mitted

• The manufacturer/supplier/installer mustprovide a certificate from an independent

third party laboratory for tests with regardto ASTM F1292, ASTM F1951 and anyother standards relating to playground sur-faces as dictated by the intended use ofthe surface

• An agreement to abide by the results ofany field testing, provided it is performedas prescribed in ASTM F1292-99

• For unitary systems, a certificate from themanufacturer of the polymer binders thatthey have been design for outdoor play-ground use and are stable specifically toUV and submersion in water from time totime.The alternate form of mandate is legislative.

This is where a Federal, State or Local govern-ing authority produces a specific piece of legis-lation or uses existing legislation to develop aregulation that requires the use of any specificstandard or guideline. For playground safetyissues, this is generally under the jurisdiction ofhealth agencies or agencies that providelicensing for a facility such as daycare centres.For other issues such as accessibility, the rele-vant governing body would provide the man-date, such as the Access Board with theADAAG section 15.6.

Two mandates of standards worth noting arethe California Playground Regulations and theProvince of Ontario, Canada, Day Care Policy.Each of these demonstrates that the standardsthey mandate are recognised as being the min-imum standard for playground safety for thejurisdiction. For California, the documents ref-erences are the CPSC Publication # 325 andASTM F1487-98. The Province of Ontario ref-erences CSA Z614-98 Children’s Playspacesand Equipment.

The California Playground Regulations are

29

worth noting in that they take certain sectionsof each document and make them a require-ment. As well, they have legislated a change inthe language of the documents from sugges-tive to mandatory. This legislation makes spe-cific reference tothe design, assembly, installa-tion, and maintenance sections of ASTMF1487 and CPSC documents. This has theeffect of placing into law the obligations for thedesigner/manufacturer and the owner/operator.This regulation requires that all playgrounds beinitially inspected by October 1, 2000 and thatoperators implement the changes required inthe inspection. Specific details on the regulation can be found atwww.dhs.ca.gov/epic/html/playgrnd.htm.

The procedure to mandate in the Province ofOntario, Canada was to develop a policy underthe Day Nurseries Act. All licensed daycarefacilities must be inspected by an independentthird party inspector for compliance with CSAZ614-98. All playground surfaces are to beinspected using the field test method of ASTMF1292. As a result of the inspection, theowner/operator must bring the structures andsurfaces into compliance with CSA Z614-98.The policy requires annual inspections.

There is a trend on the part of regulators toadopt and mandate part or all of the standardsas they have been published. In some cases,local health inspectors are using their powersunder existing legislation to mandate the stan-dards through health inspections. Generallythis follows the logical progression that failureto perform to the requirements of the standardcould lead to a life-threatening or debilitatinginjury. Since the inspector has the obligation toprotect the public from this type of hazard, heor she takes whatever steps they are empow-

ered to take to correct the situation.Even with the trend to mandate compliance

to standards, it is, if nothing else, the moralobligation of the person, group or organisationinvolved with providing the playground toreview existing policies, procedures, invento-ries and bring them into compliance. All injurieswill not be prevented through the application ofthe standards — as each standard recognizes— however taking positive steps can lead toreductions that would not happen otherwise.

References

30

1. Wilkinson & Lockhart, Safety in children’sformal playgrounds, (1976)

2. American Society of Testing and Materials,ASTM F-1292-99

3. American Society of Testing and Materials,ASTM F -1487-98

4. American Society of Testing and Materials,ASTM F -1951-99

5. Handbook on Public Playground Safety,publication # 325, date code 009711,Consumer Product Safety Commission,Bethesda, MD

6. Consumer Product Safety Commission,Bethesda, MD., Impact AttenuationPerformance of Surfaces Installed UnderPlayground Surfaces, Feb 79

7. Watson & Tipp, Safety Surfaces forChildren’s Playgrounds

8. Theodora Briggs Sweeney, “PlaygroundAccidents: a new perspective” Trial, theNational Legal News Magazine, volume15, no. 4, April 1979.

9. Theodora Briggs Sweeney, Statementbefore the U.S. Consumer Product SafetyCommission, May 11, 1977

10. Peter Werner, “Playground Injuries andVoluntary Product Standards for Homeand Public Playgrounds”, Paediatrics Vol.69 No. 1, January 1, 1982

11. U.S. Consumer Product SafetyCommission, A Handbook for PublicPlayground Safety, Volume 1, 1981

12. U.S. Consumer Product SafetyCommission, A Handbook for PublicPlayground Safety, Volume 2, 1981

13. Canadian Standards Association,

Rolf Huber, a graduate of McMasterUniversity, has been involved in the manufac-ture and installation of playground surfacessince 1981. From 1981 to 1984, he wasinvolved in the development and manufactureof Elastocrete and training sessions in Europe.Following 1984, Rolf Huber worked with histeam to invent the EVERPLAY poured-in-placesystems and the EVERPLAY Mat systems.

Rolf Huber is a member since 1990 of theCSA Z614 task group for the CanadianStandard for Playspaces, the ASTM F08.63sub-committee that sets the standard forimpact attenuation, accessibility, and flamma-bility of playground surfaces and Co-chair ofthe ASTM F08.23 sub-committee for TennisCourts and Running Tracks.

He has worked to educate owners and oper-ators of playgrounds on the need for effectiveand well-maintained surfacing.

© January, 2001Canadian Playground Advisory Inc.

CAN/CSA-Z614-98, Children’sPlayspaces and Equipment, NationalStandard for Canada, 1998

14. Oppenheim, Lloyd’s Non-MarineUnderwriters, Insurance Bureau ofCanada Bulletin Report AM93-02, Feb 93

15. California Code of Regulations, Title 22.Social Security, Division 4. EnvironmentalHeath, Chapter 22 Safety Regulations forPlaygrounds

16. Accessibility Guidelines for Play Areas,Access Board, www.access-board.gov.play, January 2001.

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