U.S. METROPOLITAN BRIDGES TO PUERTO RICAN MUSIC …
Transcript of U.S. METROPOLITAN BRIDGES TO PUERTO RICAN MUSIC …
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U.S.METROPOLITANBRIDGESTOPUERTORICANMUSICIDENTITY;CUBANANDPUERTORICANMUSICCONNECTIONSFROMTHE1920S-1970S
AMASTER'STHESISPROPOSAL
SUBMITTEDTOTHEGRADUATEFACULTY
LIBERTYUNIVERSITYBY
WilliamG.Johnson
INPARTIALFULFILLMENTOFTHEREQUIREMENTS
FORTHEDEGREEOF
MASTEROFARTSINETHNOMUSICOLOGY
September5,2017
Copyright2017byWilliamG.Johnson
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Acknowledgements
Itwouldbeanimpossibletaskformetoacknowledgeandthankeveryonewhomadethiseffortpossible.Iwouldberemisshowever,nottomentionafewpeoplewhohavehelpedmakethisprojectpossible.Thankyouto: Mygreatestsourceofinspirationthroughoutthisprocess.Myhealth,intellect,andpassionaregivenmeaningbymycreator,themakerofthemostheavenlymelodies.ThankyouJesus. Mywifeandchildrenfortheirsupport,understanding,patienceandlove.Youaremyheart.Thisprojectwouldnotexistifnotforyourinspirationandmotivationeachstepoftheway.Iloveyou. MomandDad,foryouryearsofsacrifice,andbeliefinmehavegivenmethefoundationnecessaryforthiswork.IprayIcontinuetomakeyouproud. Ralph,TyroneandElainethankyouforyoursupport,andalsoyourassistancewiththechildrenthroughtheyearsofthiswork.Iknowitwasalaboroflove. Michael,Trinaiandmythreewonderfulnephews:thankyouforyourlove,andsupport. Dr.Morehouseforyourpatienceandwisdom.Yourguidancehasbeeninvaluable.Thankyouforyourconsistentwillingnesstoassistthesuccessofthisproject.Dr.Rumrill,Dr.Mcdow,Dr.Meyer,Dr.Benham,andDr.NetoIamtrulyappreciativeofallyourwisdom,andthesenseof“presence”youhavegiventomethroughoutthisprocess. LuisConteforbeingoneofmygreatestmusicheroesandmentors.Iamtrulyappreciativeforthetimeyouhavetakenouttohelpmeinthisproject.ChemboCornielforyourfriendship,knowledge,andexperiencesyousharedwithme.LuisMiranda,JohnnyConga,DennisCalito,VictorVillafañe,CiprianGarciafortakingthetimetospeakwithmeandprovidingvaluableinsightscontributingtomyresearch.RaulRicoforconnectingmewithLuisMiranda,aswellasElenaMartinez,VictorVillafañe,andDr.PeterManuelfortakingthetimetospeakwithmeandoffervaluabledirectionforthisproject. Allofmyfriends,fellowstudents,andfamilymembersnearandfar.Whetheritwasashortprayer,orawordofencouragement,thankyou.TheCubanandPuertoRicanmusiciansontheislandsandthroughouttheUnitedStates.Youaremyfamily,friends,colleagues,andteachers.Withoutyouthisprojectwouldnotexist.Youareamongstmygreatestinspirations.Teamo.
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Abstract
“CubaandPuertoRicoareAstwowingsofthesamebird,Theyreceiveflowersand
bulletsIntothesameheart...”(LolaRodriguezdeTio,1868)
PuertoRicanpoetandpoliticalactivistLolaRodriguezdeTiopennedthesewords
afterbeinginspiredbythecallfortheindependenceofPuertoRico.Herwordswere
furthercanonizedinPuertoRicanculturalidentityafterbeingpublishedinthesong
LaBorinquenabycomposerRafaelHernandez.Hernandez’ssongwouldlater
becomeamusicalsymbolofnationalidentityfortheislandofPuertoRicoandthe
PuertoRicanDiaspora.TheconnectionbetweenthetwoislandsofPuertoRicoand
Cubaemergeasconstantthemesthroughoutcontemporaryculture.Theyareoften
manifestedastheevolutionofuniquePuertoRicancharacteristicsofmusicthatwas
importedfromCuba.Althoughbothislandshavesharedmusicalinfluenceswithone
anotherthroughdiversechannelsofdistribution,thisstudyfocusesontheimpact
USmetropolitanregionssuchasNewYorkhavehaduponthePuertoRican
adoptionofCubanmusic.
InordertounderstandthemusicalinfluenceofUSmainlanduponthePuerto
RicanDiasporaconcerningCubanmusicresearchwasconcentratedintosixmajor
overarchingthemes.Thesethemesdealwithchannelsofmusicdistribution(i.e.
radio,musicstores,promoters,etc.)venuesandassociations,nationalcultural
identity,historicalsignificance,migration,andsocio-economics.Thisresearch
primarilydealswiththeeraofthe20thcenturyprimarilybetweenthetimeframeof
the1920’stothe1970’s.
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Byexploringthesethemesthisstudylargelydealswiththeexistenceoftheunique
musicalrelationshipCubaandPuertoRicoshareincontrastwithotherLatin
Americannationsandterritories.Thereisadefinitedistinctionbetweenthetwo
musicalworlds,howeverthroughyearsofmigrationandmusicalgenreevolutions,
theboundariesbetweenthemareattimesblurred,atleastonasuperficiallevel.
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Contents
Acknowledgements……………………………………………………………………………….……iiAbstract……………………………………………………………………………………………………..iiiChapter1.Introduction……………………………………………………………………………...1 StatementoftheProblem…...…………………………………………………………....1
NeedforStudy…………………………………………………………………………………1
ResearchQuestions………………………………………………………………………….3
GlossaryofTerms.……………………………………………………………………………4
LimitationsofStudy…………………………………………………………………………7
Assumptions……………………………………………………………………………………8
Chapter2.LiteratureReview………………………………………………………………………8Introduction……………………………………………………………………………………8BeginningEvolutions…………………………………………………………………….10PopularDanceScenes……………………………………………………………………11 PuertoRicanandCubanCulturalIdentitiesandDiaspora………………..13AfricanDiasporaContribution……………………………………………………….17Instrumentation………………………………………………………………………...….17Migration……………………………………………………………………………………...19PoliticalInfluences………………………………………………………………………..24Conclusion…………………………………………………………………………………....25Chapter3.Methodology…………………………………………………………………………...26DescriptionsofResearchTools……………………………………………………....27ParticipantsinStudy……………………………………………………………………...29
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Chapter4.ResearchFindings……………………………………………………………………..29Introduction……………………………………………………………………………………29
Migration,Immigration,&Travels.…………………………………………………..32
Politics&Socio-Economics……………………………………………………………...34
ChannelsofDistribution………………………………………………………………….38
CubanDanzon&SoninPuertoRico…………………………………………….......39
RecordCompanies&TechnologicalAdvancements.....................................42
Venues&MusicAssociations………………………………………………………….47
StickBall;UrbanCommunityConnectionstotheMusic………………..…64
CulturalIdentity………………………………………………………………………...…..65
Conclusion……………………………………………………………………………………................69
References……………………………………………………………………………………................76
Appendices………………………………………………………………………………………………81
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CHAPTER1
INTRODUCTION
StatementoftheProblem
MuchhasbeenwrittenaboutthedevelopmentofCubanandPuertoRican
musicbothontherespectiveislandsandthroughouttheUnitedStates.Publications
andgroundbreakingresearchhavebeenpublishedbyethnomusicologistsfrompast
topresent.Subjectsrangingfromtherootsofsalsa,timba,andguarachatotheson
anddanzonhavebeencoveredatlength.Whilenoshortageofinformationseemsto
existonthetopic,especiallyontheeraofthemambocrazethatusheredin
householdnamessuchasTitoPuenteandCeliaCruz,Ihaveobservedalackof
writingdedicatedtotherelationshipbetweentheCubanandPuertoRicandiaspora.
Whatinformationthathasbeenpublishedonthetopicoftherelationshipisusually
peripheralatbestortoldthroughspecificrelatedhistoriographiessuchasthe
musicalgenreofsalsa.
NeedfortheStudy Interestinthisrelationaltopiccameprimarilyoutofcuriositybornofa
personaldesiretobemoreacquaintedwithmyownmusicalidentityasaPuerto
Ricanmusician.TheimpactofPuertoRicanacculturationandappropriationof
Cubanmusicwasnotuncharteredterritoryforme;however,Iarrivedatapointin
mypersonalstudiesasamusicianwhereIbegantoinquireabouttheroots(orat
leastearlydevelopments)oftherelationshipbetweenthesetwoethnicmusical
styles.Oneofmygoalsforthisprojectistoultimatelybeusedasaresourceto
explainhowmigrationanddiversitywithinapopulationmayimpactcultural
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traditions.Whilethisstudyfocusesontheimpactoftwospecificmusicculturesand
traditions,itmayalsobeusedasatooltoobservehowmigrationcanimpactand
influencethelargerdiaspora.ManyofthepopularPuertoRicanbasedgenre
recordingsthatbecamesuccessfulhitsontheislandwereactuallyrecordedonthe
UnitedStatesmainlandinlargemetropolitancitiessuchasNewYorkandMiami.
Thisprojectwillpotentiallyserveasacasestudyonhowtheevolutionand
exchangeofmusicalideasduetomigrationcaninfluencetraditionsintheregionof
originfromadiasporaofpeople.Consequently,duetothewiderangeof
informationandactivitythatresultsfromsuchalarge-scalemigration(and
movementsduetoconstanttravel),writingonthedevelopmentsofmusicianscan
takeaninfinitenumberofdirections.Myprimaryfocusisontheinfluenceoflarge
metropolitancities,andhowlarge-scalemigrationtometropolitancitieswithinthe
UnitedStateswasthemajorfactorinshapingthecurrentPuertoRicanacculturation
ofCubanmusic.
Myinterestswerebornfromadesiretodiscovertheoriginsofthe
cultivationoftraditionalCubanmusicalartformsontheislandofPuertoRico.I
soonrealizedhoweverthattheanswerswereconnectedtoanoverwhelmingly
numberofcomplexlayers.Theseareissuesnotlimitedtogeneralitiesinsocio-
economics,nationalidentity,governmentalpolitics,education,andmigration.No
onecertainperspectiveappliestoanycategory,andcertainlybothimaginedand
realrelationships/assumptionsexistbetweentheDiasporasmusicculturesof
PuertoRicoandCuba.
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ResearchQuestions
Amongstmyresearchquestionswastherealityofauniquerelationship
betweenCubanmusicanditscultivationbyPuertoRicanmusicians.Concerningthis
relationshipIwasoftenremindedofthefamouspoeticlinebyLolaRodriguezdeTio
saying“CubayPuertoRicosondeunpájarolasdosalas…,”whichtranslatesto
“CubaandPuertoRicoaretwowingsofthesamebird…”(Rodriguez,1967).With
twenty-oneSpanish-speakingnations,whyarethemusiciansofthesetwodiasporas
mentionedsoofteninthesamesentencesandbreathwithpopularCubanmusic
genres?WhywasCubanmusic(specificallyAfro-Cubangenressuchasrumba)so
pervasivethroughouttheislandofPuertoRico?HowdidPuertoRicobecomeoneof
thepremierelocationsoutsideofCubatostudyAfro-Cubanmusicstyles?Howmuch
ofthisrelationshipisimaginedandhowdovariousgroupsthroughoutthePuerto
RicanandCubanDiasporaperceiveit?WasthecultivationofCubanmusicinPuerto
RicoatahigherconcentratedlevelthanotherCaribbeanislandsandSpanish
speakingnationsorwasthisaperceptionfedbycommercializationandmarketing?
Iassumeditwouldbeeasyformetojustrelegatetheanswerstothesequestionsto
thepopularityandsuccessofcelebratedPuertoRicanmusiciansduringthe1950s,
1960s,andthe1970s(withtheriseofSalsaandthefoundingoftheFaniarecord
label).IrealizedhoweverthatthelayersweremorecomplexandthatIwould
benefitinresearchingtherootsbeyondthesuccessofsalsainthe1970sandthe
mambocrazeofthe1950s.
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GlossaryofTermsAfro-Cuban-CubanofAfricandescent.Thistermcanalsobeusedtodescribea
formorgenreofmusic,art,etc.Afro-PuertoRican-PuertoRicanperson,art,ormusicofAfricandescent.
Barrio:Aneighborhood,district,city,ortownwherealargemajorityofoccupantsspeakSpanish.AbarriocanalsorefertoacommunitywhereLatinoculture,languageandorpovertyisprevalent.
Bolero-TheBoleroisagenreofslow-tempoLatinmusicanditsassociateddance.
BothSpanishandCubanformsaresignificantandhaveseparateorigins.Thebolerohasbeenpopularforoveracentury.
Bomba-TheBombaisoneofthetraditionalmusicalstylesofPuertoRicansof
Africandescent.Bombacanbeusedasthegenericnameforanumberofrhythms;itsrealmeaningisabouttheencounterandcreativerelationshipbetweendancers,percussionists,andsingers.BombaisacommunalactivitythatstillthrivesinitstraditionalcentersofLoíza,Santurce,Mayagüez,Ponce,andNewYorkCity.
Borinquen-OriginalnameoftheislandofPuertoRicogivenbythenativeTaino
people.CongaDrum-AconicalshapeddrumofAfricanorigin,usuallymadeofwoodstaves
andironhoops.Originallyitwastunedbyfire.Today,itistunedbyadjustingmetallugkeys.Traditionallythecongaisthenameofthesecondlargestdruminasetofthree.Thetermcongadrumisacontemporarytermfordescribingallsizesofdrumssimilartotheshapeanddesignofthetumbadoras.Seetumbadoradefinition.
Cuatro-ThenamereferstothenationalinstrumentofPuertoRico.Todaythis
instrumenthastenstringsarrangedinfivepairsandistunedtothesameintervalsasthefancySpanishLute.OvertimePuertoRicanartisanschangeditstraditionalkeyholeshapeintoonereminiscentofaviolin,asymbolofupper-classsophistication.InthisnewconfigurationtheinstrumentwasheardacrosstheIsland(Cumpiano2011).ThecuatrobelongstothepluckedchordophonefamilyintheHornbostel-Sachsclassificationsystem.
Danza-DanzaoriginatedinPonce,acityinsouthernPuertoRico.Itisapopular
turn-of-the-twentieth-centuryballroomdancegenresomewhatsimilartothewaltz.ItisamixtureofclassicalmusiccadenzasandmarchesincorporatingtheAfricanclave.ThemusicandthedanceiscreolizedbecausecomposerswereconsciouslytryingtointegrateAfricanandEuropeanideasandbecause
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manyofthepeoplethemselveswerecreoles,thatis,bornintheCaribbean,acceptingtheislandsastheirtrueandonlyhomeland.
Danzon-AdancegenrederivedfromtheCubanCreoletradition.Itwasparticularly
popularinthesecondhalfofthenineteenthcenturyDecima-Decimareferstoaten-linestanzaofpoetry.Thesongformgenerally
consistsofforty-fourlines,anintroductoryfour-versestanzafollowedbyfourten-linestanzas.Thedecimalyricalcontentreferstoawiderangeofsubjectmattersuchasreligious,lyrical,andpoliticalthemes.Somedecimasarealsointhehumorousvein,makingfunofarival’sweaknessorevenafunnystoryaboutafoolishact.
Guaracha-TheguarachaisagenreofCubanpopularmusicthatemploysrapid
tempoandlyrics.Guarachaswereplayedandsunginmusicaltheatresandinlow-classdancesalons.DuringthelaternineteenthandtheearlytwentiethcenturytheguarachawasafavoritemusicalforminthebrothelsofHavana.Theguarachasurvivestodayintherepertoiresofsometrovamusicians,conjuntos,andCuban-stylebigbands.
Guiro-AninstrumentwidelyusedinCubanpopularmusicthatprobablyoriginated
withtheBantupeople,althoughCubanaboriginesmayalsohaveusedit.Ithasalsobeencalledcalabazoorguayo.Itisapercussiveidiophonemadefromthecylindricalfruitoftheguiro(gourd),between30and50centimeterslong,andabout10centimetersindiameter,withacurvedpeduncle.(Orovio2004,104)
Jibaro-JíbaroisatermcommonlyusedinPuertoRicotorefertomountain-dwelling
peasants,butinmoderntimesithasgainedabroaderandspecificallyanoblerculturalmeaning.Sinceatleastthe1920sthetermjíbarohasamorepositiveconnotationinPuertoRicanculture,proudlyassociatedwiththepioneersofPuertoRico;however,thetermoccasionallyalsohasanegativeconnotation.Despitethisnegativeaffiliation,theimageofthejíbarorepresentsanideologyofahardworking,simple,independent,andprudentlywisePuertoRican.ThejíbaroservesasarepresentationoftherootsofthemoderndayPuertoRicanpeoplesymbolizingthestrengthoftraditionalvalueslikelivingsimplyandproperlyandcaringforhomelandandfamily.
Mambo-Dancemusicgenrewithabrasssectionthatachievesextraordinaryeffects
withthemelody,theharmony,andtherhythm,whiletheCubanpercussion providesacharacteristicunderlyingrhythmandstrongjazzinfluences.
Merengue-MusicgenrethatoriginatedfromtheDominicanRepublic
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Plena-Knownasel“periodicocantao”or"thesungnewspaper,"theplenacomesfromthelowerclassesofthebarrioinPuertoRico.ItoriginatedinPoncearound1900.TheplenawasfirstheardintheBarriadadelaTorreneighborhood,whosepopulationconsistedmostlyofimmigrantsfromSt.Kitts,Tortola,andSt.Thomaswhosettledontheislandbeginninginthelate1800s.ThetraditionalcenterofplenawasprobablySanAntón,abarrioofPonce,althoughtheblackneighborhoodofLoízaisalsomentionedastheheartlandforthegenre.Itspopularitypeakedinthe1920s.
Rumba-RumbaisusedasshorthandforAfro-Cubanrumba,agroupofdances
relatedtotherumbagenreofAfro-Cubanmusic.ThemostcommonAfro-Cubanrumbaistheguaguancó.TheotherAfro-CubanrumbasareYambuandColombia.
Sextetos-Atypeofmusicgroupbornoutofthe1920sinHavanaCubaspecializing
inthegenreofSon.Asextetocomprisesoftheguitar,tres,doublebassormarimbula,maracasandclaves.Duringtheendofthedecadetrumpetwasadded.Thisresultedintheformergroupingbecomingknownasthesepteto.
Son-SoncubanoisastyleofmusicanddancethatoriginatedinCubaandgained
worldwidepopularityinthe1930s.Itisaduple-meterformthatemphasizespercussioninstrumentssuchasthemarimbula,thetres,(amodifiedguitarwiththreedoubleortriplestrings)orguitar,theclaveorpalitos(sticks),andtheguiro.(Glasser,23)ThestructureandelementsofsoncombineSpanishguitarwithAfricanrhythmsandpercussioninstruments.TheCubansonisoneofthemostinfluentialandwidespreadformsofLatinAmericanmusic,wasmademostpopularinsalsa,andhasspreadacrosstheworld.
Tres-Cubanstringedinstrumentwiththreesetsofdoublestringstunedinunison-
twoinahighoctave,theotheroneoctavelower,inDminor.Timba-PopularmusicgenreassociatedwithcontemporaryCubandance
originatinginthe1980sandutilizingacombinationofjazz,funk,rap,spokenword,synthesizersounds,andvariationsoftraditionalpercussionpatterns.
Timbales-Timbalesorpailasareshallowsingle-headeddrumswithmetalcasing.
Theyareshallowerthansingle-headedtom-tomsandareusuallytunedmuchhigher.Theplayer,calledatimbalero,usesavarietyofstickstrokes,rimshots,androllstoproduceawiderangeofpercussiveexpressionduringsolos.Theshellsofthetimbalarecalledcascara(shell),anditisalsothenameofarhythmicpatterncommoninsalsamusicplayedontheshellsofthetimbales.
Trovador-TheTrovadorisasingeroftraditionalPuertoRicanjibaromusic.The
trovadorismainlyknownforhis/herabilitytoimproviseintheformofthe
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décima.TheoriginofthetrovadorcomesfromthetwelfthandthirteenthcenturylyricpoetsinSouthernFrance,NorthernItaly,andSpain.Thissingerisalsoknownasastrollingminstrel.
Tumbadoras-Traditionalnameforcongadrums.
LimitationsoftheStudy
Themajorityoftheinterviews,andresearchfocusedonNewYork,New
JerseyandChicagoandLosAngeles.Severalothermetropolitanregions
throughouttheUnitedStatesalsoplayedlargeroles;however,NewYork
contributedthelargestimpactupontheresearch.Thedifficultyoftracingmusic
developmentsrelatedtothestudyoversuchabroadphysicallandscapecreated
anotherchallengeandlimitationtothestudy.Schedulebarrierswithparticipants
duetotimeconstraintscomplicatedthestudy.Thesheervolumeofworkpublished
relatedtothetopicincombinationwithschedulelimitationshowever,existedas
bothabarrierandanopportunity.Duetotheassistanceofmoderntechnologythe
accesstoresourcessuchasonlinepublishedinterviews,documentariesaswellas
networkingwithpotentialintervieweesviasocialmediaprovedtobeapreeminent
strategy.Withthevolumeofinformationalreadypublishedandconverselythe
pointofperspectivethatiscentraltothestudysooftenbeingaperipheralone,an
archivalapproachcombinedwithscheduledinterviewswasconducted.Thiswas
doneinefforttohighlighttheaforementionedperipheryissuesandtherefore
movingthemintofocus.Inthiscaseabalancedperspectivewaskey,howeverwith
manyofthenotableparticipants/musiciansalreadyhavingpublishedinterviews
thereseemednoneedtoreinventthewheel;especiallybeforeexhaustingthe
availableinformation.
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Assumptions
Startingout,myresearchwasbuiltonanassumptionthatthereisaunique
relationshipbetweentheislandsofPuertoRicoandCubaasopposedtootherLatin
Americannationsandterritoriesbaseduponsharedhistoryhencedirectly
impactingthemusic.Iexploredthenotionthatinsomecontexttherelationshipmay
beimaginedorbuiltuponvariousbiases.Therelationshipmayhavedramatically
changedovertheyearstoeitherbecemented,moreambiguous,orlayeredwith
expandingcomplexity.SinceIamathirdgenerationPuertoRicanlivingwithinthe
mainlandUS,IassumedIwouldbeacceptedandperceivedasbothanoutsiderand
insider.Manyoftheparticipantsweremusicalcolleaguesandmentorsofmineas
wellasthosewhoseworkhasinfluencedmyownovertheyears.
CHAPTER2
LITERATUREREVIEW Introduction
BothCubaandPuertoRicohaveadiverseblendoftraditionalmusicallegacies
comingfromtheAfricanslaves,Spanishcolonialists,andindigenouspopulation
suchastheTaino.ThefoundationsofPuertoRico’smusicdatesbackcenturies;
however,tokeeppointsspecificandconcisetosupporttherelativityoftheresearch,
IelectedtofocusprimarilyontheCubanandNewYorkinfluencesupontheisland
combinedwiththefolkloricruralmountainandcoastalregionsofPuertoRico
duringthetwentiethcentury.
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TheevolutionofmusicontheislandofPuertoRicohasbeendynamicforan
extendedtime.FromtheinteractionandtravelsoftheindigenousTainopeople,the
introductionoftheSpanishcolonists,andtheimportationoftheAfricanslaves,
PuertoRicohasbeenfertilesoilforit’sownuniquemusicalproduction(intermsof
thetraditionalmusicexclusivetotheisland)andhasmadeitsmarkonimported
stylesfromneighboringislands.Whenitcomestogenresofmusicsuchasthose
fromtheneighboringislandofCuba,PuertoRicohasbeenacontinualexampleof
acculturation(regardingmuchofthepopularizedmusicoftheisland).While
acculturationisstronglypresentinPuertoRico,afraternalexchangeofmusical
schoolsofthoughtbranchesfromsimilarorigins.
SeveralpublicationsIreviewedforresearchresourcesprovidedetailed
informationonvarioustraditionalmusicstylesofbothPuertoRicoandCuba.The
breadthofpublishedresearchmaterialprovidesanalysisonconnectionstovarious
musicaldistinctionsbetweentheislands,migrationtoandfromtheU.S.urbancities,
socio-economicissues,politics,communityculturaldynamicsawayfromtheislands,
musicvenues,musicassociations,andhistoricalsignificanceofthepopularmusic
stylessuchastheson,rumba,mamboandsalsa.Alsoincludedwereworksonthe
influencesoftheAfricanandEuropeanDiasporainPuertoRicoandCuba.Although
Africanslavescontributedheavilytothelocalmusicexistingonbothislands,having
theknowledgeoftheirrespectiveoriginsoffersadeeperexplanationonthe
differences(andsimilarities)withinAfricanbasedfolkloricmusicsuchastherumba
ofCubaorthebombaofPuertoRico.ThroughouttheprocessIalsoconsultedHelio
Orovio’sbookCubanMusicFromAtoZ.HelioOrovio’sworkisanencyclopedic
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referenceonpopularmusicians,composers,scholars,traditionalinstruments,and
iconichitsongsofCubanorigins.
TheevolutionofCubaandPuertoRico’smusicandhistoryiscomplexwith
numerouseddiesandcurrentsmuchlikeahealthybodyofwaterpouringintoa
changinglandscape.Itisbothanancientyetmodernlivingstorythatisstillbeing
written.Forhundredsofyears,exchangesofmusicalideas,religion,etc.traveled
backandforthbetweentheislandsthroughNatives,SpanishandFrenchcolonists,
andAfricanslavesfromdifferentethnicgroups.Thisinteractioniscrucialto
understandinghowtheislandofPuertoRico(amongstotherislandsandLatin
nations)wasreadilyabletoadoptandidentifywithsomanyoutsidemusicalstyles.
BeginningEvolutions
Beginninginthe1930s,CubanmusicianstraveledbackandforthtoPuerto
Rico,andpopularhitswereplayedontheairwaves.Inordertograspthe
contemporaryevolutionofthismusic,theearlyhistorymustbestudied.
BiographicalsketchesandChroniclessuchasMaxSalazar’sMamboKingdom:Latin
MusicinNewYorkhelpconnectthefusionofthemusicaltraditionsofislandssuch
asPuertoRicoandCubawiththeperspectiveofvariousmusicians’history,which
culminateinNewYorkCity.Alargeportionofthebook’sviewpointisfromboththe
populardancescenethathelpedtobringtheseworldstogetherinNewYorkaswell
asbroadcastradio.WithinSalazar’sworkarebiographicalaccountsofoverforty
importantPuertoRicanandCubanartistswhowereinfluentialinNewYorkCity.
ThemajorityoftheseartistseithermigratedfromPuertoRicoorCuba.Salazar’s
worklaysoutadetailedmapthatisbeneficialinresearchingconnectionsinthe
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evolutionanddevelopmentofthecontextualLatinmusicdevelopmentinNewYork
City.ThebiographicalworksandinterviewswithinSalazar’sbookhelpgivemore
backgroundtothedanceperspectivetiedtotheevolutionofthemusicinthecity.
Thetraditiontheseinfluentialmusiciansperformedwasoftenmarriedtodance.
Thisisanimportantconnectiontounderstandingthemusicmorecloselyand
exploringrelationshipsandconnectionsbetweenthedifferentcommunitiesinthe
metropolitanareasoftheUnitedStates(Salazar2002).
PopularDanceScene SydneyHutchinson’sarticle,“Mamboon2:TheBirthofaNewFormofDance
inNewYorkCity,”foundintheCentroJournalshowsthelargerpictureofthis
uniquerelationship(Hutchinson2004,109-37).JustasinSalazar’swork,havingthe
artist’sbiographicalinformationorthe“behindthescenes”knowledgehelpsto
explaintheevolutionandfusionhappeninginNewYork.JimPayne’sTitoPuente;
KingofLatinMusicpresentsanindepthwithahistoricalchartofpopularCuban
music.Payne’schartfollowsthepathoftraditionalandpopularstylesfromthe
originofCubauptothe1990s.Thenon-profittelevisionnetworkPBSoffersa
comprehensivetimelineofCubanmusichistoryontheirwebsitewww.pbs.org.
IsabelleLeymariebookCubanFire;TheStoryofSalsaandLatinJazz,
chroniclesandexploresthe“goldenyears”ofCubandancemusictotheevolutionof
LatinJazzintheUnitedStates.Herpublicationfocusesontheunderpinningsand
evolutionofpopularCubanmusicwhilealsodedicatinglargeportionsofthebookto
PuertoRicaninfluences.RelationshipsbetweenCubanandPuertoRicanmusicians
inNewYorkareregularlyincludedwithchaptersalsofocusingonPuertoRican
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musicinfluencesonpopularCubanmusic.Fiveofthechaptersincludeeitherthe
titleTheUnitedStatesandPuertoRico(Thistitleappearsseveraltimeswithvarying
sub-chapters,tyingthePuertoRicaninfluenceintoeachera)orsomeotherheading
withspecificPuertoRicaninfluence.ChapterthreeincludessubchaptersThe
AwakeningoftheBarrio,andMusicinPuertoRico.InChapterfiveDanceBandsin
PuertoRico,Leymariewritesabouttheinfluencethemambocrazedevelopingin
NewYorkandothercitieshadinPuertoRico.Leymarie’schoiceofintentionally
includingPuertoRicointhedevelopmentofpopularLatindancemusicintheUnited
Statesandabroadisreflectedinherintroduction.Shewrites“Thisbooktellsthe
storyofCubanmusicinitshomelandandintheUnitedStates,butitalsoincludes
PuertoRico–Cuba’smusicalsister–andtheDominicancurrentlymergingwith
salsaandLatinjazz.”(Leymarie2002,3)AnotherimportantperspectiveLeymarie
givesinherbookisthatofregionsintheU.S.outsideofNewYorkCity.Sheincludes
theinfluentialdancesceneontheWestCoast.WhiletheWestCoastdancescene
maynothavecarriedthesamecommercialsuccess,manypopularartistsofCuban
musicartformssuchasCalTjadermadelargeimpactsuponthedevelopmentofthe
music.
FromMambotoHipHopcentersonthestoryoftheSouthBronx’sinfluence
onthemusicscenesofmambo,salsa,andhip-hopfromtheLatingoldeneraofthe
1950stotheDJandhip-hopmovementofthe80s.Thisdocumentarygivesinsightto
theperspectivesofthemusicians,anddancersoftheera.Thedocumentaryis
producedbySteveZeitlinandElenaMartinezandincludesinterviews,and
performancevideoclip.Thedocumentaryiskeytotheurbanroleofinfluencingthe
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music.Thesecontributionsoftheurbanenvironmentincludepolitics,socio-
economics,violence,culturalcommunityactivitiessuchasstickball,etc.This
coincideswiththe“senseofplace”ElenaMartinezwritesaboutinherarticlewith
Robertal.SingertitledASouthBronxTale.(Singer,Martinez2004)Inthisarticle
bothSingerandMartinezdetailtheimportanceofhowphysicallocationinforms
andinfluencesthemusic.WithPuertoRicanandCubanmigrationconstantly
flowinginandoutofU.S.urbanenvironments,researchsuchasMartinezand
Singer’sareinstrumentaltounderstandingthehowandwhyoftheir(U.S.cities)
roleinthePuertoRicanidentificationwithvariousCubanmusicforms.
FromtheAfricanslavesintheFrenchcoloniesofHaiti,totheislandofCuba,
andtheplethoraofideascomingfromNewYorkafteryearsofmusicalexchange,
PuertoRico’smusicalfoundationsisbothadeepwellandactivespring.Otherthan
theisland’sownfolkloricmusic,PuertoRicohasoftenstampedit’sstyleonadopted
musicaltraditionswhichaftermanyyearsareconsideredit’sown.Forexample,
stylessuchasthebolero,son,sonmontuno,guaracha,guajira,rumba,etc.,which
camefromCuba,havebeensuccessfullyadoptedandindigenizedbymanyfamous
PuertoRicancomposersleadingtointernationalsuccessovertheyears.
PuertoRicanandCubanCulturalIdentitiesandDiaspora
Thisexchangeeventuallyled,inpart,tothemixingofPuertoRicanstyles
suchasbomba,plena,danza,decima,seisAguinaldoandothergenresfromvarious
partsofLatinAmericaintothepopularcontemporary“Salsa”createdbymusicians
intheNewYorkscene.PuertoRicanComposerssuchasRafaelHernandeztraveled
14
backandforthtoCuba,Mexico,theDominicanRepublic,andNewYorkCityadding
theirownflairand“tipico”PuertoRicanfolklorictraditiontothemusic.
WithRobinMoore’s“Música:SpanishCaribbeanMusicinNewYorkCity”
(Moore2009,241-44),RuthGlasser’s.MyMusicisMyFlag:PuertoRicanMusicians
andtheirNewYorkCommunities,1917-1940(Glasser1995),andNedSublette’sCuba
andItsMusic:fromtheFirstDrumstotheMambo(Sublette2004),acomparisoncan
bemadeamongCubaandPuertoRico’sfolkmusictraditions.Instrumentationalso
servesasabridgebetweenthecultures.EvenbeforePuertoRicansinNewYork
wereexposedtothecongadrummanyalreadyhadexperiencewiththeAfro-Puerto
Ricanbombadrums,whichwerealsoconicalinshapeanddependingonthe
particularstylecarriedpotentiallysimilarrhythmicstructuresandtone.
DonaldThompsongivesarareperspectiveonmusichistoryand
developmentinPuertoRicowithinhisbookMusicinPuertoRico.Whilethesubject
offolkandtraditionalmusichistoryandevolutionofthemusichasbeenwritten
aboutontheisland,thevastmajorityofdetailedresourcestobeusedforscholarly
workareprimarilyinSpanish.Thompson’sbookincludesperspectivesof
contemporarymusicplayedinPuertoRicobyinfluentialcomposerssuchasTite
Curet.MusicinPuertoRicoisahelpfulresourceofperspectivesanddevelopmentsof
musicalidentityontheisland.
JuanFloresexplorestheculturalexpressionofthePuertoRicanDiasporaand
ontheisland.Floresweavesvarioussocialandeconomicissuesthatinfluence
culturalidentityandinturndirectthemusicamongstdifferenterasofthetwentieth
century.ChaptersevenPan-Latino/Trans-Latino;PuertoRicansin“NewNuevaYork”
15
describeachangingethniclandscapeofNewYorkCityduringthewideranging
periods1940s-1980s.InthischapterFloresspecificallyaddressessocio-economic
andpoliticalsituationsthatcontributedtotheeconomicvitality,andinmanycases
lackthereofthePuertoRicancommunityinthemajorcitiesoftheUnitedStates.
AnotherJuanFlorespublicationPuertoRicanArrivalinNewYork;Narratives
oftheMigration,1920-1950givesfirsthandaccountsofPuertoRicansmigrating
fromPuertoRicotoNewYorkCitythroughaseriesofinterviewsgivenina
narrativeform.ThenarrativesincludedinFlore’spublicationare,asinhisown
words,“unfortunately,andsignificantly…writtenbymen”(Flores1997,7)“The
migrationstoryastoldandexperiencedthroughtheeyesofPuertoRicanWomenin
theearlydecades”,exclaimsFlores,“canonlybederivedfromdirectoraltestimony,
andfromthecountlesspersonalwritings,letters,poems,diaries,scrapbooks-that
nevermadeitintoprint.(Flores1997,9)
SilvioH.Alava’sSpanishHarlem’sMusicalLegacy1930-1980ispartofan
ImagesinAmericabookseriesthatchroniclesahistoricaleraandregionthrougha
collectionofimagesandoftendetailedcaptionsoftheirsignificance.WhileAlava’s
narrativeisafocusonNewYork’sSpanishHarlem,itisdonesobytributingits
legacyhencemanyoftheimagesareofperformancesthroughouttheUnitedStates.
Thisgivesinsighttotheweightofurbanareasculturalmusiccontribution,
transcendinglocalmetropolitanborders.
ChristinaD.Abreu’sRythmsofRace;CubanMusiciansandtheMakingof
LatinoNewYorkCityandMiami,1940-1960addressestheethnicdiversityamongst
CubanmusicianslivinginNewYorkCityandMiamipriortothe1959Cuban
16
revolution.ThroughoutRyhthmsofRace,Abreucoversdynamicsofrelationships
betweenCubanandPuertoRicanmusicianslivinginNewYorkCity.Usingconcert
posters,advertisements,journalismclips,andinterviewsAbreucraftsaunique
perspectiveofhowCubanandPuertoRicanmusiciansnavigatedurban
environmentstogether.ShedoesthisbynotonlyfocusingonNewYorkbutalso
offeringperspectivesfromregionssuchasMiamiaswell.
PeterManuel’sarticlePuertoRicanMusicandCulturalIdentity:Creative
AppropriationofCubanSourcesfromDanzatoSalsaisacriticalsourceoffering
directlyrelatedmaterialtotheresearchproject.Manuel’swork“[explores]the
processbywhichPuertoRicanshaveappropriatedandresignifiedCubanmusical
formsassymbolsoftheirownculturalidentity.”(Manuel1994,250)Thearticle
detailstheprocessofhowtheprocessofthemusicalappropriationofCubanmusic
byPuertoRicansasresultedintheknowledgeofwhichCubanmusicaloriginsonce
crucialinPuertoRicanculture,hasbecomeoflittleconsequenceorrelevanceto
PuertoRicansandNuyoricans.(Manuel1994,250)WhileManuel’sarticleexplores
theprocessofPuertoRicanappropriationandacculturationofCubanmusicand
expoundsuponthedebateofPuertoRicannationalmusicidentity(orthe
rearticulationofsuch)myresearchpivotsprimarilyonspecificoverarchingthemes
suchaspolitics,socio-economics,culturalidentity,migrationstatisticsandpatterns
dependentuponU.S.urbanizationimpactingthemusicalrelationshipofthetwo
diaspora.Manuel’sworkexploresthecreativeprocessofappropriationand“socio-
musicalrearticulation,whichcanbeseenasafeatureofPuertoRicanculturein
general-aculturewhichhasconsistentlybeenconditionedbyacomplex,
17
overlapping,andoften-contradictorysetofmultipleidentities.”(Manuel1994,250)
WhilethecentralfocusofmyresearchdealswithU.S.metropolitanbridges
connectingCubanandPuertoRicanmusiciansduringthe1920sandthe1970s,
Manuel’sarticleprovidesspecificdiscussiononvariousmusictheory/foundational
principlesofthecreativeappropriationprocessPuertoRicansusedintheevolution
ofmusicsuchassalsaduringthe1960sand1970s.
AfricanDiasporaContributions
BancoPopular’sRaíces(Paloma2001),amusicalandhistoricaldocumentary
onPuertoRicanbombaandplenagenres,providesarichamountofinformationon
thefamilies,pioneers,andculturalcuratorsofthemusic.Thefilmdocuments
famousfamiliessuchastheCepedasofPuertoRicowhopreservethemusicof
bomba.PublicationssuchasAlejoCarpenter’sMusicinCuba(Carpenter2001),
NolanWarden’s“HistoryoftheCongaDrum”(Warden2005,8-15),andSublette’s
CubaandItsMusic:FromtheFirstDrumstotheMambo(Sublette2004)describethe
originsoftheslaves’andtheirdescendents’musicsuchastheabakua,bembe,
rumba,etc.
InstrumentationandBandAssociations Onthecuatroprojectwebsite(awebsitededicatedtothehistoryand
evolutionofthePuertoRicancuatro;astringedinstrumentbelongingtothe
mandolinfamily),WilliamR.CumpianoandRamonM.Gomezexplainthe
connectionsbetweenthePuertoRicanandCubantres(Cumpiano,TheCuatro
Project).ThetresisaCubanguitarwiththreesetsofdoublestrings.Withsomany
PuertoRicanandCubanimmigrantstoNewYorkCity,havinganunderstandingof
18
howsimilaritiesinculturemayhaveassistedinformingauniquerelationship
outsideoftheislandhelps.CumpianosuggeststhattheCubantresmayhavebeen
introducedinPuertoRicopriortoPuertoRicansplayingitinNewYorkCity
(Cumpiano,TheCuatroProject)ThePuertoRicanCuatroProjectwebsitelists
influentialplayers,biographicalinformation,influentialmusicalworks,and
scholarlypublications.Thewebsiteisrunbyanonprofitorganizationlocatedin
NorthHampton,Massachusetts,andMoca,PuertoRico.Itbeganin1991andisrun
byartisans,technicians,teachers,writers,andartists.Althoughitisnotdirectly
connectedtoanacademicinstitutionithasbeenfundedandencouragedbyThe
NationalEndowmentfortheArts,TheinstituteofPuertoRicanCulture(APuerto
Ricangovernmentrunagency)and“fromthemusic,anthropology,and
communicationsdepartmentsofseveralNewEnglanduniversities--suchasthe
UniversityofMassachusetts,HunterCollegeandRutgersUniversity--andrecently,
fromtheSmithsonianInstitution”(PuertoRicansSearchingforTheirOwnLost
Culture,CuatroProject)
SonesCubanos-SextetosCubanosVol.1isacollectionofpopularsongs
composedbynotableCubanSextetosofthe1930’s.Withinthiscompilation’sliner
notesarevaluableinformationontheoriginofthegroupsincluded.Includedis
SextetoMachin,whichincludedaPuertoRicantresasareplacementtotheCuban
tres.MichaelI.Avalosnotesaddthattherecordingincludedonthecompilationby
SextetoMachinwouldbe“thefirstandonlyrecordingbyaCubanSextetoutilizing
thecuatroandnotthetres.”(Avalos,1991)Whilethismayhavebeentheonly
recordingofthePuertoRicancuatrointheCubanformofSextetos,itismore
19
importantlyavaluableresourcetomyresearchasitisanearlymanifestationofthe
statesideinfluenceofthePuertoRicanconnectiontoCubanmusic.SextetoMachin’s
bandleader,AntonioLugoMachinsoughtoutLatinomusiciansinNewYorkCity.
ManyofthesemusiciansthatwouldperformandrecordwithMachinwerePuerto
Ricansresidinginthecity.
LiseWaxer’sbookSituatingSalsa:GlobalMarketsandLocalMeaningsinLatin
PopularMusicisacomprehensiveguideofthetransnationalimpactofsalsamusic.
Waxerincludesdiscussiononsalsaasamusicgenre,exploresitssocialimpact,and
musicalevolutionfromitspreviousorigins.AdditionallyWaxerincludesthe
developmentalofdirection/evolutionsalsaintermsofLatinjazzandstylistic
uniqueness(WaxerincludesdiscussionontheroleoftheCubanclaveinsalsa)from
itsCubangenrepredecessors.SalsaisoftenviewedasaU.S.barriophenomenon
(Manuel1994,268).LiseWaxer’spublicationoffersuniqueinsight(Waxerincludes
musictheorydiscussiononstylisticdifferencesbetweensalsaandpopularCuban
styles)tothedevelopmentofsalsamusicwithintheU.S.urbancontext.
Migration Anothergeneralcategoryofmyresearchisintheareaofmigration.The
populationgrowthstatisticsofPuertoRicansinthefirsthalfofthetwentieth
centurywasmassiveanddirectlyrelatedtotheirmajormusicalinfluencesinNew
YorkCity.InIslandintheCity,DanWakefieldnotesthat“TheexodusofPuerto
Ricansthatbeganinthe1950swassomassivethattheroutebetweenSanJuanand
NewYorkbecameknownasan‘airbridge.’Dayafterday,planeloadsofmigrants
20
wereloftedfromtheirpatria,andafewhourslaterdescendedthestairwayintoa
newworld,1600milestothenorth.”(Wakefield1959,234)
AlthoughmigrationfromPuertoRicototheUnitedStatesMainlandwasslow
andsteadyfromthe1800son,notuntilWorldWarIIdidthemigrationexplodeon
thescene.Infactthewaritselfcouldbeconsideredaseparateresearchtopic
becauseitwasinstrumentalinbringingPuertoRican,Cuban,andBlackAmerican
musicianstogetherinauniquewaythatresultedinanevolutionofmusicalstylesof
Cuban,jazz,andsoulmusicthatwouldlaterbecomethefoundationsof
contemporaryLatinandjazzgenres.KalandOlgaWagenheimdocumentthevarious
stagesofthismigrationinThePuertoRicans;ADocumentaryHistory(Wagenheim
1973).Wagenheimwritesthatin“Thefirstyearafterthewar39,000PuertoRicans
cametothemainland,andtheannualstreamreachedanaverageofroughly50,000
inthepostwardecade…thetotalof600,000firstorsecondgenerationPuerto
RicansinNewYorkCityin1958wasexpectedtorisetoamillionbytheearly1970s.
Andforthefirsttime,thegreatmigrationhadbeguntospreadmoreheavilyincites
andtownsthroughoutthecountry”(Wagenheim1973,236)AlthoughPuertoRicans
werenottheonlyLatinosmigratingtoNewYorkCityandotherurbancenters
throughouttheUnitedStates,theywerebyfarthelargestinnumberswithin
northernmetropolises.ManyyoungPuertoRicanswholivedandworkedinrural
areasofPuertoRicoenlistedorweredraftedintheUnitedStatesmilitaryand
servedoverseasandinthecontinentalUnitedStates.Thisgavethemexposureto
thepossiblebenefitsoflivingandworkingofftheisland.Accordingtocensus
21
reportsPuertoRicanmigrationnotonlybegantoboominthedecadesafterWorld
WarII,butiteclipsedeveryotherLatinourbangroup.
Inthe1950sand60s,however,NewYorkbecamestronglyidentifiedwith
thegroupdesignatedinresearchliteratureasanairbornemigrationofAmerican
citizensandasstereotypicaloutsidersinpopularculture.Untilthe1960sPuerto
RicansconstitutedovereightypercentofNewYork’sentireLatinopopulationand
eighty-fivepercentofallPuertoRicansthroughoutthenation.Thecensusfiguresfor
PuertoRicansincludedsecondandthirdgenerationsandrevealedthatthreeoutof
everytenindividualswereborninthecontinentalUnitedStates.Moreover,the
populationwasexceedinglyyoung.Basedonacensusoftheschool-agepopulation
inNewYorkCity,12.5percentofeveryschooldistrictinManhattanandthe
majorityofthedistrictsinBrooklynandtheBronxwereofPuertoRican
parentage(Korrol2008,157).
InhisbookPuertoRicanAmericans:TheMeaningofMigrationtothe
Mainland,JosephP.Fitzpatrickstatesthat“Althoughamere7.9percentofthecity’s
totalpopulationwasPuertoRicanin1960,11percentofallyouthaged15through
19;11percentofchildrenaged10to14years;12percentofaged5to9yearsand
14percentofallchildrenunder5yearswerePuertoRican.”(Fitzpatrick1971,2)
TheamountofPuertoRicanyouthinNewYorkCityduringthe1950sand
60sissignificantinthatawholenewgenerationofyoungadultsestablishedand
evolvedculturaltrends.Manyoftheseyouthcombinedthecity’surbanculturewith
thatoftheirparentsandgrandparentswhomigratedfromPuertoRico.Manyof
themidentifiedwiththeLatinmusicthatwaspopularfromgenerationsbeforethem
22
whilealsoidentifyingwithfunk,soul,rhythmandblues,androckandroll.Ablend
ofthesestyles,withastrongCubanandPuertoRicanbase,wouldeventually
becomeknownasthepopularSalsamusicthatwaspopularizedinthe1970s.The
largemigrationofPuertoRicanstothemainlandoftheUnitedStateshoweverwas
notjustlimitedtoNewYorkCity.OthermetropolitanareassuchasChicagosawa
largegrowthofaPuertoRicanpopulation.Thisincreasedpopulationisdirectly
relatedtotheevolutionofculturalmusictrendsandthesharedsocio-politicalissues
ofthePuertoRicansandCubanswhomovedinandoutoftheselargecities.
Percussionist,composer,educator,activist,andmultipleGrammynominee
BobbySanabriastatedinaninterviewwithfamedcomposersandpercussionists
JoseLuisChanguito,andRobertoCarcassesthat“Since1962,whentheU.S.imposed
adefactoembargoontradewithCuba,encountersbetweenmusiciansfromthe
birthplaceof‘salsa’andU.S.basedmusicianshavebeenlimited.Politicshavealways
gotteninthewayofculturalexchangebutsomehow[NewYorkCity’sPuertoRican
communityhaskeptCuba’smusicalpresencealive,inlargepart.]”(LatinMusicUSA.
2009)
AsPuertoRicanmigrationexplodedontheUnitedStatesmainlandmany
immigrantsfoundthemselvesinanenvironmentthatwaslargelyforeigntothem.
PeterManuel,authorofCaribbeanCurrentsPeterManuelwritesthat“Asmigrants
foundthemselvesinthealien,English-speaking,stressful,andoftenviolentmilieuof
NewYork’stenements,itwasnaturalforthemtotrytomaketheirsurroundings
morefamiliarbytransplantingasmuchofislandcultureaspossibletothebarrio.”
(Manuel1995,65)
23
ManymigratingfromCubaandPuertoRicofoundsimilarhurdlesintheirtransitiontoAmerica.Wagenheimwritesthatbythelate1950s,severalAmericancitieshadlargeSpanishspeakingbarrios.Mostofthenewcomerswereillpreparedfortheirnewwayoflife,buttheytenaciouslyheldontothehardest,poorestpayingjobs,livedinoverpricedsubstandardhousing,andstruggledtoestablishthemselves.Somefellbythewayside,intopublicwelfaredependence,or-farworse-intodrugsandcrime.Soon,U.S.newspapersbeganreferringto“ourPuertoRicanproblem,”inmuchthesamewaythatnewspapersattheturnofthecenturycomplainedofthe“filthyHebrews,”or“thedangerousItalians“(Wagenheim2008,227).
Thehurdlesofpoverty,language,religiousdifferences,andracismwerenot
uniquetothePuertoRicans.ManyoftheCubans(andotherLatinogroupsinNew
YorkCityandotherurbanareas)alsosufferedfromthesamethings.Theseissues
createdbridgesbetweenthePuertoRicansandCubansanddirectlyaffectedthe
LatinmusicsceneacrosstheUnitedStates.
PuertoRicanmigrationisaheavilycoveredtopicwithawideangleof
perspectivestoexplore.IntheCommuterNation;PerspectivesOnPuertoRican
Migration,CarlosTorre,HugoRodriguezVecchini,andWilliamBurgosdiscuss
varioushistorical,political,social,cultural,economicandpsychologicalperspectives
onmigration.ThismultidisciplinarybookonPuertoRicanmigrationgivesinsightto
complexissuesregardingthetopicandalsotacklestoughquestionssuchasthe
differencesbetweencommutersandmigrantsregardingtheDiaspora.The
CommuterNation,whilegivingobjectivedata,hingesonexploringboththeplight
andaspirationsofthePuertoRicanDiasporaandthereforecontributesadiverse
narrativeofthesubjectoftherolePuertoRicansplayedinshapingurbanU.S.
environmentsandlikewisetheeffecttheconversehaduponthepeople.Acoupleof
thetitlesofchapterswithinthebookareTheEconomicsofMigration,Childrenand
24
theFamily,ThePsychologicalEffectsofMigrationonthePuertoRicanChildand
ReturnMigrantsandEducation.(Torre1994,9-10)
JoseA.CobasandJorgeDuanywriteaboutCubanmigrationtoPuertoRicoin
CubansinPuertoRico;EthnicEconomyandCulturalIdentity.Thisisanotherunique
perspectiveinthatitoffersalookintothesubjectofCubanmigrationtoPuertoRico
duringthetimeshortlyaftertheCubanmigrationandthedecadesfollowing.The
bookfocusesontheattemptto“balancetheimageofPuertoRicoasnotonlya
sourceofmigrantstotheU.S.butalsoasareceiverofoutsiders(Duany1997,3).
Additionallyandmostimportantlyformyresearchitexploresthepoliticaland
socio-economiccomplexitiesofPuertoRicoandCuba.Themajorityofthemigrants
wereconcentratedintheuppermiddletoaffluentsocio-stratayetitstillspeaksto
theroleofadaptationandmiddlemangroupsasitrelatestothePuertoRican
Diaspora.
PoliticalInfluences
Whiletheembargoenactedinthe1960spreventedaconstantflowofmusic
backandforthbetweenCubaandtheUnitedStates,italsocontributedinparttoa
decadethathelpedproducethepopularcontemporarystylesofLatinmusicsuchas
salsaintheUnitedStatesandabroad.Manuelexclaims,“thisdecadeendedupbeing
anextremelyfertileoneforLatinmusicintheUnitedStatesandforAmericanmusic
ingeneral.”(Manuel1995,72)Manuel’sCaribbeanCurrentsalsogivesinsighttothe
significanceofcontemporarygenreslikesalsainrelationtoallofthesharedsocio-
politicalandeconomicissuesmanyLatinosintheUnitedStatessharedandanew
Americanyouthinfluencedgeneration.
25
Thenewsocialconsciousnesscalledforanewmusicalmovementthat couldatonceembracePuertoRicantraditionandcapturethespiritofthe barrioinallitsalienatedenergyandheightenedself-awareness.Thelogical musicalvehicleforthiswasnottheperceivablyquaintandprovincialseisor plenabutmodernizedCubandancemusic-especiallytheson,whichhadfor decadesbeenthefavoredidiomofurbanPuertoRicansandNewyoricans.In theprocess,theson’sCubanorigin,likethatoftherumbanowsoavidly playedbybarriostreetdrummers,wasde-emphasized,andthegenre becameresignifiedasasymbolofNewyoricanand,byextension,pan-Latino ethnicidentity(Manuel1995,73).
Conclusion Throughstudyingbothcontextssuchasmigrationandpopulationgrowth
statisticsandsimilaritiesinculturesuchaslanguage,religion,musicalroots,andthe
navigationofeconomicandpoliticaltensions,thesubjectofthePuertoRican
adoptionofCubanmusiccanbeseenasamaptoassistinunderstandingcultural
relationships.Sublette’sthoughtsonmusicevolutionassistinilluminatingissuesof
musicorigins.InhisbookCubaandit’sMusic;FromtheFirstDrumtotheMambohe
writes,“Inmusicthereisnoimmaculateconception”(Sublette2004,xiii)Assuming
and/orassertingthatanyonemusicalgenreorstyleismoresacredthananotheris
dangerous.Contextisimportantinunderstandingfunctionalityandwhatis
appropriate.Myresearchstemmedfromamerecuriositybuteventuallyledtoa
deeperissuerelatedtowhatIhadadvocatedwithintheChristianworshipcontext
formanyyears.Theterm“pure”inreferencetomusicmustbeusedwithcaution
andshouldalwaysemploytheknowledgeofcontext.Sowhilemyresearchrevolves
aroundthephenomenaofPuertoRicanadoptionandinmanyinstances
acculturationofCubanmusic,itisonadeeperlevelmoreabouttherelationship
26
betweenthetwoisland’smusicandhowoneculture’sidentificationwithanother
cantranscendphilosophicalandpoliticalborders.
Chapter3
Methodology
InterviewswithartistswhoeitherliveorhavelivedinNewYork,Chicago
area,LosAngeles,andCubawereconducted,andprimarilyusedtogiveaprimary
sourceperspective.CubanpercussionistLuisContewasinterviewedbasedonhis
internationalexperienceintheperformingandrecordingindustry.Withoverfour
thousandalbums(spanningmultiplegenres)andalonglistofperformanceswith
notablePuertoRicanandCubanartistssuchasSergioMendez,Cachao,Poncho
Sanchez,ArturoSandovalandmanymore,Luisbringsanimportantperspectiveto
thestudy.PercussionistChemboCornielisasecondgenerationPuertoRicanbornin
ManhattanandraisedinRedHook,Brooklyn.Cornielhasamasseddecadesof
traditionalCubanandPuertoRicanmusicaltraditionexperienceperformingand
recordingwithGrammyawardwinningmusicianssuchasEddiePalmieri,Chucho
Valdés,WillieColonandmore.LikeLuisConte,CornielisalsoaGrammynominated
artist/musicianwithseveralsolorecordings.Withamusicalpedigreethatincludes
suchLatinpercussionpioneersas“little”RayRomero,TommyLopez,LouieBauzo
andCacheteMaldonado,andfoundationalmusicbackgroundwithinNewYork,
ChemboCornielbringsaninterculturalperspectivedirectlyrelatedtothecentral
themeofthestudy.MusiciansraisedinU.S.citiessuchasChemboprovidedinsight
ofhowthemusic(andtheculture)waslearned,appliedanddisseminated
throughoutthevariousregions.JohnnyConga,apercussionistaforty-yearmusic
27
veteranandBronxnativewasalsointerviewed.JohnnyCongawasinterviewedvia
phonefromhishomeinMiami.Hehaslived,performed,taught(percussion)and
hostedradioshowsinMiami,LosAngeles,NewYorkandSeattle.Hisexperienceis
uniqueandinstrumentaltotheresearchinthatheoffersaperspectivefromthe
vantagepointofnotjustamusicianbutalsoanexpertinthegenreofpopularCuban
musicasaradiopersonality.LuisMirandaisapercussionistcurrentlylivingin
SouthernCaliforniaandthelastlivingmemberoftheiconicLatinbandMachitoand
HisAfro-Cubans.MachitoandHisAfro-CubanswasprimarilyaLatinJazzband
(activefromthe1940sthroughthe1970s)thatutilizedorchestrationsderiving
fromswingandcombinedthemwiththeCubanmamboamongstotherLatinstyles.
LuisperformedandrecordedwithMachitoandmanyotherpioneeringLatinbands
fromthe1940sonincludingCalTjader,TitoPuente,TitoRodriguez,MarioBauza
andmore.Luis’sexperience,spanningsevendecadesprovidesafirsthandinside
viewpointofthecommercialLatinmusicscenefromthe1950son.CiprianGarciais
asecond-generationPuertoRicanmusicianfromWaukegan,Illinois.Waukeganisa
suburbancityapproximatelyforty-fivemilesoutsideofChicago.Garcia’sexperience
isrelevanttothePuertoRicanmusicexperienceintheChicagolandregion.The
intervieweesprovidedanemicperspectiverelativetoculturalidentity,socio-
economics,political,technological(i.e.studio,radio,etc.)alongwiththeimpactof
migrationbetweentheUnitedStates,Cuba,andPuertoRico.
DescriptionsofResearchTools
Acombinationofregionallibraries,onlinedatabases,focusgroupsviasocial
mediaforumswereusedforpoolingpotentialresourceinformation.Tonarrowthe
28
datacollection,itwasnecessarytoemployspecifickeywordsandphrasesrelatedto
thetopic.Inordertoensuresuccess,astrategywasdevelopedconsistingof
categorieswithspecificinternettags/keywordsandphrasesthathelpednarrowthe
datacollectionthroughinternetsearchengines.Usingthepropertagsandphrases
inonlinesearchenginesisakeystrategyforfindingappropriateresources.In
addition,timeinonlineforumsrelatedtothemusicgenrescoveredintheresearch
provedusefulandeffectivetowardfindingdirection.Manyoftheseforumshave
hundredsofmusiciansandenthusiastswhoarefamiliarwithauthoritativeworks
onthesubject.AsidefrommajorsearchenginessuchasGoogle,BingandYahoo,as
wellastheonlineretailgiantAmazon(utilizingrelativeproductsearches).The
categoriesrelativetotheresearchprojectarelisted:
•Relative/SignificantCubanandPuertoRicancomposersandmusicians•Biographies•Documentaries•Interviews•Significantrecordings•Significantworks,trends,etc.•Popularradiodiscjockeys•Musicproducers•PerformanceVideos(online),DVDs•Filmmakers•Authors•Poets•Diaspora•Migration•Socio-Economics
FortheresearchprojectIhavelistedthecategoriesaboveinseparatetabs
andcolumnsonaMicrosoftExcelspreadsheet.Theinformationtitleswithinthe
spreadsheetarelinkedtoadocumentwithfurtherdetailsaboutthework/listing.
FortheInternetlistingsonthespreadsheetIhavecreatedhyperlinkstotheURLsite.
29
Publiccontactinformationsuchasworknumbersforauthorsarealsolinkedwithin
thespreadsheetforconvenience.Theresearchspreadsheet,literaturereview,and
annotatedbibliographyalongwithallrelativetopicdocumentsareplacedinspecific
researchfoldersandbackeduponaseparate(external)harddrive.Allphysical
documentsandpublicationsareheldinmypersonallibraryinreferencetotheir
specificcategory(DVD,book,magazine,printedacademicarticle,musicrecording,
etc.).WithprintedmaterialIhavetabbed(coloredbookmarkplacements)
importantpagesinreferencetotheresearchandtypedspecificpage
numbers/chaptersintheappropriateExcelspreadsheetcolumn.
ParticipantsintheStudy
TheamountofinformationonPuertoRicanandCubanmusicisplentiful.
EmployingthehelpofexpertsonthedevelopmentofCubanandPuertoRicanmusic
withintheU.Sprovedaclear-cutandefficientstrategy.Correspondencewith
academicscholarsinanthropology,musicology,andethnomusicologyprograms
alongwithGrammyawardwinningmusicians,authors,notablejournalists,and
radiopersonalitiesinlargecitiessuchasNewYork,Orlando,andLosAngelesfor
potentialinterviewsandinputonhelpfulpublications.
ChapterFour
ResearchFindings:PuertoRicanMigrationandDiaspora
Introduction
PuertoRicanmigration,socio-economic,andpoliticallandscapeoftheearly
andmidnineteenthcenturyiswelldocumentedinboththeSpanishandEnglish
30
languagecontext.AccordingtoscholarsonPuertoRicanculturalhistorythiswas
notalwaysthecase.Inher1995publicationMyMusicIsMyFlag,RuthGlasserstates
Onthemoreacademicside,Inotedthatalthoughthereseemedtobeaplethoraofbooksandarticleson,forexample,Mexican-Americanmusicalandculturalhistory,thereseemedtobenoequivalentforPuertoRicansinthecontinentalUnitedStates.Theyhadbeenexplainedadnauseuminsociological,anthropologicalandpoliticalsciencetreatise,whichdealtmainlywiththepost-WorldWarIImigrationprocess...”(Glasser,1995)
Glassercontinuestoexpressthatmuchofthelackoffocusregarding
academicworkthelackoffocusonPuertoRicanculturalaspectsoutsideofurban
migrationfromtheisland“beguntochangethroughtheHerculeanlaborsofthe
CentrodeEstudiasPuertorriquenosinNewYork,”andVirginaSanchez-Korrol’s
publicationFromColoniatoCommunity(whichwasanotherstepintheright
direction).(Glasser,xx)
ThemusicalconnectionbetweenPuertoRicanandCubanmusiciansisa
storyoftenwoveninthelargernarrativeofhistoryandtransnationalcultural
relationships.Throughtheacademicjournalarticles,interviews,books,selected
discography,linernotes,documentariesandoralhistoriessixoverarchingthemes
emergedassistingmeinconnectingthedotsregardingmetropolitanregionsinthe
UnitedStatesinfluenceontheadoptionofCubanmusic.
• Most popular and or far-reaching channels of music distribution:
i.e. popular or influential radio stations, promoters, community music stores; including technological innovations and advancements
• Important Venues: Music clubs, Ballrooms, Associations, etc, that cultivated important connections between Cuban and Puerto Rican musicians
• National, ethnic, and cultural identity within Puerto Rican and Cuban communities within urban U.S. cities
31
• Historical Significance of commercial popular music trends such as the Cuban danzon, son, charanga, rumba, and mambo
• Puerto Rican Migration (mainly to the New York City region): population Statistics, politics affecting migration back and forth from Puerto Rico, Cuba and the U.S.
• Socio-economics of Puerto Rican and Cubans within U.S. urban communities
ThelinkbetweenCubanandPuertoRicanmusicians,thoughoftenexpressedin
termsofthepostWorldWarIIerawasindeedinexistencepriortotheimportof
CubanmusicintheAmericasandthewidelyknownmambocraze.PuertoRican
musiciansandcomposerssuchasRafaelHernandeztraveledbackandforthfrom
PuertoRico,CubaandcitiessuchasNewYork,NewJerseyandChicago.Thepopular
EuropeancontradanzabecamecreolizedinCubaasthedanzaordanzonand
inspiredthePuertoRicandanza.PeterManuelstates“PuertoRico'samicable
relations,andindeed,fraternalsolidaritywithCubaappeartohavenullifiedany
potentialsenseofculturalrivalryorinferiority.TheseaspectsofPuertoRican
appropriationofCubanmusic,aswewillsee,foreshadowtheprocessofadopting
Cubandancemusicinthetwentiethcentury.”(Manuel,1994)Manuel’sstatements
refertothepoliticalandmusicalrelationshipsofbothislands.Hefurtherstates“
CubaandPuertoRicohaveenjoyedaspecialrelationshipsincethe
Spanishcolonialperiod.Themostimportanttie,ofcourse,wasthefactthatthey
weretheonlyremainingSpanishcoloniesaftertherestofLatinAmerica
gainedindependenceinthefirsthalfofthenineteenthcentury.Economic,political,
andculturalbondsbetweenCubaandPuertoRicointensifiedinthenineteenth
century,asagriculturalworkersmigratedtoandfro,commercialandmilitary
32
interactionincreased,andsharedanti-colonialmovementsforgedacommonsocio-
politicalbond.”(Manuel,1994)
Migration,Immigration,&Travels
WhileNewYorkandNewJerseywerenottheonlycitieswithintheUnited
StatestoreceivethosemigratingfromPuertoRicoandimmigratingfromCuba,the
impactPuertoRicansandCubanssettlingandworkingthereupontherespective
musicscenescannotbeoverstated.StatisticalresearchonPuertoRicanandCuban
settlementinNewYorkisoftenhighlightedinregardstomusical,culturalandsocio-
economicsubjects.Unfortunatelypublishedacademicresearchofthemusical
contributionofPuertoRicansandCubans(andtheircrossculturalrelationships)
outsideofNewYorkisoftenminimal.Since,however,Ihaveconcentratedthelarger
portionoftheresearchprojectontheareaofNewYorkCityIchosetomainly
includemigrationstatisticsintherelatedregioninordertogiveperspectiveonthe
influencethenumbersofPuertoRicanslivinginNewYorkandtravelingfromthe
citytootherregionsintheUS(oftenaftertimesafterreturningtoPuertoRico).This
isrelevantsincetherecordcompaniesandtechnologicalinnovationsreferencedare
mostlybasedoutoftheNorthEast.
Glasserwrites“althoughPuertoRicanshadbeenarrivingonthemainland
sincethemid-nineteenthcentury,itwasnotuntiltheyweregrantedU.S.citizenship,
in1917,thatpeoplebeganmigratingfromtheislandinsubstantialnumbers.”
(Glasser,1995)Glasserfurtherwrites“AsU.S.citizens,PuertoRicanswerenot
includedincensuspopulationcountsoftheforeign-born;thereforethereissome
33
controversyovertheirnumbers,withestimatesrangingbetween45,000and
100,000by1923.”(Glasser,1995)(Glazer/Moynihan,1963)Manyofthesesettlers
livedinscatteredneighborhoodsinBrooklynandManhattan.
Theyearsimmediatelyfollowingthesecondworldwarsawanincreasing
numberofPuertoRicansinNewYorkandChicago.“Morethan61,000Puerto
RicanswerelivinginNewYorkby1940.”(Leymarie,2002)Acombinationofan
economicrecessionontheisland,failedpoliticalpolicies,loweredairfareprices
fromSanJuantoNewYork,andtheexposuremanyPuertoRicanshadtotheU.S.
whileservingintheUnitedStatesmilitaryduringthewarsentavastnumberof
PuertoRicanstothemainland.“By1950thePuertoRicanranksintheBigApplehad
swelledtoabout200,000.(Leymarie,2002)DavidGarciaincludesthefollowing
statisticsinhisArsenioRodriguezpublication.“Inthemid-twentiethcenturyPuerto
RicansaccountedfortheoverwhelmingmajorityofLatinoslivinginNewYorkCity,
growingfromanestimated45percentofLatinoin1940to80percentin1960
(HaslipViera1993,pp.8-18).ThePuertoRicanpopulationitselfgrewfroman
estimated61,500in1940to612,574in1960.”(Garcia,2006)
EventuallythepopulationofPuertoRicansinNewYorkwouldoutnumber
thepopulationontheislandofPuertoRicoandfaroutnumberinganyotherLatino
representationinNewYork.LloydH.Roglerwrites,“Inthecity,thePuertoRican
populationgrewrapidly:comprisingin1950lessthanaquarterofamillionpersons
(3percent),in1980theyhadincreasedto860,000persons(12percent).(Rogler,
204)
34
ThesheerpopulationsizeofPuertoRicansinNewYorkasitrelatestotheir
musicalinfluencecannotbeunderstated.Roglerremarks“ofallnewcomerstothe
UnitedStates,fewhavebeensoconcentratedinnewYorkCityaspersonsofPuerto
Ricanorigin.Between1930and1940theisland-bornpopulationinNewYorkCity
increasedmorethaneightfold,andthecity’sshareofnativesofPuertoRicolivingin
theUnitedStatesincreasedfrom62to88percent.In1950,81.6percentofall
personsofPuertoRicanbirthandparentagelivinginthemainlandwere
enumeratedinNewYorkCity.(Rogler,204)1TheculturallandscapeofNewYork
CitythereforewasripetocultivateanurbanstamponthenextevolutionofPuerto
Ricanmusicalinfluenceleadinguptothe1960sand1970s.
PoliticsandSocio-Economics
Whileseveralsocio-economicissueshavebeencoveredpreviouslyand
throughoutmyresearchfindingsthereareafewsignificantdevelopmentsthat
warrantaseparatesection.Politics,andeconomicsarenotindependentfromthe
evolutionofmusicwithinsub-culturesofaDiasporaandthiscertainlyappliestothe
evolutionofCubanandPuertoRicanidentityinthedevelopmentofthemusic.
IsabelleLeymariewrites:
PuertoRicanculturalexpressionsareinseparablefromthehistoricalsituationoftheislandand,inthecaseofthePuertoRicanpopulationintheU.S.,directlylinkedtothesearchfornationalidentity.Aswithallminoritygroups,culturaltraditionstendtoreinforcethefeelingofcohesionandtomaintaintieswiththeplaceoforigin.MusichasplayedthisroleforPuertoRicansintheUnitedStates.Ontheisland,duringthecolonialperiod,andsimplyinthecontextofeconomicandculturalalienation,musichasalsoexpressedemotionsthatwouldbeotherwisedifficulttovoiceandhasservedtoventfrustrations.(Leymarie,343)
1SeemigrationtimelineinAppendices
35
Itwasthissearchandalignmentofnationalandculturalidentitythatsalsa
emergedduringthe1960sand1970s.Leymariefurtherwrites,“Historianshave
extensivelydocumentedPuertoRicanmigration.Thismigrationhasconsistedof
progressiveurbanization:bothfromthecountrysidetothePuertoRicancities,as
wellasfromtheislandtotheurbancentersofthemainland.Duanyrightlypoints
outthatitisinthe“contextofmigrationurbanization,industrializationand
proletarianizationofthePuertoRicanlaborforcethatthesalsaphenomenon
emerges”(1984-1985).(Leymarie,344)
DuringtheperiodsofheavymigrationPuertoRicansarrivinginNewYork
oftenworkedinlowerpaidurbanoccupationalpositions.Roglersuggeststherewas
thepossibilityofsomeupwardmobilityoftheyoungerincomingPuertoRican
migrants,headdsthat“thefactstandsthatthemajorjobopportunitiesformale
PuertoRicanmigrantstoNewYorkCityin1950wereinthelowerstatusoperative
andservicejobs.”(Rogler,202)
Duringthelate1940sPuertoRicoexperiencedatransformationfroma
mostlyagriculturalbasedsocietytothatofanindustrializedeconomy.DuringWorld
WarIItheislandofPuertoRicosawanincreaseofindustrializationtohelpsupport
thewareffort.Thisindustrializationcontinuedafterthewarduetogovernmental
taxincentivesandcorporatebusinessinvitationsaimedatinvitingprivateU.S.
capitol.EmilioPantojasGarciahaswrittenanextensivestudyonthisdevelopment
andtheactknownasOperationBootstrap.Hestates“Theindustrialincentivesact
of1947formallyinitiatedwhatisknowntodayasOperationBootstrap.The
programofindustrializationwascoupledwithaprogramofagrarianreformaimed
atthesugarindustry.”(Garcia,1990) Whiletheislandsawanincreaseineconomic
growth,italsoexperiencedmassout-migrationtotheUnitedStates.JamesDietz
36
arguesthatariseinmanufacturingontheislandcontributingtoachangein
economicproductioncoupledwithaslowgrowthofemploymentopportunities
spurredacontinuousandgrowingmigrationtothemainland.
PuertoRicansdisadvantagedsocio-economicstatuscontinuedtodeclinein
manyareaswithintheNewYorkurbanenvironment.Rogler’swritinginhisarticle
FromPuertoRicotoNewYorkCityoffersinsightstotheDiaspora’seconomic
situationasawhole(withintherelativeregion)intheearlydecadesofthe20th
centuryandupthroughthe1970s.
Asnewcomers,PuertoRicansarehandicappedbytheirlackoffamiliaritywiththecity’sinstitutions,customs,andemploymentpracticesandbytheirlackoftransferableskills,educationalqualifications,andfluencyinEnglish…bynomeanstheleastimportantfactoristhediscriminatorypracticestowhichtheyaresubjected,asstatedbytheU.S.Departmentoflaborin1975:“PuertoRicanshavelowerincomesthanothernewYorkersevenwhenage,education,andvocationaltrainingaretakenintoaccount”(U.S.DepartmentofLabor,BureauofLaborStatistics.1975).(Roglerpage206)
Betweenthedecadesofthe1950sthrough1970NewYorkexperienced
economicchangesandadeclineinmanufacturing.Anotherkeyeconomicinsightby
RoglerreflectsfinancialhitstothePuertoRicancommunityduringthisera.Alarge
portionofPuertoRicansworkedinthecity’slaborforceincludingmanufacturing.
Forexample,apparelmanufacturinginNewYorkCity,oneofthelargestemployersofminorities,lost127,000jobs,or40percentofthetotalemploymentfrom1960to1970,thusincreasingtheunemploymentofPuertoRicanwomenwhomostlyneedlework.Thedeclineinmanufacturingjobscontinuedinthe70s.SincePuertoRicanswereconcentratedinmanufacturingjobs(40percentofPuertoRicanworkershadfactoryjobsin1970,asopposedto20percentofallNewYorkworkers),therapiddeclineinthenumbersofjobsdisproportionallyaffectedtheirlivelihood.Datafromthe1970censusindicatedthat,asagroup,PuertoRicanshadlowerlaborforce
37
participationratesandhigherunemploymentratesthanallNewYorkerstakentogether.(Torre1994,207)
AstheeconomicsituationinNewYorkcontinuedtodecline,boroughssuch
astheSouthBronxexperiencedfinancialdevastationthatliterallyleftthecityon
fire.Duringthe1970slandlordssetapartmentcomplexesonfiretocollect
insurancemoney.ThiscontinuedtodisplacePuertoRicanfamilies.Iconicsalsa
composerWillieColonremarks“Ilivedinthelastapartmentsinaburntout
buildingwithmygrandmotherandmysister,anditwasveryveryscary.”(Colon,
MambotoHipHop,2009).PuertoRicancomposersoftenusedsalsaasavehicleto
expresssocio-economicandpoliticalissueshappeninginthePuertoRicanand
AfricanAmericancommunities.“ThePuertoRicanlyricswerealittlebitmoresocial.
Setequemalacasawasaboutwhenthelandlordswereburningdownthebuildings
forinsurance.”(Colon,MambotoHipHop2007)Coloncontinuesinsaying“wenot
onlywantedtomakemusic,wehadagoal.Wewantedtoconveyasocialand
politicalmessage,andsalsawasveryimportantforthat,becauseitwasourvoice.It
wasoneoftheonlythingsthatwasnotcontrolled.”(Colon,MambotoHipHop
2007)ManyoftheyouthinLatinourbanareassuchastheBronxdidnotembrace
theriseofrockandrollastheirprimarymusicalvoice.Leymariewrites“The
emergenceofrockn’rollandthetwist,andtheclosingofthePalladiumintheearly
1960spushedLatinmusicbackintothecommunity.”(Leymarie,1994)
Thesocio-economicissueofsalsa’semergenceinLatinocommunitieswithin
NewYorkisdiscussedinlikemannerinPeterManuel’sarticlePuertoRicanMusic
andCulturalIdentity:CreativeAppropriationofCubanSourcesfromDanzatoSalsa.
Manuelwrites“SalsaemergedasaproductprimarilyoftheLatinocommunitiesin
NewYorkbarrios,affirmingtheirgrowingsenseofethnicandclassidentityinthe
faceofsocial,economic,andpoliticalmarginalizationandexploitation.”(Manuel
1994,271)Additionally,ManuelremarksonthesubjectofPan-LatinoidentityinU.S.
urbanenvironments.Headds“Forothers,howeversalsaservesasabannerfor
Afro-Latinculture,orforinternationalLatinosolidarityinconfrontationwith
38
Americanimperialism(seeFlores1991).Accordingly,manysongsexplicitlystress
themesofpan-Latinounity.”(Manuel1994,272)
ChannelsofMusicDistribution
Radiohaslongbeenaformativechannelofdistributionfortheintroductionand
promotionofmusictrends.Atvariouspointsinhistorythroughouttheworldthe
radiowastheforemostplatformofdistributingmusic.Cubawasnoexclusiontothis
notion.NedSublettewrites“Foratimeradioevencausedadipinthepopularityof
records.Itwasentirelyanimportedtechnology.Therewerenotsomuchasaradio
receiverassemblyplantinCuba,notevenbythe1950’sandeventhemaintenance
ofthebroadcastequipmentwasdonebyAmericantechnicians.”(Sublette,2004)
ThemusicalinfluencetheUnitedStates,andspecificallyNewYorkandNewJersey
hadupontheCubanculturallandscapethroughstudioandradiotechnologywas
paramount.Many,ifnotmostofthepopularLatinsongsfromthe1930sonwere
recordedandexportedfromtheU.S.mainland.
BythearrivalofthefirstsonbandsinPuertoRico,theinhabitantsonthe
islandwerealreadyfamiliarwithCubanmusictraditionssuchasthedanza(which
laterbecameindigenizedwithauniquePuertoRicancharacter)throughCuban
immigrantsandtravelers.WhiletheoriginofthePuertoRicandanzaislargely
debateditisoftendirectlyrelatedtotheCubandanzon.TheCubandanzonis
synonymouswiththetermdanza.UnderstandingthepopularityoftheCuban
danzonduringthemid19thcentury(anditsorigin-connectionintheEuropean
contradanza)givesclaritytothespreadofCubaninfluencesthroughoutthe
CaribbeanandtheUnitedStates.Likethemoderncontemporarygenresofsalsa,
39
bachata,merengue,oreventhemamboofthe1950s(orforthatmatteranyformof
popularmusic),itisimportanttounderstandthattheCubandanzonwas
widespreadthroughoutCubaandabroad.Itwasoftenpackaged,commercialized
andmainstream,especiallyamongSpanishspeakingLatinoaudiencesthroughout
LatinAmerica.Certainlyelementsofitderivedfromtraditionalformshowever,it
wasforallintensivepurposes“pop”music.Bythe19thcentury,Havana,Cubawasa
cosmopolitancityexportingmanyofthestylesofmusicdevelopingupontheisland.
Withtheslavetrade,alongwiththeinfluxofmigrantsandrefugeesfrom
neighboringislandsthroughoutthe19thcentury,Cubacontinuedtoevolveasan
islandbrimmingwithdiversity.Thisdiversityinturndirectlyimpactedthe
evolutionofthemusic.Asthediversityupontheislandimpactedthemusic,the
sameeffecttookplaceinNewYorkasimmigrantsandtravelingmusicians
influencedoneanother.
CubanDanzonandSoninPuertoRico
Duringthemidnineteenthcentury“CaptainGeneralMiguelTacon(1775-
1855)[governedCubaand]cleanedupHavanaandmodernizedit.Withtheisland
awashinSugarprosperity,duringthefortyfivemonthsofhisadministrationhe
createdthenineteenthcenturyimageofHavana.”(Sublette,2004)Sublettewrites
thatTacon’sworkofmodernizingCubaandbuildingtheGrandTeatroTaconwas
“thecrowningachievementof[his]urbanizationprogram;itsignifiedthecomingof
ageofCubantheatre,whichwasneedlesstosay,musicaltheatre.(Sublette,2004)
ThemusicaltheatreofCubaproducedtravelingacts/shows,whichwouldbe
importedintoPuertoRicoandfurtherintroducethePuertoRicanstovariousstyles
40
ofCubanmusic.Glasserwrites“StageshowsfromoutsidePuertoRicofollowed
establishedtraderoutestobecomeanotherimportantislandimport…FromCuba
camethebufosCubanos,atypeoflighttheatre,whichintroducednewgenresand
songsintoallsectorsofPuertoRicansociety.ThebufosandotheritinerantCuban
entertainmentensemblesintroducedintoPuertoRicoanumberofgenresthat
becamestaplesofboththeislandandtheNewYorkrepertoire.(Glasser,1995)
BythetimeensemblesinCubawerebeingrecordedbytravelingrecordcompanies
fromNewYorkandlaterintroducedintoNewYorkandPuertoRico,thePuerto
Ricansonboththeislandandthebigcitywereconnectedtothemusicbyprevious
foundationssuchasthetravelingmusicaltheatre.
MambopioneerandCubansongiantArsenioRodriguezhadamajorimpact
ontheculturalidentitiesofbothCubansandPuertoRicansmigratingtoNewYork
City(Garcia65,2006)Priortothishowever,Arsenio’s“ownrecordingsandhis
conjunto’salmostdailyliveperformancesonRadioMilDiezandRadioSalaswere
veryinstrumentalinestablishinghispopularityoutsideofCuba,especiallyinPuerto
RicoandtheNetherlandsAntilles.”(Garcia,2002)
LandmarkCubansonandgroupsSextetoMachinandSonoraMatanceraboth
haddeepPuertoRicanconnectionswithintheirorchestration.PuertoRicansinger
MyrtaSilvamovedfromArecibo,PuertoRicotoNewYorkinthe1930sand
eventuallyrecordedforRCAVictorbecominganinternationalsuccessthroughout
LatinAmerica.Duringthelate1940sSilvabecametheleadsingerfortheCuban
groupSonoraMatanceraandperformedthroughoutCuba.AntonioMachinalsoleft
CubaforNewYorkinthe1930sleavinghisarrangerbehindontheisland.He
41
recruitedotherLatinomusiciansforhisgroupinNewYorkCity,especiallyamong
thePuertoRicancommunity.UltimatelyMachinwasnotabletofindanadequate
tresplayerandenlistedthetalentofPuertoRicanguitarandcuatroplayerYayito
Maldonado.(Avalos,1991)Often(andespeciallyaftertheCubanrevolution)Cuban
musiciansthatspecializedinvariousCubangenreswerenotavailableinnorthern
U.S.cities.PuertoRicanmusicians,beingfamiliarwithmanyoftheCubanartforms
andbeingthemostpopulatedLatinodemographicinNewYorkCity,filledthisvoid
demonstratingthedeepconnectionandhistorybetweenthetwodiasporas.In
additiontheconfluenceofPuertoRicanandCubanmusicianswasfurtherdeveloped
inthepopularsongenrewiththehelpoftherecordingandperformingindustryin
NewYorkCity.
Technologicaladvancementsshortlyaftertheturnofthe19thcentury
sawCubanmusicpervadingtheairwavesreachingthroughouttheCaribbean
andLatinAmerica.Manyoftheseadvancementswerecomingdirectlyfrom
thenortheasternUnitedStates.
Ifthesonwasalreadyinhighgear,juicedbytheavailabilityofrecords(whichwerestrictlyimports,astherewasnorecordmanufacturingfacilityinCuba)itspopularizationbyradiobroadcastwasrevolutionary.Asradiobroadcastingdiffusedthesonallovertheisland,Cubaacquiredanewnationalmusicgenre.Andnotjustallovertheisland,butoveralongdistanceaswell.Therewerefewerstationsonthedialthen,andamedium-wavesignalcouldtravelthousandsofmilesatnight.CubanmusicwasheardallovertheCaribbean,attractinglistenersinPuertoRicoandMexico,andeveninNewYork…”(Sublette,2000)
Thisbringstogetherathoughtorbridgebetweentheonesmalllayerofthe
largercomplexrelationshipbetweenlargeurbanareasoftheUnitedStatesandthe
42
islandsofPuertoRicoandCubaandalsobringsintoplaytheroleofradioandthe
recordindustryofftheisland.
RecordCompanies&TechnologicalAdvancements
USrecordindustrycompanieshaddirectandindirectimpactsonthe
expositionofforeignmusictotheislandofPuertoRico.Withacombinationof
complexbusinessandmarketingexchangesbetweenmusiciansandrecord
executivestechnologicaladvancementsinmusicrecordingandamplification
producedanevenlargeracquisitionofoutsidemusicinfluences.Glasserremarks,
“Fromtheearlytwentiethcenturytheyinfluencedthemusicaltastesand
expectationsofforeignmusiciansandaudiences,Spanishspeakersbeingprominent
amongthem.Inturn,thiswouldhaveaneffectonmusicalcultureinLatinAmerica.”
(Glasser,1995)Glassercontinuesthisdiscoursebypointingoutthatrecord
companiesusedintentionalmarketingstrategiesfueledbypopularmusictrends
basedoncommercialsuccess.Glasserfurtherstates“Bothrecordingethnic
musiciansintheirnativecountriesandmakingsoundsfromtheUnitedStates
availabletothem,VictorColombia,Edison,andothercompaniesmadesurethat
PuertoRicoanditsneighborsamixedmusicallegacy...LatinAmericanexpectations
ofmechanicalmusicalproductionandconsumptionweretemperedbya
commercialconnectiondatingtothelatenineteenthcentury.”(Glasser,1995131)
WhiletheislandofPuertoRicowasexposedtooutsidemusicalinfluences
priortotheglobalbusinessexploitsofcompanieslikeVictor,andColombiatheyno
doubtcementedthediverserelationshipsthusfurtherestablishingacultivationof
traditionalmusicfromnearbyislandssuchasCuba.
43
TherepertoirerecordedwasquitedifferentfromthatlaterofferedbyPuertoRicangroupsinNewYork.Nevertheless,itreflectedthemultipleoutsideinfluencesonthePuertoRicanmusicoftheera.ThegroupssangandplayednotonlythearistocraticPuertoRicandanzabutalsosalondancesofCubaninfluence,suchasdanzones,andEuropeanorigin,includingpasodobles,valses,andmazurkas.Ontheotherhandtheelaboratestrophicmusicofthejibaros,subsistencefarmersofthePuertoRicanhighlands,andthecomplexrhythmsoftheAfro-PuertoRicansworkinginthecoastalsugarindustrywerevirtuallyignored.TheserecordingsthuscrystallizedacarefullyselecteddiversityofsoundsplayedandheardinPuertoRico.(Glasser,1341995)
Latinocommunityrepresentationwasnotaltogetherlackingfromthe
commercialrecordindustry.Latinomusicstoresandbusinessesinmajorcities
oftenactedasintermediariesbetweenmusiciansandrecordcompanies.Victoria
Hernandez,ownerofCasadeHernandezandbiologicalsisteroftheiconicPuerto
RicancomposerRafaelHernandezplayedalargeroleintheinteractionbetweenthe
twoentities.CasadeHernandezwasamongmanyotherbusinessesamongstLatino
communitiesthatservedasaheadquartersorbasetorecruitandliaisonmusicians
forrecordcompanies.RuthGlasserwrites“VictoriaHernandez’sactivitiesasa
bookingagentandliaisonwithrecordcompaniesservednotonlyRafaelbutalso
manyotherPuertoRicanmusicians…Shewouldserveasanintermediarywith
recordcompaniessuchasColumbiaandVictor,advancingpayforrecording
sessionstotheusuallyhand-to-mouthmusicians,inexchangeforacutofthefee.”
(Glasser109,1995)Shefurtheradds,“VictoriaHernandez’sbusinessactivitiesand
themusicians’attitudestowardthemreflecttheimportantconcreteroles
merchantscouldplayinmusicians’careers,aswellasthemixedfeelingsthey
evoked.”(Glasser,1995)Hernandezwasalsoresponsibleforbookingmanyartists
frombothCubaandPuertoRicotoperformintheatresinNewYork.Inthiswayitis
44
importanttoseetherolebusinessownersandvenuesplayedinthedistributionof
CubanandPuertoRicanmusicalinfluences.
NotallbusinesseswereownedandoperatedbyLatinoentrepreneurs
however.JewishentrepreneurssuchasSidneySiegelplayedanimportantrolein
theevolutionanddevelopmentofLatinmusicinurbancommunitieswithinthe
mainlandUS.“Theonce-JewishcommunityofHarlemwasnowpredominantly
PuertoRicanandCuban,and[people]weredesperateforLatin-musicrecordings.
Mr.SiegelsignedupLatin-musicartists.”(Salazar,102002)Siegel’scousinHoward
Roseffrecalls,“WerecordedthePuertoRicantriosandtheCubanconjuntos.
EventuallySeecocateredmoretotheAfro-Cubansound,asitsoldthemost…Our
marketwasPuertoRico,anditwasbuyingtheCubansides.”(Salazar,2002)Siegel’s
recordlabelSeecobecameoneofthemostinfluentialproducersofLatinmusicout
ofNewYork.AccordingtoRoseff,therewerealbumsgoingfarbeyondthegold
recordsellingpointinPuertoRico.WhentheUnitedStatesenteredWWIIproducts
suchasshellac,whichwasnecessaryfortheproductionofrecords,waslimited.
Salazarstates“thelittlewhichwasallowedtobeboughtwasgiventoRCA,Columbia,
andDeccatorecordAmericanpopbands.”(Salazar,2002)Thisresultedinmany
Latinbandsbeingoutofwork.LatinrecordlabelssuchasSeecofilledinthegapsby
manufacturinginCanada.MarkSchwartzwrites“Throughoutthe40’sand50’sand
intothe60’s,SeecoanditssubsidiaryTropical,mannedbyHowardRoseff,
specializedinawidevarietyofLatinmusic,includingtangos,Mexicanrancheras,
Dominicanmerengue,SpanishFlamenco,andmore.”(Schwartz)Schwartzfurther
states,“SeecocarvedanichewithCubanrecordings,fromthebolerosoftheTrio
45
Matamorostothefierybig-bandsoundofLaSonoraMatanceraanditsyoung
vocalistCeliaCruz.”(Schwartz,Mamboniks)
ProgramdirectorsoftendroppedbystoressuchasSiegel’sandCasade
Hernandezinordertopurchasemusictoairontheirprograms.Thedevelopingand
evolvingrecordingindustryintheUSNortheastprovidedproducttoseveral
influentialradiostationsthroughoutthemainlandandtherespectiveislandsof
PuertoRicoandCuba.
By1937ElBarriohadballroomsthatfeaturedthemusicofAlbertoSocarras,AugustoCoen,JoseMorand,VicenteSigler,NiloMenendez,JuanitoSanabria,andLoshappyBoys.TitoPuentewasthenlivingonEast117thStreet.WhenheheardAnselmoSacasa’spianosoloonCasinodelaPlaya’srecordingof“DolorCobarde,”hedecidedtostudythepiano.Thatwastheyeartheword“discjockey’’wasfirstused,inanarticleaboutmusicinVariety.A“recordhit”competitioneverybitasintenseasahorseracedevelopedamongcommercialradiostationsastheir“jockeys”triedtoplayadiscasmanytimesaspossibleandthus“ride”ittosuccess.(Salazar,2002)
The1920’ssawtheemergenceofcommercialradiostationsandLatinmusic
evolvinginSpanishspeakingurbancentersinthemainlandUSwasrightinthe
centerofthepopularmusicitpumpedout.
NedSubletteremarksthe“waveofCarbonizationbeganinNorthAmerica,
afterwhichnothingwouldbethesame.Itwasn’tusuallyreferredtoasCubanmusic,
butasLatinmusic,reflectingtherealitythattheorchestrasandaudienceswere
populatedbypeoplefromdifferentLatinAmericancountries,especiallyPuerto
Rico.”(Sublette,2000)TherecordingandreleaseofElManiserobyRitaMontaneris
notedbymanyhistorianstobeoneofthelargestcatalystsofthecommercialLatin
dancecraze.“OnMay13,1930,RCAVictorrecordedAzpiazu’sversionofthesong.
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Therecordwasreleasedsevenmonthslater,andwithit,popularLatindancemusic
wasborninNewYork.”(Salazar,2002)
Duringthe1940’scontroversysparkedbetweenradionetworksandmusic
publishers.“Thebroadcastershadlongobjectedtothefeestheypaidannuallyto
ASCAP,andtheywerethreateningnottorenewtheircontractin1941.”Theconflict
eventuallyledtoabanandcreatedaplatformforthebirthofBMIbybroadcasters.
Salazarwrites,“BMIwasresponsibleforexposingLatinmusicnationally.BMI
contractedmaterialfromtheMusicCorporationofAmerica(MCA)andaired
rumbas,congas,andXavierCugatballadsoverEnglish-languageradiostations.”
(Salazaar,2002)
Anotherissuetonoteisthatthisresearchhashighlightedurban
environmentsimpactuponthePuertoRicanDiasporaasawhole(giventhereare
manycomplexlayers).Likeinmanyethnicgroupsandcommunitiestheradiowas
andisanintegralpartofculturalidentification.CiprianGarcia,aPuertoRican
musicianoriginallyfromKenosha,WisconsinandraisedinWaukegan,Illinois
(raisedduringthelate1950sand1960-70s)recalls,“GoshIreallydon’tremember
exactlythefirsttimeIheardsalsamusic.Myearliestmemoriesareasakidofmy
motherdancingthroughthehousetosalsaandsinging‘lelolai…Irememberone
timehertryingtogetmetodancewithher.Igrewupwiththemusicplayinginthe
houseandIcanusuallydistinctlytell[uponhearingatune]whentheartistisPuerto
Rican.”(GarciaInterview,2017)Garcia’sexperienceisindicativetomanysecond
andthirdgenerationPuertoRicansexperienceintheU.S.;specificallythoseexposed
totraditionalPuertoRicanandCubanformsofmusic.Hiswordspointouttheissue
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ofrecognizingmusicsuchassalsa(whichhasoriginsintheCubanguaracha,and
son)asapartofhisownculturalidentity.ManyurbanPuertoRicanartists
developedanadmirationfortheagrarianlifestyleofthePuertoRicancountryside.
ThisoftenmanifestedinlyricsintributetothecountrysideofPuertoRicoorvocal
stylesoftenfoundintraditionalPuertoRicangenres.CiprianGarcia’sparents
movedtotheKenoshaareafromPuertoRicoduringthe1950slikesomanyother
PuertoRicansinsearchofabettereconomicsituation.Lookingatstoriessuchas
CiprianGarcia’shelpplacetheroleofUScitiesontheculturalbridgebetweenCuban
andPuertoRicancommunitiesasitpertainstomusic.
VenuesandMusicAssociations
Musicvenues,socialclubsandvariousmusicalassociationswereanintegral
partoftheLatinoculturalidentityinthecityofftheisland.Itallowedaspacefor
nostalgia,escapeoftheharshrealitiesofpoorurbanneighborhoods,anda
showcaseoffamousandupcomingentertainers.ManyyoungPuertoRican
musicianswereexposedtotalentfromvariousLatinAmericantraditionsand
attributethebirthoftheirmusicalaspirationstotheshowcaseofmusictalentat
localvenuessuchasParkPalace,HuntsPointPalace,TeatroPuertoRico,andthe
Palladium.IconicsalsaandLatinjazzpercussionistRayMontalvorecallshisown
experienceregardinghisearlymusicinfluences;“Well,atthattimeitwaslikethe
HuntsPointPalace.Igiveyouanexample,theyusedtohaveliketwelve
bands…buenowecouldgoonandon.”(Gotay,Youtube,2015)
InlookingattheroleofmainlandUnitedStatesurbanenvironmentsplayed
intherelationshipofCubanandPuertoRicanmusicians,theimportanceoflocation
48
orasanthropologistsRobertaL.SingerandElenaMartinezputit,“place,”cannotbe
understated.BothSingerandMartinezhavewrittenhowtheverylocationofareas
suchasNewYorkCityorthevenuesthereinhavedirectimpactsuponcultural
musicscenesatlarge.“Oftentimes,memorableevenhistoric,turningpointsandthe
memoriesofthemarelinkedtoaspecificsite.”(Singer,Martinez2004,183)“Our
senseofplace…isrootedinnarration.Apersonisathomeinaplacewhentheplace
evokesstoriesandconversely,storiescanservetocreateplaces”(Johnstone
1990:5)SingermentionsthebridgebetweenCubansandPuertoRicansintheBronx
thatwascementedandcontinuingtobeestablishedinEastHarlem,or“ElBarrio.”
Shewrites,“MostwerePuertoRicanswhohadeithermovedthere[theBronx]from
ElBarrioordirectlyfromPuertoRicoorwerebornand/orraisedthere;agood
manywereorwouldbecomeinternationallyknown.”(Singer,2004)Whilethis
quotedoesnotmentionCubaorCubanmusicians,itdoesspeaktotheBronxasa
regionbeingaspringboardandcultivatinglandscapetomusicianswhoperformed
musicthatoriginated,andinfluencedbyCuba.ManyofthevenuessuchasHunts
PointPalaceandTeatroPuertoRicobroughtinpopularactsfromCuba.Singerand
Martinezpresentaphilosophyofalocalregiontranscendingfromameresuburbto
anindependentcommunitywithitsownlocalamusements.Theaftereffectsofthis
regionaltransitionresultinanenvironmentthatcultivates,andincubates
relationshipsbetweenpeoplegroupswhopopulatetheseareas.Singerwrites“Four
newtheatreshavebeenconstructedintheBronxwithinthelasttwoyears,andat
thepresenttimeafifthisnearlycompleted.Thisisoneoftheevidencesthatthe
Bronxisdevelopingintoacommunitybyitself,withitsownamusements,for
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withoutitsownamusementsalocalityneverbecomesanythingmorethanasuburb.”
(Singer,Martinez2004)Theimpactthatthetransformationofmanycitiessuchas
EastHarlem(ormorepopularlycalled“ElBarrio”)andtheBronxisheardinwords
suchaspercussionistAdolfo“lefty”Maldonado;“Youcouldwalkeveryblockand
hearthistun-tun-tun-tunfromtheroof,everyplace.Anditwassobeautiful.”
(Martinez2000b)ThesoundAdolforeferstoarethoseofthetumbadoras/congas
andbongos.TheseareinstrumentsthatoriginatedanddevelopedinCuba.
Manyofthetheatresbroughtbandsandmusiciansfromaroundtheworld
includingCubaasearlyasthe1920sand1930s.Thesebandswerebookedtoasa
resultofincreasingdemandforbothwealthyWhiteaudiencesandfromgrowing
Latinocommunities;althoughusuallynotatthesametime/venue.“Victoria
HernandezremembersbringingTrioMatamorosfromCubainthe1930stoplaya
showattheToreador,aclubgearedtowardwealthyWhiteaudiences,forone
hundreddollars.”(Glasser,1995)PuertoRicanandCubanartistswerenotonly
beinginfluencedandinfluencinglistenersoffandontheislandsbutalsobetween
localneighborhoods.Thisispartofthecomplexityofalocation’sroleincultural
identity;havingmanylayers.
PuertoRicantrio,cuartero,andorquestamusicianstraveledbetweendifferentmusicalworldsthatoftenexistedinahierarchicalrelationshiptooneanother.Theirprofessionallivesinvolvedcrossingnational,class,andgeographicalboundaries,evenfrontiersofgoodtaste,astheyself-consciouslycateredtoethnicstereotypesbothdowntownanduptown.Intheprocess,theybroughtnewsoundsbacktolocalaudiences.(Glasser,1995)
Chicago,IllinoisandsurroundingcitiesisanotherregionwithalargePuerto
Ricanpopulationwithgrowthalsobeginninginthe1920sandhighlyeffectedbythe
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massivepostWWIIPuertoRicanmigration.ManyareassuchasChicagohowever
havedifferentdynamicsthentheNewYorkandnorthernNewJerseyareasoften
focuseduponinrelevantresearch.OliverWangwrites“TheU.S.salsascenewas
dominatedbyPuertoRicanmusicians.InNewYork,theydrewheavilyonCuban
stylessuchastheguaguancoandsonmontuno,butinChicago,thelocalcommunity
turnedtoPuertoRicaninfluences,especiallyfolkloricdancerhythmsliketheplena.
(Wang,2011)TheChicagoLatinmusicscene(althoughthrivingwiththeirownlocal
soundandrecordings)washeavilyinfluencedbyotherurbanmunicipalitiessuchas
NewYork.ManymusiciansanddancersarrivedfrombothPuertoRicoandNew
York.Duringthe1950s,asthePuertoRicanpopulationgrewintheMidwest,venues
andrecordstoresbegantopopupinvariouscities.Wangalsomentionsthisinan
articleforNPR“CarlosRuizarrivedinChicagofromNewYorkin1950.ThePuerto
Ricannativewasadancerbytrainingandsawaneedforasocialandculturalvenue
tobringtogetherthecity’sgrowingimmigrantcommunity.Sohefoundedthe
PuertoRicanCongressofMutualAid,originallyhousedinabasementafewblocks
northofthestretchnowknownasPaseoBoricua–thePuertoRicanpromenade.”
(Wang,2011)Ruiz’sCongresseventuallybecamealocalLatinlandmarkand
developedintoarecordlabel;EbiracRecords.“Ebiracwasoneofthefewlabels
anywheredevotedtoChicagoSalsa.”(Wang,2011)Thisisaprimeexampleofhow
venuesheldasymbioticrelationshiptothedistributionofPuertoRicaninfluenced
musicwithCubanroots.Whilethenationaldistributionincertainregionsas
ChicagoorsurroundingMidwestcitieshadlittletononationaldistribution,itis
importanttonoteitsinfluenceonthecommunitiesdirectlybeingimpacted.Many
51
regionssuchasChicagohadlargePuertoRicanpopulationsthatwerefluidinthat
theycontinuedtotraveltootherlocationsoverthespanofseveralgenerations.Itis
importanttonotethatthisfluiditydirectlyimpactedtheU.S.mainlandlandscapein
thatregionalculturaldistinctionsinfluencedoneanother.Whiletheboundariesand
differencesarenotalwaysclear-cut,certainaspectsinthesoundcanbenoted
dependinguponthecity.Forinstance,overvariousperiodsthroughthe20thcentury
certaindifferencescanbeheardinsalsamusicindifferentregions.Inaninterview
withChicagobasedmusicianDennisCalito,theideaofhowNewYorkingeneral,
duringthe1990’s,wasthefirsttomixtraditionalCubansoundswiththatofhiphop,
andmodernbeatsinadditiontothecontemporaryCubantimba.Hestates“New
Yorkwasthefirsttostartmoreofahiphop/salsafusionsalsastylewithmodern
beats(drumsandtimbaflavor).SergioGeorgewasthefirsttoputittogetherwith
thegroupDLG(DarkLatinGroove)inthe1990’s.(Interview,Calito).Hefurther
stated,“Whenyoulookatit,thereisnotmuchofadifference.[When]lookat
individualplayersthenyoucannoticethestylesofChicagoandNY.NYhasaloud
soundandveryaggressive;moreofastreetsoundingtypeofstyle.NYplaysalittle
morebehindthetwobeatontheconga.InChicagowetendtoplayroughbutalso
keepitclean.Weplayontopofthetwobeatontheconga.”(Calito,2017)What
CalitomentionsissimilartowhatwashappeningwiththefusionofCubanmusicin
NewYorkduringpreviousdecades.WiththeCubanson,jazz,popandAfrican
Americansoulgenresalsoinfluencedthemusic.Importanttonoteisthattheissue
offusionandregionalinfluenceshighlighttheurbanU.S.mainlandenvironment’s
impactuponthePuertoRicanDiasporaasawhole(giventherearemanycomplex
52
layers).Salsa,beingafusionofdifferentLatinAmericanrhythmsandmelodicstyles
withanAfro-Cubanfoundationwasincidentallyasdiverseastheneighborhoodsin
whichitflourished.TheCuban,son,charanga,mambo,AfricanAmericanstylesof
blues,jazz,disco,hip-hop,andPuertoRicantraditionssuchasbombaandplena
shapedthecontemporaryevolutionofsalsaTheethnicandculturalcitiesinwhichit
flourishedwerereflectedintheebbsandflowsofthemusic.Whilethemusicof
salsainNewYorkmayhavereliedmoreheavilyuponCubaninfluences,theessence
ofChicagobasedsalsadrewmorefromPuertoRicantraditions.ManyofthePuerto
RicantraditionssuchasbombaandplenadidnotrelyupontheCubanclave(atwo
barrhythmthatdirectsthemelodyandoverallinstrumentationdirection.Clavealso
meanskeyinSpanishandinthemusicitessentiallyactsassuch.),althoughthe
PuertoRicanrhythmsofbombaandplenawereoftenfusedwiththeCubanstyleas
seeninpopularhitsofcomposersRafaelCortijoandIsmaelMiranda.Withthe
steadymovementofCubansandPuertoRicanstoandfromtherespectiveislandsto
mainlandU.S.cities(inadditiontothemassmarketingofpopularLatintrends),the
musicalbordersofdifferentregionsoftenbecameblurred.MoreoverwithNewYork
basedLatinmusicianstravelingthroughouttheU.S.toperform,theseboundaries
becamelessobvious.ArsenioRodriguez,aniconicperformeroftheCubansonand
pioneerofthemambotraveledfromNYtotheChicagoareaspendingseveral
monthsperformingduringthe1950s.DavidGarciawrites“Nevertheless,asin
Havana,hisconjuntoremainedactiveinandhadasignificantimpactonthelocal
musicallifeofthePuertoRicanandCubancommunitiesinEastHarlemandthe
SouthBronx.TheconjuntoalsoperformedforthelargelyPuertoRicancommunity
53
inthenorthsideofChicagoforseveralmonthsin1958andagainin1962.”(Garcia,
2)PopularjazzclubslikeastheBlueNoteinChicagoalsohostedLatinjazzacts
suchasCalTjaderinthe1950s.
CubanandPuertoRicanmusicianstouredthroughouttheUnitedStatesand
abroadduringtheearlyandmid20thcentury.IconicbandstraveledasfarWestas
LosAngelesandSanFrancisco.Theirimpactandinfluencewasseenandheardfar
beyondtheirnortheastregionalborders.InaninterviewonCougarVideosYouTube
accountpercussionistLuisMirandastatedthatheperformedwithMachito’sbig
bandinthelate1940sand1950sinLosAngelesandSanFrancisco.Helaterleft
MachitosbandandmovedtoCaliforniatoperformregularlywithLatinjazz
vibraphonistCalTjader.(CougarVideos,YouTubeInterview)CalTjaderisoneofthe
mostnotableLatinbandleadersfromtheWestCoast.ManyoftheLatinbandsonthe
WestCoastalsoemployedpercussionistandmusiciansfromCuba,PuertoRicoand
NewYork.PuertoRicanandCubanswhowerenotnecessarilyprofessional
musiciansalsomigratedfromNewYorktoCaliforniaduringthe1960sand1970s
bringingwiththemtheirmusicalinfluences.AndtherebyimpactingtheWestern
regionsoftheU.S.CubanpercussionistLuisConteexplainedthatwhenhearrivedto
theStatesinthe1970sfromCuba(viaSpain)hewasunawareofthelargeCuban
musicindustrypresenceinNewYork.“InCubawhenIwaslivingthereIhadno
knowledgewhatwashappeningoutsideoftheisland…Iwasdetachedfromthe
actualworld.RightoutofhighschoolIleftCuba[andarrivedinCalifornia].I
rememberoneSundayafternoonIwenttoGriffithParkandtheirwasthisCuban
dudethereandayoungerPuertoRicanguy…theyhadatimbaleandcongasandthey
54
playedprettygood.IstartedtalkingtothePuertoRicanplayerandaskedhimwhere
didtheygetthismusicfrom[thattheywereplaying]?HetoldmetogotoDuran
RecordsinLosAngeles.ThereusedtobethisrecordstoreindowntownL.A.where
itwastheonlyplaceyoucouldgetaWillieColonrecord.Iaskedhim,wellwheredid
themusiccomefrom.HesaidNewYork.IamfromNewYork.Weplaythisstuff
there.”(Conte,2016)
InatelephoneinterviewwithLuisMirandaheexplainedtomethathis
motherwasPuertoRicanandfatherwasCuban.Luisconfirmedthisinhisinterview
intheinterviewpublishedonYouTubebyCougarVideos.Manyofthefamousbig
bandsinNewYorksuchasMachito’semployedamixtureofPuertoRicansand
Cubans(includingDominicanandColombianmusiciansaswell).Machitohimself
wasmarriedtoHildaTorres,aPuertoRicanwoman.(Salazar,5)Cubanvocalist
MiguelitoValdes,anothericonicperformerofCubanmusicduringtheearlyandmid
20thcenturywassingingthesongsofPuertoRicancomposerPedroFlores.(Salazar,
5)AmongstothernotableCubansingerstoperformPedroFlorescompositions
wereCeliaCruz,andBenyMoré.
Upintothe1940svenueownersinNewYorkandothercitieswereoftennot
Latino,whileLatinomanagerswereusuallyfrombackgroundsotherthanPuerto
Rican.Thisalsoextendedintolargerbands.Whatwasperformedinthesespaces
andbythesebandswasoftendictatedbythecurrenttrend.
ThroughoutNewYorkCity,ItalianandJewishmobsterscontrolledmanyoftheclubsandcabaretsoftheprohibitionera….Indeed,reminiscingaboutthebeginningofhiscareerintheearly1940s,pianistCharliePalmiericouldstillremarkthat“MostclubswereownedbyWhites.ThemanagerswereLatin.”(Centro,1974)Even
55
whenclubswhereownedormanagedbyLatinos,TheywererarelyPuertoRicans.(Glasser,1995)
Oneofthemosticonicvenuelandmarksthathelpedshapeanddistribute
LatinmusicwithCubanrootswasthePalladiuminElBarrio.Itwasperhapsthe
mostpopularLatinvenues(anddancevenuesoverall)ofthegoldeneraofthe
1950sandintothe1960s.AccordingtoMaxSalazartheinceptionofthepalladium
isthethirdmostimportanteventinthehistoryofpopularLatindancemusic.He
states“ThethirdmostimportanteventinthehistoryofpopularLatindancemusic
occurredonJanuary23,1942,whentheDreamlandDancingAcademyatFifty-third
StreetandBroadway,akatheAlmaDanceStudios,becamethePalladiumBallroom.
(Salazar,2002)NedSubletteremarks,“InNewYork,thePalladiumwastheplaceto
beseen.Mambohadbecomeasceneforpeoplewhodressedtoimpressanddanced
competitively.TherewerearticlesaboutitinNewsweek,Time,andeverywhere
else.”(Sublette,2000)
Asmentioned,socialclubswereregularfixturesinthecityduringthe1930s
throughthe1960s.ManyoftheBlackCubansocialclubshadhistoricalrootsinthe
Blackneighborhoods,orcabildos,inCuba.IntheU.S.adiversityofsocialclubs
emergedinLatinocommunities.ManyofthesesocialclubsinUScitiessuchasNew
YorkdidnotexceptCubansandPuertoRicansofcolor.Theonesthatdidhowever,
suchasClubCubanowereinstrumentalplatformsnotonlyfortheexpressionof
Latinocultureinaregionsofarfrom“home”butalsoprovidedanincubatorand
cultivationforthebridgebetweenCubanandPuertoRicanrelationships.Theroleof
raceamongstPuertoRicanandCubanmusiciansintheU.S.wascomplexand
tensionwasoftennotabsentamongthepopularbands.Eventhoughlighterskinned
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PuertoRicanmusiciansweresubjecttoracismfromnon-minorities,racialtension
stillensuedinternallybetweentheDiaspora.Often,evenafterbreakingthrough
colorbarriersincitiessuchasNewYork,popularbandleaderssuchasMachitoand
ArsenioRodriguezstillsufferedtheresultsofracialbiasfromLatinobandmanagers.
DavidGarciawritestheperspectiveofmusiciansclosetothemambopioneer
ArsenioRodriguezandtheracialstereotypingheexperiencedfrompowerfulNew
YorkmusicbookingagentJoseCurbelo.Garciawrites“Curbelomayhavehad
personalreasonsforhiscontemptforArsenio;asBerriosandotherinsinuated,
racismmayhavebeenonefactor.Forexample,somemusiciansfeltthatPuenteand
TitoRodriguezreceivedpreferentialtreatmentbyCurbelobecauseofthe
bandleaderslighterskincolor.AsflautistMauricioSmithexplained:“Machitoonly
gottokengigsfromJoseCurbelo.HewaspushingTitoPuenteandTitoRodriguez,
thelighterbands.ButtheBlackartists?Forgetit.Blackmusicians?Very,verylittle.
Hehadthepower,hehadtheconnections”(Smithinterview1999)(Garcia,111)
MarioBauzaalsoremarkedontheracialtensionandprejudicebetweenPuerto
RicanandCubanmusicians.InaninterviewwithCubancomposerMarioBauza
conductedbyRuthGlasser(transcribedbyChristineAbreu)Bauza“describeda
complexracialnegotiationamongtheLatino/aslivinginNewYorkCityinthe1930s
and1940s:lightskinnedLatino/asrarelyinteractedwithorwantedanyassociation
withdarker-skinnedLatino/asandAfricanAmericans.(Abreu2015,49)(Bauza,
InterviewwithRuthGlasser)Abreuwrites,“TensionsbetweenPuertoRicansand
CubansinNewYorkCityintensifiedinthemid-1930sdueto‘competitionfor
housing,employment,andpoliticalidentity’.Immigrationlawsalsoworkedto
57
aggravaterelationsbetweenthetwoethnicgroups.”(Abreu,49)Shefurtherstates
“ManyCubansgrewresentfulofPuertoRicans,whoasU.S.citizenscouldtravel
freelybetweentheislandandthemainland,whileCubanswhoremainedinthe
UnitedStatesformorethantwenty-ninedayswithoutavisariskedarrestand
deportation.”(Abreu,49)MarioBauzaalsorecalledthatmanyPuertoRicansand
AfricanAmericansrejectedhisCubanmusicsincethedrumssuchasthebongos
weresymbolicofAfrica.(Abreu,50)Bauza’sexperiencedisplaysthecomplex
racismthatensuedthroughoutthe20thcenturynotonlyoutsideofLatino
communitiesbutalsoinsideamongsttheranksofLatinomusicians.JohnnyConga,a
percussionistfromNewYorknowbasedinMiamidescribedtheprejudiceagainst
theCubandrumsthatheexperiencedduringthe1960s.“Itwasprettyhardtofind
someonewhoplayedcongasorownedcongas.Theyweren’tcommonliketheyare
today.Itjustwasn’tacommoninstrumentforpeoplewhoplay.Itwasfrownedupon.
Wewouldgetchasedoutofparks.Policewouldchaseus.Itirritatedtheignorant
oneswhothoughtitwasjust‘junglemusic’orvoodoo…itwasastereotyped.”
(Conga,2017)Suchexperiencesalsohighlightthehistoricalsignificanceofsocial
clubssuchasClubCubano,whichpossiblycontrastthisexperience.
SpeakingoftheClubCubanoontheborderoftheSouthBronxandHunts
Point,Garciastates“althoughthemajorityofitsmemberswereCubansandPuerto
RicansofColor,thesocialclubwelcomed,asRaulTravieso[brotherofArsenio
Rodriguez]emphasized“whites,blacks,everyone”(Garcia,2006)Asseeninthe
interviewswithMarioBauzatheroleofskincoloramongstCuban,AfricanAmerican
andPuertoRicanmusiciansiscomplex,multi-layeredandplaysacentralrolein
58
LatinoandAfro-Latinopan-identity.ChristineD.Abreuwrites“InNewYorkCity,
CubanmigrantsandmusicianssettlednearandamongmuchlargerPuertoRican
andAfricanAmericancommunities,mostlyinHarlemandtheSouthBronxbutalso
inlowerManhattananditwasinthesecontextswhichweresometimesfriendly,
sometimeshostile,thatBlackandWhitemusiciansengagedwithideasabouttheir
music,raceandnationalidentity.(Abreu,4)Socialclubswerenotimmunetothe
complexrelationshipsofethnicdiversitywithinNewYorkandotherU.S.cities;they
oftenplayedacentralroleinperpetuatingethnicsegregationorconverselyaPan-
Latinofraternity.DavidGarciawritesabouttheclubAteneoCubanoincontrastto
othersocialclubsintheU.S.duringtheearlyandmid-20thcentury.Garciawrites
“Thiswasincontrasttoothersocialclubs,suchastheAteneoCubanoandtheClub
Caborrojeno(althoughlikemanyothersocialclubs,Caborrojenoeventually,inthe
1960sbecameadancehallthathostedsalsamusicpioneerswhowereablendof
ethnicitiesincludingBlacks),bothofwhichwerelocatedinManhattanandwere
knowntodiscriminateagainstCubansandPuertoRicansofcolor.”(Garcia,2006)
Healsomentions“thepurposeoftheclubwastoprovidemembersandtheirfamily
andfriendswithsocialandrecreationalactivities,mostlyinvolvingthecelebration
mostlyinvolvingthecelebrationofCubanpatrioticholidays.”(Garcia,2006)This
dynamicspeaksalsototherolethatneighborhoodssuchasElBarrioandtheBronx
playedincultivatinganenvironmentwhereLatinomusicandculturecouldthrive.
Whileracialtensionsandcompetitionforresourcesamongstdifferingnationalities
(suchasCubansandPuertoRicans)wasfarfromabsentinthesecities,thedesireto
beapartofasharedLatinidentitythroughmusicandsocialactivitiesstillthrived
59
amongstmanyLatinoslivinginpredominantlyLatinneighborhoods.Inmanyways
largegroupsofPuertoRicanswhowereacceptedinthesesocialclubsthroughout
NewYorkandothercitiesdidnotautomaticallyseepartsofCubancultureas
something“other”oralien.Thisisoftenheardinstatementsorwordsusedby
PuertoRicansreferringtovariousformsofCubanmusicsuchas“ours”or“we.”
PuertoRicanpianistRayCoenpointedoutthattheClubCubano“waslikeanoutlet
forourtypeofmusic(Coeninterview2000).Thefactthatthemusicwasinvariably
CubandidnotpreventnonCubanmembersandmusicians,suchasRayCoenand
othersinArseniosconjunto,fromembracingitastheirs.”(Garcia,2006)Priortothe
creationofLatinosocialclubsinNewYork,manyPuertoRicanmusicianswere
alreadyfamiliarwithCubanmusicandhadlongsinceadopteditintotheirown
culture.Coen’swordsregardingthemusicas“ours”affirmsthisadoptionand
associationamongstCubanandPuertoRicanmusicians.Manyofthesocialclubs
continuedtoevolveandhadadiversemixofCubansandPuertoRicans.Bothislands
werecoloniesofSpain(andlatertheU.S.),populatedbyamixtureofindigenous
natives,andAfricanslaves.WhiletheamountofAfricanslavesmayhavedifferedon
respectiveislands,thesimilaritiesintraditionalrhythmicstructures,andtheshared
colonialSpanishlanguageexistedasabridgebetweenthecommunitiesinU.S.cities.
Bythe1950scommonbondsinpolitics,socio-economics,andnostalgiafor“home”
establishedaconnectionthatmanifestedinsocialclubs,ballroomsandwithinthe
actualbandsperforminginthem.
Whatthemixinginthesevenuesdidcontributehoweverwasthecontinued
developmentofthemusicalandculturalevolutionbeingconceivedincitiesoffthe
60
respectiveislands.ChemboCorniel,aPuertoRicancongaplayerfromNewYork
recallsaccompanyingpercussionistTommyLopeztoCubanrumbaceremoniesand
socialclubperformances.“ReallyitstartedouttobeallCubansocialclubrumberos
thatsomePuertoRicanswereacceptedatthetime…thattheyknewTommywasone
ofthem.Eventhoughthey[knewTommy]wasonehundredpercentPuertoRican,
therewasahandfulofPuertoRicanrumberosthatwereletintothatclub.Icamein
becauseIwaswithhim.Youknowheiswithmekindofthing.IfIwasn’twithhimif
Iknockedonthedoorbymyselftheywouldn’tletmein.”(Corniel,2017)Corniel
creditsTommyLopez,apercussionpioneerinthesalsamusicgenre,forhisinitial
musictraining.TommyLopezlearneddirectlyundertheiconicCubancongaplayer
andcomposerChanoPozo.OnavisittoaSanteriaceremonyinNewYorkduringthe
1970sCubanbandleaderandpercussionistLuisConterecallsasimilarmixingand
theauthenticityofthemusic.“IwenttoaSanteriabembe,man,inNewYork…thisin
theseventiesthough;youcouldhavebeeninHavana.Buttheguysthatplayed…It
wasFrankieRodriguez…greatrumbero…SothebembewasledbyFrankiewhowas
aPuertoRicancat.Hewasthe[singer]andtherewasaPuertoRicandudeanda
CubandudeplayingthedrumsintheSanteria.Itwasatotalmixture.Butyou
thoughtyouwouldbeinCubabutallthepeoplewerePuertoRicans.”(Conte,2016)
ArtistssuchasArsenioRodrigueztranscendedsingularnationalismand
becameculturalfixturesfortransnationalLatinoidentity.Infact,artistssuchas
ArsenioRodriguezperformednotonlyforsocialclubsinNewYorkbutalsosimilar
associationsandsmallhousepartiesincitiesthroughouttheUnitedStates.He
particularlymadealargeimpactonfirstandsecondgenerationCubansandPuerto
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Ricans.“Nevertheless,formanyfirst-generationCubanandPuertoRican
immigrantsinNewYorkCity,Chicago,andLosAngelesaswellasforCuracaoans,
Arseniowasneverforgotten,andhismusicandperformancescontinuedtohavean
importantimpactontheirlocalmusiccultures.”(Garcia,2006)
Asthe1960semergedthedevelopmentofLatinmusicbegantotakeaturn
anditsplatformswerebothdirectlyandindirectlyimpacted.JohnStormRoberts
referstothiserainhisbookLatinTingeasatransitionforLatinmusicintheUS;
whenLatinmusicwentunderground.TheCharangawasquicklycatchingonin
citiessuchasNewYorkandLatinmusicsuchasthemamboandotherpopular
styleswasreturningtoCubanroots.Robertswrites“Theapparentretrenchmentof
Latinmusiccontinuedduringthe1960s.TheCuban-basedcorestylereturnedtoits
islandroots.Hollywoodlostinterest.”(Roberts,1979)Whiletheregenerallywasa
largeshiftinpopulartrendsandinterestswithayoungergenerationinthe1960s,
especiallywiththeemergenceofrockandroll,manyPuertoRicansinlargeurban
areasontheEastCoastgravitatedtothemoreintensebrassheavyLatinmusicthat
wouldeventuallybelabeledas“salsa.”IsabelleLeymariealsoreferencesthismore
“undergrown”developmentofsalsaanditsCubanrootsinherpublicationCuban
Fire,theStoryofSalsaandLatinJazz.Shewrites“TheearlyNewYorksalsawas
admittedlyderivedfromthesonandsonmontuno,butithaditsowncallejero
(street)feel,forsalsawasessentiallyaproductofthebarrio.Oneofitsmainstaysis
the“cuchifritocircuit”(theLatinequivalentoftheBlack“chittlin’circuit”)–small
socialclubsinsometimesdismalneighborhoodswherethelocalscongregate.”
(Leymarie2002,268)
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ThePuertoRicanmusictraditionsbombaandplena(originatingfromthe
coastalBlackcommunitiesontheisland)oncelargelypopularofftheislandbegan
tolosemomentuminthelate1960samongstPuertoRicanslivinginNewYork.
ManyyoungerPuertoRicansturnedtheirsightstowardmorecontemporarystyles
suchastheCubanbasedsalsa,merengue,androck.InPeterManuel’sarticlePuerto
RicanMusicandCulturalIdentity,hequotesLatinmusicianandproducerRene
Lopezconcerningthe“NewYorkrumba-dominatedstreetdrummingvoguestarting
fromthelate1950s:”(Manuel1994,261)
Lookingbackatthosejamsessions,IcannotrememberplayingPuerto Ricanrhythms.Iguesswethoughtofourparents’musicasjibaro (hicky),oldfashioned,andnotreallypercussive.Ithinkthis impressionwasformedbecausepopularPuertoRicanmusicofthe ‘50swascomposedmainlyoftrios,quartets,andpopularbigbands thatweremainlymelodyoriented.AlthoughwehadheardofPlena andBomba,theywereveryvagueimagesbecauseBlackPuertoRican musicwasnevergivenanyimportance.Asamatteroffact,tillseven oreightyearsagoIneverknewPlenaandBombawereBlack expressions.IntheschoolstherewasnohistoryofPuertoRicobeing taughtandnomusicprogramsthathadanythingtodowithPuerto Ricanculture.(Lopez1976:108-9)
PuertoRicanbandleaders,composersandmusiciansinNewYorkwere
returningtotheCubanrootsintermsofperformanceandsongwriting.Manuel
writes,“Accordingly,assomeNuyoricanandPuertoRicanmusiciansrealizedthat
theirfavoredgenreswereprimarilyCubaninorigin,theytookarenewedinterestin
studyingtherootsthrougholdrecordings.”(Manuel1994,267)Manuelfurther
quotesLopez’sstatements(quotedfromRobertaSinger’s1982dissertationMy
MusicIsWhoIAm)onPuertoRicanmusiciansinterpretationofthefoundational
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Cubanstyles;hiswordsgivingperspectiveontheCubanrootsofthemusicandthe
beginningofanerawherePuertoRicanswouldleadachargeofproducingthe
continuedevolutionofpopularCubanmusic.(Manuel,267-268)
By then I had met most of the band leaders and had all their albums and could then trace the tunes that were on the albums… I could trace them especially to Cuba through these old 78s that I had collected. And I realized that they [contemporary musicians] were just reinterpreting things. And not only that- a lot of the time they would do the same inspiracion [semi-improvised vocal lines in the montuno]. (QuotedinSinger 1982:143) Duringthe1960sPuertoRicanmusiciansinspiredbytheCubancharanga,
son,guaracha,rumba,AfricanAmericanjazz,swing,Rhythm&Blues,andRockand
Rollexperimentedwithinstrumentationbyaddingsoundsthatwouldnotnormally
beheardintypicalCubanconjuntos/groups.Theblendoftheaforementionedmusic
genreswithintheLatinbandcontextultimatelyledtotheformationofwhatwould
eventuallybelabeledassalsamusicbypopularradioDJsintheU.S.PuertoRican
jazzpianistCharliePalmieriwroteabouthisyoungerbrotherEddiePalmieri’s
pioneeringfusioninthe1962albumlinernotesofLaPerfecta.
WhileplayingpianowiththeTitoRodriguezband,Eddiedecidedto leavethefinancialsecurityofoneofthemostsuccessfulLatinbands aroundandformedhisownband.Thebandbusinessisroughenough, butEddiemadeitevenrougherforhimselfbygoingagainstthetide andinsteadoforganizingaCharanga,thepopularsoundoftheday,he organizedwhatIcalla“Trombanga,”abandfeaturingtrombonesand flute.Novel?...yes.Afreshsound?...yes.Commercialpossibilities?…a verybiggamble.HisgamblepaidoffthoughbecausehisBand“La perfecta”isoneofthebusiestworkingbandsinNewYorkCity.(As citedinWaxer2002,28)
PuertoRicanmusiciansinNewYorksimultaneouslydrewfromtheir
previousgeneration’sislandfolkmusictraditionwhilebuildingexperimental
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developmentsonCubanrhythmicfoundations.Tite Curet speaks about the influence
Puerto Ricans performing Cuban music in New York have had both off the island and
then ultimately back on the island.
Cubanmusiciansdefinitelycreatedthemusic,whichwenowcall“salsa,”anditallbeganwiththearrivalinNewYorkofsomegreatmusicians.ThefirstgenerationofPuertoRicanmusicians,datingfromthe40s,weregreatlyinfluencedbytherhythmsofMarioBauza,MachitoandhisorchestraandLuisVarona,allCubans…Afterthatandundertheinfluenceofjazzandrock,theCubangroupsbegantovarytherhythmicandharmonicstructureoftheirtunes.ItwasthenthatthegreatmusicianslikeTitoPuente,Palmieri,andotherscameonthescene.AsitwaseasiertorecordinNewYork,amarketforAntilleanrhythmscameintobeingasakindofmusicalbridgebetweenthereandPuertoRico.(Curet,1973)StickBall;UrbanCommunityConnectionstotheMusic
Stickballwasagameformedbyneighborhoodcitychildreninurbanareas.In
NewYork“playingstickballwasaformofrecreationbutalsoanopportunityto
meetfuturenotablemusicians.(Garcia,2016)Thedevelopmentofathletic
communityactivitiesinNewYorksuchasstickballisanexampleofhowtheurban
metropolisontheU.S.mainlandwasuniqueindevelopingrelationshipswithPuerto
RicanmusiciansperformingCubanbasedmusic.Thisdevelopmentalsospeaksto
the“senseofplace”SingerandMartinezhavewrittenaboutinthearticleASouth
BronxLatinMusicTale(Singer,Martinez,2004)andhowaphysicallocationor
landscapecanshapeculture.TheevolutionofstickballisauniquePuertoRican
experienceinNewYork.ItisuniqueinitsrelationshipwithPuertoRico(theshared
heritageofitsparticipants),howeveraltogetherindependentaswell;arecreational
sportcreatedinthestreetsofNewYorkCity.
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DuringthebeginningofthemamboerayoungPuertoRicanmusicianssuch
asOrlandoMarinandBennyBonillawereheavilyinvolvedincommunity
recreationalactivitiessuchasstickball.Bonillarecalls“stickballiswhatgotmeinto
music.”(Martinez,2006)Bonilla’swordsspeaktotheuniqueplatformsand
opportunitiescreatedbyheavilypopulatedurbanenvironmentsofU.S.citiessuch
asNewYork.Thisrelatestothe“senseofplace”Manyoftheyoungmusiciansduring
the1950s“agroupoflocalteenagerswhowerealumnioftheschoolandplayed
stickballinfrontofthebuildingformedaband.Thisbandincludedmusicianswho
wouldlaterbecomemajorfiguresinLatinmusicincludingEddiePalmieri,Orlando
Marin,andJoeQuijano.(PlaceMatters,2017)PS.52rehearsalswasamagnetfor
youngmusicianswhoalsostudiedattheschoolandwentontobeiconicfixturesin
theNewYorkLatinscenesuchasRayBarretto,MannyOquendo,andmanyothers.
(Martinez,2006).EdwinGarcianotesthat“Theimportanceofstickballasaconduit
tothemusicindustrycannotbeoverstated.”(Garcia,2016)OrlandoMaringives
insighttosocialclubsimpactonmusiclivedistributionthroughdancesatHunts
PointPalace.AlocalstickballteamcalledtheSparksstartedthesedances.
TheSparkswerethefirstsocialclubintheBronxtogivedancesattheHuntsPointPalace.And,sincemyteamplayedagainsttheSparksallthetime,theywereallmyfans.TheywenttoP.S.52todance.So,attheHuntsPointPalace,theyputmetoplay.(Bonilla,2006)
CulturalIdentity
PuertoRicanandCubanculturalrelationshipstracebacktoSpanishcolonial
rule.Bothislandsshareaconnectionoflanguage,andblendofAfrican,Spanish,and
Indigenousethnicities/cultures.Whilethehistoricalethnicbackgroundand
populationoftheAfricanslavesontherespectiveislandsmaydiffer,bothPuerto
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RicansandCubanssharemanysimilaritiesincludingtheSpanishlanguage.There
havebeenseveraldifferentstagesthroughthegenerationsthatarecomplexand
multi-layered.ManyPuertoRicansandCubansmaybefamiliarby19thcenturypoet
LolaRodriguezdeTio’sliterarywork“ACuba,”whereshewrites“CubayPuerto
Ricosondeunpajarolasdosalas…”“CubaandPuertoRicoareastwowingsofthe
samebird…”Thesesimilaritiesarehowevermulti-facetedandhavemanypolitical,
national,ethnic,andculturallayers.Whiletherelationshipbetweenthetwoislands
isnotwithoutcontention,theirinfluencesupononeanotheraremonumental,often
withindistinguishableborders.InCubansinPuertoRico;EthnicEconomyand
CulturalIdentity,JoseA.CobasandJorgeDuanywrite“thetwoislandswereSpain’s
remainingtwopossessionsintheAmericasafterthelossofmostofitsformer
coloniesintheearlynineteenthcentury…ManyillustriousPuertoRicans
participatedinCuba’swarsofindependenceagainstSpain…TheCuban
RevolutionaryParty,basedinNewYork,hadaPuertoRicansection.Cubansand
PuertoRicansmingledeasilyintheimmigrantcommunitiesofNewYork,New
Orleans,KeyWest,andElsewhere.”(Cobas/Duany,1997).Itisimportanttonote
thathistoricalconnectionssuchasbothislandsbeingcoloniesofSpainandlaterthe
U.S.,aswellastheconnectionoftheSpanishlanguagehelpedfosterthisconnection.
CobasandDuanyfurtherwrite“In1915deDiegofoundedaculturalassociation,
UnionAntillana,topromoteliteraryandartisticexchangesamongCuba,PuertoRico
andtheDominicanRepublic…MoreimportantwasthePuertoRicanexodustoCuba
duringthefirstthreedecadesofthiscentury.By1930abouttwenty-fivethousand
PuertoRicanswerelivingandworkinginCuba…”(Cobas/Duany,1997)
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ThelyricsofRafaelHernandez,perhapsoneofthemostreveredPuerto
Ricancomposers,givethesomeofthemosticonicrepresentationsofnationalistic
prideandnostalgia.Hernandezlifeandtravelsareahistoricalrepresentationofnot
onlyPuertoRicanfolkmusicbutalsoAmericanmusicasawhole.Hernandezplayed
instrumentalrolesasapioneerinAmericanjazztheCuban,sonandmambo.While
stayinginNewYorkwithhissisterVictoria,RafaelHernandezpennedLamento
Borinquen;astapleinPuertoRicanfolkmusic.Thesongreflectsthehardeconomic
timesofPuertoRico.Thecompositioncarriesathemeoflamentandnostalgic
longingfortheislandaffectionatelycalledbyitspre-colonialnameBorinquen;a
namegivenbytheindigenousTaino.
HesetsoffhappilywithhiscargoTothecity,tothecityCarriesinhisthoughtsAwholeworldfilledwithhappinessOh,ofhappinessHeplanstoremedythehouseholdsituationWhichisallthatheloves,yeah!
Andhappy,thepeasantgoesThinking,saying,singingontheway:"IfIsellmyload,mydearGodI'llbuyasuitformylittleoldlady"
AndhismareishappyalsoWhenheknowsthatthesongisAllajoyfulhymnAndthenthedaylightcomesunexpectedlyAndtheyarrivetothecitymarket
TheentiremorninggoesbyWithoutanyonewantingTobuyhisload,oh,tobuyhisloadEverything,everythingisdesertedAndthetownisfullofneedOh,ofneedThemourningisheardeverywhereInmyunhappyBorinquen,yeah
Andsad,thepeasantgoesThinking,saying
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Cryinglikethisontheway:"WhatwillhappentoBoriquen,mydearGodWhatwillhappentomychildrenandmyhome?"Oh!
Boriquen,thelandoftheEdenTheonethatwhensungbythegreatGautierHecalledoutthepearloftheSeas"NowthatyoulaydyingfromyoursorrowsLetmesingtoyoualsoBoriquenofmylove"
I'machildofBoriquenandnoonewillchangethatI'machildofBoriquenandnoonewillchangethatAndonthedaythatIdie,IwanttorestinyouIloveyou,PuertoRico,andnoonewilltakethataway,yeah!(Hernandez,1947)
Duetoeconomichardships,massivemigrationofftheislandtoNewYork,
andpoliticaltensions,PuertoRicansincreasinglygravitatedtowardnationalistic
themesintheirmusic.WithmanyPuertoRicanspreviouslyadoptingCubanart
formsastheirown(asseenintherelationshipwithPuertoRico’srelationshipwith
thedanzonandthesonofCuba),manyofthepopularcompositionsweresetto
Cubanrhythmicstructures.HernandezhimselftrainedandperformedinCuba.
CubancomposerandperformerArsenioRodriguezusedpoliticalracialthemesin
hislyricsthatnotonlyintentionallyspoketoBlackCubansbutalsoincludedother
BlacknationalitiesrepresentingtheAfricanDiaspora.Rodriguezalsoreferencedhis
ownempathyforPuertoRico’spolitical,economicandcolonialstatusinhis
composition“APuertoRico.”ThesongwasrecordedinHavanaoneyearafterhis
triptoNewYorkin1947.(Garcia,2006)
TherehavebeenscoresofPuertoRicancomposerswho,overtheyears,have
writtenpieceswithintentionallyricsintributetotheCubanrootsandconnectionto
theirownculturalidentity.Fromthe19thcenturydanza,anddecimatothe20th
centuryrumbasandsonboomfromCubathatwassuccessfullyimportedtoPuerto
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Rico(duetotherecordindustrymarketing)inadditiontothefluidmigrationoff
andontheislandandthroughoutthemainland,PuertoRicanshavedevelopeda
traditionofcultivatingvariousCubanartforms.PeterManuelwrites“Fromthe
early1800suntiltoday,PuertoRicanshaveavidlyborrowedandmasteredvarious
Cubanmusicstyles,includingtheCubandanzon,son,guaracha,rumbaandbolero.”
(Manuel1995,52)PuertoRicancomposerssuchasTitoMatoshavehelpedrevive
interestsinPuertoRicanfolkmusicwhilesimultaneouslycontributingtothe
evolutionofCubanandPuertoRicanfusiondirectlyimpactedbyU.S.cities.Such
artistsdothisbystayingauthentictoPuertoRicanfolktraditionslikebombaand
plenahowevercontinuetoevolveandcombineelementsofjazz,andAfro-Cuban
traditionstothemusic.Whiletoocomplextogeneralize,certainlythisislargelydue
totheimportandtravelbackandforthtourbanregionsontheU.S.mainland.I
believethis,inturn,influencesnotonlytheactivemusicparticipantsbutalsothe
audiencesdirectlyconnectedtothemusic.
Conclusion
Ibeganmyresearchwithaquestionoffoundationandrootsbetweenthe
PuertoRicanadoptionofvariousformsofCubanmusic.Iwasawareofabasic
knowledgeregardingthecross-culturalexchange(primarilyduringthe1950s,60s
and70s)howeverdesiredadeeperlookatanearlierbeginning.Duringmytravels
toPuertoRico,andcitiesinthemainlandU.S.withhighconcentrationsofPuerto
Ricans,IcontinuallyencounteredthosewhoeitherplayedCubaninstrumentsor
identifiedwiththemastheirown(culturallyspeaking).Duetotravelrestrictions
betweentheU.S.andCuba,manystudentsofAfro-CubanmusictraveledtoPuerto
70
Ricoinordertolearnfrommastersofthevariousgenressuchasrumba,pachanga,
bembe,etc.IhavebeenfullyawareofothercloseconnectionsoutsideofCubaas
wellsuchastheDominicanRepublic,Columbia,Venezuela,etc.howeverPuertoRico
byandlargeseemedtoprevailasasortoffraternalbrother/sisterisland.Thisis
reflectedinthepoetryofLolaRodriguez,andmorerecentlyinpublicationson
CubanmusicsuchasIsabelleLeymarie’sCubanFire;TheStoryofSalsaandLatinJazz.
Leymariewrites“ThisbooktellsthestoryofCubanmusicinitshomelandandinthe
UnitedStates,butitalsoincludesPuertoRico-Cuba’smusicalsister…”(Leymarie,3)
InanNBCnewsarticleaboutCubaandPuertoRico’sintertwinedhistoricalpath
(writtenshortlyafterFidelCastro’sdeath)LuisitaLopezTorregrosawritesrecalls
thebirthoftheCubanRevolutionandtheriseofFidelCastro.Shewrites“Sheand
myjournalistauntandmyactor-directoruncleandtheirfriendsinourisland
home,PuertoRico,celebratedthetriumphoftheCubanrevolutioninJanuary
1959asifitwereourown.”(AsofNovember26,2016,“OnFidel’sDeath,Cubaand
PuertoRico,TwoPathsIntertwined)ThemusicalpathsofCubaandPuertoRico
areintertwined,howeverasseenhereinTorregrosa’swordsconcerningthe
adulationofFidelCastroandtheCubanRevolutionontheislandofPuertoRico
duringthelate1950s,theconnectionbetweentheislandstranscendedthe
boundariesofmusic;moreoveritwasthistranscendencethatfosteredthe
connectionandhencethecultivationofCubancultureamongstthePuertoRican
diaspora.ThisisnottosaythatallPuertoRicansontheislandandabroad
supportedtheRevolutionorallofCubanpoliticaldevelopments,howeveritis
anothermanifestationoftheveryrealconnectionbetweentheislands.
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Anoverwhelmingamountofinformationconcerningthemusicrelationships
betweenPuertoRicansandCubansrelevanttothisresearchhasbeenpublishedin
books,articles,anddocumentaries.CubanandPuertoRicanmusichasbeen
approachedinamyriadofapproachesandthereseemstobenodearthofmaterial
onthesubject.IhaveconcludedhoweverthattheissueofPuertoRicanandCuban
musicalandculturaltiesisoftenaperipheralone.Inthepublicationswhereitis
emphasized,itisoftenshroudedinamultitudeofdifferingperspectives.
If,withtwentyoneLatinAmericancountriesandterritories,PuertoRicohas
themostunique(intermsofcloseconnection)tietoCuba,musicallyspeaking,I
desiredtoknowwheretherootslayandhowisthisperceivedbydifferent
communities.Inotherwords,isitaromanticizedthoughtpervadedbypopular
songsandliteratureimmortalizedbypowerfulrecordlabels,radionetworks,
publishers,andcharismaticperformers?AsIbegantosearchdeeperIquickly
discoveredmyfocuswouldnotbeonthediscoveryofwhetherauniquerelationship
betweenCubaandPuertoRicotrulyexistedandtowhatextent,butratherhow
largemetropolitanregionshaveinfluenced,cultivated,andincubatedthecross
culturalmusicalconnectionbetweentheCubanandPuertoRicanDiaspora;how
theyhaveinfluencedcultural,nationalandethnicidentity.Theebbandflowof
PuertoRicanmigrationfromtheislandtoU.S.citieswasacrucialcomponenttothe
evolutionofPuertoRicanmusicalidentity.Concerningthecontroversyof
appropriationasitpertainstothePuertoRicanadoptionofvariousCubanmusic
forms,IamremindedofNedSublette’sreferencethatinmusicthereisno
immaculateconception.(Sublette,2000)Musicisnotcreatedinavacuumand
certainlyneitherwasthepopularCubanmusicofthe1920s,30s,40sandthegolden
eraofthe1950s.CubaheldclosetieswiththeUnitedStatesindomestictrade,
tourism,entertainment,etc.andthisresultedinwhatIhavepreviouslyreferredto
asacrossculturalexchange.EvenCubanmusicisanevolutionofcomplex
multilayers.ForinstanceAfricanslavesfromHaititraveledbetweenbothCubaand
PuertoRicoinfluencingthecultureandtraditionallandscapeofbothislands.Raul
Fernandezwrites“In1994,twohundredyearsafterthebeginningoftheHaitian
revolution,aGrammyAwardwasgivenintheUnitedStatestotheCubanAmerican
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singerGloriaEstefanforherCDMiTierra.Thebombarhythm-socloselyassociated
withPuertoRicanfolklore-maybeheardbehindthetitlesong,withitslyricsthat
speakrepeatedlyofCubanthemes,Cubantraditions,andthegeneralnostalgiaof
CubanAmericansfortheirislandhomeland.”(Fernandez,2006)InFernandez
writingonthebombaandtheCubanconnectionofEstefan’ssongMiTierraweseea
fullcirclemusicconnectionbetweenwhathasbeenpreviouslyreferredtoas“sister
islands.”(Leymarie,2)Inadditiontothefluidmotionofcrossculturalexchange
betweenthetwoislandsanddiaspora,CubanexilesfledtoPuertoRicoinmassafter
theCubanRevolutionofthelate1950smakingPuertoRicothesecondlargest
Cubanexilecommunity.
CubanandPuertoRicanmusiciansinNewYorkandotherU.S.citieswerein
searchofbettereconomic,racial(thisisespeciallyandspecificallyforthoseofcolor
fromPuertoRicoandCuba)andpoliticalsituations.Theirsharedlanguageand
colonialgovernanceoftenmanifestedinadesireforunifiedLatinandAfro-Latin
identity.TheracismBlackandPuertoRicanmusiciansexperiencedontheisland
wasnotabsentonthemainlandU.S.howeverwhatearlymusicpioneersdiscovered
inthemetropolitancitiessuchasHarlemwasaspacethatcouldincubate
opportunitiesthatwerenotfoundbackhome.BlackCubansandPuertoRican
musiciansthereforereliedupontheirsharedtalentsandrespondedtodemandsfor
theLatinsoundstheycouldproduce.Thisdevelopedintoafoundationforyounger
LatinogenerationswhoreliedontheLatinmusictraditionsthatevolvedinthe
urbanenvironmentasopposedtothepopularAmericanrockandrollmovement.
ThemusicalconversationofCubansandPuertoRicanswasnegotiatedin
populardancevenues,socialclubs,andconcerthallsinplacessuchasNewYorkCity,
NewJersey,andMiami.Thefluidmovementofperformersandlistenersofthe
DiasporaebbedandflowedthroughoutthemainlandU.S.frommajormusic
industrialhubsknownastheSouthBronx,ElBarrio,andBrooklynNYtotheurban
regionsofChicago,LosAngeles,Philadelphia,Boston,andSanFrancisco.Likean
intricatenetworkofriverdistributaries,thefluidityoftheCubanmusicinurbanU.S.
communitiesthroughoutthe20thcenturyhasinfluencedthemusicalcultural
identityofPuertoRicansonandofftheisland.Thisphenomenoncannotbefully
73
exploredwithoutunderstandingthemigrationhistoryandpatternsofthePuerto
RicandiasporapriortoWorldWarIIandespeciallyinthedecadesimmediately
followingit.PoliticaldevelopmentssuchastheJonesActof1917conferringU.S.
citizenshipuponPuertoRicansandtheaftereffectsofPuertoRico’sgovernor
MuñozMarín’sOperationBootstrap(1940s)resultedinanincreasedinfluxof
islanderstocitiessuchasNewYork.Politicaleconomicsledto“Theloweringofthe
SanJuan-NewYorkairfares[accelerating]theexodusofPuertoRicans,mostof
whomwerebetweenfifteenandfortyyearsofage.”(Leymarie,157)Thesemigrants
arrivedinNewYorkinsearchofabetterfinancialsituation.ManyofthePuerto
RicansandCubanswhotraveledbackandforththroughoutthe20thcenturywere
musicianswhotookfulladvantageoftechnologicalinnovationsintheU.S.andthe
recordingopportunitiesoftennotfoundontheisland.
Technologicalinnovationsintheradioandrecordingindustryplayedmajor
rolesintheimportinganddisseminationofCubanandPuertoRicansoundswithin
theUnitedStates.InadditiontotheimportingofLatinmusicinthemainlandU.S.,
recordcompanieswerealsoresponsiblefortemperingpopularmusictrendswithin
theislandsofCubaandPuertoRicoaswell.InCaribbeanCurrentsPeterManuel
quoteshistorianJorgeJavarizstatementonthemassivemusicrecordingproduction
takingplaceinNewYorkduringthemid20thcentury.Hequotes“Thebulkofwhat
wecallpopularPuertoRicanmusicwaswrittenandrecordedinNewYork.Puerto
RicoistheonlyLatinAmericancountrywhosepopularmusicwasmainlycreatedon
foreignsoil.Thecuriousthingaboutthisphenomenonisthatitwaspreciselyin
thoseyearsthatthepopularPuertoRicansongbecamemorePuertoRicanthanit
haseverbeenbeforeorsince.”(Manuel,67)(Glasser,Spring1991)Thisstatement
carriesprofoundconsequenceinthatitpointsoutthemajorroleU.S.citiesplayin
theshapingofPuertoRicanmusicalidentity.Thetechnologicalinnovationinthe
recordingindustryisadirectresultoftheerainwhichitwasproduced.The
northeastregionoftheUnitedStatesservedasahubfordevelopmentofthis
technologyandconsequentlycitiessuchasNewYork,NewJerseydirectlyimpacted
PuertoRicanandCubancommunities.Often,thepurveyorsoftheseindustrieswere
notversedinethnicandnationaldifferenceswithinthemusic.Moreovertheyoften
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followedpopulartrendsandperceiveddemandstherebybecomingmajorbridgesof
culturalconnectionbetweenLatinocommunities.
Asmentionedpreviously,themovementofCubanandPuertoRican
musiciansthroughouttheUnitedStateswasfluid.Throughracialtensions,and
musicalcompetitionamongstpopularbands,asharedLatinoidentityemergedin
theurbancitiesoftheUnitedStates.ThisislargelyduetotheSpanishlanguage
connection,sharedmusicalhistories,andcolonialandpoliticaltiesoftheDiasporas
homelandsofPuertoRicoandCuba.Theveryphysicallocation(itsdistancefrom
theCaribbeanislands)fosteredaculturalidentityamongstPuertoRicansand
Cubansinurbancommunities.TherootsofPuertoRicanadoptionofCubanmusicis
amulti-layeredhistory.MajormetropolitanregionsoftheUnitedStatesevolved
intolandscapesthatshapedinterculturalconnectionsbetweenthetwocommunities.
Thephysicalmanifestationsoflandmarkvenues,concerthallsandsocialclubs
withintheU.S.urbanenvironmentsfilledthevoidofculturalandnationalidentity
amongstLatinocommunities.AsPuertoRicansnavigatedaforeignenvironment
distanttowhatwasfamiliar,theirexperiencesinturndirectlyresultedinshaping
theirmusicalidentity.Moreoftenthannot,PuertoRicansreachedforand
respondedtowhatwasfamiliar.CubanmusicwasmarketedinmasstoPuertoRican
communities.Thiswasmainlyduetothelanguageandsharedculturalconnection.
PuertoRicansoftenrelatedtoCubanmusicwithpositiveacceptanceandadoption
astheirown.VenuessuchastheTeatroPuertoRicointheSouthBronxfeatured
popularCubanmusicians.TheedgyurbanlandscapeofU.S.cities,andtheirdiverse
blendofethniccommunitiesbecamecentraltotheculturalidentityofthePuerto
Ricandiaspora.PeterManuel’sexplanationofPuertoRico’samicablerelationship
andfraternalidentitywithCuba(Manuel,1994)isnotonlyfosteredandcultivated
incitiessuchasNewYork,butrather,theroleoftheurbanmainlandlandscapeis
crucialtotherelationship.Thepurposeofthisresearchistohighlighttherolelarge
U.S.citiesplayedinthePuertoRicanadoptionofCubanmusic.Largemigrationsofa
diasporaoversequentialperiodsoftimeoftenresultindirectimpactsofthe
Diaspora’sculturalidentity.WithoutthepoliticaldevelopmentsbetweentheU.S.
andtheislands,themusicassociationscreatedinthecity,theurbansocio-
75
economicsofLatinocommunities,thetechnologicaladvancements,thecreationof
popularvenuesoftheAmericanmetropolis,andthePuertoRicanmigrationback
andforthfromtheislandtotheU.S.,thePuertoRicanmusicadoptionofCuban
musicwouldcertainlynothaveevolvedintoitscurrentexistence.
76
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81
Appendices
Mid-19thCentury 1917 1923 1945 1950 1960 1980
*SeeMigration,Immigration,&Travels.Page32-34
JonesAct EndofWWII
200,000PuertoRicansinNY
45,000-100,000PuertoRicansLivinginNYupto1923
612,574PuertoRicansinNY
860,000PuertoRicansinNY
PuertoRicanpercentageofLatinopopulationIncreasesfrom40%to80%duringtheyearsbetween1940-1960
MigrationTimeline
82
CubanTheatreDanzonSonSeptetoLatinJazzMamboChaChaChaCharangaGuajiraSalsa
CubanCubanMusicMusic GenreGenre TimelineTimeline
19thCentury 1870 1940s1920s 1940s-1950s
1950s *1950s-1960s
*1960s 1960s-1970s
*ApproximateeraPopularizedinUnitedStates
ThedatesaboveareapproximationsoftheerasinwhichtheCubangenreswerepopularizedorheldsignificanthistoricalvaluewithintheUnitedStates
83
PuertoRicanMusicIdentity
U.S.MetropolitanRegions
PuertoRico
Cuba
PuertoRicanMusicIdentityPuertoRicanMusicIdentityTriangularTriangularModelModel
BridgingCubana BridgingCubanandPuertoRicanMusicCulturesfndPuertoRicanMusicCulturesf romtheromthe
1920s1920s--1970s1970s
86
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(NOTE: DO NOT AGREE TO PARTICIPATE UNLESS IRB APPROVAL INFORMATION
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The researcher has my permission to audio and video (only performance if applicable) record me as part of my participation in this study. ______________________________________________________________________________ Signature Date ______________________________________________________________________________ Signature of Investigator Date
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The Liberty University Institutional Review Board has approved this document for use from
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(NOTE: DO NOT AGREE TO PARTICIPATE UNLESS IRB APPROVAL INFORMATION
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September 5, 2017