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THE UNIVERSITY OF THE SOUTH PACIFIC

Technical and Vocational Education and Training in the Samoan Secondary School Curriculum:

A Case Study

By

Ioana J. Ah Hoy Wright

A thesis submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements of the degree of Master of Arts in

Education.

© September 2006

ii

DECLARATION

I, Ioana Jackie Ah Hoy-Wright, hereby sincerely and solemnly declare that this MA in

Education thesis is my own work and to the best of my knowledge does not contain any

material previously published or submitted for examination. Where materials have been

sighted, due acknowledge had been provided in an appropriate manner.

_________________________ Ioana Jackie Ah Hoy-Wright

____________________________

Date

iii

Dedication

This thesis is dedicated to my beloved mother, late

Mrs. Heta Mui Yung Ah Hoy Wright and

my father Mr. Sinapati Salanoa Wright

for their love, encouragement,

wisdom and prayers.

Faafetai tele lava!

iv

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

Firstly, I would like to acknowledge my Heavenly Father for His guidance and blessings that provided me faith, strength and patience to complete this research project. Moreover, I like to express my sincere gratitude to all those who have assisted me in successfully completing this project.

A special thanks and appreciation are extended to my thesis supervisors Associate Professor Akhila Nand Sharma and Dr. Salanieta Bakalevu for their authentic support, guidance, critique, patience and encouragement throughout my study. I also wish to convey my sincere gratitude to the officials of the Ministry of Education, Sports and Culture in Samoa for allowing me to investigate the management and implementation of TVET courses in secondary schools. My sincere appreciation also goes to the principals, teachers, parents and students of the five case study schools for participating in the study willingly. Their comments, feedbacks, advice, time and efforts have helped make this project a success. I am also indebted to the Aus-Aid Programme for granting me the scholarship to pursue my Post Graduate Diploma and MA in Education degree. The Government of Samoa is thanked, with extreme appreciation, for funding the last semester of my education in Fiji. Finally, my heartfelt gratitude and love go to my parents and grandparents. Their prayers, enduring love, encouragement and wise counsels have made me the person that I am today. I regret that my mother is not able to witness the completion of this project but I thank her for her support in my educational endeavours especially at the beginning of this project. I also would like to acknowledge my other family members and friends for their encouragement and prayers. Faaafetai tele and God bless you all!

v

ABSTRACT

This research project seeks to examine the management and implementation of Technical and Vocational Education and Training (TVET) courses in the secondary school curriculum in Samoa. Adopting the phenomenological perspective, the study attempts to understand the management and implementation of TVET curriculum from the viewpoints of its relevant stakeholders that included the principals, teachers, students and the parents of the five case study schools and the senior officials of the Ministry of Education, Sports and Culture (MESC). The qualitative case study approach that finds support in this perspective was employed to gather and analyze data and report the findings to its interested audiences. In particular, the data gathering strategies included in-depth interviews, participant observation and documentary analysis. These multiple approaches facilitated triangulation that strengthened the validity and reliability of the research findings. As argued in Chapter 4, the intention in this study is not to generalize findings but they may apply to similar settings. The theoretical and conceptual underpinnings of the study were informed by the literature on change management, TVET and the fieldwork data. While the conceptual framework of the study took shape as the study unfolded, Fullan (1991) three-stage change process – initiation; implementation; and institutionalization - were retained for this study paying particular attention to the implementation phase of TVET. As regards the theoretical understanding, the study found that the mainstream body on change literature was useful in studying the Samoan TVET. However, the study sheds light on some issues that were necessary to consider while studying such innovations in the small island state such as Samoa. These include issues such as ‘self-interest’, nepotism’, the impact of aid driven projects, smallness and migration of skills.

The important findings of the study are:

• The absence of well-defined TVET policy at the MESC contributes to the ineffective managing and implementing of TVET courses at the national and school levels.

vi

• TVET courses are necessary for the total learning system of an individual because they provide basic skills for lifelong education as well as wage and self employment.

• TVET is still regarded by many of its stakeholders as ‘second class’ rather than a ‘second chance’ education option.

• The lack of parental and community participation in the management of TVET

courses at the school level made it difficult for teachers to implement it more realistically.

• Indigenous knowledge and skills were not adequately catered for in the TVET courses and thus the graduates were not sufficiently prepared for relevant employment opportunities in Samoan rural setting.

• There is a need for on-going professional staff development programmes in TVET at the national and school levels. There was the shortage of appropriately qualified and experienced people to implement TVET courses successfully.

• The three TVET courses offered in schools are relevant to the needs of the Samoan people but they were not sufficiently empowered about TVET. Moreover, unavailability of suitable resources hindered its successful implementation.

• TVET courses are not offered at the primary level and hence there is not any smooth transition of its knowledge and skills from primary to secondary schools.

• The backbone of Samoa’s economy is in agriculture, fishery and tourism. Therefore, there is a need for more TVET courses in these subjects in the secondary school curriculum.

• The lack of job opportunities encourages many young Samoan graduates to migrate to overseas countries for better employment opportunities.

• The teaching and learning process in the classroom is teacher-centered and is largely examination-driven. Consequently, TVET does receive the attention it deserves in the school curriculum.

Based on these findings, the study concludes with important implications for policy and practice as well as for further research.

vii

TABLE OF CONTENT CONTENT PAGE NOS.

Title Page i Declaration ii Dedication iii Acknowledgements iv Abstract v Table of Content vii Figures xi Tables xii Exhibitions xiii Abbreviations xiv CHAPTER ONE – BACKGROUND TO THE STUDY 1-12 INTRODUCTION 1 TVET IN SAMOA 3 TVET in Higher Education 3 TVET in Secondary Schools 3 STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM 5 Examination Oriented Curriculum 5 RESEARCH INTEREST 9 AIMS OF THE STUDY 11 RESEARCH QUESTIONS 11 SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY 11 ORGANISITION OF THE THESIS 12 CHAPTER TWO – DEVELOPMENT OF EDUCATION IN SAMOA 14-38 INTRODUCTION 14 GEOGRAPHICAL CONTEXT 14 SOCIAL CONTEXT 16 ECONOMIC CONTEXT 18 POLITICAL CONTEXT 20 Missionaries 20 The Germans 21 New Zealand Administration 22 Self-Government 22 EDUCATIONAL CONTEXT 22 Traditional Education 22 Mission Schools 24 FORMAL EDUCATION SYSTEM 29 Primary Education 30 Secondary Education 32 Tertiary Education 36 Conclusion 38

viii

CHAPTER THREE – LITERATURE REVIEW 39-65 INTRODUCTION 39 The CONCEPT OF TVET 39 The RATIONALE OF TVET 46 The NATURE OF TVET PROGRAMMES 49 School-based TVET 50 Post-school TVET 52 Work-based TVET 53 TVET POLICY AND PLANNING 54 Potential of TVET 55 Limitations of TVET 56 CONCEPTUAL CONSTRUST OF THE STUDY 58 The Change Process 58 The Initiation Stage 59 The Implementation Stage 61 Institutionalization Stage 64 Conclusions 65 CHAPTER FOUR – DESIGN 66-108 INTRODUCTION 66 QUALITATIVE CASE STUDY APPROACH 67 CASE STUDY AS A RESEARCH STRATEGY 69 DATA COLLECTION 73 Participant Observation 74 Interview 75 Standardised Open-ended Interview 77 Semi Structure Interview 78 Informal Conversational Interview 79 Documentary Study 80 Data Analysis 81 RESEARCH DESIGN OF THIS STUDY 83 Research Questions 85 Case Study Schools 85 SAMPLING 89

Ethical Procedures 93 Gaining Access for Fieldwork 94

DATA COLLECTION METHODS 96 In-depth Interviews 96 Participant Observations 100 Documentary Analysis 103 Data Analysis 106

Conclusion 108

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CHAPTER FIVE – PRESENTATION OF DATA 109-156 INTRODUCTION 109 MANAGEMENT OF EDUCATION IN SAMOA 110 Secondary School Policies 111 INITIATION OF TVET IN SAMOA 111 Initial Difficulties with Teachers, Parents & Students 113 MESC Plans 113 MANAGEMENT OF TVET COURSES 115 Structure of TVET Courses 115 Food & Textile Technology 117 Agriculture Science 118 Design & Technology 119 PRACTICE OF TVET 120 Case Study 1 121 Background 122 TVET Courses 122 TVET Facilities 123 TVET Teachers & Teaching of TVET 124 TVET Students 125 Case Study 2 127 Background 127 TVET Courses 128 TVET Facilities 129 TVET Teachers & Teaching of TVET 131 TVET Students 133 Case Study 3 134 Background 134 TVET Courses 134 TVET Facilities 135 TVET Teachers & Teaching of TVET 136 TVET Students 138 Case Study 4 140 Background 140 TVET Courses 142 TVET Facilities 143 TVET Teachers & Teaching of TVET 145 TVET Students 147 Case Study 5 149 Background 149 TVET Courses 150 TVET Facilities 151 TVET Teachers & Teaching of TVET 152 TVET Students 155 SUMMARY 156

x

CHAPTER SIX – DISCUSSION OF FINDINGS 157-202 INTRODUCTION 157 PERCEPTIONS OF STAKEHOLDERS 157 MESC Officials 158 Teachers 161 Parents 164 Students 168 CHARACTERISTICS OF THE CHANGE 170 Need 170

Clarity 172 Quality and Practicality 173 INITIATION OF TVET COURSES 175 Problem Solving Orientation 176 Relevance 180 Readiness 181 Resources 182 Bureaucratic Orientation 183 IMPLEMENTATION OF TVET COURSES 186 National Level 186 School Level 189 Classroom Level 195 Teachers 196 Students 199 INSTITUTIONALISATION OF TVET COURSES 201 CONCLUSION 202 CHAPTER SEVEN – IMPLICATION OF THE STUDY 203-221 INTRODUCTION 203 KEY FINDINGS OF THE STUDY 203 IMPLICATIONS OF THE STUDY 207 Implications for Policy and Practice 208 Implications for future research 214 CHARACTERISTICS OF THE CHANGE 216 Initiation 216 Implementation 216 Institutionalisation 217 Summary 217 Conclusion 221 Bibliography 221 Appendices 231

xi

LIST OF FIGURES

Page

Figure 2.1 Map of Samoa 231

Figure 2.2 Samoa Formal Education System 232

Figure 2.3 Dual Stream Structure 233

Figure 2.4 New Single Stream Structure 234

Figure 4.1 Research Design 87

Figure 4.2 Informed Consent Form 237

Figure 4.3 Letter to the MESC 238

Figure 4.4 Supervisor’s Letter of Confirmation 239

Figure 4.5 Letter to the Case Study Schools 240

Figure 5.1 Sketch of CS2 School Facilities 242

Figure 5.2 CS4 Management Structure 246

Figure 5.3 Sketch of CS4 247

Figure 6.1 Summary of the Perceptions of the MESC Officials 160

Figure 6.2 Summaries of Teachers’ Perceptions. 162

Figure 6.3 Summary of Parents’ View on TVET Courses 167

Figure 6.4 Perceptions of parents about their Children’s Career. 167

Figure 6.5 Summary of the Students’ Perceptions on TVET 170

Figure 6.6 Factors Impede the Implementation of TVET Courses. 248

Figure 7.1 Key Findings of the Study 204

Figure 7.2 TVET A Modular Approach. 249

xii

LIST OF TABLES

Table 1.1 Non-Government Post Secondary Institutions 3

Table 1.2 Secondary School Drop Out Rate (%) by Year Level 7

Table 1.3 Secondary Schools Enrolment – 2003. 7

Table 1.4 Summary of the Total Number of Research Respondents 10

Table 2.1 Summary of the Types of Primary Schools in Samoa (2003) 31

Table 2.2 Summary of the Types of Secondary Schools in Samoa (2003) 33

Table 2.3 Total Secondary School Enrolment by Level/Gender 2003 34

Table 4.1 Summary of the Case Study Schools 248

Table 4.2 Codes for Research Respondents 90

Table 4.3 Summary of Fieldwork Activity 91

Table 5.1 Names of TVET Courses 116

Table 5.2 Total Number of Streams in each Level at CS1 (2004) 122

Table 5.3 CS1 TVET Teachers 124

Table 5.4 CS1 TVET Students (Term One, 2004) 125

Table 5.5 CS2-Number of FTT Students who Passed SSC and PSSC 2001-2003. 129


Table 5.7 CS2 TVET Students (2004) 133

Table 5.8 CS3 Academic Departments 134

Table 5.9 CS3 TVET Teachers – 2004 137

Table 5.10 CS3 TVET Students 139

Table 5.11 CS4 Academic Departments 140

Table 5.12 CS4 TVET Courses 143


Table 5.14 CS4 TVET Enrolment Term One 2004 147


Table 5.16 CS5 TVET Students 155

Table 6.1 Differences between Pedagogy and Andragogy 188

xiii

LIST OF EXHIBITIONS

Exhibit 4.1 Sample of an Interview Transcript 99

Exhibit 4.2 Sample of Participant Observation 102

Exhibit 4.3 Observation Sample - Sketch of CS4 Workshop Area 103

Exhibit 4.4 Sample of a Document used for Analysis 105

Exhibit 5.1 MESC Vision and Mission Statement 110

Exhibit 5.2 Samoa Educational Goals 241

Exhibit 5.3 Samoa Secondary School Policies 111

Exhibit 5.4 Observation - Year 11-3 DT Lesson 243

Exhibit 5.5 CS3 Lesson Plan - Food and Textile Technology Class 244

Exhibit 5.6 Sample Interview with a Parent 245

Exhibit 6.1 A Comprehensive Curriculum 195

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LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS

AS Agriculture Science

BS Business Studies

CMAD Curriculum, Materials and Assessment Division

DFL Distance and Flexible Learning

DOE Department of Education

DT Design and Technology

GOS Government of Samoa

IA Industrial Arts

FTT Food Textile and Technology

HE Home Economics

HOD Head of Departments

JSS Junior Secondary School

MESC Ministry of Education Sports and Culture

MYSC Ministry of Youth Sports & Culture

NEIDA Network in Education Innovation for Development in Africa

NUS National University of Samoa

NZ New Zealand

PIC Pacific Island Countries

PSSC Pacific Senior Secondary Certificate

SATVETI Samoa Association of Technical and Vocational Education and Training

Institutions

SPBEA South Pacific Board for Educational Assessment

SSS Senior Secondary Schools

UNDP United Nation Development Programmes

UNESCO United Nation Educational Scientific and Cultural Organization

UPY University Preparatory Year

USP University of the South Pacific

WHO World Health Organization

WSSC Western Samoa School Certificate

WSTTI Western Samoa Teacher’s Technical Institut

1

CHAPTER ONE

BACKGROUND TO THE STUDY INTRODUCTION It is widely recognized that Technical and Vocational Education and Training (TVET) is

a crucial component in the development of an individual as well as a nation. This is

because TVET encompasses a range of training programmes, courses and activities

designed to address personal and national needs.

A United Nations Development Programme Report on Curriculum Development in the

South Pacific (UNDP, 1997) clearly stated the great need for Pacific educators to create

more relevant curricula in schools. Such curricula should be based on the needs and

requirements of island nations and be distinct from those of the colonial masters. The

Second International Congress on TVET in Seoul, Korea (1999) declared that TVET has

a fundamental role to play in preparing young people for employment and a fulfilling life

as well as accelerating social and economic development of the country (UNESCO,

1999a). The 1976 United Nations Educational Scientific and Cultural Organisation

(UNESCO) conference on TVET urged the less-developed countries to introduce

vocational and technical subjects in secondary schools and other levels of the education

system (Network in Education Innovation for Development in Africa (NEIDA), 1982).

There is a perceived need to establish a balance between the traditional academic areas

and the practical-oriented vocational subjects. It became clear that vocational-oriented

subjects were required not only by technologists, technicians and artisans but also by the

2

majority of pupils who would not proceed further in the formal school system. The

initiatives by UNESCO and UNDP led to the development and improvement of many

TVET programmes in Pacific Island Countries (PICs) such as Fiji, Kiribati, the Solomon

Islands, Tonga, Vanuatu and Samoa. Nevertheless, TVET in these countries has

remained a weak partner in the formal school setting or academic-driven school

curriculum (Burnett, 1999; Sharma, 2000; Aveau, 2003). In Samoa, TVET programmes

have been upgraded to align with the new technology and the wage employment sector.

Vocational subjects, however, have remained as optional subjects in the school

curriculum. For this purpose, it is appropriate to define TVET in the Samoan context.

Technical and Vocational Educational and Training (TVET) is seen in the Samoan

context as any formal or informal training that teaches people the knowledge and skills

necessary for wage or self-employment opportunities as well as for further education and

training (Government of Samoa, 2000a).

This study intends to examine the management and implementation of TVET courses in

five secondary schools in Samoa. The courses will be discussed in depth in the following

chapters.

TVET IN SAMOA

TVET in Higher Education

The main provider of TVET in Samoa is the Samoa Polytechnic Institute (SPI). It was

established in 1963 under the name Western Samoa Teacher’s Technical Institute

(WSTTI). It was mainly for prospective teachers in the Vocational areas. The Institute

3

was upgraded to a tertiary level in 1993 and became Samoa Poly-technical Institute (SPI).

SPI was merged with the School of Maritime Training in 1998. The Institute offers

TVET courses in management, plumbing, carpentry, auto-motive, engineering and

designing, crafting (Government of Samoa (GOS), 2000a; Aveau, 2003).

Unfortunately, it only caters for students who have completed senior secondary schools

up to Year 12 or Year 13. This implies that early school leavers do not have the

opportunity to get a second chance education at the NUS or SPI.

There are also post-secondary technical institutes privately owned by religious

organizations. They play an important role in providing TVET training for the early

school leavers (GOS, 2000a). This is a welcome relief to parents as students have the

opportunity of staying on in school to learn employable skills. Table 1.1 below shows

such privately-owned technical institutes.

Table 1.1: Non-Government Post-Secondary Institutions

Institutes Location Owner Don Bosco Tuasivi Technical School Leulumoega School of Arts Sauniatu Agriculture School Penehuro School of Arts Punaoa Technical School

Moamoa, Upolu Tuasivi, Savaii Leulumoega,Upolu Sauniatu, Upolu Lelata, Upolu Faleula, Upolu

Catholic LMS LMS LDS Private Methodist

(Source: GOS - Samoa Polytechnic Corporate Plan 2001-2002, 2000).

TVET in the Secondary Schools

Samoa does not have separate TVET schools at the primary and secondary level.

However, technical and vocational courses such as Design and Technology (DT), Food

4

and Textile Technology (FTT), Agricultural Science (AS), and Business Studies (BS)

have been integrated in the school curriculum as optional subjects for Years 9 to11.

Consistent with UNESCO and UNDP curriculum project, the Ministry of Education,

Sports and Culture (MESC) in Samoa extended these vocational courses (DT, AS and

FTT) to Years 12 and 13 in the late 1990s. This initiative was taken to strengthen the

range and level of skills of secondary school graduates.

It is fair to say that despite the efforts discussed, TVET still does not receive the attention

it deserves in both primary and secondary curriculum. Sharma (2000: 35) indicates that

some educators, parents and students perceive TVET as a ‘second class’ rather than a

‘second chance’ option. This perception is also seen in other developing countries such

as Nigeria. Nwagwu’s (1998: 122) study of Nigerian students reveals that both parents

and students preferred the Grammar schools, TVET were only accepted as a ‘second

choice’. A Report by the Commonwealth Secretariat on TVET in the Pacific Region

(1986: 29) states three factors that have accounted for the low status of TVET in PICs.

These are the:

• influence of values inherited from the colonial education system;

• high status attributed by the community to white-collar employment; and

• indifferent quality of the instruction provided by some institutions.

I wish to state that this scenario is reflected in the education systems of many other

Pacific countries (Thaman, 1993; Afamasaga, 2001). The school curriculum is

examination-oriented, and it aims at preparing students for white-collar employment and

university education. According to Watson (1994) and Thaman (1995), this negative

5

attitude towards vocational education deprived from the idea that formal education

promises better employment opportunities.

STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM

Examination Oriented Curriculum

The current system of education in Samoa has been described as examination-oriented

and irrelevant to local life (Government of Western Samoa, 1995a). For years Samoa

followed a dual-system structure of education, which system separate Junior Secondary

Schools (JSS) and Senior Secondary Schools (SSS). The former followed a vocational-

oriented curriculum, which was generally regarded inferior to SSS. Students who receive

poorer grades in the Year 8 examination were enrolled in the JSS while those who

obtained high marks were taken to the SSS.

The Western Samoa Education Strategies 1995-2005 found the dual-system structure

“inequitable and inefficient” (Government of Western Samoa, 1995a: 12). The

curriculum in both the JSS and SSS streams lacked relevance to village life and labour

market needs. The dual-stream has been merged into a five-year single stream with the

same curriculum and assessment requirements apply to all government, mission and

private schools.

There are three government certificate examinations and one regional. The first is at the

end of Primary education and is sat by Year 8 students. The second is taken at the end of

Year 11. The SSC is the third which is taken at the end of Year 12. The PSSC is a

6

regional examination and it is taken at the end of Year 13. These examinations are

important because it determines the next level of the students’ education.

The curriculum has been revised several times; however, it is still NZ-based and

examination-oriented and, thus, serves only a small number of Samoan students

(Government of Western Samoa, 1995a). It is this reason that Petana-Ioka (1995:14)

commented that schooling in Samoa is a ‘blueprint’ of New Zealand schooling.

The Government of Samoa (GOS) through its Ministry of Education, Sports and Culture

(MESC) has worked with overseas donors to upgrade school facilities, improve teacher

education, school management, and provide resources for urban and rural areas

(Afamasaga, 2001). Although a lot has been done to improve the quality and relevance

of Samoa education, the problem of unemployment and related social problems, such as

school dropouts, burglary and drug taking still persist (GOS, 2001).

A survey by the GOS Statistics Department in 1994 found that 14,541 of the age group

between 10 to 34 reside in the Apia urban area, of which 3,607 or 25 per cent were

neither in full time employment nor engaged in full time education. The survey

concluded that unemployment exist in both urban and rural areas (GOS, 2001). Likewise,

a survey by UNDP shows a growing number of youth unemployment, a decline in the

school enrolments and a high drop out rates of 16 per cent (GOS, 2000b). GOS MESC

Education Statistical Digest (2003c: 11) shows similar results for recent years. This is

shown in Table 1.2.

7

Table 1.2: Secondary Schools Drop out Rate (%) by Year Level

Year 9-10 10-11 11-12 12-13 1997-1998 1998-1999 1999-2000 2000-2001 2001-2002 2002-2003

10 6

10 10 9 4

9 8

12 13 15 12

25 18 17 10 6 4

42 42 47 44 39 38

(Source: GOS, MESC Education Statistical Digest, 2003: 11).

The Education Strategies Report clearly states that the education system in Samoa is

examination-oriented and it de-selects students so that only a few reach secondary level

(Government of Western Samoa, 1995a). The low number of students entering

secondary education means that most school leavers would not have had the basic

education to prepare them to undertake further education and training, perform in the

workforce or fit back into the rural and mixed subsistence sector.

Table 1.3 clearly shows that the majority of the students who enroll in Grade 9 drops out

before reaching Year 13. This means that these students would return to the village ill-

prepared to utilize the resources available owing to the lack of vocational skills taught at

the secondary level.

Table 1.3: School Enrolment for all Secondary Schools

Year Grade 9 Grade 10 Grade 11 Grade 12 Grade 13 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003

3,467 3,909 3,400 3,451 3,371 3,469 3,615 3,643 3,726 3,736

3,219 3,172 3,343 3,221 3,119 3,153 3,128 3,265 3,320 3,565

3,322 3,315 3,046 3,314 3,127 3,049 2,862 2,811 2,864 3,044

1,830 1,925 2,111 2,428 2,473 2,548 2,532 2,569 2,829 2,886

863 977 804 997

1,271 1,325 1,278 1,395 1,420 1,616


8

Furthermore, a report by UNESCO shows that the average number of students who pass

the University Entrance examinations and move to universities is about one per cent of

the total school age population. Another four per cent are selected to attend local

institutions. The remaining students do not find employment and return to the village,

disappointed, disoriented and ill prepared both in attitudes and skills (Government of

Western Samoa, 1984; Lee-Hang, 2002).

The DOE Statistical Report (Government of Western Samoa, 1995b) made it clear that

the performance of students in the National and Regional examinations is very important

because it determines who would go to universities and who would enter the workforce.

In reality, the majority of students would have to look for work in private or public

sectors. However, owing to the shortage of employment opportunities in urban areas and

lack of employability skills many return to the villages. They are unable to generate self-

employment in rural areas because they are not sufficiently prepared for it (Lee-Hang,

2002). Thus, a more vocational-oriented school curriculum seems appropriate.

The government proposed a five-year social economic plan in the early 1970. It

challenged the validity of the existing school system. It claimed that the curriculum was

unsuitable to the national development needs and to the realistic ambitions that could be

attained by Samoan youths (Thomas, 1985; Harrison, 1973).

Consequently, certain measures have been initiated to help foster changes in order to

provide more quality and relevant education so that the students obtain employability

9

skills both in urban and rural settings. In order to accommodate the changes, the GOS

introduced its first statement of economic strategy (SES) entitled "A Partnership". The

document incorporates the MESC policies and strategies for the period 1995-2005.

These policies are designed to build an education system characterized by ‘equity’,

‘quality’, ‘relevancy’ and ‘efficiency’ (Government of Western Samoa, 1995a). The

policies aim at improving special education, teacher education, school facilities,

curriculum materials and school management. Additionally, it emphasizes the

significance of effective vocational and technical training in the secondary and post-

secondary level of education. This research project was to examine the management and

implementation of TVET courses in the secondary school curriculum in Samoa.

It is expected that this study would reveal findings that would help us to understand the

above problem and attempt to improve the quality of our education.

RESEARCH INTEREST My interest in vocational education began when I was a secondary school teacher at a

well-established, prominent high school in Samoa. This school is noted for high external

examination achievement because of the school structure, qualified teachers and

environment and resources conducive to student learning. The school enrolls students

from the elite society and competition for high external examination results is high

among students. The school’s goals are consistent with Samoa’s examination-driven

curriculum. This system of education only served the academically-bright students who

10

generally come from the rich families. The majority of the ‘slow’ learners either drops

out of school altogether, or enroll in vocational subjects.

The major argument of this study is that TVET is still not considered an important

component of the total learning of an individual in Samoa.

Despite numerous educational reforms to uplift the standard of TVET, not much

improvement has been noticed in providing education that adequately prepared the school

graduates for the world of work in the Samoan context. Often the questions asked are:

What are the reasons for this? Is it that TVET programmes are not implemented well?

Or is the education system in Samoa directed by wider social, economic and

political factors?

No doubt the above-mentioned problem is a product of the current education system

itself. This study is timely. It will attempt to examine the management and

implementation of technical and vocational education and training (TVET) component of

the Samoan Secondary School curriculum.

Five secondary schools were selected for this study. The respondents were randomly

selected from the case study schools and the Ministry of Education, Sports and Culture

(MESC). Table 1.1 contains a summary of the research respondents.

11

Table 1.4: Summary of the total number of Research Respondents Respondents CS1 CS2 CS3 CS4 CS5 MESC TOTAL Principals 1 1 1 3 V/Principals 1 1 1 1 4 Head of Depts. 2 1 1 2 1 7 MESC Officials 6 6 Teachers

8 8 5 8

5 34 (11* & 3**)

Students

42

43 28 38 44 195 (25* &15**)

Parents 5 8 4 5 3 25 (25* & 11**)

TOTAL 58 62 38 55 55 6 274 (101* & 29**)

(Source: Fieldwork Notes, 2003-2004. Key: * Number of Individual interviews, ** Number of group discussions. AIMS OF THE STUDY In respect of the above discussion, the study aims to: • investigate the management of TVET in five secondary schools • examine how TVET is taught in the classrooms. • identify factors that impedes and/or facilitates the successful implementation of

TVET courses at the secondary school level. • examine the perceptions of various stakeholders towards TVET at the secondary

school level.

• provide insights and suggest ways in which its management and implementation process can be improved.

RESEARCH QUESTIONS

In harmony with the above aims the study addresses the following research questions. • How are TVET programmes managed in secondary schools? • How are TVET courses taught? • What is the quality and quantity of TVET resources and equipment in the secondary

schools?

12

• What hinders the successful management and implementation of TVET courses? • What perceptions do the stakeholders hold of TVET courses? • What are the major implications of the study for policy and practice and for further research? SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY

The TVET courses at the secondary school level in Samoa need more attention (Sharma,

2000; Aveau, 2003; Fiji, 2000). It has been a component of the secondary school

curriculum for many years but its effectiveness in contributing towards a more quality

education has not been realized satisfactorily (Aveau, 2003). To-date there has not been

much research on the nature of its management and implementation processes. In this

sense this study is important because it will provide the stakeholders including the

MESC, and schools and communities with useful knowledge and insights on the

following:

• management and implementation of vocational education and training at the secondary school level in Samoa;

• appropriate section of the TVET teaching and learning, assessment and evaluation

approaches currently used in Samoan secondary schools, and the ways in which it can be effectively implemented;

• opinions of various stakeholders in regards to TVET courses at the secondary school

level. • policies and practices of TVET management at the secondary school level and how

these may be improved to provide quality education; and • new knowledge that could compliment the Samoan perspectives.

13

Therefore, the significance of this study is not only to provide information that would

strengthen its policy and practice but also to compliment the relevant international

literature on TVET.

ORGANISATION OF THE THESIS Chapter 2 contained the context of the study. It described Samoa’s geographical location

as well as its social, political, economic and educational background. Chapter 3 deals

with the literature review on TVET and elaborated on the management of educational

change which sets the framework for this study. The methodology used in this study is

fully discussed in Chapter 4. The fieldwork data collected from the five case study

schools is presented in Chapter 5. Chapter 6 discussed the research findings in light of

the framework presented in Chapter 3. Chapter 7 presented the key findings and then

draws the implications of the study to its many audiences.

14

CHAPTER TWO

DEVELOPMENT OF EDUCATION IN SAMOA INTRODUCTION

This chapter provides background information about Samoa that will enable the readers

to appreciate the context in which this study is situated. It will describe Samoa’s

geographical, social, economic, political and educational contexts all of which have

implications for the development of formal and informal TVET programmes.

GEOGRAPHICAL CONTEXT Samoa is the native name given to the group of volcanic islands located in the Central

South Pacific Region. It was once known as the "Navigator Islands". Samoa lies 1,800

miles northeast of New Zealand and 2,600 miles south west of the Hawaiian Islands. It is

located between 13 and 15 degree latitude south, and 171 and 172 degree longitude west

(Hart, 1971). This indeed makes Samoa the heart of Polynesia. Figure 2.1 (Appendix 1)

shows the location of the Samoan Islands in relation to the other Pacific Island countries.

Samoa has a land area of 2,934 square kilometers and consists of 10 islands of which

only four are inhabited. The remaining six are too small and lack arable farming land for

human habitation. Savaii, the biggest island is about 700 square miles and contains some

of Samoa's lush and untouched rainforests, golden sandy beaches and fascinating

historical sites. These attractions combine well with the warm weather conditions to

draw tourists from other countries all year around. Tourism is a developing industry and

should provide employment for the early school leavers, the majority of who resides in

15

rural areas. Savaii also contains vast areas of fertile land suitable for agriculture. This has

implications for the development of skills in agricultural technology. The island of Savaii

is accessible by plane and ferry.

The second largest island in the Samoan group is Upolu with an area of 425 square miles

(Hart, 1971). It is the most populated island of the Samoan group because of Apia the

capital city. It is where there is greater access to education, medical facilities,

employment and amusement centres. The other two islands that are inhabited are Manono

and Apolima. They are much smaller in size and are accessible by small vessels only. A

number of tiny uninhabited islands and a few lonely atolls make up the remainder of the

country.

The total population of Samoa in 2004 was about 180,900. This comprises 92.6 per cent

Samoans, 7 per cent Euronesians and 0.4 per cent Europeans (GOS, 2005).

Samoa is situated about 800 miles south of the equator, therefore, hot and humid most of

the year. However, the southwest trade winds blowing from April to October makes the

climate favourable for tourists and traders. Like most PICs, Samoa has a wet and dry

season. The wet season is between November to April and the dry between May to

October. The Samoan Islands lie in the cyclone belt and is periodically affected by

cyclones, especially in the months between November to April. Samoa has survived

some dreadful cyclones in history, and is still recovering from the effects of the two

devastating cyclones in the early 1990s, which destroyed homes, schools, roads and farm

lands. The Samoan islands are surrounded by coral reefs, which skirt the floor and form

16

lagoons. These are valuables both for good fishing grounds and safe anchorage for small

tourist vessels

Samoa is suitably located for agricultural and tourist industries and in my view, this

means that the school curriculum should prepare school graduate for employment in these

areas as well.

SOCIAL CONTEXT Samoans have tended to retain their traditional ways despite exposure to European

influences for more than 150 years. Most Samoans live within the traditional social

system based on the ‘aiga’, or extended family group, headed by a ‘matai’ or a chief.

The title of chief is conferred to any eligible member of the group, including women. In

addition to representing the family in village and district councils (‘fono’), the chief is

responsible for the general welfare of the family including the use of family lands and

other assets (Meleisea, 1992).

The Samoans recognized the value of learning and teaching which they believe enhances

family, village and the community. In the village, there are councils or committees such

as chiefs and untitled men (‘Matai’ and ‘aumaga’), women's council (‘komiti a tina’),

and the Sunday school organisation (‘Aoga Aso Sa’). These organisations teach men,

women and children skills in crafting, hunting, carving, pottery, fishing, cooking,

weaving, gardening and health issues. Malo (1982: 19) illustrates that this type of

learning and teaching:

17

• is realistic and based on life skills and experiences; • prepares individuals for their roles in the family, church, and the community; • depends considerably on stories and traditions as strategies for helping children to

learn about their society; and • aims to preserves the culture and language of Samoa. Similar to other PICs, Samoan culture, knowledge, skills, customs and vocations are

transmitted through observations and in daily village activities (Fanaafi, 1957; Thomas,

1985; Meleisea, 1987b). A great deal of this informal learning continues in the villages

today where the ‘faa’-Samoa (Samoan way of living) is strongly emphasized.

Apparently, a great deal of informal training in life skills is done in rural areas.

Therefore, life skills such as crafting, carving, gardening, landscaping, flower

arrangements, food preservation and canning could be introduced in the schools.

Introducing and teaching these skills and techniques could assist the rural community in

setting up self-owned and self-managed businesses to earn their livelihood.

Although Samoa has been changing from traditional way of living and to more western,

the people of the island still have a lot of respect for their culture, traditions and language.

These are their identity and this makes them unique individuals amongst other Polynesian

and Pacific Islanders. Including Samoan culture and tradition in the school curriculum

could strengthen the young Samoans to maintain and uphold their unique status and

identity as Samoans. The Samoan language is the dominant language, but English is

widely used in education, commercial and government sectors (Mata’afa, 2004).

18

ECONOMIC CONTEXT The Samoan economy is among the fastest growing in the Pacific Island economies,

although growth is heavily dependent on a few industries such as tourism and fisheries

(GOS, 2002c). Samoa's economy is dominated by subsistence village agriculture, which

absorbs two thirds of the country's labour force. The main food crops are coconuts,

breadfruit, bananas, cocoa and taro. Some progress has been made with measures to

diversify the agricultural base and the fisheries sector has shown major growth in the last

5 years and is now the country’s biggest commodity export earner (GOS, 2002).

Tourism has developed in the 1990s into Samoa’s top foreign exchange earner.

According to the Human Development Report, the total revenues for tourism in 2004

accounted for 15 per cent of GDP (GOS, 2005). The major tourist markets for Samoa are

New Zealand (25 per cent) and American Samoa (35 per cent). Many of these visitors

are expatriate Samoans returning to visit friends and family, but the number of

holidaymakers is growing (GOS, 2002).

Remittances and development aids also play an important role in shaping the Samoan

economy Assistances from aid donors goes into the developments and upgrading of

schools, hospitals, roads and government buildings.

The largest foreign owned multinational corporation is Yasaki Samoa, a Japanese-owned

company processing automotive wires for exports to overseas countries under a

concessional market arrangement with the Samoan Government. The Yazaki Samoa

19

Limited employs about 2,000 Samoans, ranging from degree holders to the early school

leavers (GOS, 2001). There are also other industries such as the Vailima breweries, the

cigarette company and timber factories that assist the Yazaki in providing exports and

employment for the Samoan people.

Samoa’s main exports are nonu juice, kava, coconut, taro, banana, coconut oil and

vailima beer. New Zealand is Samoa's principal trading partner, providing between 35-

40 per cent of the imports and purchasing 45-50 per cent of the exports. Australia,

United States of America, American Samoa, Fiji, Japan and China are also other

important trading partners (GOS, 2002).

Since agriculture remains the bulk of Samoa’s economy, the application of new forms of

agricultural technology can open up new opportunities in rural areas. Such a process has

implications for TVET programmes in farm management and crops and animals

productions. The aims of TVET programmes should focus on these areas so the majority

of students who cannot proceed to higher education could be equipped with the necessary

skills to utilize the abundance natural resources that Samoa is fortunate to have.

Fishing is another important industry. Recently, new methods of fishing and fish

conservation have been introduced and are taught in the rural and urban communities by

the Fisheries Department. Such courses can also be introduced at the secondary school

level.

20

Samoa has attracted a lot of tourists from different countries in the past years. Therefore,

courses in tourism and hospitality should be emphasized in both formal and non-formal

educational institutions. TVET has a lot to offer to improve the economy of Samoa in the

areas of agriculture, fishing and tourism.

POLITICAL CONTEXT It is believed that Samoans, like other Polynesians, originated from the East Indies, the

Malay Peninsula or the Philippines. The Samoans, however, tell a different story.

According to them, other Polynesians might have come from Asia but Samoans have

always been in Samoa. Despite the many theories, Samoans believe themselves to be the

cradle of Polynesian culture, a race of people created by the God, ‘Tagaloa’ while ‘He’

was creating the world.

Long before the arrival of the first Europeans in the late 1700s, Samoa was engaged in

civil wars to obtain the 'Tafaifa’ (four paramount) title (Holmes, 1974; Tu’u’u, 2001).

On the arrival of the European missionaries in 1830 civil disputes ceased. Samoan

lifestyles and culture have change dramatically since the arrival of the missionaries and

colonial rulers.

The Missionaries

These early missionaries, especially the London Missionary Society (LMS) found the

Samoans very receptive to the new religion due to a prophecy of an old sorceress of the

Island of Manono and the Goddess of war, ‘Nafanua’. It was said that a time would

21

come for all Samoans to worship a new and powerful God, rather than their old God and

Goddess (Hart, 1971; Holmes, 1974). The Samoans believed that this prophecy was

fulfilled when the first LMS missionaries arrived at Sapapalii, a village on the island of

Savaii in 1830. They converted Malietoa Vainuupo, holder of one of the ‘tafa’ifa’

(paramount) title and some natives. Britsch (1977) refers to this as the beginning of an era

of discovery for Samoa and its people.

Years afterwards, other religious organisations such as the Methodists in 1935, Catholics

in 1845, Latter-Day Saints (LDS) in 1888, and the Seventh-day Adventists (SDA) in

1898 arrived in Samoa. Although these denominations were of different faith, they had

one purpose to accomplish, which was Christianising the Samoans and they succeeded in

doing so (Keesing, 1934; Latourett, 1970; Cox, 1984). Their effective teaching and

influence have made the Samoan people devotedly religious and now they spend a lot of

time and resources to church activities. About 99.7 per cent of the Samoans are

Christians. The main religious organizations are LMS (now known as the Congregational

Christian Church), Catholics, Methodists, Latter-Day Saints (LDS) and Seventh-day

Adventists (SDA) (Cox, 1984). Sundays in Samoa are observed with great respect. The

missionaries opened doors for traders who also played an important role in shaping

Samoa’s political history.

The Germans

The Germans ruled Samoa between 1899 to1914. They expanded schools established by

the missionaries and also opened new schools and expanded roads and cocoa, cotton and

22

coconut plantations. Furthermore, they brought in Chinese to work on their plantation

because the Samoans were not so keen in doing the labour work. The Germans

overlooked local customs and chiefs and the indigenous Samoans did not like to be under

autocratic foreign rule. Therefore, they formed a resistance force, called the ‘Mau

Movement’, dedicated to the preservation of their culture. Through this movement, they

also sought independence (Latourett, 1970; Cox, 1984; Meleisea, 1987a).

New Zealand Administration

New Zealand was awarded trusteeship to govern Samoa after World War II. A change in

rulers meant little to the Mau Movement or the majority of Samoans who continued to

fight for independence. Despite the Mau Movement, the New Zealand administration

continued to rule Samoa. They broaden businesses, expanded schools and implemented a

new system of education in which students are required to take internal and external

examinations. After years of foreign rulers, Samoa was granted self-government in 1962

(Holmes, 1974; Meleisea, 1987a).

Self-Government

Samoa became the first Pacific Island Country to gain independence from colonial rulers.

Samoa has a constitutional monarchy. The Head of State, Malietoa Tanumafili II holds

office for life. The government is based on parliamentary democracy and the general

election is held once in every five years. The Prime Minister, who is chosen by

Parliament and appointed by the Head of State, leads a Cabinet of 12 ministers.

23

Samoa is divided into 11 political districts, which contains several villages. Each district

is headed by a member of parliament (‘faipule’) that is elected by the village chiefs. The

‘faipule’ represents the district in parliament meetings. He speaks on behalf of the

village in matters concerning the district. In 1990, a bill was passed giving women the

right to vote. A new constitutional amendment changed the name of the country to

Samoa in July 1997. Previously, it had been known as Western Samoa.

Despite the influence of globalisation and western life styles, Samoa maintains its culture

and traditional ways of life where the chiefly (‘matai’) system remains a largely

respected and powerful political organisation today.

EDUCATIONAL CONTEXT Traditional Education

Vocational education and training began long before the arrival of the first European

missionaries; however, it was informal and not institutionalized. Although Margaret

Mead’s (1943: 634) study of Samoan societies is controversial, she reveals that formal

schooling did not exist but definitely there were teaching and learning. She further states,

“Parents taught the children to master their environment, to swim, to climb, to handle

fire, to paddle canoe, to judge distance and to calculate the strength of materials”.

Petana-Ioka (1995:14) also indicates that ‘traditional knowledge’ was passed through

generation by ‘word of mouth’ and through engaging in cultural activities.

24

The Samoans had for generations taught pragmatic skills in which women and young

girls participate in activities such as craft making, weaving, tapa making, pottery,

cooking, decorating and tending little children. The young men also learn to fish, hunt,

cook, carve and draw by working with their parents or other village adults. Through these

activities, the girls and boys learned about the Samoan culture, knowledge, skills,

attitudes and values (Fanaafi, 1957; Meleisea, 1987b). Derrick (1957: 21) says that these

skills were transferred from one generation to another within the family or social group in

an "informal way" and was “regulated by custom". Likewise, Fanaafi (1957: 166) says

that these sorts of training "was intricately bound together with the native ceremonial life-

style and had not a common home or schedule”. Taufe’ulungaki (2001: 5) states that

“although it was informal, practical, interactive and life long, it was considered

worthwhile learning". This is the type of education that existed in Samoa years ago.

We refer to this system of education as "tradition" or in Samoan "the Faa-Samoa" which

means "the Samoan way of life". Malo (1982: 19) illustrates that in this form of

education three main groups provide the education to the Samoans: (1) the family; (2) the

extended family; and (3) the village or the community.

Mission Schools

The Missionaries introduced a new method of learning and teaching through "reading and

writing" (GOS, 1997). This was done in a formal way within the homes of pastors before

school buildings were constructed (Malo, 1982). The progress and development of this

formal system of education resulted in the establishment of many village schools by

missionaries of various denominations (Methodist, London Missionary Society (LMS),

25

Latter-Day Saints (LDS), Catholic, and Seventh-day Adventists (SDA) where

missionaries were teachers. For many years, Pastors’ schools were the only schools

available in the villages. Their main aim was to educate the Samoans for religious

services (Malo, 1982; Meleisea, 1987a). Basic literacy and numeracy skills as well as

History and Geography were taught in the vernacular language in most of these schools

(Keesing, 1934). In addition, skills such as carpentry, farming, cooking, crafting and

sewing were taught (Derrick, 1952; Meleisea, 1987a; Kurian, 1988). According to

Turner (1962) the missionaries followed the “European model” of education (cited in

Cox, 1984). The missionaries prospered and before the 1900 almost every village in

Samoa had an ‘Aoga Faifeau’ – a school managed by the missionaries.

It is important to note that the missionaries emphasised the significance of teaching

practical and life skills. It is manifested through the various mission schools they

established in the mid and late 1800s and the early 1900s. For example, the London

Missionary Society (LMS) established a school at Leulumoega Tuai where practical

skills in carpentry and agriculture were taught. Furthermore, a girls’ school at Papauta

was established in 1891 to train girls in their roles as mothers and homemakers. They also

received secular education in Mathematics, English, Reading, Social Science and

Christian Education (Malo, 1982).

Similarly, the Methodist established a Girls’ school known as Avoka in 1914. This school

became the main centre for training women to become wives of ministers. Courses such

as cooking, sewing, decorating, house management and childcare were taught at the

Avoka Girls School. In 1922, a school was established at Faleula to teach skills in

26

carpentry, engineering and agriculture. A Boys’ school was also established in

Satupaitea, in the island of Savaii for the same purpose (Allardice, 1984; 1989).

The Latter-Day Saints (LDS) established a school in 1916, which developed to become a

secondary school in 1954 with a diversified curriculum that still exists today (Cox, 1984).

The LDS introduced courses in agriculture, woodwork, mechanic, home economics,

secretarial studies, and art. The main purpose of the school was to train students for the

‘world of work’. In addition, academic courses such as English, Mathematics, Science,

Social Science and Samoan Language were also taught (Cox, 1984).

The desire of the Samoan people for material things, goods and “money for church

contributions” opened the way for the traders, explorers and colonists, who also played

an important role in Samoa’s education (Keesing, 1934: 401).

During the German regime, little development was made in education because they were

more interested in their trading operation (Derrick, 1952). During their rule, the

churches were given the full rights to continue running the affairs of their own schools

(Petana-Ioka, 1995). According to Keesing (1934), the German administration paid little

attention to the teaching of practical skills. They built the first government school at

Malifa to educate children of the expatriates, the Germans, Americans, English and

mixed-blooded Samoans for the government services. The German Language was taught

at the Malifa School and at selected Mission schools (Keesing, 1934).

27

When New Zealand (NZ) came into power, there was no coordination among the mission

schools. Therefore, the first thing they did was to set up a national school system so that

all schools (both Missions and Government) in Samoa could be regularised and

rationalised. New Zealand also took over most of the schools operated by the

missionaries and transformed them into village public schools. Furthermore, they

implemented a new system for secondary schools with a school curriculum based on New

Zealand model of education where students were required to sit examinations such as the

New Zealand School Certificate and the University Entrance examinations (Mai’ai,

1957). English was also made as the language of instruction in all the public schools. In

1922, the New Zealand administration built a government school at Vaipouli, Savaii. In

addition, they relocated the Malifa School to Vailima and in 1924 it became an

agricultural school. This school still exists today, but it is no longer an agriculture school

(Keesing, 1934). A Teachers' Training College was also established in 1939 to provide

training for Samoan teachers. This was later named as the Western Samoa Teachers’

Training College (WSTC), which was instrumental in organizing HE and IA in the

schools in the early 1980s. The WSTC is now the NUS-Faculty of Education that

continues to provide education for Samoan teachers. Another government school was

established at Vaivase in 1953. This school still exists today and is regarded as one of the

best schools on the island. Years later a Technical Training Institute, Marine Training

Centre and a Primary Teachers’ College were established. Before independence, the

secondary education was based on the New Zealand model with imported curricula and

teachers. Students sat the School Certificate and University Entrance examinations in

order to attend overseas universities and to qualify for government jobs (Keesing, 1934;

28

National Institute for Educational Research, 1986). This system of education attracted

many policy makers, educators, administrators, parents and students because of its high

reputation.

This is consistent with Keesing (1934: 438) when he reports that the Samoans have

shown great interest in learning English and obtaining an education “with a direct eye to

a government or mission post”. Furthermore, many Samoans regarded the English

language as the “esoteric formula that unveils the secret of western living”. Fanaafi

(1957: 188) indicates that children began to look for government jobs and get to a point

where children were no longer interested to work on the “plantation but desired to go to

Apia” and seek wage-employment. This means that young people considered the

prospect of working on the land or at sea unattractive and of low of status. This notion

had been passed down to younger generation. It accounts for the limited number of

students enrolled in TVET courses in the secondary schools today.

It is interesting to note that this bias towards western ideas is not new. Ever since the

arrival of the missionaries, the Samoans have regarded the western people and their ideas

superior to their own. According to Keesing (1934: 39); Gibson (1970: 72) a Samoan

named Faue’a, who accompanied John Williams in his first visit to Samoa announced:

It is my wish that the Christian religion should become universal amongst us. I look at the wisdom of these worshippers of Jehovah and see how superior they are in every respect. Their ships can traverse the tempest-driven ocean for months with perfect safety… Their persons are covered from head to foot in beautiful clothes … we have only leaves, their axes are hard and sharp, while we use shark teeth . . . what valuable things they have! Now, I conclude that the God who has given to these white worshippers these valuable things must be wiser than our gods, for they haven’t given the like to us. We all want these articles; and … therefore their God should be our God.

29

These ideas and thoughts have been passed down through the generations. The young

Samoans today also embrace western ideas and styles. These ideas and styles often

contradict Samoan culture and values. Samoans, these days, prefer office jobs with high

salaries rather than being a farmer, home maker or a carpenter. The majority of parents’

push their children to study English and other academic subjects and not vocational and

technical subjects. This mentality contributes to the low status received by TVET

education in Samoa (Aveau, 2003).

The teaching of practical skills were part of everyday life, however, the introduction of

the formal school system install the idea that education is all about passing examinations

and finding a ‘white collar’ job. The growth of globalization and industrialization

brought back interest in TVET that was ‘long forgotten’ by the education system

(Thaman, 2001). TVET courses are being introduced at the secondary and post

secondary levels in Samoa. However, there is still a need to improve the area of TVET in

the education system. More courses could be introduced to add to the four (food and

textile, agriculture, business studies and design and technology) that are being offered in

the secondary schools. Courses in fishing, arts and crafts, tourism and hospitality,

catering, landscaping, and the like could be added to the list. Furthermore, some of these

courses could be introduced in the primary schools. Such proposals have also been made

in Fiji in the Fiji Islands Education Commission Report 2000 (Sharma, 2000).

FORMAL EDUCATION SYSTEM

Formal education in Samoa is provided through three principal stakeholders; the

government, religious organisations and private institutions. District committees, in

30

partnership with the MESC, manage the 95 per cent of government schools while the

private and religious organisations are managed and funded privately with their own

directors and management boards. All schools use a common curriculum with the

exception of their curriculum for Religious Education (GOS, 2000b).

Education in Samoa is patterned on the New Zealand model which consists of an eight-

year primary school programme (Years 1 to 8) and a five-year secondary school

programme (Years 9 to 13). Ideally, a Samoan student is expected to receive 13 years of

schooling. Figure 2.2 (Appendix 2) illustrates the Samoa formal education system.

While most Junior Secondary schools (JSS) have been upgraded to senior secondary

schools (SSS), some JSSs still exist in the rural areas (GOS, 1995c).

Rural JSSs generally have poor facilities, and do not attract the best teachers. As a result,

they normally cater for students who are ‘push out’ of the formal system because of low

grades in internal and external examinations (GOS, 1995c). According to the Education

Policies 1995-2005, 50 per cent of students who enter Year 9 at JSSs do not complete

Year 11 and only 10 per cent of them are able to access government senior secondary

schools (Government of Western Samoa, 1995a). In addition, a survey by the Ministry of

Youth indicates that the majority of the unemployed youths in Samoa are from the rural

JSSs (GOS, 2000b).

Primary Education

Primary school begins at Year 1 (age 5) and continues to Year 8 (age 14). Primary

education in Samoa is not free; however, it has become compulsory since 1994. The

31

policy is aligned with UNESCOs ‘Education for All’ (Government of Western Samoa,

1995a). Table 2.1 shows the type and total number of primary schools in Samoa.

Table 2.1: Summary of the Types of Primary Schools in Samoa

Primary School Type Total

Government 141

Mission 15

Private 6

Total 162

(Source: GOS, MESC Education Statistical Report, 2003: 1).

The five core subjects taught at the primary level are English, Mathematics, Science,

Social Science and Samoan Language and Culture. Samoan language is the medium of

instruction during the first six years of primary education while English is the language of

instructions for Years 7 and 8 in all the subjects. This language policy is however, not

strictly adhered to as schools teach entirely in Samoan from Years 1 to 8. TVET courses

are not offered in the primary schools (Government of Western Samoa, 1995a).

A national examination at the end of Year 8 usually determines who proceeds to JSS or

SSS. The highest achievers usually go to Samoa, Avele, Leififi or Vaipouli Colleges, the

four government SSSs with years 12 and 13, while students with lower marks get into the

rural JSSs (Government Western Samoa, 1995b). Students from the mission and private

schools sit national examination but are accommodated directly into their own secondary

schools.

Consequently, the majority of Year 8 students end up in rural JSSs. This has implications

for TVET courses in the primary schools. According to some TVET officials, TVET

32

courses could be offered to Years 7 and 8 students to prepare them for the TVET

programme in the junior and senior secondary schools (Fieldwork Notes, 2003: 16).

Secondary Education Secondary education is for five years from Years 9 to 13. It is divided into three years of

JSS programme from Years 9 to 11 and two years of SSS programme, Years 12 and 13.

The core and examinable subjects in the Year 11 national examination are Samoan,

English, Mathematics, Science and Social Science while Agricultural Science, Business

Studies, Home Economics and Industrial Arts are optional subjects. Art and Craft, Music

and Physical Education are non-examinable. By contrast, the SSS curriculum offers

Samoan Language and Culture, English, Accounting, Biology, Chemistry, Economics,

Geography, History, Physics and General Science. All subjects are examinable in the

Year 12 Samoa School Certificate (SSC) and the Year 13 Pacific Senior Secondary

Certificate (PSSC) examinations. The Samoan Language and Culture is non-examinable

in the PSSC (Government of Western Samoa, 1995a).

Progress through the secondary system depends on three examinations:

● Year 11 National;

● Year 12 SSC; and

● Year 13 PSSC

The Year 13 PSSC is a Pacific regional examination coordinated and administered by the

South Pacific Board for Educational Assessment (SPBEA) in Fiji (Government of

Western Samoa, 1995a).

33

All secondary schools offer the same programmes of study except for the Samoan

Language class. The medium of instruction and examination is English. However,

bilingualism and ‘code switching’ is a common practice (Government of Western Samoa,

1995a).

Table: 2.2 Summary of the Types of Secondary Schools in Samoa as of 2003

Secondary School Junior Secondary Senior Secondary

Total

Government 18 6 24 Mission 2 13 15 Private 0 1 1 Total 19 21 40

(Source: GOS, MESC Education Statistical Report, 2003: 1). Table 2.2 shows that the mission schools provide most of the senior secondary education

for Samoan children while the government makes provision of junior secondary

education. In 2002, the government upgraded two JSSs to SSSs, in the Vaimauga and the

Siumu district (Fieldwork Notes, 2004: 22).

The six government SSSs cannot accommodate all the students exiting at the end of Year

11 from government JSSs. Therefore, many of them strive to get places in mission

schools but find it difficult because the mission secondary schools have their own

primary school students to cater for. A common problem in government and mission

SSSs is over crowding due to the limited space and amenities (GOS, 2003b).

34

Table 2.3: Total Secondary School Enrolments by level and gender as of 2003

Government Mission Private Level Male Female Total Male Female Total Male Female Total

9 1,182 1,184 2,366 632 691 1,323 24 23 47

10 1,110 1,107 2,217 598 698 1,296 22 30 52

11 907 999 1,906 565 573 1,138 0 0 0

12 644 819 1,463 662 705 1,367 32 24 56

13 257 349 606 494 461 955 19 36 55

Total 4,100 4,458 8,558 2,951 3,128 6,079 97 113 210


Table 2.3 shows the enrolment of Year 13 students in 2003. The MESC Education

Statistical Digest indicates a decrease in the number of students who reach Years 12 and

13 (GOS, 2003c).

For years, the Samoan education system had followed the dual-stream structure of

education illustrated in Figure 2.3 (Appendix 3). The dual-stream structure separates the

junior and the senior secondary schools with different curricula. For example, the JSSs

offer five core subjects, Mathematics, English, Samoan Language, General Science and

Social Studies and optional courses (Business Studies (BS), Physical Education (PE),

Food and Textile Technology (FTT), Agriculture Science (AS) and Design and

Technology (DT). By contrast, the SSS curriculum includes English, Mathematics,

Samoan Language, Biology, Geography, History, Computers, Economics and

Accounting. Three of the SSSs (Samoa, Avele and Vaipouli Colleges) do not offer

TVET subjects.

35

In the past, streaming using Year 8 examination results relegated students with lower

grades to JSSs and those with higher grades were enrolled in SSSs. This dual-system was

found to be inequitable and inefficient. Furthermore, it was widely considered to lack

“relevance to village life and labour market needs” (Government of Western Samoa,

1995b: 16). Furthermore, it stated that the Year 11 national examination is seen as the

gateway to Year 12 in any of the mission or the government SSSs. Usually the

government SSSs takes the brilliant students and the better-qualified teachers. On the

contrary, the below average students are pushed into district junior secondary schools

with poor facilities, less qualified teachers, limited resources and poor infrastructure

(GOS, 2000c; Government of Western Samoa, 1995b).

It was mentioned in previous chapters, that the government acknowledges the inequitable

and inefficient dual-stream structure of education. Therefore efforts have been made to

remedy the problems and streamline the education system. In doing so, the dual-stream

structure has recently been merged into a five-year single stream indicated in Figure 2.4

(Appendix 4). This new single stream system of education is currently being

implemented in the government JSSs. This includes the upgrading of all government

JSSs to include Years 12 and 13, and improving their facilities, teacher training and

teaching materials. Moreover, the curriculum and assessment requirements in the new

single stream apply to all secondary school students in both government and mission

schools. In particular, the students in both rural and urban areas take the same courses

and participate in the SSC and the PSSC examinations regardless of their academic

standing (GOS, 2000c).

36

The Year 11 national examination was used as a selection criterion for Year 12. In 2003,

the improvement of some JSSs to include Years 12 and 13 made the Year 11 national

examination redundant. The goal of the new single stream is to provide for equity,

quality, efficiency and relevancy in education. The mission and private secondary schools

have been operating in this single stream for many years (Government of Western

Samoa, 1995b; GOS, 2000c)

Tertiary Education

The SSC and the PSSC examinations qualify Year 13 students for tertiary education. The

National University of Samoa (NUS), Samoa Poly-technical Institute (SPI) and the

University of the South Pacific (USP) - Alafua Campus provide tertiary qualifications for

Samoan students.

The National University of Samoa (NUS) was established in 1984. The NUS offers

certificates, diplomas, and bachelors’ degrees in the fields of Arts, Commerce, Education,

Science, Mathematics, Nursing and Computing (to name a few) (Aveau, 2003). In

addition, NUS provides seventh-form education, under the Foundation Certificate

Programme. To be eligible for the Foundation, students must pass English and three other

subjects in the PSSC examination. The GOS, MESC Education Statistical Digest (2003c)

indicates that in 2001, 34 per cent of Year 13 students who sat PSSC made it to

Foundation. Therefore, only one-third of students qualify for further academic education.

37

Fieldwork data (2004) reveal that 52 per cent of the students are enrolled in the SPI for

training in technical and vocational skills and some even take up employment in the

public or private sectors. The remaining 14 per cent add to the rising number of

unemployed youths in Samoa. These students “return to the village disenchanted with

the education system and forced to work in the plantation, or remain disillusioned in the

urban area and join the ranks of dissatisfied and unemployed sector of society” (Lee-

Hang, 2003: 22).

The Samoa Poly-technical Institute offers certificates and diplomas in TVET courses.

The courses include Automotive, Engineering, Plumbing, Secretarial Studies,

Management, Designing, Crafting and Tourism and Hospitality (Aveau, 2003). It is

important to note that at the time of current study, the two tertiary institutions, namely,

NUS and SPI, are in the process of merging (Fieldwork Notes, 2003-2004) and is a topic

of another study.

Another institution that offers tertiary education is the University of the South Pacific

(USP). The USP has its Agricultural Programme based in Samoa at the USP-Alafua

Campus. The Alafua-Campus offers diplomas and degrees courses in Agricultural

Science. The Alafua set-up has advantages in Samoa’s natural resources and arable land

for agricultural activities, and greatly benefits Samoan students because of its

accessibility and therefore economical and cost saving to many families. The university

also offers diplomas and degrees in other areas including Business Management,

38

Education, Accounting and Computing. Post-graduate and Master courses are offered

through the USP’s Distance and Flexible Learning (DFL) programme.

Conclusion

Although schools in most PICs have improved, and more Islanders have access to

educational opportunities, problems such as unemployment, dropouts, suicide, the lack of

resources, untrained teachers, poor management, poor facilities and inadequate funding

are common throughout PICs (Teaero, 2002; Thaman, 2002; Taufeulungaki, 2002;

Vanerere, 2003). This implies that the existing system does not adequately address the

problems that PICs face in terms of unemployment and the high level of school dropouts

who are left with no vocational skills and knowledge that can enable them to enter wage-

employment or generate self-employment.

39

CHAPTER THREE

LITERATURE REVIEW INTRODUCTION The relevant literature on TVET is examined in this chapter. This would enable me to

understand the TVET programme in the Samoan secondary school from a wider

perspective. Moreover, it would provide me a conceptual framework upon which I

would anchor this study.

The first section looks briefly at the concept of TVET and the rationale upon which it

emerged. Thus, the nature of the various TVET initiatives is presented. The third section

examines briefly the potential and limitations of current TVET initiatives. Finally, the

conceptual construct of the study is presented. TVET in secondary schools is perceived

as a planned educational endeavour. Thus, the conceptual framework is informed by the

change literature.

THE CONCEPT OF TVET The conceptual understanding of TVET can be easily derived from Dewey’s theory of

pragmatism, the socialist concept of poly-technical education and the populist beliefs.

These theories argue that though TVET is unpopular in an academic-driven curriculum, it

is an equally important component of the total learning system. Dewey stresses that

education should be “directly relevant for the active interests and concerns which pupils

have – or will face – in their out-of-school life, in their private lives and in their future

roles as workers and citizens” (Lauglo and Lillis, cited in Sharma, 2000: 45).

40

Pragmatism proposes that learning occurs best when it relates to real-life situations and

experiences. Most pragmatists believe that schools should technically prepare students

for gainful wage-employment and/or self-employment. Furthermore, they emphasize that

education should provide useful employable skills and attitudes relevant to work and

living. Besides intellectual development and vocational training, education in this

ideological stance provides relevant social behavioural skills so that enables students to

live together peacefully (Thaman, 2002).

According to Lauglo and Lillis (1988), TVET in USA and Europe have been influenced

by pragmatism. For example, in USA, TVET courses such as Industrial Arts, Domestic

Science and Business Studies are incorporated in its secondary school curriculum. The

purpose is to prepare students for work, citizenship and aesthetic abilities. Aveau (2003)

and Bartram (2004) indicate that this form of TVET existed in the Pacific Islands

countries, however, it has not been successfully institutionalized in the mainstream

schooling. This is because of their examination-driven nature of the education systems.

For example, in Samoa TVET courses such as Industrial Arts, Home Economics and

Agricultural Science are incorporated in the secondary school curriculum but they only

exist as the ‘second best’ option (Aveau, 2003). Despite several attempts, TVET subjects

have not been fully institutionalized in the Samoan secondary schools (Aveau, 2003).

This is the focus of this study and an attempt will made to explore it in some depths in the

subsequent chapters.

The socialist concept of poly-technical education has its roots in the Marxist’s philosophy

that attempted to incorporate 'theory' and 'practice' in the school curriculum (Gustafsson,

41

1988). This concept stressed the idea that students ought to participate in real work

situations outside the school and learn directly from employees and the work

environment. This view also emphasises that theory and practice are integral.

A good example of how students participate in real work situations is the “Brigade’s”

programme in Botswana referred to as ‘Education with production’ (King, 1994). Students

who cannot gain admission in the secondary schools are enrolled in this programme where

they get engaged in actual work at the school and community levels, while concurrently

learning the theoretical aspects of courses involved. The programme provides both

theoretical and associated practical experiences, and facilitates the transfer of students from

school-to-work. Similar programmes are found in Zimbabwe and Mozambique (King,

1994).

This idea of such integration has shaped TVET programmes in many developing countries

to prepare young people as well as the educated unemployed for self-employment

opportunities. The shortage of wage-employment opportunities in developing countries

made the concept of poly-technical education popular (Lauglo and Lillis, 1988). To some

extent, this idea is present in the Samoa Poly-technical Institute. The SPI has work

experience component that provides practical training to students on local and indigenous

enterprises, such as cooking traditional food, learning traditional fishing techniques and

building and designing houses using local materials (GOS, 2000c; Aveau, 2003). Through

work experiences, students acquire knowledge of different fields of vocation and working

environment. In addition, they learn to appreciate human potential and the society’s art and

42

craft and indigenous practices. They also begin to reclaim indigenous knowledge and

knowledge systems. This is a new trend in some Pacific island countries.

The last orientation that has a bearing on this study is the populist belief that argues for

equal opportunity in education (King, 1988; Psacharopoulos, 1988; Sharma, 2000). This

type of TVET is informal and more productive and because of its flexibility caters for all

groups of people both in rural and urban areas. According to Finlay (1998), it establishes

close link between school and work and attempts to break the barriers between manual

and academic work. In other words, it aims to bridge the gap between the elite and the

poor communities. Gills et al. (2000) believe that this type of TVET is more relevant to

rural life rather than industrialized urban setting because it is concerned with ordinary

people and their social, political and economic rights.

An example of this is found in Tanzania and is known as ‘education for self-reliance’. In

this programme, skills taught relate directly to the local work and fosters equality

amongst all citizens (King, 1994). This type of technical education is also found in many

developing countries, including those in the South Pacific region. According to Sharma

(2000), this kind of TVET initiative is politically accepted in developing countries

because of unemployment and school ‘push-outs’. The informal and non-formal TVET

programmes provided in the villages by the women’s committees and other non-

governmental organizations in Fiji is another example of this type of TVET (Fiji

Parlimentary Paper, 2002).

43

The pragmatists’ view of real life learning, the socialist concept of poly-technical

education and the populist beliefs which fight for equal opportunity overlap considerably

as noticed in the discussion above. Together they set a sound foundation for TEVT and

argue convincingly for it as an equally important component of the total learning of an

individual. Accordingly, Atchoarena and Delluc (2002) emphasize that the present

interest in TVET is concerned with educational, political and socio-economic

development of a nation.

In brief, then, TVET is now increasingly seen as an important component of the total

learning system and caters for social, economic and political development of all our

citizens. However, its scope, purpose, understanding, programmes and courses differ

from country to country depending on the socio-economic needs and problems they are

designed to address. For example, in most industrialised countries like Japan, Korea and

the United States, the current trend lies in training a skillful labour force to meet the

industrial demands of the job market (Gills et al. 2000). In African countries, the rise in

unemployment among young people, particularly those who had completed their

secondary education, led to the revival of TVET programmes to address the

unemployment situation (Atchoarena and Delluc, 2002). For many PICs, it is the

inadequacy of the formal education system in preparing school leavers for self-

employment and wage employment that draws attention to TVET (Thaman, 2002;

Taufe’ulungaki, 2002; Aveu, 2003).

44

The different motivational concerns of TVET account for the variations in its structures,

implementation process and outcomes. For this reason, TVET is a difficult term to define

precisely. People’s understanding of TVET is based largely on their perception on

education and employment (Sharma, 2000; Aveau, 2003). According to Sharma (2000;

2001), TVET is a complex term to define neatly because it involves certain ideas such as

adult education, non-formal education, continuing education, distance and flexible

learning and basic education. In particular, TVET encompasses a range of programmes,

courses and activities that connect people with the world of work and prepare them to be

useful citizens. In this case, King (1994) sees it as a holistic term that covers formal, non-

formal and informal domains of learning. Some writers, however, have attempted to

define TVET and these help us to understand this concept a little further. For example,

Bailey’s (1992: 96) following definition seems to apply to this study fairly well. He

writes that it is

an organized education programme that offers a sequence of courses providing individuals with the academic knowledge and skills needed to prepare for future education and careers in current and emerging occupations.

In particular, TVET prepares individuals for wage-employment and self-employment and

for future education and career opportunities. In this study, TVET is expected to provide

the similar outcome for Samoan students.

The rapid social, economic and technological changes have put pressure on TVET

educators and policy makers to make TVET more flexible, comparable and inclusive

(UNESCO, 2001). For these reasons, TVET has expanded its scope, perspectives,

programmes and courses to meet the changing nature of our societies. This is well

45

addressed in a UNESCO Conference in which a broad and inclusive definition of TVET

was emphasized. Taking a more comprehensive view, the Conference explained the term

as:

those aspects of the educational process involving, in addition to general education, the study of technologies and related sciences, and the acquisition of practical skills, attitudes, understanding and knowledge relating to occupants in various sectors of economic and social life (UNESCO, 2001: 7).

The UNESCO’s definition of TVET extended Bailey’s definition. In this sense, TVET

not only includes the acquiring of technical and practical skills, but also the

understanding of values, attitudes, modes of behaviour and ways of life that lead to

higher productivity.

This perception of TVET goes along with Delors’ (1996) four pillars of education:

learning to know; learning to do; learning to live together; and learning to be. This report

declares that education should contribute to the total learning and the growth of a person.

This includes the moral and physical preparation as well as the psychological

development. In this respect, TVET is a life long learning and development process.

‘Learning to know’ and ‘learning to do’ are related to the development of useful

knowledge and skills applicable for the ‘world of work’ and for self-sufficiency and self-

occupation. ‘Learning to be’ and ‘learning to live together’ are associated with the

acquiring of values, attitudes, attributes and behaviour that are appropriate for the job

market and enable people to understand each other and live together peacefully.

46

In brief, TVET is not confined to a particular group of people. Its programmes and

activities are flexible, comprehensive and inclusive to meet the needs of the early school

leavers, the unemployed, and people with special needs, the retired adults and the rural

and urban poor (Aveau, 2003). This discussion is consistent with the UNESCO (1999)

Declaration on TVET that sees it as:

an integral component of lifelong learning, has crucial role to play as an effective tool to realize the objectives of a culture of peace, environmentally sound sustainable developments, social cohesion and international citizenship.

There are many definitions of TVET as illustrated above, however, for the purpose of this

study; TVET is viewed as the introduction of practical courses in the formal education

system that teaches students the knowledge and skills to prepare them for future

education and career opportunities. These courses will be further discussed in later

chapters.

In summary, TVET is a complex term and cannot be defined neatly because it

encompasses a wide variety of programmes and activities in the formal, non-formal and

informal mode of learning. Furthermore, TVET accommodates the needs of a diverse

group of people and age. In particular, TVET equips people with skills, knowledge,

attitudes, behaviour and values that enable them to find useful employment and to live

and work together peacefully.

THE RATIONALE OF TVET

TVET emerges in a time of great changes of values and attitudes influenced by

globalisation. In this regard, Brodhead (2000) indicates three general aims of TVET.

47

These are

to meet the labour market need of society;

to increase the preference available to students; and

to serve as an inspiring force to develop all types of learning.

These constitute the rationale behind which many TVET programmes and courses

emerged.

The growth in science, technology, globalisation and industrialisation has put greater

emphasis on the development of new knowledge, values and technical skills to enhance

economic standards and sustainability in both developed and developing countries

(Finlay, et al., 1998). TVET has the potential to prepare specialists specifically required

by the labour market, thereby meaningfully contributing to the development of the

country. Psacharopoulos (1997) states that now-a-days TVET also concentrates on

character development and preparing people as laudable citizens together with its usual

emphasis on training people in vocational skills. Bailey (1992: 97) sees that vocational

education

seeks to provide individuals with the skills they need to attain economic freedom, and to enhance the productivity of local, state and national economies.

Bailey’s idea indicates that the main function of TVET is the development of skillful

human resources to improve national economies. Furthermore, he affirms that TVET

offers an opportunity for school dropouts and school graduates to obtain skills,

knowledge and attitudes necessary to survive in this rapid changing society. It also

assists people already in the job market to learn and improve their skills and knowledge

48

of new technologies and ideas so that they can perform their skills more effectively, and

get promotions and more income (Bailey, 1992). This is one of the rationales upon

which TVET programmes and courses anchored.

In most PICs, the deficiency of the current formal school system in equipping students

with the necessary skills, knowledge and attitudes to meet the changing needs of society

has motivated the policy makers and educators to search for alternative ways of preparing

students for the ‘world of work’ (Tewei, 1985; Nabobo and Teasdale, 1995; Thaman,

2002; Aveau, 2003). They are now turning to TVET as one of the ways to complement

the total learning package of an individual. Moreover, they have accepted the argument

that TVET has the potential to provide life long skills and cater for the less fortunate

students, the early dropouts, and the unemployed youths, both in the formal and informal

sectors (Tewei, 1985). In many Pacific island countries, the existing formal school

system has been accused of being highly examination-driven. Therefore, TVET appears

as a remedy for this dilemma (Aveau, 2003). This forms another rationale for TVET

programmes and courses.

In Nigeria, the main reason for secondary education restructuring courses in 1977 was to

introduce compulsory pre-vocational subjects in the junior and secondary schools. TVET

courses such as Introductory Technology, Local Crafts, Agricultural Science, Home

Economics and Business Studies are incorporated into the curriculum. The main aim is to

give secondary school leavers a wider choice for higher education and the ‘world of

work’ (Nwagwu, 1998).

49

Despite the differences in structures, objectives and outcome of TVET programmes and

courses, their main aims are the development of employable skills and good citizenship

(Lillis and Hogans, 1983; Psacharopoulos, 1997). It is a process concerned primarily

with people and their part in raising the status of their countries economically, politically

and socially. It focuses on the needs and potential of individuals in society. TVET

prepares people for work as well as improving the potential of the labour force. It is

believed that if people are armed with the necessary skills and attitudes about work and

life, then there will be less economic and social problems. Embraced as an important

component of lifelong learning, TVET supports pupils’ transitions through school, from

school to employment and further education and training (Ian et al., cited in Atchoarena,

and Delluc, 2002). TVET has also been provided to the poor as a means to raise their

standard of living.

It is obvious from the above discussion that the rationales of TVET emerged as a remedy

to address the social and economic issues as well as the problems yielded by the formal

school system (Psacharopoulos, 1997). In short, TVET has the potential to accelerate

social, economic, educational and political development of a person and the country.

THE NATURE OF TVET PROGRAMMES The type and location of TVET institutions depend largely on the national overall

objectives of education and the needs of their communities. The objectives are generally

aligned with national context such as the structure of the government, the availability and

accessibility of resources, and educational and socio-economic factors. Lillis and Hogans

50

(1983) and King (1994) identified the three major TVET institutional settings. These are

school-based TVET; post-school TVET; and workplace-based TVET.

School-based TVET The school-based TVET generally takes three approaches. These are the diversification

of the secondary school programme; the vocationalisation of the school curriculum; and

the introduction of TVET schools to run parallel with the main stream schooling (King,

1994).

The diversification of the school-based curriculum is derived from the socialist theory

that stressed the 'work-study' programme. This form of school-based TVET is flexible

and opens to new ideas and, therefore, is seen as more beneficial for the developing

nations. Zachariah (1998) views this form of vocational training as ‘basic education’, in

which students learn the necessary skills suitable for life in rural areas (cited in Sharma,

2000). Basically, it gives students an opportunity to combine theory with practice and

enabled them to participate in the production process. Such programmes are found in

Tanzania and Colombia where the main goals of diversification enhance individual

employability, to reduce the mismatch between supply and demand of skilled persons and

to provide an alternative for those pursuing higher education (Psacharopoulos, 1988).

The second school-based TVET approach is through ‘vocationalisation’. This is the

introduction of practical subjects, such as Home Economics, Arts, Woodwork,

Engineering, Agricultural Science and Computer Studies, in the existing school

51

curriculum (Psacharopoulos, 1988). The main idea behind vocationalisation is to

familiarise students with the basic knowledge and skills in different vocational subjects

(Finlay, e. al., 1998). This approach enables students to discover their potential while at

school, specializes and then pursues it further upon leaving school. TVET of this kind is

common in many developing countries because it is found to be less expensive. For

example, in Samoa TVET subjects such as Design and Technology, Food and Textile

Technology, Agriculture Science and Business Studies (to name a few) are included in

the secondary school curriculum (GOS, 2000b). The main purpose of this is to generate

among the students some basic skills; knowledge and interest that would prepare them to

choose their future career. A limitation for this form of TVET is that it does not provide

sufficient training for any particular employment. However, it assists students in

developing proper work attitudes and the ability to make proper career choices.

The third option in the school-based approach is the establishment of separate TVET

schools parallel to mainstream schooling or academic education. The TVET school

catered specifically for students who faced difficulties in the academic area of the school

curriculum. This form of TVET is also found in many developing countries such as Fiji,

India, Malaysia, Thailand, Colombia, Kenya and Trinidad. Sharma’s (2000) study in Fiji

notes that this programme caters for early school dropouts but is not managed

successfully. He is of the view that most stakeholders including parents and teachers still

preferred academic education credentials and makes TVET programme ‘second-best’

options rather than ‘second chance’ education.

52

There are also other forms of TVET programmes such as ‘cluster schools’ and

‘comprehensive high schools’ that are practiced in some countries. Cluster schools are

more cost-effective because several secondary schools share technical facilities (cited in

Sharma, 2000). This could be more appropriate for Pacific Islands where there are

insufficient resources. The later, comprehensive high school is found in Papua New

Guinea, namely, the Secondary Schools Community Extension Project (SSCEP). This

programme attempts to create a unified education system where academic and vocational

subjects are integrated to cater for the academically gifted students and the school

dropouts. According to Crossly (1990), the SSCEP project is "overly ambitious, too

complex (in that incorporated multiple innovations), and over-demanding of the teaching

force" (cited in Sharma, 2000: 50).

Thaman (1989), Jones and Mudogo (1994) and Sharma (2000) indicate that similar forms

of vocational programmes are introduced in some PICs such as Fiji, Tuvalu, and the

Solomon Islands. Unfortunately, the academic-driven system of education, inherited from

colonial rulers, does not allow these initiatives to develop and therefore, inhibit the

realization of their potential.

Post-school TVET Post-school TVET institutions are common in most developed countries, and are now

been established in developing countries. They provide further vocational training for

secondary school graduates. Post-school TVET programmes differ from country to

country depending on their needs. For example, the Tawara Teachers’ College (TTC), the

Technical Training Institute (TTI), Fisheries Training Centre (FTC) and Marine Training

53

Centre (MTC) provide post-school TVET programme in Kiribati. FTC and MTC are

providing effective and appropriate training in seamen skills and knowledge necessary

for employment in the fishery industries. TTC and TTI are geared towards training of

skilled personnel such as teachers, technicians, plumbers, nurses and the like. The

training programme provided by these institutes reflects the needs of the Kiribati people

(Burnett, 1999).

In Australia, post-school TVET offers formal training in vocational and technical courses

that lead to a wide variety of qualifications, from Certificate to Advanced Diploma and

Degrees (UNESCO, 2002). There are also post-school TVET that offers non-formal

training to assist dropouts and the unemployed. For instance, in Samoa, besides the

Samoa Poly-technical Institute, there are privately-owned post-school TVET institutions

that specifically cater for the early school leavers and unemployed youths (Aveau, 2003).

Work-based TVET

Workplace-based TVET programmes which include apprenticeship, on the job training

and other development programmes are for the benefit of the employers and the

employees. These are found mainly in industrialized countries such as Japan and USA. A

UNESCO (2002) report points out that the introduction of new technologies requires

employees to upgrade their skills to meet the new demand of their work. Therefore, the

employers play an important role in providing workplace-based TVET. Students from

the school-based TVET and post-school TVET can participate in workplace-based TVET

programmes through the work-study programme. In Australia, about 10 per cent of

54

secondary students are enrolled in workplace-baced TVET programmes to gain extra

knowledge and technical skills to prepare them for work (UNESCO, 2002).

In brief, the locations of these TVET schools depend largely on the objectives that they

desire to achieve. Moreover, their strengths lie in their structures, forms, curricula,

teaching methods, management, educational technologies, and resources as well as

funding (Sharma, 2000). The next section looks briefly at TVET policy and planning as

well as some of its potential and limitations.

TVET POLICY AND PLANNING A study by UNESCO (2001) sets a framework for setting policies for TVET

programmes. It has to be consistent with the national development objectives and ought

to consider aspects such as the structure of the government, resources available, and

socio-economic, educational and cultural contexts. These factors and the relationships

amongst them are considered essential if the TVET policies are to be managed and

implemented effectively.

The structure of the government determines the extent to which TVET policy and

objectives are set. The government set objectives that are geared to local conditions and

needs. For example, the Korean Government recognized the importance of providing

industrial human-power to facilitate the growth of local industries. Likewise, Korea as an

industrialized country, focus its TVET programmes on training and educating people so

that they could perform more effectively in industrial activities (UNESCO, 1999b).

55

The availability of resources also plays an important role in policy formulation, planning

and its successful management and implementation. Resources in this case include

people, money, facilities and equipment. The successful implementation depends on

these resources and, therefore, they should be readily available. According to Aveau

(2003) most PICs depend largely on overseas donors for the resources to establish and

manage the TVET programmes or innovation for that matter. She further states that often

the donors have their own policies that are sometimes not appropriate for the needs of the

recipients; however, they still accept it because they see aid as an opportunity to receive

resources, especially money, which may not come otherwise. Fullan (1991) describes

this way of receiving aid as ‘bureaucratic orientation’ where the motivation is to get extra

resources rather than addressing the problems that exist.

The social context is also essential in policy making. It may be qualitative or quantitative

and this depends on the country and its social conditions. It is said that the socio-

economic context is the most influential factor in policy formulation, whether it is

industrial, commercial or agricultural in nature. Lastly, a good understanding of the

educational and cultural contexts is also vital in policy making. These factors are

interactive and dynamic and should be taken into consideration during the planning

process (Verner, et. al., 1999).

Potentials of TVET

Scholars such as King (1994), Watson (1994), Psacharopoulos (1997) and Atchoarena

and Delluc (2002) identify the following strengths of TVET.

56

It facilitates social, economic and political development of learners by providing local and universal values and attitudes that are necessary to survive successfully in our present dynamically complex work and living settings.

It provides learners, especially the young, with the skills needed for employment in a broad range of job categories that include self-employment and wage-employment.

It helps learners to appreciate the value of manual or ‘blue-color’ work as well as technological and scientific knowledge in performing tasks systematically.

It provides the learners with the opportunity to discover their hidden potential that they may like to develop as their career.

It equips learners with a variety of simple vocational skills needed in our daily living, thus reducing the unemployment, poverty, urbanization and crime rates.

It provides learners with a more holistic education that prepares them for useful vocation, life-long learning and citizenship.

It motivates learners to revive traditional vocational skills and knowledge and use them in their personal and national development.

Limitations of TVET

The low status of TVET in most PICs has been a major constraint in its planning and

implementation processes (Sharma, 2000; Aveau, 2003). As already mentioned, TVET

receives less attention from most of its stakeholders, especially students, parents, teachers

and employers. It has been difficult to attract people to TVET programmes and courses

because they perceive it as a way to low paying jobs. Most parents, politicians, policy

makers and students prefer academic to TVET because academic education is believed as

the gateway to better-paid and comfortable wage employment and attractive opportunities

for tertiary education. In addition, most students do not want to return to the rural areas

and get involved in the primary sector of the economy such as farming, fishing, weaving

or carpentry. Despite the many efforts to promote TVET, it is still largely considered as a

‘second best’ education option (Sharma, 2000; Aveau 2003).

57

The second limitation of TVET relates to the relevance of the programmes to the

authentic needs of its clientele. Often TVET programmes and courses are irrelevant to

the requirements of a country, especially when aid donors are involved in planning and

implementing them (Sharma, 2000). This aspect is also discussed in other sections of this

chapter.

Another limitation of TVET is its high cost compared to general academic education.

This is because the equipment, tools, materials and resources needed for the development

of an effective programme are expensive. Furthermore, the maintenance of these

facilities is also very expensive and time-consuming. TVET classes are smaller in sizes

compared to that of the academic education, thus, the teaching learning process of TVET

is fairly expensive because of the lower student/teacher ratio. There is also a shortage of

qualified TVET teachers in developing countries so they often employ overseas experts

and, hence, the cost of managing TVET courses and programmes become relatively high

(Sharma, 2000; Aveau, 2003).

In brief, there are important factors that need to be taken into consideration while

planning TVET programmes. These include the academic nature of the school system,

the availability of suitable resources, the readiness of the stakeholders, the relevance of

the programmes and courses and the socio-economic, educational and cultural context of

the country.

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CONCEPTUAL CONSTRUCT OF THE STUDY The theoretical understanding of this study is derived from the literature review on TVET

already presented in this chapter. The concept of TVET and its rationale, nature of

programmes, policy and planning, and strengths and limitations have helped me to

understand the vocational courses in the Samoan secondary school curriculum from a

broader perspective.

It is reiterated that TVET initiatives in most PICs came as a planned educational change.

Thus, the management of change literature, however, influences the conceptual construct

of the study. In this regard, the work of Fullan (1991) is found very helpful. The wide

body of change literature presents the three interrelated phases of the change process;

initiation, implementation and institutionalization. These phases are retained in the

conceptual framework of this study.

The Change Process

More public focus and political demand are placed on education in PICs today than ever

before. Organisations and schools are being bombarded with innovation everyday and

this has placed challenges on educators and policy makers. It is argued that managing

change effectively can be beneficial in improving the quality of education, but it can also

be overwhelming to educators who are already overloaded (Fullan, 1991).

Managing educational change is a complex process but it is vital for policy and planners.

Therefore, the understanding of the change process is necessary to help us plan and

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implement specific educational programmes more effectively. Fullan (1993) and Sparks

(1993) point out that school leaders need to understand the change process in order to

lead and manage change effectively. Furthermore, it assists in understanding the

dynamics of working with multiple innovations and problems simultaneously.

According to Fullan and Miles (1992), educators must learn to overcome barriers and

cope with the chaos that naturally exists during the management of the complex change

process.

The Initiation Stage The concept of initiation begins from a single idea by one person, group or organization

and then it may become an innovation or a planned educational change. According to

Fullan (1991) this idea may take a day, a month or even several years to developed into

an innovation and get implemented and institutionalized. Louis and Miles (1990) refer to

this stage as a time of thinking, discussing, analyzing, planning and motivating. It is in

this stage that the project objectives and benefits are established and the change agents

and users are also identified. For example, if a school plans to improve student

performance, it would examine the related issues, write the objectives and develop

possible solutions that would later get implemented. In other words, the decision to adopt

and implement a change is made at this stage of the change process (Fullan, 1991).

Important key issues to consider at this stage include the 3R’s: relevance of the

innovation; readiness of the stakeholders; and availability of suitable resources (Fullan,

1991). ‘Relevance’ includes the practicality of the change, the degree to which all

concerned understand what is being changed and the need for it.

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‘Readiness’ refers to the ability of those implementing the change to “initiate, develop, or

adopt a given innovation” (Fullan, 1991: 63). Cheng and Cheung (1995: 12) affirm that

‘readiness’ is concerned with the preparation of stakeholders and the school “cognitively,

psychologically and technologically” to accept and proceed with the change. Aveau

(2003) says that too many innovations are abandoned because people are not ready to

change or to carry on with the innovation.

‘The availability and suitability of resources’ is also necessary to consider while initiating

a change (Fullan, 1991). This is one of the main problems with PICs, as they rely on

international aid donors to initiate and implement change programmes. For example,

most of the educational projects in Samoa are funded by international aid donors such as

the UNDP/UNESCO, World Bank, JICA and Canadian Government (GOS, 2000c).

Several studies indicate that educational change could not proceed without an advocacy

(Fullan 1991; Huberman and Miles 1984; Carlson, 1995). This includes internal support

such as school administrators, teachers and the school community. They offer support

and assistance in facilitating the change process, especially through the implementation

stage. Thus, having strong advocates for the new programmes or activities is crucial.

Most of the issues raised here would be helpful in examining the initiation process of the

vocational courses in the Samoan secondary school curriculum.

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The Implementation Stage

‘Implementation’ is actually transferring of the new idea or innovation into actual

practice (Fullan, 1991; Goddard and Leask, 1992; Nandlal, 2003; Aveau, 2003). This is a

very complex stage of the change process and, therefore, should be handled carefully by

all those who are given the responsibility of implementing the new change. Huberman

and Miles (1984) and Fullan (1991) suggest that emphasis must be given on

“conceptualizing and investigating the implementation” stage. This is because it involves

change agents and users. Like the initiation stage, there are also essential factors that

guide the implementation stage. These are characteristics of the innovation, local

characteristics and the external environment (Fullan, 1991). These factors are briefly

discussed below.

The characteristics of the innovation are concerned with its ‘needs, clarity, complexity,

quality and practicality’ (Fullan, 1991; Sharma 2000). These factors are also vital in the

initiation stage. Quality and practicality refers to whether the change is worthwhile to the

school and the community. It is also associated with the availability of learning materials.

The lack of adequate materials may create problems during the implementation process

(Sharma, 2000; Aveau; 2003).

These characteristics should be carefully taken into account during the implementation

process. Despite this, problems still arise because often people resist change. This is

why Sharma (2000) says that the implementation process rely considerably on the values,

beliefs and expectations of the change agents and the users. These people need to

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understand the need, clarity, complexity, quality and practicality of the change so that

they are able to implement it successfully.

The local characteristics are concerned with the support of the community, educators,

administrators, teachers, parents and students given to the new change. According to

Firestone and Corbett (cited in Fullan, 1991: 73), there should be supporters for the new

change from both ‘within and outside’ the school. Many planned educational change,

however, are not successfully implemented because most of its supporters are located

outside of the school and not within it. The success of the implementation phase depends

largely on the leadership and support provided by the internal and external change agents.

External factors are often referred to as the role of the government and other

governmental and non-governmental organisations. The government and international

aid donors play an important role in facilitating the implementation process. Thus, the

successful implementation of educational change in many PICs depends considerably on

government and overseas donors for fiscal, material and human resources. However, the

recipient countries should be aware of the fact that these aid donors also have their own

hidden agendas. These may not relate directly to the needs of the recipient countries.

Such contradictions often hinder the successful management of the change process.

Along with the above factors, there are key themes that are associated with successful

evolutionary-planning, initiative-taking, staff development, monitoring and restructuring

(Louis and Miles, 1990; Fullan, 1991).

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According to Sharma (2000: 39), ‘vision building’ is seen as an important leadership

function in educational organisations. This is so because a clear vision identifies the kind

of learning to be achieved and can also help keep the school and the efforts of its staff

and students on target (Scott, 1997). Moreover, a clear understanding of the school's

vision may lead to greater parent and community support. Visions, however, needs to be

communicated clearly to the change agents and change users. It is important for all those

involved in the implementation process to ‘own’ the vision and this can only be done

successfully if they are involved in constructing the vision. According to Bartram (2004),

governments must have a vision for vocational education derived from stakeholder-

participation (Scott, 1997).

‘Staff development’ is another essential theme that is associated with successful

implementation of a planned educational change (Sharma, 2000). It is basically

concerned with people and their needs, motivations and the roles they play in the change

process. The intention of staff development is to change behaviours, attitudes, and skills

of the stakeholders. Staff development provides change agents and users with skills,

knowledge and tools to implement a new practice. Therefore, it is important to conduct

staff development programmes at all the layers of the change process.

‘Monitoring and problem solving’ is often the most difficult component to establish

because it involves the change agents and its users (Sharma, 2000). In other words,

monitoring is like checking on the teachers and students and evaluating their performance

concerning the new innovation. No matter how well an innovation is planned, it will

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always encounter some problems, therefore, continuous monitoring of the change process

is needed in order to coordinate and deal with the emerging problems appropriately

(Louis and Miles, 1990). Effective monitoring relies on good facilitators and leaders,

who lead to follow-up on the progress of the change process.

Institutionalization Stage The final stage of the change process is institutionalization. This stage is also refers to by

Cheng and Cheung (1996) as the ‘refreezing’ stage and by Sharma (2000) as the

‘outcome’ stage. Many new innovations do not reach this stage of the change process

due to ineffective handling of the two stages mentioned above. Therefore, the innovation

may be ‘adopted, adapted, shelved or rejected’. However, this stage comes into reality

when the innovation becomes an on-going practice or a part of a system or organisation.

Miles et al., (1987) suggest that this stage can be achieved when ‘policy-level

commitment is made to the change to continue. Moreover, it is necessary to provide

suitable resources and the determination of the school based leaders to accept the new

practices as part of the school policy.

In brief, the three phases of the management of a planned educational change (Fullan,

1991) are adopted to design the Samoan study as well as collect and analyze data and

report the findings to its many audiences. The literature review of TVET helps us to

understand the vocational courses in the Samoan secondary school curriculum from a

broader perspective. It also contributes to the design of this study.

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CONCLUSION

This chapter has critically reviewed the relevant literature on TVET. In particular, the

concept of TVET and its rationale, nature of programmes, policy and planning, and

strengths and limitations are highlighted. This is done to enable the readers to understand

the Samoan study well. Moreover, together with a brief literature review on the

management of educational change, this body of literature on TVET has been helpful in

designing the conceptual framework of the study.

The next chapter discusses the research methodology adopted to conduct this study.

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CHAPTER FOUR

RESEARCH METHOLODOGY

INTRODUCTION It is reiterated that this research study sets out to examine the management and

implementation of TVET courses in the selected secondary schools in Samoa. The main

research questions are as follows:

• How are TVET programmes managed in secondary schools? • How are TVET courses taught? • What is the quality and quantity of TVET resources and equipment in the secondary

schools? • What hinders the successful management and implementation of TVET courses? • What perceptions do the stakeholders hold of TVET courses? • What are the major implications of the study for policy and practice and for further research?

This study attempts to understand the management and implementation of TVET in

Samoan secondary school curriculum from the view point of the informants. This

approach lands itself in the phenomenological perspective. Phenomenology is an

attempt to clarify, describe and understand the meanings, behaviours and actions of the

people. Moreover, the ‘space’, ‘time’ and the ‘environment’ is understood by spending a

lot of time there observing what really happens (Patton, 2002). In this regard, the goal of

phenomenologist is to comprehend the meanings of people’s behaviours and interactions

from their own points of view (Patton, 2002; Denscombe, 2002; and O’Donoghue and

Punch, 2003).

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Patton (2002: 104) takes this discussion a step further by saying:

Phenomenologists explore how human beings experience and transform experience into consciousness both individually and as shared meaning. This requires methodologically, carefully and thoroughly capturing and describing how people experience some phenomenon – how they perceive it, describe it, feel about it, judge it, remember it, make sense of it and talk about it with others. To gather such data, one must undertake in-depth interviews with people who have directly experienced the phenomenon of interest …

Patton’s explanation of phenomenology guided the theoretical perspective of this study.

It permitted me to study aspects of the Samoan TVET curriculum using the views of the

people involved in the management and implementation processes.

Burns (1994) points out that the idea of phenomenology has a strong connection within

the assumptions underpinning qualitative research (cited in O’Donoghue and Punch,

2003: 64). This is because phenomenology and qualitative research methodology aim to

gain a deeper understanding of the nature and meaning of our everyday experiences.

This is the focus of this study.

Qualitative Case Study Approach Bogdan and Biklen (1992: 2) describe qualitative research as:

an umbrella term to refer to several research strategies that share certain characteristics. The data collected is rich in description of people, places, conversations, and not easily handled by statistical procedures. Research questions are not formed by operationalising variables; rather, they are formulated to investigate topics in all their complexity in context.

Several advocates of qualitative studies (Merriam, 1990; Bogdan and Biklen, 1992;

Imenda and Muyangwa, 2000; Cohen et. al., 2000; Best and Kahn, 2003; deMarrais and

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Lapan, (2004) sustain this. Thus, emphasise that qualitative case study is basically a

detail study of a specific phenomenon by a researcher who seeks to address and

understand it through close intervention with the people and programme being studied. In

particular, qualitative research approach is found to be more open and responsive to the

people involved. It is flexible and has descriptive data and is concerned with meanings,

behaviours, actions and interactions of the people in a particular setting. This flexibility

allows the researcher to interact and to get as close as possible to the people being studied

especially by direct observation in natural settings. These features of the qualitative

research approach motivated me to adopt it for this study.

The advocates of qualitative research such as Bogdan and Biklen (1992), Cohen et. al.

(2002), Patton (2002) and Holliday (2002) identify some common characteristics of this

approach. According to them it

• seeks to understand people’s interpretations; • is dynamic (reality changes with changes in people’s perceptions);

• focuses on real life experiences and interactions; • is holistic and empathic;

• focuses on discovery and theories and hypotheses are evolved from data as the study unfolds;

• is subjective (data are perceptions of the people in the environment);

• is humanistic (the researcher is the main instrument of data collection);

• is naturalistic (investigations are conducted under natural conditions); and • focuses on design and procedures in order to gain real, rich and thick data. While most qualitative case-studies share these characteristics, not all demonstrate these

qualities with the same effectiveness (Holliday, 2002). It varies from study to study

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depending on the settings and what the researcher hopes to achieve. These characteristics

guide the underlying principles of this study.

The proponents of qualitative research approach point out that the “researcher” is the key

research instrument and should acquire skills such as listening, observing and forming

emphatic alliance with the research respondents (Holliday, 2002). Qualitative researchers

ask good questions and to listen and interpret the answers carefully to avoid being biased.

Possessing such qualities would assist in building a rapport with the research respondents

which is crucial to the understanding of the topic being studied. Hence, the researcher

and the respondents must create a trusting relationship or as what Sharma (2000) say a

‘scene of intimacy’. This intimacy allows the researcher to get closer to the respondents

and gather substantial amount of data by using various approaches such as participant

observations, in-depth interviews and documentary analysis (cited in Aveau, 2003: 38).

These philosophies of qualitative research apparently guide this study.

Case Study as a Research Strategy

The term ‘case study’ has multiple meanings. It can describe a unit of analysis (e.g. a

case study of a particular organisation) or a research method. The latter, a research

method is applicable to this study. According to Yin (2002) the case study as a research

strategy is used widely in many disciplines such as psychology, sociology, political

sciences, business, social work and planning. The distinctive need for case studies in

these fields arises from the desire to understand complex social phenomena and the

environment in which exists and operates.

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Although there are many definitions of case study, however, Yin (2002) is appropriate for

this study. He defines the case study research method as:

an empirical inquiry that investigates a contemporary phenomenon within its real-life context; when the boundaries between phenomenon and context are not clearly evident; and in which multiple sources of evidence are used (2002: 23).

This refers to the collection and presentation of detailed information about a particular

participant or a small group. It looks deeply at an individual or a group, drawing

conclusions about the participants in that specific context. This allows an investigator to

retain the holistic and meaningful picture of real-life situations. According to Yin (1994),

case study normally answers ‘how’ and ‘why’ questions and it can be exploratory,

explanatory and descriptive. For this reason, Best and Kahn (2003) refer to it as the

preferred strategy to use when the researcher has little control over the events and when

the focus is on a real life situation.

There are strengths as well as weaknesses of this strategy. The strength of case study

comes from real-life situations that offer insights and illuminates meaning that expand its

readers’ experiences. Collins and Noblit (1978) disclose that:

… Field (case) studies reveal not static attributes but understanding of humans as they engage in actions and interactions within the contexts of situations and settings. Thus inferences concerning human behaviuor are less abstract than in many quantitative studies, and one can better understand how an intervention may affect behavior in a situation … (cited in Merriam, 1990:33).

Case studies are well built in their reflection of reality. Sharma (2000: 162) noted that

case study approach is:

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… sensitive to the complexities and embeddedness of social truths and by carefully attending to social situation, it has the capacity to uncover, analyze, understand and represent view-points of people from different ideological and occupational camps.

This sensitivity allows the researcher and the respondents to create a trusting

relationship, which enables the researcher to obtain quality information from the

respondents.

Another strength of the case study approach lies in the use of multiple methods of

collecting data from the same sources to cross-check their reliability. Denzin (1978) and

Preissle (1993) refer to this approach as “triangulation.” According to them, it is a

combination of several methods such as interviews, observations, informal conversation

sessions, and document analysis to study the same unit. In this respect, it is the process

of using multiple perceptions to clarify meanings or reality about an event. It involves

cross checking and cross-referencing the data by combining different perceptions of the

same event to provide a more holistic picture (cited in O’Donoghue and Punch, 2003:

522). Denzin 1989 (cited in Patton, 2002: 247) further comments:

The rationale for this strategy is that the flaws of one method are often the strengths of another… By combining multiple observers, theories, methods and data sources, the researchers can hope to overcome the intrinsic bias that comes from single-methods, single–observer and single-theory studies.

This idea of using multiple methods to collect data is a major strength of qualitative case

study research. These features of case study research provide flexibility in gathering and

analysing qualitative data. Furthermore, the multiple approaches facilitate ‘triangulation’

that improves the generalisability of the research findings (Stake, 1995; Sharma, 2000;

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Patton, 2002; O’Donoghue and Punch, 2003; Best and Kahn, 2003). Along with

strengths the qualitative case study approach has limitations.

Obviously, the common concern of qualitative case study research involves the issue of

generalisability. Polit and Hungler (1991) define generalisability as “extension of

research findings and conclusions from a study conducted on a sample population to the

entire population” (cited in Myers, 2000:4). It is basically taking findings from one

study and applies them to understanding similar situations. Most critiques argue that

some case studies are hard to generalise because of its subjective nature and its

concentration on a particular context. Despite this argument, supporters of qualitative-

oriented case study research say that this approach can be “rigorous, systematic and

scientific” (Bogdan and Biklen, 1992; Sharma, 2000:163). In short, this research does

not seek to generalise its findings but to provide more understanding of the phenomenon

investigated with the expectation that the results can potentially contribute valuable

knowledge to the Samoan community.

However, triangulation provides diverse ways of looking at the same phenomenon and

adds credibility by strengthening confidence in whatever conclusions are drawn (Patton,

2002). Furthermore, negotiating drafts with colleagues, reviewing trails, conducting

member checks and feedback sessions with the subjects are important means of

establishing accurateness, completeness and confirmability of data (Stake 1990;

Leininger 1990; Best and Kahn 2003; deMarrais 2004).

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According to Vidovich (2003), results from one study can be used to understanding

similar situations (cited in O’Donoghue and Punch, 2003). This procedure offers a

chance for researchers and readers to relate the case directly to their own studies.

Bogdan and Biklen (1992); Liu (2000); and Aveau (2003) mention the unavailability of

sufficient ‘time’ as another limitation of the case study approach. Time can create

problems in fieldwork, especially with such methods as in-depth unstructured

interviewing and participant observation. These techniques require the researcher to

spend an enormous amount of time in the field. Sometimes, the unavailability of the

subjects can delay the research process. As far as possible, care is taken in this study to

minimize the limitations already mentioned.

Data Collection Methods There is no perfect approach for collecting data (Cohen et al., 2002). It is the “fitness for

purpose”. In other words, it is important to select the most appropriate techniques that

best address the purpose of the study. Cresswell (1994) and Holliday (2002) agree that

the researcher may combine the use of two or more data gathering techniques, keep a

‘journal’ to record his or her own reflections and make tentative interpretations as the

study progress. Reliable data, however, depends crucially upon the competence of the

researcher in using multiple approaches to gather information. In this regard, Patton

(2002) indicates that the researcher needs to develop effective communication skills in

order to conduct effective and successful interviews and observations.

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In brief, the research process that includes determining the research questions, refining

the conceptual framework of the study, collecting and analysing data and making

conclusions begins in the pre-fieldwork and continuous through the fieldwork to the post-

fieldwork. In this research process, the design of the study is improved as new

knowledge and understanding is deprived.

Using multiple approaches to collect data provided a rich and detailed picture of the

phenomena being studied. Moreover, this help in the triangulation of data that increased

the reliability of the study.

Participant Observation According to Patton (2002) ‘observation’ is a major method of collecting data in

qualitative research. It is defined as a research strategy that combines documentary

analysis, interviewing and observation (Strauss and Corbin, 1998). Observation is

conducted by the researcher and is also used to verify and supplement information

gathered by other methods, such as interview and desk study. . This combination of

methods gives a holistic interpretation of the situation being investigated (Best and Kahn,

2003).

Participant observation is the direct involvement of the researcher in the events being

studied. In participant observation, the researcher involves and feels what it is like to be

part of the group. The researcher, therefore, develops an ‘inside’ view of what is

happening and makes it possible to record behaviour as it happens. As participant, the

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researcher easily develops rapport and trust with respondents and it makes it easier to

reveal the realities of their experiences that may not be obtained from other approaches.

However, Patton (2002) warns against socialization, which could cause the participant

observer to lose focus. Finally, participant observers must have skills such as “learning

how to write descriptively, practicing the disciplined recording of field notes, and

knowing how to separate detail from trivia… and using rigorous methods to validate

observations” (Patton 2002: 447).

This implies that the success of participant observations depends on the talents and skills

of the researchers and their ability to see the ‘real life’ of respondents and the

phenomenon from an ‘open-mind’ and without any notion of partiality (Patton, 2002).

Interview ‘Interviews’ are commonly used in qualitative research to gather thick descriptive data

that we may not be able to collect otherwise. Like participant observation, interviews

require careful planning and preparation. Strauss and Corbin (1998); Patton (2002) say

that the researcher must have a lot of information about the topic understudy, so that he

can ask informed questions, considering very carefully who to interview, how many

people to interview, what type of interviews to conduct and how to analyse the data

obtained from interviews. This requires skills in listening, speaking and writing. Bogdan

and Biklen (1992: 98) stress the importance of ‘listening’ carefully to what the

respondents say. Furthermore, they emphasise that it is necessary to “treat every word as

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having the potential of unlocking the mystery of the subject’s way of viewing the world”.

Thus, listening to every word and watching every action of the respondent is essential to

capture the true meaning of their perceptions.

Accordingly, asking appropriate questions, careful listening, noting nonverbal cues,

monitoring the progress of a conversation and taking notes are essential skills that a

qualitative reserachers must possess if they want to portray the real picture of the topic

being researched (Patton, 2002).

An interview is basically a conversation between two or more people. According to

Patton (2002: 37), “we cannot observe people’s thoughts, feelings and intentions”, so we

interview them to find out their feelings and thoughts “through the lenses of their own

values and codes” (Coxon and Taufe’ulungaki, 2003). This approach enables the

researcher to interpret data through the cultural ‘lenses’ of the research respondents.

Furthermore, interview is necessary when the researcher is interested in past events that

are somewhat impossible to repeat. Patton (2002: 342) goes on to identify three basic

approaches to interviewing: (1) the standardized open-ended interview; (2) the general

interview guide; and (3) the informal conversational-type interview. Each approach

serves a different purpose and has different preparation and instrumentation

requirements. In this study, I have used all the three approaches generally combining

them where deemed necessary. Together, they yielded rich qualitative data. I will

briefly elaborate on each of them below.

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The Standarised Open-ended Interview The standardised open-ended interview is also called structured interviews. It consists of

a set of open-ended questions carefully worded and arranged in advance to ensure that the

same basic lines of inquiry are pursued with each person interviewed. Furthermore, it

permits the interviewer to ask each respondent the same questions in a precise manner,

offering each individual the same set of possible responses (Fontana and Frey, 2000).

This type of interview may be particularly appropriate when there are several

interviewees and the investigator wants to minimize the variation in the questions he/she

poses. It is also useful when it is desirable to have the same information from each

interviewee at several points in time or when there are time-constraints for data collection

and analysis (Patton, 2002). Patton (2002) further indicates that standardised open-ended

interviews allow the researcher to collect detailed data systematically and facilitate

comparability among all respondents

The weakness of this approach is that it might not permit the interviewer to pursue topics

or issues that are not anticipated when the interview schedule is prepared. Also,

standardised open-ended interviews limit the use of alternative lines of questioning with

different people depending on their particular experiences. This reduces the extent to

which individual differences and circumstances can be fully incorporated in the

investigation (Fontana and Frey, 2000). For this reason, I have combined all the three

approaches of interviewing mentioned above. This enabled me to obtain quality data. In

some ways, these three approaches facilitate ‘triangulation’ at the ‘interview level’ as

well.

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The Semi-structured Interview

The second approach, the general interview guide, is also known as semi-structured

interview. It involves the preparation of an interview guide that lists a pre-determined set

of questions or issues that are to be explored during the interview (Fontana and Frey,

2000). According to Patton (2002) this guide serves as a checklist during the interview

and ensures that the same information is obtained from a number of persons. Yet, there is

a great deal of flexibility. The order and the actual wording of the questions are not

determined in advance. Moreover, the interviewee is free to respond to the situation at

hand and to new ideas on the topic. This approach creates a good interview environment

and provides opportunities for the interviewer and the interviewee to explore further into

the topic and learn from one another. This approach facilitates the collection of reliable

qualitative data (Patton, 2002).

The advantage of the interview guide approach is that it makes interviewing of a number

of different people more systematic and comprehensive by delimiting the issues to be

taken up in the interview. Logical gaps in the data collected can be anticipated and

closed, and the interviews remain fairly conversational and situational (Rubin and Rubin,

1995).

The limitation of this approach is that it does not permit the interviewer to pursue topics

or issues of interest that are not anticipated when the interview guide is prepared. Also,

interviewer-flexibility in wording and sequencing questions may result in substantially

different responses from different persons, thus reducing comparability (Patton, 2002). I

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have attempted to address this limitation by using all the three approaches mentioned-

above. Moreover, I revisited the interviewees to validate the data gathered by other

methods such as observations, documentary analyses and group discussions.

Informal Conversational Interview

Qualitative researchers also use informal conversational interview, commonly identified

as unstructured interviews (Fontana and Frey, 2000: 652) to collect data. This approach

relies primarily on the spontaneous generation of questions and takes a more natural

mode of conversation. An unstructured interview focuses on a specific topic but has no

structure, preconceived plan or expectation as to how the interview will proceed (Rubin

and Rubin, 1995). In other words, unstructured interview is more ‘free-wheeling’ and

conversational. This type of interview is appropriate when the researcher wants to

maintain maximum flexibility to pursue questioning in whatever direction that appears

appropriate, depending on the information that emerges from observing a particular

setting. According to Patton (2002), this approach works particularly well where the

researcher can stay in the setting for a period of time and does not depend on a single

interview opportunity. For example, Sharma (2000) became a temporary teacher for

three months in his case-study schools. He had a lot of opportunity to get engaged in

informal conversations that he termed as ‘talanoa’ sessions in the indigenous Fijian

language. He argued that the in depth information about TVET that he got in these

sessions, he was not able to obtain by the conventional approaches such as observations,

interview and desk study. He also stresses that this is a good way to triangulate data.

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According to Patton (2002: 343), this informal approach facilitates “flexibility,

spontaneity and highly responsiveness to individual differences and situational changes”

and emerging new information. The disadvantage is that it may generate less systematic

data that are difficult and time consuming to classify, analyse and understand. This

limitation is met in this study by triangulating data.

In this study, the three approaches are used concurrently during person-to-person and

group interview sessions to acquire information on the management and implementation

of the TVET curriculum in Samoan schools.

Documentary Study Documents are useful source of information. They can generate ideas for questions that

can be pursued through observation and interviewing (Lancy, 1993; Patton, 2002).

Moreover, documents can provide valuable information that may not be accessible by

other means. For example, they can provide information about things that the researcher

cannot observe because they took place before the study began, they were a part of

private interchanges in which the researcher did not participate or they reflect plans that

have not been realised in the actual programme performance (Lancy, 1993).

A major advantage of this data gathering method is that the documents are generated

contemporaneously with the events they refer to. Hence, they are less likely to be subject

to memory decay or memory distortion compared with data obtained from an interview

(Merriam, 1990; 1998; Best and Khan, 2003). However, a major limitation of

“documentary materials is determining their authenticity and accuracy” (Merriam, 1998:

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170). For this reason, it is the researcher’s responsibility to determine as much as

possible the origins and reasons behind the written document, its author, and the context

in which it is written. These limitations of documentary data are taken into account as I

review the documents collected from the Samoan Ministry of Education, Sports and

Culture and from the case study schools.

Data Analysis Data analysis is taking knowledge or ideas apart, separating them into components,

finding relationships and discovering unique characteristics (Best and Kahn, 2003).

Writers such as Hammersley and Atkinson (1983); Wolcott (1994); Southworth (1995);

Woods (1999); Sharma (2000); Liu (2000); Aveau (2003) indicate that the data collection

and analysis are often conducted together, rather than as distinct and separate phases.

This means that the analysis process starts in the pre-fieldwork stage where the research

questions are formulated and then carries on to the fieldwork and post-fieldwork stages of

the research process. In other words, data collection and data analysis is definitely a

simultaneous ongoing process. Merriam (1998) indicates that without this ongoing

analysis, the researcher takes the risk of ending up with data that are unfocused,

repetitious and overwhelming in the sheer volume of material that needs to be processed.

Cohen et al., (2002) confirm that an early analysis reduces the problem of data overload

by separating the significant features of unused data for future used in related studies.

Qualitative data analysis involves the processes of coding, cataloging, cross-examining

and theorizing the composed data (Strauss and Corbin, 1998; Cohen et al., 2002;

Holliday, 2002).

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Bogdan and Biklen (1992: 153) elaborate:

Analysis involves working with data, organizing them, breaking them into manageable units, synthesizing them, searching for patterns, discovering what is important and what is to be learned, and deciding what you will tell others.

Russell (2000:47) takes the discussion a step further by saying:

Analysis is the search for patterns in data and for ideas that help explain why those patterns are there in the first place. It starts before you collect data and continues throughout the study.

In its simplest form, data analysis is describing and making sense of the information

collected in terms of the participants’ definitions of the situation being studied. It begins at

the very first stage of the research process and continues till it is finished.

Qualitative analysis requires the creative involvement of the researcher. It is because of

this requirement, "nearly as many analysis strategies exist as qualitative researchers"

(Crabtree & Miller, 1992: 17). Although there is no one right way to do qualitative

analysis, several authors have developed categorizations of methods to assist discussions

of analysis (Tesch, 1990; Crabtree and Miller, 1992; Maxwell, 1996). The choice of

analysis strategies depends upon the research question, on what is already known about the

topic of interest, and on the methods of data collection.

While there are many different qualitative research paradigms that influence how

researchers approach the task of data analysis and interpretation, there is a common

sequence of steps observed across a number of paradigms. Miles and Huberman (1994: 21)

offer helpful suggestions for analyzing data as they are being collected. These are:

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• devising and affixing codes to field notes derived from observation, interviews or documentary analysis;

• familiarizing with the data through review, reading, listening; • noting the researcher’s reflections on the observations (e.g., as margin notes); • identifying preliminary patterns, themes and relationships; • conducting a more focused investigation of observed commonalities and

differences in the next wave of data collection; • gradually arriving at interpretations; and • verifying these interpretations (e.g., using a member check of study participants,

triangulating from different data sources, or getting another member of the research team to examine the chain of evidence).

In summary, the discussion thus far underpined the theoretical framework upon which

my research design and research process is anchored. These are unfolded in some depth

in the proceeding sections of this chapter.

THE RESEARCH DESIGN OF THIS STUDY In selecting a research design, it is essential to consider the nature of the research

questions being posed, the amount of control and the desired end product or outcome

(Yin, 1998; Merriam, 1998). Merriam (1998: 6) describes the research design as an

“architectural blueprint”, which is basically a plan for “assembling, organizing and

integrating data and its result in a specific end product”. Nachmias and Nachmias (1992)

take the discussion further to describe it as a plan that guides the researcher in the process

of collecting, analysing and interpreting data. They add that it is a model of proof that

allows the researcher to draw inferences concerning causal relations among the variables

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under investigation. Hence, the success of a study is determined by the research design,

and how it will be carried throughout the study systematically.

Figure 4.1 contains a flexible plan for this study. This design includes three interrelated

phases: pre-fieldwork; fieldwork; and post-fieldwork. The pre-fieldwork stage involves

identifying the research problem and questions, designing the research design and the

methods, and carrying out a literature review, methodology employed and the theoretical

framework that guides the study. The fieldwork stage basically covers gathering and

analyzing data. This plan of action evolves as I learned about the settings and research

participants. Therefore, the tentative research questions that I wrote before the fieldwork

were modified continuously to fit specific settings.

The experience gained from conducting the first case study was valuable to those that

followed. It compelled me to revisit the case-study schools several times to get as much

qualitative data as possible. The final version of the research questions are presented in

Chapter One and are reproduced below.

Research Questions

• How are TVET programmes managed in secondary schools? • How are TVET courses taught? • What is the quality and quantity of TVET resources and equipment in the secondary

schools? • What hinders the successful management and implementation of TVET courses? • What perceptions do the stakeholders hold of TVET courses? • What are the major implications of the study for policy and practice and for further research?

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The Case Study Schools

Schools for the case study were carefully selected taking into account factors such as

time, location, accessibility and proximity. From a total of 40 secondary schools in

Samoa, five were selected for this study. Table 4.1 (Appendix 5) contains a summary of

the Case Study Schools.

In the pre-fieldwork stage, I chose four secondary schools, two Government (one rural

and one urban) and two mission schools (one rural and one urban). My selection was

based on several factors such as the enrolment, status, proximity and geographical

location. However, after consultation with the Ministry of Education, Sports and Culture

(MESC) those schools were dropped from the study because they did not offer TVET

courses. The Ministry informed me that out of 40 secondary schools only 14 offered

TVET courses but only a few of those offer all three TVET subjects that I intended to

study in depth. These subjects are Design and Technology (DT), Food and Textile

Technology (FTT) and Agricultural Science (AS). From a MESC list of schools in the

urban and rural areas, I chose five secondary schools that are labeled as Case Study 1

(CS1), Case Study 2 (CS2), Case Study 3 (CS3), Case Study 4 (CS4) and Case Study 5

(CS5) in this research report. These schools were chosen because they offer at least two

or more TVET courses emphasized in this study.

Not all the case study schools offer the three TVET courses. FTT is the only TVET

course that is offered in all the case study schools. The case study schools are briefly

mentioned below. The detailed information is presented in Chapter 5.

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Figure 4.1: Research Design [Adapted from Sharma (2000:8) Vocational Education and Training in Fiji, New Delhi: Anamika Publisher

Pre-fieldwork Fieldwork Post-fieldwork

• Personal Interest • Educational Related Experience

Research Methodology

• Phenomenol- gical Perspectives • Qualitative Case Study Approach

Literature Review Section

• Research Problems • Formulating Research Questions

Selecting Case Study

Schools

• Case Study 1 • Case Study 2 • Case Study 3 • Case Study 4 • Case Study 5

• Gaining Access - MESC - Case Study Schools

Fieldwork • MESC • Case Study Schools • Parents (Oct-Nov 2003) (Feb-Mar 2004) Data Collection • Participant Observation • In-depth Interviews • Talanoa Sessions • Documentary Analysis

Transcribing Data - Tapes

- Fieldwork notes - Documents

Main Data Analysis • Writing individual Case study reports • Editing

- Literature Review - Methodology Chapters

• Data Presentation - Management MESC - Initiation of TVET

- Case Study Schools

Discussion of Findings

• Stakeholders Perception • Characteristic of the change • Initiation • Implementation • Institutionalization

Implication of Study

• Policy & Practice • Future Research

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All three TVET courses are offered in the Samoan Curriculum: Design and Technology

(DT), Food and Textile Technology (FTT) and Agriculture Science (AS). Other optional

courses in the secondary school curriculum are Business Studies (BS), Visual Arts (A),

Health and P.E., Music and Performing Arts. These were also looked at to give insights

on the variety of optional courses offered by some schools. Furthermore, it provides

information on the preferences of students in optional subjects at the secondary level.

CS1 is an urban secondary school. It became a senior secondary school in 1999 after

Years 12 and 13 were added to its programme of study. CS1 offers DT, FTT, BS and

Art.

CS2 is a district school established in 1964. It became a senior secondary school in 1999

after the addition of Year 13. CS2 offers optional TVET courses in DT, FTT, AS and

BS.

CS3 was established in 1954. Year 13 was added to its programme of study in 2000.

This school offers FTT. Other optional courses offered are Computer Studies (CS) and

Business Studies (BS). These subjects are not the focus of this study.

CS4 is a mission school established in 1953. It has an enrolment of about 800 students.

It offers DT and FTT that are discussed in this research. Other optional courses offered

are Auto-Mechanics, Arts, Secretarial Management and Computer Studies.

CS5 is a rural district school. It was established in the 1960s as a Junior Secondary

School Year 13 was added in 2003. The school has an enrolment of about 350

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students. It offers FTT, AS, and DT. Business Study is also offered as an optional

subject.

SAMPLING The fieldwork was conducted during September – November, 2003 and February –

March, 2004. These are demanding times for secondary schools because of internal

and external examinations, and scheduling for the beginning of the year. Despite

these challenges, the selected schools were willing to participate in the study.

Consistent with Hutchinson’s (cited in deMarrias and Lapan, 2004: 291) advice,

sampling in this study involved deciding on

• who the research respondents would be;

• how many research respondents were required;

• how to select them;

• what questions to ask;

• what to record and how; and

• what to see and how long to spend with each respondent and in each research settings.

These decisions were made in collaboration with the senior research respondents such

as the school principals and the respective officials of MESC. For example, I chose to

study three TVET courses (FTT, DT and AS). Therefore, the students and teachers

involved in these courses were randomly chosen as samples. In addition, I also

interviewed as well as had informal discussions with other faculty members, parents

and students who were not directly involved in the TVET programme. Their

comments and suggestions were also vital in the study. The advisors of each TVET

course in the MESC were also interviewed. Table 4.2 and 4.3 provide important

information on the research respondents.

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Table 4.2: Codes for Research Respondents

Code Used for respondent

Respondent CS1

CS2

CS3

CS4

CS5

MESC Dept.

TOTAL

Data as presented in

the case study record

P Principal

1* 1* 1* 3* Individual Interview

VP

Vice Principal

1*

1*

1*

1*

4*

Individual Interview

H Head of Dept.

2*

1*

1*

2*

1*

7*


M MESC officials

6*

6*


T1 T2 T3 T4

DT-Teachers FTT –Teachers AS Teachers Non-TVET teachers

DT-2* FTT-2* AS-2* T4-2*

DT-1* FTT-3* AS-1* T4-3*

FTT-3* T4-2*

DT-2* FTT-1* T4 5 (2*& 3**)

DT-1* FTT-1* AS-1* T4-2*

6* 10* 4* 11* 3**

Individual Interview Group Discussions Observations

S

Students

HE-20 IA-12 10* & 3**

HE-7 IA-4 AS-12 4* and 2**

HE-28 4* & 3**

HE-24 IA-14 5* & 4**

HE-18 IA-16 AS-10 2* & 3**

25* & 15**

Summarized Data

PA

Parents

5*and 2**

8*and3**

4* and 2**

5*&3**

3* & 1**

25* & 11**

Summarized Data

Total

26*and 5**

23*and 5**

14* and 5**

19* and 10**

13* and 4**

6*

101* & 29**

(Source: Adapted from Sharma, 2000: 14, 15). Key:

* - Number of individual interviews. ** - Number of group discussions. P - Principal. VP - Vice Principal. HOD - Head of Departments. M - MESC officials. T1 - DT teachers. T2 - FTT teachers. T3 - AS teachers. T4 - Non-TVET teachers. S - Students. PA - Parents. FTT - Food Textile and Technology. DT - Design and Technology. AS - Agricultural Science.

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Table 4.3: Summary of Fieldwork Activities

Areas of Inquiry Data Collection Method Sources of Data Context

In-depth Interviews Documentary Analysis

• MESC Officials • CMAD (TVET Advisors) • Administrators & Staff of each Case study schools • Students & Parents • District School Committee • Documents provided by: - MESC/CMAD - Case study schools

Policy

In-depth Interviews Documentary Analysis

• MESC Officials • CMAD (TVET Advisors) • Administrators & Staff of each Case study schools • District School Committees • Documents provided by:

- MSCE and CMAD - Case study schools

Practice

In-depth Interviews Participant observations Documentary Analyses

• Principals & Faculty • TVET teachers • Head Of Departments • Students and Parents • District committees • Schools • Workshop places • Classrooms • Documents provided by:

- Schools’ records - Students’ exercise books - MESC/CMAD

documents

(Source: Fieldwork Notes, 2003-04). Another significant feature of sampling includes time, the context and the people

because they shaped the picture of the TVET in the Samoan context. The time period

of eight months allocated for the fieldwork was divided somewhat equally to the case-

study schools and MESC. This comprises the time spends on observations,

interviews, informal discussions, workshops, documentary studies and recording the

field notes.

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Ethical Procedures Case study research is carried out in real-world circumstances and involves close and

open communication among the people involved. Therefore, the researchers must pay

particular attention to ethics of research. Cohen and Manion (cited in Sharma, 2000:

170) reinforce this in the following way:

Social scientists generally have a responsibility not only to their profession in its search for knowledge and quest for truth, but also for the subject they depend on for their work . . .[They] must take into account the effect of the research on participants, and act in such a way as to preserve their dignity as human beings.

Accordingly, my duty, as a researcher, is to protect the confidentiality, anonymity and

dignity of my research respondents. Some research respondents were reluctant to

participate in the study because they did not want to reveal their identities. Their

decisions were respected. They were assured of their confidentiality and anonymity

and the research ethics adopted in this study. Despite this, some did not want to

participate and, hence, were replaced by other interested persons.

Winter (1996) identifies a number of principles for researchers to consider while

working with research informants. These are:

• make sure that the relevant persons, committees and authorities have been consulted, and that the principles guiding the work are accepted in advance by all;

• all participants must be allowed to influence the work, and the wishes of those

who do not wish to participate must be respected;

• the development of the work must remain visible and open to suggestions from others;

• permission must be obtained before making observations or examining documents produced for other purposes.

• descriptions of others' work and points of view must be negotiated with those concerned before being published; and

• the researcher must accept responsibility for maintaining confidentiality.

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These principles were taken into account in this study. This study required an in-

depth investigation of people and institutions. Thus, the ‘informed consent’ approach

was adopted. The ‘informed consent’ approach means providing research

respondents with all of the information about the study so that they can decide to

participate in the study or not (Cohen et. al., 2002:53; Sharma, 2000).

The case study schools were informed that the name of their schools would remain

anonymous in this study. Furthermore, I assured them that their identity and the

information they provide would remain confidential and will be used for research

purposes only. The respondents from the five schools and MESC were:

• provided with as much information as possible about the study before they decided to participate;

• told clearly about the purpose of the study and what was to be done with the

information they provided; • provided the right to veto any information they made that they do not want to

be made known; • given the right of confidentiality and anonymity; • told that their inputs would be acknowledged verbally and where necessary in

writing; and • given the right to withdraw their consent and to discontinue their participation

at any time. These assurances were given before the research process began. I made this clear

when I addressed them in the beginning. Moreover, the assurance of confidentiality

and anonymity was given in writing and were repeated when necessary. Figure 4.2

(Appendix 6) shows the Informed Consent Form for adults and children under 18

years old. This provided a sense of easiness and trust amongst the research

respondents and myself. Moreover, it made the respondents more open and willing to

share their opinions on the subject being investigated.

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Table 4.2 shows the codes used for the respondents. For example, the students were

given the code ‘S’. The code S1-CS1, 2003:5 refers to one of the students in CS1, the

year it was documented and the page number in the field record. As noted earlier, the

case study schools were referred to as CS1, CS2, CS3, CS4 and CS5. This is

consistent with the ethical research procedures adapted for the study.

Gaining Access for Fieldwork

Bell (cited in Cohen et. al., 2000:53) indicates that gaining permission to carry out an

investigation is one of the first stages of conducting research. It must always be

sought at an early stage after the researcher decides on a feasible topic. Bell’s advice

was taken into consideration in this study. I consulted the schools and MESC after

my proposal was approved. This early consultation gave me enough time to choose

other schools when the ones I chose were not able to take part because the intended

programme of study was not offered. Furthermore, it gave the schools enough time to

consider my request.

I followed the official channel of communication to gain access to the case study

schools. First, I wrote to the CEO of MESC and the Directors of the two mission

schools for approval to conduct fieldwork in their schools. Figure 4.3 (Appendix 7)

contains the letter I wrote to the MESC. I stated in the letter the purpose of the study,

the departments in the Ministry in which I wanted to spend time and the names of the

case study schools. A letter from my thesis supervisor was attached to provide the

evidence that I was a post-graduate student at USP undertaking a research in Samoa.

Figure 4.4 (Appendix 8) contains my supervisor’s letter. I was invited for a meeting

with the CEO. In the meeting, I discussed the purpose of my research, ethical

95

procedures and the reasons for selecting the schools. The CEO approved my request;

however, the approval to enter the schools was to come from the principals of the

schools. I was also informed that some of the schools I selected do not offer TVET

courses. I was given a list of schools to choose from. It was then I made a final

selection of the government schools for the study. The principals of the selected

schools were approached in writing and in person and I was given permission to

conduct the study in their schools. The letter written for the schools is shown in

Figure 4.5 (Appendix 9).

I went through the same process in gaining access to Church-owned schools. I

approached the principals in person. I discussed the research project in detail as I did

with the principals of the government schools. Permission was given for the two

Church schools and the time was scheduled for the fieldwork was discussed. In each

case study school, I outlined the objectives of the study, the methodology and ethical

procedures that were to be taken. I was welcomed and treated as a staff member in

each of the case study schools.

Gaining access was a challenging process because of the time involved in setting up

appointments to see the right persons. Some senior officials in MESC and principals

were difficult to get in touch because they were usually involved in meetings and

workshops. I spent at least two weeks trying to gain access to the five schools

involved in the study. It was a tedious task, however, I was able to meet them and

make arrangements for the fieldwork. I acknowledge this assistance with extreme

appreciation verbally as well as in writing.

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DATA COLLECTION METHODS

It is recalled that the data collection strategies comprised in-depth interviews,

observations and documentary analysis. Table 4.3 portrays the data gathering

methods.

In-depth Interviewing

The interviews in this study were done in two categories: person-to-person and

informal group discussion. The most common form of interview was the person-to-

person encounter in which I obtained information from research respondents. It was

stated earlier that an interview is described as a “conversation with a purpose”; a two

way process in which the respondents and the researcher both bring in ideas to the

conversation. The interviews in this study were treated in this manner. Most of the

interviews were conducted in English. Interviews conducted in the Samoan language

were translated to English after each session.

The literature indicates that interviews required careful planning and preparation. I

took this suggestion into account as I prepared to face my interviewees. Prior to each

interview, I reviewed the previous interview and observation sessions and the topics

to be discussed. I used a tape recorder to record the interviews. In addition, I listened

carefully, observed nonverbal cues and wrote notes as the interview process

continued. The notes were useful when I transcribed and analysed the data at the end

of the day.

I used person-to-person and informal interviews as a strategy to get an insight into the

minds and feelings of my respondents. Although interview seemed to be an easy

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strategy, I have encountered some limitations during the course of my study. I found

person-to-person interviews difficult to conduct in a formal setting. It was also fairly

time consuming. The respondents felt reluctant to speak about the issue. For

example, I interviewed a Food and Textile Technology (FTT) teacher in her room. I

conducted the interview using the semi-structured interview schedule. She answered

the questions well. During morning tea the next day, I raised the issue again

informally. The FTT teacher whom I interviewed the day before was there with some

of her colleagues. She said a lot more about the issue this time. This informal

conversation complemented the data that I collected earlier. In this regard, my

interview transcripts were a compilation of a series of conversation pieces taken at

different times.

I found informal and unstructured interviews easy to conduct. This allowed the

respondents and I to work in a more relaxed situation. Furthermore, it facilitates open

discussion. Likewise, in-depth interviews were valuable when the decisions under

study were complex.

I also found person-to-person interviews useful in this study because it enabled me to

tackle sensitive and embarrassing topics with the respondents. Person-to-person

interview strategy was appropriate because the people felt reluctant to share their

views if others were listening. For example, a teacher was able to share her

frustrations concerning the misuse of TVET budget by her principal. This teacher

would not have shared this with me if she were in a group with other teachers.

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Conducting group interviews has its advantages and limitations that were identified

earlier. First, group discussions allowed me to get more respondents’ feedback than

from one interview. Furthermore, it saved time, however, large group discussions

were difficult to manage and participants did not have the opportunity to get fully

involved in the discussion. Those with more information and power dominated the

discussion. Moreover, it was difficult to record the discussion correctly. Sometimes

people spoke at the same time and it became difficult to identify the speaker. I

address this problem by transcribing the tape-recorded data immediately after the

session.

The first group discussion helped me in designing and conducting the rest of the

group discussions that followed in the course of the study. Exhibit 4.1 shows a

sample of an interview transcript.

In summary, I have discussed the manner in which interview strategy was used in this

study. It is recalled that I used person-to-person and informal group interviews to get

into the world of my research respondents.

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Exhibit 4.1: Sample of an Interview Transcript. (Source: Fieldwork Notes, 2004: 26).

2 March 2004 – Interview R: Looks like you are enjoying your morning tea break! T1: Oh hey, come inside! Yes! I love this little break, all the teachers do! Here is yours! So where do we start? R: Let’s begin by you telling me a little about yourself, education and teaching background. T1: I have been a teacher of Industrial Arts for three years. I got my degree in IA from SPI and a

diploma in Mathematics from the NUS in 2001. The MOE assigned me to teach at a District school the year after my graduation. I taught there for two years. I just got transferred to this school in the beginning of this year.

R: Sounds like you are new to this school then? T1: Yes, but the system is the same. This is a district school also, plus the curriculum and materials are

all the same. Getting to know the administrators and the faculty is a challenge, everyone seems to do their own thing.

R: Are you the only teacher of Industrial Art? T1: No, there are two of us. I teach the higher levels (Years 11 to 13 and my partner teaches the lower

levels, (9 to 10). R: Since you have a degree in Math, I assume you also teach Math? T1: Yes, I also teach Mathematics for Yr 10 & 11. Most of the teachers in this school teach at least two

subjects. I like it, it is challenging though when it comes to doing lesson plan, internal examinations and grading, but I am used to it.

R: I know this is not a fair question but if you were to choose between IA and Math, which would you

prefer to teach? T1: That is interesting, why? My friends always tell me to drop IA and concentrate on teaching Math.

Honestly, I like them both; most people do not know that IA and Math are interrelated. R: In what ways? T1 This is how I see it. In IA, we use mathematical concepts also. That is why I oppose to those who

said that applied subjects [TVET courses] are for the below average students. To be good in drafting and drawing, you got to have good English skills, mathematical skills, thinking skills, etc. Sorry, I am a little off, but I like teaching both.

R: So how is the IA programme in this school? T1: The subject was on hold last year due to the lack of teachers. We just began IA this year. Our goal is

to prepare our students to sit SC and PSSC next year, 2005. We are concentrating on internal projects as well.

R: I can see that you have a new building for TVET? T1: It was opened in 2002. It was built under the new project sponsored by the ADB (Asian Development

Bank). It is a project put up by the MESC to upgrade school facilities in 10 district schools. Yes, we have a nice new building but not fully furnished. I also think it is quite small for a workshop area.

R: Are you saying that you don’t have the necessary resources…? T1: Well, we only have a few hand tools. But it would be wonderful to have some electric tools and

machines for cutting and planning woods and etc. R: So how do you do your practical work then? T1: We are concentrating on the theory at the moment, hopefully by second term we will have our

machines and more tools, then we will begin our term projects.

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Participant Observation Participant observation was another strategy used to gather data in this research.

Through participant observation, I was able to participate in the day-to-day activities

of the case study schools. I attended department and faculty meetings, classroom

activities, workshops sessions and other school related activities that I felt was

appropriate and useful in gaining insight into the TVET curriculum.

Nevertheless, it was impossible to record and write all the observations because the

events happened simultaneously and in a short period of time. To deal with these

limitations, I used a tape recorder to record some of the observations. These

recordings were transcribed at the end of each day. In my observation sessions, I

particularly observed the research settings, participants, the normal activities and

interactions that occurred in between the participants, and the frequency and the

duration of the events taking place. The data collected from observations were useful

to confirm and contradict data gathered from interviews and documents. They also

helped me to plan the future activities.

I found that getting involved in the day-to-day activities of my research respondents

was an easy way of obtaining information. Interacting with them allowed me to see

and feel what was like to be a part of that group. Furthermore, participation allowed

me to have a good rapport with other research respondents. This trusting relationship

was important throughout the study because without this the research respondents

would have been reluctant to discuss their views freely.

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It was mentioned earlier that socializing with the respondents could also create some

problems in the research process. I encountered this problem in one of the case study

schools. I actively participated in their daily routines that I began to lose sight of my

purpose of being there. It is important to step back and be a silent observer. This

means, stepping outside of the comfort zone and watch the research respondents.

This includes whom they interact with, what they do and how they do it.

Exhibit 4.2 shows an observation account from one of the case study schools. The

sample provides information concerning the setting and the interactions between the

students and their teacher. These were the daily routine for the class. The students

knew what to do as they entered the workshop. For example, that was to change in

their work outfits and safety gears.

Exhibit 4.3 contains an observation report of a workshop area. The sketch shows a

well-structured workshop place with all the necessary equipment, heavy duty

machines and tools. Furthermore, the room contained open spaces, which gave

enough space for students to move around as they did their practical lessons.

In brief, participant observation in this study was done through involving in the daily

activities of the schools.

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Exhibit 4.2: Sample of a Participant Observation.

Description of the Environment (Workshop area) I arrived in the Metal Class five minutes early. I wanted to explore the room and the atmosphere before the students arrived. There was another class preparing to leave the room as I entered. The boys were taking off their overalls and boots and putting the equipment away. Then, they began to exit the room in pairs. The teacher invited me to take a seat anywhere I want. I took a seat by the window away from the equipment and gas cylinders. The room was large in size; the ceiling was very high. It was designed for a purpose because this is a workshop area where they fix cars and other metal work. The room is divided into two sections, I could tell by the signs hanging from the ceiling. One was for Automotive and the other side was for Metalwork. There were two car engines in the automotive area. There were cupboards and closets, sinks and storerooms. Students came in one by one except for the two girls who entered the room together (and laughing). Some students noticed me but they kept on doing what seemed to be their normal routine when entering the workshop area. They opened the closets and got out overalls, boots and hand towels. One student asked, “What are we doing today teacher?” The teacher ignored the questions and I heard another student answer, “That is not your business, your business is to learn”. Then, the sounds of laughter echo in the room. One girl looked at me with a smile. I saw them coming out of the changing room in their blue overalls and boots ready to work. The two girls looked professionals in their blue overalls and boots, except the overall was too big for one of the girls. I noticed that some of them had cloves and some did not. The teacher briefly introduced me and my purpose of being there. Then he said, “Feel free to walk around and observe what the students are doing.” ‘I will send the students to be interviewed during the last 5-10 minutes of class.” The students and the teacher moved to the Workshop area. The teacher reviewed the previous lesson and reminded students of the safety rules. The theory for this practical was done yesterday, so the students were now learning to use the gas cylinder for welding. They cut pieces of metal, and connected them together. The teacher told me that this is an exercise to teach them how to cut and connect metal and how to use the gas cylinder. The teacher demonstrated how to turn on and off the gas cylinder. I walked to where the two girls were welding, one student told me, “Don’t look at it, it will hurt your eyes, wear these”. He handed me big goggles, in which I debated for a while whether to use it or not. But for the safety of my eyes, I didn’t have a choice and I wore them. I looked at what one of the girls was cutting. It is amazing how that thing can cut metal. I told her to do it again. She did it again; she seemed to like what she was doing. It was interesting to note that the 6 boys and the two girls were working together and the boys seemed to assist the girls when it comes to carrying heavy bars or equipment. The Samoan tradition of respecting the girls existed in the classroom as well. The teacher walked around to check the students’ work and noticed that some of the students were not wearing gloves and he said, “If you burn yourself, don’t complain because you know the rules”. I sat in the corner of the room and jotted down some notes, I tried to sketch the workshop area then the two boys arrived for their interview. The interview was more of an informal group discussion. The students felt comfortable to share their ideas and thoughts when interviews were done in this setting.

(Source: Fieldwork notes, 2004:32).

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Exhibit 4.3: Observation Sample - Sketch of CS4 Workshop Area (Source: Fieldwork Notes, 2004: 32). Documentary Analysis Documentary evidence in this study included official and semi-official data from the

Ministry of Education, Sports and Culture and the case study schools. These

documents consisted of prescriptions, circulars, memos, financial reports, statistical

reports, national development plans, exam records, students’ reports and records,

school magazines and newspapers, media articles, teachers’ plan and students’ texts

and exercise books. According to Hammersley and Atkinson, (1983); Yin (1989);

Bogdan and Biklen (1992); and Sharma (2000) cross-validating these documents with

those obtained from other sources and approaches such as interviews and participant

observations provided me with more insights into the programme being investigated.

AUTOMOTIVE AREA METAL AREA

S H E L V E S

Metal

T A B L E

Car engine & A Heavy

duty Machine.

Store Room

S H E L V E S & C/ B O A R D S

Closets & changing area

Sliding gate Back door

SHELF &

CLOSET

Used Car

Sliding gate (front)

Gas cylinders

Benches

Few chairs & Desks for students to sit and watch demonstration

Equipment And Machines for Welding Huge Tool

Box S I N K

S I N K

Hanging plugs & extensions

Office

Office

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Walford (cited in O’Donoghue and Punch, 2003: 78) has emphasised that

documentary evidence cannot “simply be understood at face value”. The story behind

the production of each document needs to be probed and analysed. Accordingly, the

documents that I used were examined with much consideration into the biases of the

writers and incompleteness. This was done by cross-checking it with the data

obtained through interviews and participant observations to offer a complete picture

of the management of TVET courses in Samoa. Furthermore, I kept an open-mind

and tried to understand the position of the writer producing the document.

Some of the documents such as reports and booklets from MESC were outdated and

were written for a different audience, so the accuracy of the information needed to be

verified. However, these documents were valuable in suggesting directions for

interviews and observations. In addition, they were used to compliment and cross

validate data obtained from other sources.

Exhibit 4.4 shows a document from the MESC that was used for analysis in this

study. The document provides a general guideline for assessment and evaluation for

the FTT course in the secondary schools. Please note that all the curriculum

statements for the secondary schools have the similar assessment and evaluation

statements.

In particular, documents used for analysis in this study were obtained from MESC and

the case study schools. The documents I collected provided valuable information into

the management and implementation of TVET courses in the Samoan secondary

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school. They were used to cross-checked information that I gathered from other

sources. Some of the documents were old and I had to handle them with care.

Obtaining documents from the MESC was difficult as their record keeping was not

accurate. Furthermore, the information contained in some of the documents was

outdated. However, these documents were helpful in planning interview questions

and topics for group discussions.

Exhibit 4.4: Sample of a Document used for Analysis

Assessment and Evaluation Assessment is the process of gathering meaningful information that is used to make judgments. Judgments can be made on aspects such as learners’ performance against the achievement objectives and the quality and effectiveness of learning programme. Assessment and evaluation of Food and Textile teaching and learning must reflect the principles in the Samoa Secondary Curriculum: Curriculum Overview. Assessments methods are an important factor in influencing and constraining teaching methods. The things that are assessed are seen as important. The way assessment is conducted emphasizes the need to gain the skills that are assessed. Written examinations focus on the narrow range of knowledge and skills that can be assessed in written forms. It is important, therefore that:

• A range of assessment procedures is used to provide useful information on students’ progress against the achievement objectives stated in the curriculum.

• Skills and knowledge such as independent inquiry, oral language, and many practical skills

are assessed. These are not easily assessed by examination and need assessment through school-based activities.

• Assessment and evaluation be on going and help improve the ways in which Food and

Textile Technology programmes are meeting the students’ needs;

• Where appropriate, families and communities be involved as participants in the assessment and evaluation process;

• Students to be involved in the assessment of their own progress in Food and Textile

Technology.

(Source: Food & Textile Technology Curriculum Statement for Secondary Schools, 2000: 4).

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Data Analysis The advocates of qualitative research such as Woods (1999); Liu (2000); Sharma

(2000); Cohen et al. (2002); Aveau (2003); and Best and Kahn (2003) argue that data

analysis is an ongoing process that starts in the pre-fieldwork and continues in the

fieldwork and post-fieldwork phases. Similarly, data analysis in this study began

from the pre-fieldwork when I obtained documents from MESC and the case study

schools. It continued on to the fieldwork and on to the post-fieldwork phases. The

process became more intensive as I got close to the end of the fieldwork. I found

analysing data collected in the qualitative case study approach is tedious and time-

consuming. The suggestion by Miles and Huberman (1994) for analysing data was

taken into account during the data collection and the actual analysing stage of the

research process. The following steps were taken to analyse the data of this research.

The first step was transcribing the tape-recorded data. A computer was used to type

these transcripts. This was mainly done at the end of each day. It was a time-

consuming and tiring activity especially when the recorded data were in the Samoan

language. First, it has to be transcribed then translated into English Language. Each

interview was dated and labeled with the interviewees’ code-name and school for

references. The transcribed data were read and revised. During this process, I

checked mainly for grammatical errors and redundancies. Furthermore, I took notes,

comments and queries and searched for regularities and patterns in the data. These

patterns and regularities were transformed into categories, which was the second step

of my data analysis.

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The second step involved developing categories and themes that interpret the meaning

of the data. This procedure involved coding. The categories that were used to group

pieces of data were derived from the conceptual framework of the study. This

includes: (1) the perceptions of stakeholders; (2) characteristics of the innovation (3)

initiation; (4) implementation; and (5) institutionalisation. These broad headings also

contain sub-headings. For example, under characteristics of innovation were specific

topics such as need, quality and practicality. The data were grouped under these

headings and later coded with numbers to signify the appropriate heading. The data

were then sorted out and grouped into the respective categories by using the ‘cut and

paste technique’. This was done manually for each research respondent. The data

that did not fit the categories above were labeled ‘general’ and set aside for future

references. The data under each category were read again and again for redundancies

and grammatical errors before they were printed and stored for future use. As

mentioned earlier, the respondents were given an alphanumeric code as identification

number. For example, P1, 2004: 5 refers to the principal of CS1, the year and page

number in the fieldwork notes. These codes were used throughout the process of

analysis to indicate who made the comments. Moreover, they were used in the

research report.

The last stage of the analytic process was the writing of the research report. This

provided the whole picture of the study. It involved making cross inferences and

developing theory were appropriate. Miles and Huberman (1984:228) described this

process as moving up “from the empirical trenches to a more conceptual overview of

the landscape”. Organizing and possible theorizing the data collected helped explain

various aspects of the TVET curriculum in secondary schools in Samoa.

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Conclusion

This chapter discussed the manner in which the study was conducted. The qualitative

case study approach was used to investigate the TVET curriculum in secondary

schools in Samoa. The chapter argued for a qualitative case study approach,

highlighting the strengths and limitations of the approach. Furthermore, it described

how the study was conducted. The methods used to gather data were in-depth

interviews, observations and documentary analysis. Using various approaches

facilitated the triangulation of data. The process of analysis was also discussed in this

chapter, paying particular attention to the idea of data analysis as an on-going research

process. It started in the pre-fieldwork stage and continued on to the fieldwork and

post-fieldwork phases. The process of data analysis is time consuming, frustrating and

at times tiring, however, it was manageable in this study.

The next chapter presents the findings of the research study with particular reference

to the policy and practice of TVET subjects in the five case study schools.

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CHAPTER FIVE

PRESENTATION OF DATA

INTRODUCTION

This chapter presents the findings of the fieldwork conducted in Samoa. The

fieldwork was based on the following research question:

• How are TVET programmes managed in secondary schools? • How are TVET courses taught? • What is the quality and quantity of TVET resources and equipment in the

secondary schools? • What hinders the successful management and implementation of TVET courses? • What perceptions do the stakeholders hold of TVET courses? • What are the major implications of the study for policy and practice and for further research?

As described in chapter four, data was collected from the Ministry of Education,

Sports and Culture (MESC) and five case study schools. The data collection

strategies:

● interviews at the MESC;

● review of documents at the MESC; and

● case studies of the five schools.

The actual words of the respondents are presented in this chapter in italics. The

following codes are being used throughout the data presentation: P-principal, VP-vice

principal, H-head of departments, M-ministry official, T-teachers, (T1-DT, T2-FTT,

T3-AS, T4-non TVET) S-students and PA-parents.

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This chapter begins with an overview of the management of education in general.

This is followed by excerpts of the initiation of TVET, the management of TVET and

the practice of TVET in secondary schools.

MANAGEMENT OF EDUCATION IN SAMOA

Samoa’s educational policies are rooted in the philosophy of a holistic and life-long

education. Exhibit 5.1 shows the vision and mission statements.

Exhibit 5.1: MESC Vision and Mission Statement

Vision

For every Samoan to enjoy an improved quality of life premised on a competitive economy with sustained economic growth, improved education, enhanced health

standards and strengthened cultural and traditional values.

Mission Statement

To promote development in all phases of Education, Sports and Culture in Samoa to enhance opportunities for all.

(Source: GOS, MESC Corporate Plan, 2003: 13).

Ten major educational goals span from the above statements (Appendix 10). While

there is no specific goal concerning TVET, it seems to be included in goal number

four below (Government of Western Samoa, 1995a:29).

Development of a comprehensive and enriching curricula which:

• combines indigenous and global knowledge within a bilingual structure, and promotes an international standard of academic achievement;

• is based on and develops existing knowledge, skills and attitudes, and. • develops an appreciation of the pursuit of knowledge for its own sake.

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Secondary School Policies

Samoa’s school system has been criticized for being inefficient and irrelevant. There

are concerns that students have not acquired the relevant skills and practical

knowledge that are expected in the workforce (GOS, 2000c; Government of Western

Samoa, 1995a). This has caused the MESC to prioritise its needs and formulate new

policies and strategies. Exhibit 5.3 shows these policies.

Exhibit 5.3 Samoa Secondary School Policies

(Source: Government of Samoa Education Policies 1995-2005, 1995:27) INITIATION OF TVET IN SAMOA

As discussed in Chapter 2, some form of vocational education was always present in

Samoa before the missionaries arrived although it was “informal and un-

The identified strategic planning issues include the provision for adequate physical facilities through: • The establishment of minimum standards for buildings, furniture, equipment,

playground areas, toilets and water supplies; • The collation of information on current provision of the above, identification of needs

and a plan to implement minimum standards; and • The cataloguing of standardized lists of equipment and materials for all subjects

across all levels. A carefully staged comprehensive secondary education development plan will be prepared incorporating planning details: • The expansion of senior secondary places through progressive upgrading of selected

junior secondary schools to district secondary schools and increased equity in provision of senior secondary places;

• The enforcement of staffing formulae and collation of information on staffing needs by subject (including applied subject options);

• The provision of pre-service teacher education programmes and in-service teacher upgrading in response to identified needs;

• The retention incentives for well-qualified and successful classroom teachers, especially in shortage areas;

• The upgrading of Years 9-11 curricula in the core subjects (language, mathematics, science, social science) to meet prerequisites for Year 12;

• The development of integrated Year 9 – 13 curricula in Samoan, agricultural science, business studies, home economics and industrial arts which meet prerequisites in related post-secondary courses;

• The teacher development programmes in the use of formative and summative assessment processes and the requirements of internal assessment for national and regional examinations; and

• The inclusion of applied subjects (Industrial Arts, Home Economics, Agriculture Science and Business Studies in the PSSC and the SC examinations.

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institutionalised” (Thaman, 2002: 22; Taufe’ulungaki, 2002: 12). The early

missionaries later developed Pastors’ schools, which taught religious courses as well

as woodwork, home economics, home management, and farming in an

institutionalised manner (Kirk, 1996).

Today, the mission schools are well developed in TVET with the facilities, teachers

and necessary resources to teach the courses.

The Church schools have furnished facilities, qualified teachers and all the resources. The teachers are lucky, the equipment and tools are there to be used. Therefore, their students do well in practical work as well as in examinations. Unlike government schools, our main setback is the lack of facilities. We can deal with the problem of teachers, but with facilities - we are working to explore a better solution [M2, 2004].

The first TVET courses were introduced at secondary in the 1950s. One of the

principals, and former MESC Industrial Arts advisor recalled his time as an industrial

arts student:

I attended a centre specifically built for vocational subjects - industrial arts, mechanical engineering, plumbing, home economics (sewing and cooking), and agriculture. Students from various schools came to the centre to be taught skills in vocational subjects. Most of the church schools had their own TVET facilities, so this one catered for those from government schools [P5, 2004].

He further stated that the government extended this to district JSSs but discontinued

due to a lack of sense of direction. At the same time TVET courses did not attract

many students because of the competition in examinations that qualifies Samoan

students for education overseas. Natural disaster also contributed to the

discontinuation of TVET courses in the JSSs. All these contributed to the current

situation.

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Initial Difficulties with Teachers, Parents and Students

The introduction of TVET courses into the schools created disagreement amongst

parents, teachers and students (Fieldwork Notes, 2003-2004). While teachers view it

as an extra work load, some parents see it as blocking their children from achieving

academic goals. One of the principals pointed out:

… Samoan teachers at the junior secondary level were not prepared to carry out the [TVET] programme, most of them see it as an extra workload. Moreover, the students were only aiming at passing national and regional examinations. Some of the principals, did not see the need for it at the time, therefore, the programme did not develop as was planned. The school at Malifa only went well because the expatriates ran it and most of the teachers were qualified ‘palagi’ [white people] from overseas [P5, 2004].

A teacher who had for about 15 years had this to say about TVET:

…it was an issue in our school for some time. Our principal and most of the teachers were against it because we did not have the facilities for it, but we had to do it because the change came from the MOE [now MESC]. Our school budget was low and the equipment and tools were expensive. So it was basically theory and no practice, but with these subjects, practical work is as important as examinations. The programme does help our weak students though [T4: CS1, 2004].

Parents likewise had very strong views as well. One parent had this to say:

We teach our children to cook, make tables, chairs, and grow taro at home. Why repeat it at school? I send my children to school to learn English and Mathematics, and Accounting, all those classes that will enable them to get a good job in the future. I want my son to find an office job not to become a carpenter or planter … [P3, 2004].

Researchers such as Fullan (1991) and Sharma (2000) have recorded similar findings. Sharma’s study (2000) of TVET in Fiji found much the same.

MESC Plans

The MESC Corporate Plan 2003-2006 (GOS, 2003d) highlighted the state of TVET

courses at the secondary level in the early 1990s. It showed that TVET courses were

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not effectively taught in the government schools due to a lack of equipment and

facilities, and lack of awareness of stakeholders. The MESC then decided to take the

bold step to extend vocational subjects to Years 12 and 13 and make it examinable in

the Samoa School Certificate (SSC) and Pacific Secondary School Certificate (PSSC)

examinations. This move was expected to raise the status of TVET at the secondary

level, equip students well enough to acquire self-employment, and also prepare

students to take up vocational courses at tertiary level. In other words, students could

begin with a broad base in primary and secondary schools and then specialize as they

move up the ladder (Fieldwork Notes, 2003: 24). Sharma (2000) made the same

suggestions for Fiji’s education system.

The curriculum unit in Samoa’s MESC is called the Curriculum, Material and

Assessment Division (CMAD). They are in agreement with the changes. One

CMAD advisor had this to say:

Vocational courses were only taught in Years 9 to 11. Extending it to Years 12 and 13 would help a lot of rural students who are struggling in academic subjects. It is about time that these courses are included in the SSC and the PSSC examinations [M2, 2004].

Before the single stream was implemented, TVET courses (DT, FTT and AS) were

offered as optional courses in the JSSs. The idea was to give students basic

knowledge and skills to prepare them for the ‘world of work’ and for life in the

village. However, the students did not take it seriously and many took it only to fulfill

their elective requirement (Fieldwork Notes, 2004: 10). One student commented:

It was an option at my school. I enjoyed it. I took Woodwork from Years 9 to 11. I was quite mad because it did not continue to Year 12, so I had to shift to Business Studies. If I want to go to the Technical School, I would be lost because the woodwork courses I took did not prepare me well enough to take further studies [S2, 2004].

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The hope is that more schools will participate in the programme and more students

will enroll in TVET courses. Hopefully this will raise the status of TVET in Samoa.

MANAGEMENT OF TVET COURSES

The CMAD coordinates and evaluates national TVET programmes in the schools. A

new Head Advisor for TVET courses was nominated while I was conducting this

study. Assisting this person are advisors who oversee each TVET programme. They

work closely with TVET representatives in the schools and with the private and

public sectors (GOS, 2003d)

The MESC does not yet have a clear policy on TVET. This is a major drawback in

the Pacific region (Bartman, 2004), and has contributed to problems in the

management.

Meanwhile, the government has approved the establishment of a Samoa TVET

Authority to oversee TVET matters in Samoa. Currently it is the Samoa Association

of Technical and Vocational Education and Training Institutions (SATVETI) which

has taken on the responsibility of developing a national accreditation process for all

TVET providers in the country, including the secondary schools [M8, 2004; VP4,

2004].

Structure of TVET Courses

In Samoa TVET courses are called ‘applied subjects’. Their objectives are to:

• raise the status of TVET courses in the nation;

• offer training in life skills, paid and self-employment;

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• provide more options for secondary students, especially for those who are struggling academically;

• provide education and training that leads to higher education; and

• provide and encourage training in new technologies.

(Source: GOS Secondary School Curriculum, 1995: 5-6)

The names of TVET courses were changed in 2001 in an attempt to:

(1) raise the status of TVET;

(2) provide more coverage in the courses offered; and

(3) tie it in with technology to make it more marketable and compatible with countries in the region. Table 5.1: Names of TVET Courses

Old Name New Name

Home Economics Food and Textile Technology (FTT)

Agriculture Agricultural Science Technology (AST)

Industrial Arts Design and Technology (DT)

(Source: GOS Corporate Plan, 2003:15) My discussions with the head advisor of TVET courses at the MESC provided the

following information about TVET courses:

They are optional throughout secondary school. Of 40 secondary schools in

Samoa, only about 14 (35%) offer TVET. Of the 14 that offer TVET courses, only a small number offer all three courses. The majority of secondary schools are fully academic [M2, 2003].

Lack of suitable resources, in particular physical resources, is the main problem in implementing TVET courses. Physical resources include workshop, and toolkits and machinery required for individual courses. This is discussed again in the case study schools. The MESC has plans to involve all the secondary schools in the TVET programme in the near future [M1, 2004].

The curriculum for three TVET courses (FTT, AS, DT) for Years 9 to 12 are provided by the CMAD. The South Pacific Board for Educational Assessment (SPBEA) prepares the TVET syllabus for Year 13.

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Assessment in the schools includes both internal and external examinations and practical work. Examinations (Fieldwork Notes, 2004: 4) dominate the system. There is a set criterion for Year 12 students because of the SSC examination while the SPBEA looks after the PSSC examination. Representatives of the SPBEA travel to Samoa to examine the practical aspects of the courses. A discussion of the three TVET courses namely Food and Textile Technology (FTT),

Agriculture Science (AS), and Design and Technology (DT) are given next.

Food and Textile Technology (FTT) FTT was the first TVET course introduced in the secondary school curriculum in the

early 1980s. It was taught only in some government JSSs as an optional course.

Cooking and sewing were the main areas covered in the course. A lack of awareness

saw very few girls sign on for FTT in the early 1980s (Fieldwork Notes, 2003-2004).

Today, FTT is taught in 21 secondary schools (GOS, 2003c) and the number

continues to increase every year.

The advisor explained that the name change to FTT has broadened the subject to

cover four modules with aims that develop the general aims of FTT:

(1) food and nutrition;

(2) caring for the family;

(3) consumer responsibility; and

(4) design and textile technology.

The CMAD provides training to TVET teachers on how to use the manuals and

modules.

The FTT Curriculum Statement (GOS, 2000d: 2-3) listed four general aims. These

are:

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• Encourage students to develop their knowledge, skills, understanding and creativity in Food and Textile within the family and cultural setting;

• Provide experiences using technological practice to solve everyday problems and

enhance the ‘Soifua maloloina’ (health and well being) of self and others; • Give students the knowledge and skills to make informed decisions as consumers,

thereby maximizing the resources available to the individual and families; and • Increase the awareness of career opportunities in the areas of Food and Textiles.

Agriculture Science (AS) Agriculture Science (AS) was first introduced in the early 1900s to train young

Samoan males in agricultural skills. After numerous changes over the years Avele

College, where it all started, is now a full academic secondary school and does not

offer AS anymore. AS is offered in 10 secondary schools in Samoa.

According to one of the MESC officials:

Agricultural Science is an important area of learning in the Samoan context. Through the study of AS, students will acquire scientific knowledge and skills in decision-making and problem solving and be able to apply these to solve agricultural problems. It is our hope that through this course, students will develop positive attitudes and an appreciation for career opportunities in agriculture [M3, 2003].

The study of AS provides students with an understanding of animal and plant

agricultural production systems suitable for Samoa and the Pacific Islands economy.

Students will develop practical skills and apply scientific knowledge to investigate

animal and plant production in their areas. In addition, they will develop skills in

maintaining a sustainable agricultural system through proper management of Samoa’s

limited resources.

The main aims of the AS course are (GOS, 2000e) : • Develop knowledge, skills and attitudes to allow students to best utilise the

resources available to them;

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• Increase the potential of students to work in the agricultural industry or for

further studies;

• Adopt the use of sustainable agricultural techniques and appropriate technology to help the community economically, socially and culturally; and

• Increase understanding of agricultural technology and techniques and their

impact or effect on the environment and production. The advisor for AS explained the following services provide by the CMAD:

it develops the AS curriculum for Years 9 to 12. Each school can adapt the programme to meet the needs of their students and resources available.

it offers training every term to assist teachers in using the modules.

the assessment criterion varies from school to school. There is a set criterion for Year 12, which is 50 per cent for practical work and 50 per cent for internal and external examinations (GOS, 2000e).

Design and Technology (DT)

Like FTT, DT was incorporated in the JSSs curricula in 1980 and was called

woodwork. It was later renamed Industrial Arts because of a broader coverage that

included drafting, joinery, plumbing, electronics and carpentry (GOS, 2000f). The

name changed again in 2001 to Design and Technology (DT) to incorporates the use

of modern technologies [M4, 2004]. DT is offered in 14 secondary schools in Samoa

(GOS, 2003c).

The DT curriculum statement is divided into five strands: (1) drawing and design; (2)

tools; (3) materials; (4) processes; and (5) technology. Each strand has specific aims.

The general aims for DT as listed in the Design and Technology Curriculum Statement

2003:3 (GOS, 2000f) are:

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• Challenge students to search for individual solutions and to think creatively in the pursuit of satisfactory solutions to practical problems;

• Involve students in the skills of finding and recording relevant information about methods of construction and suitability of materials and processes;

• Require students to make practical decisions about the making and

finishing of their projects; and • Require students to make their design solution to a practical problem, and

involve students in the critical appraisal of their work by evaluation of the finished project.

Overall, the MESC manages and coordinates all educational matter including TVET.

CMAD develops the curriculum materials for Years 9 to12, while the SPBEA prepares

the curriculum materials and assessment criteria for Year 13.

PRACTICE OF TVET IN THE SCHOOLS

For an insight into the practice of TVET in the schools, a case study of five selected

schools was made. In each case, the following were investigated:

• management of TVET courses

• the TVET courses on offer

• the state of TVET facilities

• the views of TVET students and teachers

• the quality of instruction

Data was collected through observation of classes, interviews of students, teachers,

parents and administrators, and group discussions. A descriptive account of the five

case studies follows.

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CASE STUDY 1 (CS1) Background CS1 is an urban secondary school established in early 1980s as a junior secondary

school. It became a college in 1999 (Government of Western Samoa, 1995a).

The teacher student ratio is 1.60 in most classes at CS1. It is noted that the Western

Samoa Education Policies, 1995-2005 (Government of Samoa, 1995c) recommended a

teacher: student ratio of 1:27 at secondary school. Answering queries regarding this

point, the deputy principal said that the parents from rural areas plead for positions for

their children at CS1 and it is not easy to turn them away.

CSI has 48 teachers, a principal and a deputy principal. During the time of my

fieldwork, the deputy principal was promoted as the principal of a rural JSS. Most of

the teachers hold both a diploma of education and a relevant degree in their respective

areas either from the National University of Samoa (NUS), Samoa Poly-technical

Institute (SPI) or from the University of the South Pacific (USP). Most of the

teachers teach at least two subjects. For example: the Head of Department (HOD) for

DT teaches Mathematics for Year 11 and DT for Year 12 (Fieldwork Notes, 2003:

11).

The TVET department is one of the five departments in the school. The HODs are

responsible for the management of teaching materials, teacher training, department

meetings and workshops of their respective departments.

The school maintains a very good relationship with the community. The Design and

Technology class held an exhibition in September where the students displayed their

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term projects. That will now be an annual event. This is an important way that the

school promoted good relations with its community.

TVET Courses

CS1 offers DT, FTT. Another TVET course worth mentioning is Visual Arts (VA). It

is not the focus of this study however; it is mentioned to give an idea on the variety of

TVET courses offered in CS1. DT and FTT follow the curriculum prepared by the

CMAD while the department of VA prepares their own course that includes drawing,

sculpturing, painting and carving. All TVET courses are double period to

accommodate the theoretical and the practical aspects of the courses.

Table 5.2: Streaming at CS1 as of 2004. Levels Streams

Year 9 9-1 9-2 9-3 ∗9-4 ∗9-5 ∗9-6 ∗9-7

Year 10 10-1 10-2 10-3 ∗10-4 ∗10-5 ∗10-6 ∗10-7

Year 11 11-1 11-2 11-3 ∗11-4 ∗11-5 ∗11-6 ∗11-7

Year 12 12-1 12-2 12-3 ∗12-4 ∗12-5 ∗12-6 ∗12-7

Year 13 13-1 13-2 13-3

(Source: Fieldwork Notes, 2004: 23-24). Key: ∗indicates the streams that take TVET courses.

Table 5.2 indicates the number of streams in each level, with stream 1 as the highest and

stream 7 as the lowest. The asterisk (*) streams are those that take TVET. On the table

they are also the lowest streams at each level. The HOD for TVET had this comment:

Our principal and staff think that applied [TVET] subjects are for the weak learners in our school. He does not say it, but we can judge from the way he has allocated the students to the applied subject track. All the lower streams take Home Economics, Industrial Arts and Visual Arts. The top classes take Business Studies. Since weak students are placed in HE and IA, we get poor results in examinations [T1: CS1, 2004].

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FTT and Visual Arts begin in Year 9 while DT starts in Year 10. In Year 10,

TVET students choose one of the three TVET courses to take through Years

10, 11 and 12. In CS1, DT was offered to Years 10 to 12. FTT was taken

from Years 9 to 13 in the past three years. However, this year FTT is offered

only in Years 9 to 11 due to the relocation of the DT and FTT classrooms.

TVET Facilities

The school lacks adequate TVET facilities. For example, there are no specifically-built

workshops for any of the three TVET courses, so classes are moved to whatever room is

available. In addition, there was a lack of necessary tools and machinery that are needed

for TVET courses. The FTT teacher [T2: CS1, 2004] said:

It is so difficult to teach without a permanent room. Every time I have a class, I have to look for a vacant room. As soon as the new classrooms are built, we will have our own Home Economic room.

One of the DT teachers had this to say about the situation:

As you can see we do not have the necessary facilities for applied subjects. This is the main problem affecting the progress of applied subjects in our school. We have qualified teachers, but we do not have the equipment and tools. In Wood Technology we teach only theory. Last year we did some projects and the students brought some hand tools to use and I also brought some [T1: CS1, 2004].

A student studying Business Studies in Year 10 explained why he changed courses:

I moved to Business Studies because in DT the teacher tells us to bring tools to school. The school should provide those. I did not like carrying those things on the bus [S3, CS1 2004].

CS1 is one of the ten schools under the Asian Development Bank (ADB) project. The

ADB is constructing new school buildings for 10 government secondary schools

including CS1 (GOS, 2003d). CS1 is hoping to open a TVET facility by June 2005 [P1,

2004].

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TVET Teachers and Teaching of TVET Seven teachers made the TVET department (see Table 5.3). Most of them teach two

subjects which work out to five class periods a day, except for the one VA teacher

who teaches six classes. The HOD considers this “an overload for the teachers” [T2,

2004]. This has been discussed in faculty meetings but nothing has been done to ease

the teaching load of TVET teachers (Fieldwork Notes, 2004). The Table shows that

most of the TVET teachers are local graduates of NUS.

Table 5.3: CS1 TVET Teachers TVET

Teachers Subjects and level Qualifications Institutions

FTT (HOD) FTT #2 FTT #3 FTT #4

FTT – Years 12 and 13 BS – Year 10 FTT – Year 10 FTT – Year 11and English – Year 10 FTT – Year 10 and 11 Social Science – Year 10

Diploma in Business and Certificate in FTT Experiences only Bachelor in Education Certificate

NZ and Australia -

NUS

SPI

DT (HOD) DT #2

DT – Years 11 and 12 Mathematics – Years 9 and 10 DT – Years 9 and 10

Certificate in IA Diploma in Education Diplôma (Social Science)

SPI NUS

NUS

VA (HOD) Visual Arts – Years 9 to 13 Diploma in Education NUS (Source: Fieldwork Notes, 2004: 15). Most of the TVET teachers feel that TVET is important. One of them said this:

The Principal wants this subject out of the system, but I beg him to keep it. Our Principal is more involved in English, Science and Sport. Even some teachers think it is a waste of time and money. Not all students are gifted, some will fall behind and at least there are some options to take, such as these courses [T1: CS1, 2004].

This comment echoes the view that TVET courses are not as important as other subjects

such as English, Mathematics, Science and Sports.

The comment of a non-TVET teacher agrees with that of the principal. She considers

the teaching of TVET as a ‘waste of time’ and says that students should concentrate on

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the SSC and PSSC examinations instead [T4: CS1, 2004]. Such comments contribute

to the low status of TVET in the schools.

I observed DT, FTT and VA classes at CS1. In these I focused on the teaching

process, available equipment, and general management. My findings were as follows:

the teaching is mostly theoretical. For instance, one FTT class was basically

the teacher writing notes on the board and the students copying the same into their books. There was not much discussion recorded in this and the other classes.

the DT classes deserve mention. There was chalk and talk, as well as models

and diagrams for demonstration. Interactive learning between the teachers and the students was noted in the DT classes. For example, I observed a DT session; the lesson was on Isometric Drawings. The teacher discussed with the students the principles of drawing isometric shapes, one of which was the use of an isometric grid. He demonstrated it, and then he divided the class of 16 boys into groups of four. He distributed A3 papers to each group as well as a model to draw on their isometric grid. The students ruled their grid and drew their shapes in groups as instructed. The teacher checked each group and helped the students correct any mistake made during the process. The group drawings were posted on the walls for display. The lesson concluded with a discussion of the homework.

TVET Students

Table 5.4 gives a break down of the 293 students in CS1 who take TVET. This

represents only about 20% of the total student population at CSI of 1,400 students.

Table 5.4: CS1 TVET Students (Term One, 2004). DT FTT VA Total Total TVET

Students Level

F M F M F M F M

Year 9 3 19 33 5 0 25 36 49 85

Year 10 0 22 27 2 0 18 27 42 70

Year 11 0 17 43 2 0 24 43 43 86

Year 12 0 11 24 0 0 18 24 29 53

Total 3 69 127 9 0 85 130 163 293

Grand Total 72 136 85 293

(Source: Fieldwork Notes, 2004: 17).

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Note the following in Table 5.4:

female students dominate the FTT course while males dominate DT and VA. Traditional beliefs and stereotyping of jobs and occupations are prominently displayed here. In most PICs, cooking, sewing, gardening and tending children are considered women’s job while DT and VA courses lead to male occupations (Fieldwork Notes, 2004:17).

the number of students doing TVET courses decrease over the years. According

to the HOD of FTT, students are given the choice in Year 10 to choose any of the TVET courses and most of them opt for Business Studies (BS). However, if they achieve lower than an average ‘C’ grade then they are moved to TVET [T2, 2004].

I interviewed 11 students from the DT and nine from the FTT classes and recorded

mixed reactions. A Year 11 DT student said:

I am in Industrial Arts because I like making things like tables, chairs, etc. My father is a carpenter and he wanted me to do something different like accounting. But I am not good in accounting. I like Industrial Arts but too bad this school does not offer it in Year 13 this year [S1: CS1, 2004].

Likewise a Year 11 FTT male student stated:

I chose to take FTT because I want to be a chef. I want to own a restaurant in the future. My friends say that I should take a science course instead. But I know what I want and in FTT we are not just learning to cook or learning to sew. We do much more than what others think [S2: CS1, 2004].

On the other hand, some students doing TVET gave negative comments, like this

Year 12 female student. She complained:

I do not want to be in Home Economics. But the principal forced me here. I want to take Accounting and Economics but I was told that I have low grades. We do not do much in this course; the teacher keeps saying that we do not have a room. We always look for a room every time we meet. Sometimes it takes 20 minutes before we actually find a vacant room [S5: CS1, 2004].

The students’ comments reflect different perceptions: some students chose TVET

courses because they wanted to specialize in particular areas while others were forced

into the area by parents and teachers.

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CASE STUDY 2 (CS2)

Background

CS2 is a rural secondary school. The school management team is made up of the

principal, deputy principal and a representative of each village. The district school

committee manages the school funds that include collecting school fees.

The school began as a JSS and was upgraded to a senior secondary school in 1999.

The current school roll is 630. The teacher-student ratio is 1.35. The school sees its

role in providing education for all the village students regardless of their grades.

According to the Principal,

The high achievers feed the three government secondary schools. The rest who do not qualify for any of those schools are sent to rural district schools. Applied Subjects [TVET courses] is a must in this school, to cater for the majority of our students who are academically weak [P2, 2004].

The teaching staff comprises of 31 females and 15 male teachers. Of this, nine have

received Bachelor degrees from the NUS and USP while the rest hold Diploma in

Education from NUS.

Regarding the management of the school, the Principal commented:

It is good to have the committee run the school but sometimes these men do not understand the needs of teachers and students. For example, there are times when our Science Department or Home Economics staff order materials or ingredients for their experiment and practical work, but often times the committee members reject it, saying it is no use to spend money on so many chemicals or so much equipment. Furthermore, sometimes the committee fires teachers and expels students without consulting me [P2, 2004].

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A teacher related this personal experience with the district school committee:

They come every day, play cards and drink tea in the conference room. These men are quite demanding and they watch every move we make. They collect school fees, but seldom provide us with the materials we need. What do they do with the hundreds of dollars collected every term? They don’t pay the teachers. I personally think this school should be under the full supervision of the government [T4, 2004].

The comments suggest the need to improve the current set-up especially relationship

between the school committee and the teaching staff is not cordial. This affects the

effective management of the school and its resources. This shows the lack of ‘vision

building’ and ‘initiative-taking and empowerment’. In other words, the school

district committee runs the whole show. They do not want to share the responsibility

with the principal and the teachers. This has implication for training and workshop in

management skills. For a school to run effectively there should be a unity between

the management teams.

The school has four teaching departments: Mathematics; Science; Art; and Business.

The Art Department includes Social Science. The Business Department includes

Accounting, Economics and Business Studies. The Science Department includes

General Science, Chemistry, Physics, Biology, DT, FTT and AS. Each has a HOD,

who is responsible for department training and other related matters relevant to the

department. In this school, TVET courses fall under the Science Department.

TVET courses

CS2 offers TVET courses in FTT, DT and AS. These courses are optional in Year 9.

In Year 10, students choose which of the four optional courses they would like to

specialise in and take through to Year 13. According to the principal, “the most

popular of the three TVET courses is FTT” [P2, 2003].

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For the past three years, students in FTT sat the SSC and the PSSC examinations and

obtained good results. Furthermore, many students easily obtain enrolment in the

Samoa Poly-technical Institute and continue their studies successfully and get useful

employment in Apia (Fieldwork Notes, 2003-2004).

Table 5.5 shows the examinations results of FTT during the past three years. It shows

a decrease in the number of students enrolled for FTT in 2003. This was due to the

introduction of two TVET courses, DT and AS. However, the reinstatement of DT

and AS provided more choices [T2, 2003].

Table 5.5: CS2-Number of FTT Students who Passed SSC and PSSC 2001-2003. Year SSC PSSC Total

2001 14 7 21

2002 16 10 26

2003 9 5 14

(Source: Fieldwork Notes, 2003).

Since 1995, the teaching of TVET subjects has been emphasised in CS2. The past

two years (2001 and 2002) the school did not offer DT and AS due to teacher

shortage. DT and AS began again in 2003 when a DT and an AS teachers were hired.

Like CS1, the curriculum for Years 9 to 12 is provided by CMAD. The Year 13

curriculum is directly from Fiji.

TVET Facilities

Figure 5.1 (Appendix 11) contains a sketch of CS2 school facilities. The ADB funded

CS2’s TVET facility that was dedicated in 2002. In an observation of CS2 TVET

facilities, the following were noted:

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It is a concrete single-storey building that has two classrooms. The rooms are about six metres wide and six metres in length. The TVET teachers argue that the rooms are too small for workshop activities. In addition, the rooms have not been furnished satisfactorily with the necessary equipment and tools.

In the FTT room, there are two normal size sinks and four build-in-cupboards and closets. There is no stove; therefore, the FTT students use the cooking hut outside for their practical. There are two sewing machines that are used by the FTT students.

According to the HOD for FTT:

The ADB funded the project; they are also responsible for furnishing the building. Unfortunately, we are still waiting patiently for our electric stoves and equipment to come. Last week, representatives from the MESC came to assess my Year 12 Food and Nutrition class and they found my girls cooking outside in the cooking hut. Hope that sends them a message! At least, we have a building now, but the last couple of years were quite difficult… [T2, 2004].

The principal indicated that there were some equipment such as kerosene stoves and

some hand tools for the DT, but it all disappeared [P2, 2004]. This was later confirmed

by one of the TVET advisors in an interview. He said:

The government schools were given equipment and tools when the TVET programme was first introduced in the early 1980s. He further stated that the disappearance of equipment and tools shows the lack of management at the school level [M1, 2004].

The DT classroom was completely empty, except for the blackboard in the front of the

room. There are no tables, desks or chairs, no machines or tools necessary for a DT

workshop. I have observed several DT class sessions and I have noticed that the

students sit on the floor.

The AS does not have a set room, the classes are taught in whatever room is available

within the main two-storey building. Nevertheless, there was a piece of land allocated

for farming in the school compound as indicated in the sketch of CS2. During the time

of the study, the students were clearing the land to plant tomatoes, cucumbers and

cabbages.

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TVET teachers and Teaching of TVET

Table 5.6 shows the six TVET teachers in CS2. The HOD for DT graduated in 2000.

He has been a teacher for three years now. This is his first year at CS2. He is so

enthusiastic about teaching DT. He said:

I enjoy being a teacher here, especially that we have a new TVET building. We do not have all the equipment, but I can always bring my own tools and maybe do some fundraising to assist in buying new tools. We will also ask the community for their support. The parents are usually supportive. I want my students to come up with some wonderful projects at the end of the year when we have our display. I am planning a school display, the principal said it would be something new for them [T1: 2003].

In an interview, DT #2 said, “I am an automotive teacher, but it is not offered here, so

I am assisting the DT teacher”. He also said that he has learned some carpentry skills

from his father, who is a carpenter … and those skills are coming in handy now [T1,

2004]. CS2 does not offer automotive, therefore, T1 was put in DT to assist the HOD.

The AS teacher graduated in 2003. She did her practical at CS2 and she was recruited

shortly after graduation. Although she is keen about her subject, she expressed mixed

feelings about being a teacher. She said:

I like AS, but I am not prepared to teach. I did my practical teaching in this school, so I wanted to give something back... I do not like the idea of begging the school committee for supplies and chemicals for my subject. It is half way through the semester and my students have not done any practical yet … besides clearing the land that they had allocated for us. [T3: CS2, 2004].

FTT#2 and #3 are currently studying at NUS-Faculty of Education, they are doing their

practical teaching experience at CS2. They both assist the HOD in teaching FTT to

Years 9, 10 and 11. Like CS1, some of the TVET teaches in CS2 teaches two subjects.

This is quite common in the government schools because of the shortage of teachers. In

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CS2, TVET teachers teach five to six class periods a day. TVET courses take two class

periods because of the practical work. Each class period is 50 minutes.

Table 5.6: CS2 TVET Teachers

TVET Teachers Subjects Taught Qualifications Institutions

DT HOD DT #2

Mathematics – Year 10 DT – Years 11,12 and 13 DT – Years 9 and 10

Diploma IA Diploma (Auto Motive)

SPI SPI

Agricultural Science AS – Years 9 to 13 Degree in AS USP FTT (HOD) FTT #2 FTT #3

Business Studies – Years 10 FTT – Years 12 and 13 FTT – Years 9 and 10 FTT – Years 11 Social Science – Year 9

Certificate in FTT FTT student Student

SPI SPI SPI


The principal of CS2 is happy that he has a full TVET teaching staff this year.

Furthermore, they have a new TVET facility, although it is not being fully equipped

with the essential equipment and tools. The principal stated that TVET courses would

help the rural students when they return to the village [P2 2004].

I observed two DT classes, three sessions of FTT, and two sessions of AS and the

following were noted:

The most frequently used method of teaching in FTT and AS is the ‘chalk and talk’ method or teacher-directed. In one DTT session, the teacher dominated the class. She lectured on how to prepare a meal for a diabetic grandmother while the students listened and wrote notes. The topic was on preparing a healthy soup with vegetables and less meat. They were instructed to do their practical aspect of the course at home due to the lack of equipment such as stoves, utensils, and others.

In the DT class, the teacher wrote notes on the blackboard, and then he told the students to copy them in their notebooks. This is usually followed by a

discussion of the notes and a few written activities. The observation in Exhibition 5.4 (Appendix 12) shows how the DT teacher presented his lesson on “Classifying Tools” for Year 11-3. The discussion was a mixture of the two approaches identified in the literature, andragogy and pedagogy. For example: since there were no tools, the teacher used pictures for illustrations to make it more lively and realistic for the students.

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TVET Students Table 5.7 shows the number of TVET students enrolled in each TVET courses in

Semester One 2004. Judging from the table, we can conclude that the majority of

TVET students are in FTT. This statistics supported the principal’s comment that FTT

is the popular TVET course in his school. One reason for this is that FTT is offered

every year compared to DT and AS that depends on the availability of teachers.

Table 5.7: CS2 TVET Students (2004)

TVET Courses Males Females Total

Food & Textile Technology 8 54 62

Design & Technology 32 0 32

Agriculture Science 11 26 37

Total 51 80 131

(Source: Fieldwork Notes, 2004). I interviewed four students from each of the four TVET courses. Some of their

comments are recorded below. A male student in the FTT class argued:

I don’t like the idea that people think only girls can be in the HE [FTT] class. Boys can do cooking, ironing and washing too. I love this subject. Our teacher is well prepared every session. I enrolled in HE because I want to be a dietician. This class will prepare me for further studies in the area I want [S1: CS2, 2004].

Another student stated:

I was uncertain about joining the AS class, but I am glad I did. I used to think that in this class we only learn to do farming but we do a lot more than farming. We learn the skills and techniques used in farming, economic management and other related areas, and it’s cool! [S2: CS2, 2004].

These quotes reveal the common perception that AS is for males and FTT is for

females. This is because of the physical tasks involved. For example, AS requires

manual labour while FTT is about homemaking. However, these courses are open to all

students.

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In a group discussion with four boys from the DT class, they declared that they enjoy

the subject because the “teacher encourages us that DT is not for the below average

students and he makes it interesting for us too” [Fieldwork Notes, 2004].

CASE STUDY 3 (CS3)

Background

CS3 is a mission school. It has an enrolment of 390, with a teacher-pupil ratio of 1: 25

[Fieldwork Notes, 2004].

There are twenty teachers, six of whom are males. The majority of the teachers are

local graduates from SPI, NUS and USP. There are five academic departments in

CS3. This is shown in Table 5.8 below.

Table 5.8: CS3 Academic Departments.

Departments Subjects or Areas Covered

Art Social Science, History and Geography

Mathematics Mathematics

Science General Science, Biology, Physics, Health and Sports and Chemistry

Business Studies Business Studies, Accounting, Economics and Computer Studies

Food and Nutrition (Home Management, Catering, Nutrition, Family Care, Budgeting and Health Education)

TVET

Textile Technology (Printing, Crafting, Sewing and Designing)

(Source: Fieldwork Notes, 2004). TVET courses

CS3 divided the FTT into two separate courses as shown in Table 5.8 above. The

Food and Nutrition (FN) includes Catering, Nutrition, Family Care, Budgeting and

Health. Textile Technology (TT) comprises Printing, Crafting, Sewing, and

Designing (Fieldwork Notes, 2003-2004). Both courses are compulsory in Years 9

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and 10. However, the students choose one or the other to take it through to Years 11

to 13. In essence, CS3 pursues the curriculum given by CMAD for Years 9 to 12 with

some variation of their own. Year 13 syllabus comes from SPBEA in Fiji. The

lessons are allocated a double period to accommodate theory and practical. The class

period lasts for an hour. There are six class periods per day. The FN teacher

indicated:

. . . the hour allocated for practical work includes preparation time, cooking and cleaning. I timed them because they should learn to work within a limited time. In a real restaurant they work according to time because people are waiting. Time is important, as much as learning the skills in catering, or whatever . . . [T2-1, 2004].

The FN teacher stressed the importance of time because the teaching and learning

process involved both theory and practice. This is important because skill training in

the world of work is increasingly necessary.

TVET Facilities The TVET facility for CS3 contains two regular size rooms. There is a room for the

FN classes equipped with two electric stoves, two sinks, counters, tables and chairs.

Furthermore, there are cooking utensils such as pots, pans, dishes and silverware.

There is also an outdoor cooking hut that the girls use if the power goes off.

The TT classroom contains 15 manual sewing machines, and four long tables with

chairs. In addition, there are equipment such as measuring tapes, pins, threads, irons,

ironing boards, fabric paints, patterns, and other appropriate equipment for sewing

and printing.

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According to one of the TVET teachers:

These girls are lucky. Everything is provided for them. They just come to learn and still some of them do not make use of this opportunity. There are times when we ask the girls to bring things such as a piece of material for sewing because they can take it home . . . [T2: CS3, 2004].

The equipment, tools and materials are well kept and managed by the HOD and the

TVET teachers. FTT teachers ensure that utensils and tools are cleaned and returned

to the closets and rooms build for storage. In addition, an inventory of these items

and equipment is taken every two months. The FN teacher stated:

It is our responsibility as teachers and students to take care of the equipment and tools. The school trusts us with these resources; therefore, we should look after them. We are fortunate to have the facilities and resources to use. I taught in a government school and we did not have that much tools and equipment [T2, 2004].

TVET Teachers and Teaching of TVET

There are three TVET teachers, they teach five classes per day, with one free class

period. The HOD teaches TT and FN for Years 12 and 13. She graduated from NUS

with an Accounting degree in 2001. She has been teaching FTT for nearly ten years

at CS3. She also received FTT training in NZ.

She had this to say about her interests:

This is a hobby for me. My field is accounting, but I asked if I could also teach FTT. The principal assigned me as the HOD for FTT. I believe that there is a future in FTT, just like any other subject in our school curriculum. But it is so sad that some teachers and many parents do not think so [T2-2, 2004].

Another FTT teacher teaches FN to Years 9 to 11. She received her certification from

SPI in FTT. She has been a teacher at CS3 for nearly three years. The third FTT

teacher teaches TT to Years 9 to 11. She enjoys her job and encourages the girls to

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learn to sew professionally, so they can start their own small business in the future

[T2, 2004]

Table 5.9: CS3 TVET Teachers, 2004. TVET Teachers Subjects Taught Qualification Institution

FTT HOD Textile Technology Food and Nutrition

Accounting

Bachelor Degree (Accounting)

Training (FTT)

NUS

New Zealand FTT #1 Food and Nutrition Certificate in FTT SPI

FTT #2 Textile Technology Certificate Doing her Diploma in

Education

SPI NUS

(Source: Compiled from Fieldwork Notes, 2004). TVET courses in CS3 are double periods. This means that two hours are allocated for

one class. This is so to allow time for theory and practice. I have observed several

classes in session and noted the following:

Lecturing and note taking is the common teaching strategies in CS3. The teacher also uses group discussions, demonstrations and activities. The activities are mostly student-centered. For example, in the FN lesson, the teacher first demonstrated how to make the ‘masoa’ from the ‘tapioca’ root. She first peeled the tapioca root, washed, and then used the grater to grate the ‘tapioca’ finely, and then put it outside to dry in the sun. The girls followed the process to the end.

Similarly, the TT teacher demonstrated how to cut a shirt from a pattern before

her students began cutting their materials. The teachers walked around to make sure the students are following instructions. During the practical part, the teacher plays the role of the facilitator, while students take charge of their own learning.

One of the Food and Nutrition teachers said:

. . . following instructions is part of the learning process. Students are assessed on how well they follow the instructions given to them. Some of the students ignore the instructions given or do not read instructions and, as a result, they do the opposite of what is asked. This has happened in the examination . . . [T2, 2004].

The HOD said that some of the girls asked where the ‘masoa’ (tapioca) come from.

She said that they have been learning about European and American nutritious food

and yet the girls do not know some of the nutritious Samoan dishes. Therefore, she

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asked the girls to bring some tapioca roots. She taught the girls how to make the

‘masoa’ out of the tapioca and then used it to make the ‘supo esi’ (Samoan pudding

made of papaya). Most of the girls in this class are part-Samoan. A sample lesson

plan for this particular class is shown in Exhibition 5.5 (Appendix 13).

A student in the class said:

My grandma likes this kind of food; we buy it for her all the time. This is the first time I have seen it done. Now I can go home and show off to my mom and grandma that I can make this. I will have to use the coconut cream from the can because we do not have that tool to grate the coconuts [S2: CS3, 2004].

Another student said:

We tend to think that HE should be taught at home, but honestly, we don’t learn all this stuff at home. We learn to cook at home but that does not teach us to be professional, this is an extension of what we learn at home. It is worth it. Girls should enroll in HE because it prepares them to be mothers [S4: CS3, 2004].

I also observed the Year 11 Textile Technology class. They were making shirts from

the materials they had printed earlier in the week. The materials were provided by the

students and the school bought the paints. There were eleven girls in the class and

they seemed so eager to learn to sew. One TT student said:

My mom always takes her ‘puletasi’ to be sewn by the seamstress in town. Often times she does not like how they do it. I enrolled in sewing so I can learn the skills. It is so expensive to have other people sew your clothes. But, if I know how to sew, then, I can sew my own and my mom’s clothes. Furthermore, I can make money from sewing other people’s clothes. I could do that as a side job . . . [S5: CS3, 2004].

TVET Students

Table 5.10 shows the number of TVET students in CS3. The Table shows a high

number of students taking FN and TT in Years 9 and 10. This is because these

courses are compulsory in Years 9 and 10 in CS3. According to the HOD for FTT,

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the idea (of these courses being compulsory) is to introduce the course so students can

have a broad knowledge base of these courses and perhaps they can choose what to

specialise in [T2, 2004].

Similar to other case study schools, the number of TVET students decreases when

they move to Years 12 and 13. Students are given the choice, so the majority of

students opt for Economics, Accounting and Computer Studies [T2, 2004].

Table 5.10: CS3 TVET Students.

Levels Food and Nutrition Textile Technology Total

Year 9 32 26 58

Year 10 27 23 50

Year 11 14 11 25

Year 12 13 10 23

Year 13 8 12 20

Total 94 82 176

(Source: Compiled from Fieldwork Notes, 2003; 2004).

The TVET students in CS3 have a positive attitude toward TVET courses. This is

because of the schools and parents’ support. The school made it compulsory in the

beginning years, which gives students a chance to get the feel of the two TVET

courses and then they can make a choice. Although the majority of the students opt

for BS, at least they had taken some TVET course.

The parents also play a vital role in their children’s education. Several parents

interviewed like their students to enroll in TVET courses. One of the mothers stated:

. . . I let my children decide what they want to take in school. It is for their good and they should do what they like best, rather than forcing something that they are not interested in. I have visited some of the displays in previous years done by the HE classes. I was amazed with the quality of the work they did. I still have a pair of beautiful pillowcases that I bought from one of the display years ago when my eldest daughter was in Year 12 [P11, 2004].

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Another mother indicated that as long as the school keeps her informed of the

different programmes that her children are involved in, she will continue to support

the school [P2, 2004]. Exhibition 5.6 (Appendix 14) shows a sample of a parent

interview.

CASE STUDY 4 (CS4)

Background

CS4 is a mission school established in 1955. CS4 has an enrolment of about 800

students. The average number of students in a class is 25. There are four streams in

each level, from Years 7 to 13.

Table 5.11: CS4 Academic Departments.

Departments Courses

Arts Science Business Studies Religious Education Samoan TTW (TVET)-optional Physical Education-optional

English, History, Geography and Social Science Mathematics, Biology, Chemistry, Physics and General Science Business Studies, Accounting and Economics New Testament, Old Testament and others Language and Culture Automotive, Mechanics, DT, FTT, Computer Studies, Secretarial Studies and Art Sports and Health and Fitness

(Source: Fieldwork Notes, 2003; 2004).

Table 5.11 indicates the seven academic departments. According to the table, CS4

offers a variety of TVET courses. Each department has a HOD that coordinates in-

service training within the department and is responsible for matters pertaining to the

department. Figure 5.2 (Appendix 15) shows the management structure for CS4.

Similar to other CS schools, the principal is in control of the school. One of the

teachers said “Teachers should be able to voice their opinions too, but in this school,

the principal controls everything” [T4, 2004].

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Furthermore, figure 5.2 indicates the administrators and their qualifications. Neither

the principal nor the counselors and the three VPs have any background in TVET,

despite this limitation, CS4 has a strong TVET programme that runs parallel to the

academic education.

The TVET programme in CS4 was established in 1970. The programme aims at

providing vocational and technical skills to secondary students who are having a

difficult time in the academic track. TVET courses taught at that time were

Automotive, Woodwork, Agriculture Science and Home Economics. Art, Secretarial

Management and Computer Studies were added later.

In 1999, the principal incorporated the transition to work programme (TTW) based on

the New Zealand TTW model (CES, 1999). The TTW programme is designed to

teach students the proper skills, knowledge and safety so as to prepare students to go

directly into the work force into his/her choice of vocational and technical subject

area upon graduation. Furthermore, it assists students in acquiring the skills,

knowledge and attitudes to become self-reliant, and help students become aware of

career paths, work experiences and educational opportunities (CES, 199). In brief,

this programme aims at preparing students for the ‘world of work’, self-reliant and

further training in TVET.

The TTW programme allows Year 13 students to do work experience for three to four

weeks with various employers in town. This is arranged and coordinated by the

TVET teachers and the employers. During this work experience, the students do their

best because often times the students who perform well are employed by these

employers on graduation. The TTW vice-principal said that they had encountered

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problems with the TTW programme, such as losing Year 13 students to the employers

before graduation. Furthermore, the TTW programme discourages TVET students

from sitting the SC and PSSC examinations. In view of the fact that TVET courses

are now examinable in the SC and PSSC examinations, CS4 has restructured the aims

of their TVET programme. The TVET vice principal said:

. . . we have altered our programme to accommodate the SC and PSSC examinations. At the moment, we still let our Year 13 students do work experiences, but not in the middle of the year as usual. We wait until the end of the term. Our main focus now is to prepare our students to take SC and PSSC (in TVET courses) because this will give them access to better jobs and further training in higher institutions [P4, 2004].

In particular, the main goal of TVET in CS4 is to prepare students for work and for

further education in various TVET areas. In addition, they also prepare their TVET

students for the SC and PSSC exams.

TVET courses

CS4 offers seven TVET courses indicated in Table 5.12. DT and FTT follow the

curriculum provided by CMAD for Years 10 to12. For Year 13 classes, they follow

the curriculum prepared by SPBEA in Fiji. On the other hand, the school designs

their own curricula for the other five TVET courses that are not offered in the

government curriculum. These are Metal Work, Automotive, Secretarial

Management and Computer Studies. The TTW Vice-Principal stated:

We designed our own syllabi for Art, Computers, Automotive, Metal and Secretarial Management. We worked with NUS and SPI, so our courses could prepare students for further education at these local institutes. Since these subjects are not in the SC and PSSC we also worked out a system where these students could qualify for these institutes. During their work experiences they can obtain letters of recommendation from their employers. This together with their grade report and our recommendation (teachers and administrators), can qualify them for SPI or NUS [VP4, 2004].

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Table 5.12: CS4 TVET Courses.

(Source: Information derived from documents from CS4 and Fieldwork Notes, 2004).

All the TVET courses are allocated double periods, where each period is for 55

minutes. This allows time for theory and practical. The Year 13 TVET teachers

revealed that the 55 minutes allocated for the practical component of the course is not

sufficient. Therefore, they took extra hours after school for students to work on their

projects. Agriculture Science was dropped in 2000 due to the low number of students

enrolled in the course. The vice-principal for TVET said:

Students think ‘agriculture’ is dirty work and hot . . . compared to computers. We are thinking of incorporating agriculture again, but maybe change the name to Horti-culture, since there are a lot more girls interested in gardening and landscaping. We cannot deny the fact that most of these students will end up in the village to do the plantation and farming, especially here in Samoa. So an agriculture course is necessary, it is important that we have it in our school [VP4, 2004].

CS4 offered two of the TVET courses included in this study. These are FTT and DT.

Other TVET courses offered are Metal, Computer Studies, Secretarial Management,

Art and Automotive. They are stated to provide an account of the variety of TVET

courses offered in CS4. All the TVET courses in CS4 are optional.

TVET Facilities

The TVET facilities were built in the late 1960s. Figure 5.3 (Appendix 16) contains a

sketch of CS4 TVET facilities. It is a single-storey concrete building with six

classrooms and three workshop areas. The building is well maintained and managed

TVET Courses Areas Covered

Metal work FTT DT Computer Studies Secretarial Management Art Automotive

Welding, metal work, Cooking, sewing, health and nutrition, printing, fashion designing, crafts Drafting, drawing, carpentry Screen printing, graphic designing and layout, Typing, Office duties Oil/water Painting, drawing, sculpturing, carvings Repairs: engine, transmission, tune up, steering, etc.

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by TVET teachers and students. CS4 is endowed with an array of resources ranging

from tools and equipment to heavy machinery and accessories such as a fully

equipped automotive garage. The automotive garage is about 15x20m in size; it

contains heavy-duty machines and equipment for welding and fixing cars.

Furthermore, the workshop area has lot of spaces for students to move around as they

do their practical. The computer room is fully equipped with thirty computers, two

scanners and two laser printers. The Secretarial Management room contains fifteen

electric typewriters and ten dell computers. The Cooking room has four stoves, built-

in cupboards, counters and six sinks with pots, pans, and all the necessary utensils for

cooking. In addition, there are fifteen electric sewing machines and ten manuals and

accessories in the Sewing room. Basically, CS4 provides a comfort environment that

is conducive to student learning. One of the teachers indicated:

Students who come to this school are blessed. Everything is provided to make learning more meaningful. This is one of the best-equipped TVET schools on the island. Teachers are also fortunate to have a school that supplies everything to make their teaching job more comfortable and enjoyable. I am grateful to be a teacher here (T4, 2004].

Another teacher stated:

. . . even the ingredients we use in our cooking – we just place an order and we get them. These students are very lucky; they don’t have to bring anything from home. But some students are not making use of the opportunity . . . [T2, 2004].

One student expressed his gratitude by saying:

I am new to this school, and I am amazed by the resources they have. I attended a government school in town. They too teach DT and FTT, but the difference is they do not have the equipment and the many resources available here. I consider myself lucky, some of my classmates think I am crazy for thinking this way, but they have never been in a school where they have to bring tools from home almost every day. Many students in this school do not appreciate what they have [S5, 2004].

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One of the Administrators said that the well-equipped facilities serve as a

motivational factor and captures the interest of the respective students and teachers

[P4, 2004]. This is an important aspect of TVET stated in the literature, the

availability of resources to carry out the practical aspect of the courses. Unlike other

case study schools, CS4 has all the necessary resources ranging from heavy duty

machines to tools and utensils required in each course. This gives teacher the

enthusiasm to teach their subject areas.

Unlike other case study schools, CS4 has all the appropriate resources ranging from

hand tools to heavy-duty machines. The equipment and materials are well cared and

managed. The TVET vice-principal indicated:

. . . each teacher is responsible for the equipment and materials in his or her room. Towards the end of each year, we do an inventory of all the equipment and get them fixed and cleaned to be ready for the next school year [VP 4, 2004].

TVET Teacher and Teaching of TVET

Table 5.13: CS4 TVET Teachers

Teachers of Qualifications Institutions

Metal work BS Degree-Engineering Hawaii

FTT Certificate in FTT Fiji and NZ

DT Diploma in Industrial Arts SPI

Computer Studies BS Degree-Computers Hawaii

Secretarial Management Bachelor in Travel Management Hawaii

Art Certificate Leulumoega Art School

Automotive Certificate in Automotive SPI


Table 5.13 shows the seven TVET teachers. The table indicates that all the TVET

teachers have received certifications from varies institutions of higher learning. The

DT and the Art teachers are attending the National University of Samoa as part-time

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students. They are both working on their degrees. The DT teacher stated, “I have a

certificate, but I still want to learn more about my field so I can better teach my

students” [T1, 2004].

Unlike the other case study schools, TVET teachers in CS4 teach only their subject

area. Most of them teach five classes per day, with at least one free period a day. In a

group discussion with the TVET teachers, I asked if they feel overloaded. One of the

teachers indicated that she teaches six classes per day. Her biggest class has 15 girls,

but she handles it very well. She is used to having big classes because she has been

doing it for the past two years [T2, 2004]. In addition, the Art teacher also said:

I believe it makes a difference if you enjoy your profession. The Vice Principal once told me that there are too many students in one of my Year 11 classes. I told him that as long as there is a space in the studio for everyone. I am willing to help those who come to learn [T7, 2004].

In contrast, another TVET teacher stated:

Teaching the theory part is simple; I can manage that on my own. However, I believe I need a hand in the Workshop area, especially because we deal with heavy machines and equipment. My biggest class has 15 students. I really have to be alert because the students are playful sometimes [T1, 2004].

The teachers used a variety of teaching methods in the classroom.

I have noticed that the teachers used a lot of group discussion where students take charge of their own learning. The teachers act as facilitators. The teachers use the overhead projector a lot to show illustrations, pictures, outline their lecture or to give brief summaries of the lesson.

Teachers also lecture and students’ copy notes in their exercise books, as done in other case study schools. During practical sessions, the students work in groups or individually depending on the task at hand. For example, the Year 11 FTT class I observed was baking a cake. The twelve girls were divided in groups of four. In contrast, the students in the Year 13 DT class were working individually, smoothing and planning wood for their final projects.

English is the language of instruction in CS4. However, most teachers still code-switch (Samoan and English). In one of the classes I observed, the teacher taught entirely in the Samoan language.

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The availability of resources in CS4 makes the teaching of TVET courses smooth and easy. Despite the English language policy, most teachers use the Samoan Language in the classroom.

He told me:

I respect the English speaking policy in this school, but my students do not understand (sometimes) when I talk in English. So I have to speak in Samoan in order for them to understand the lesson [T5, 2004].

The TVET vice-principal said,

We encourage the use of English in and out of the classroom because all the examinations (except Samoan) are in English. Besides, when students go out in the real world, interviews are conducted in English [P5, 2004]. TVET Students Table 5.14 CS4 TVET Enrolment, Term 1 2004

DT FTT Metal CS SM Mechanics Art Total

Levels M F M F M F M F M F M F M F M F

Year 10 16 0 0 11 9 0 6 7 3 21 9 0 8 0 51 39

Year 11 12 0 2 9 6 0 4 6 0 22 7 0 5 0 36 37

Year 12 12 0 0 8 5 2 0 7 4 14 8 0 7 0 36 31

Year 13 9 0 0 12 6 0 3 4 0 13 5 0 2 0 25 29

Total 49 0 2 40 26 2 13 24 7 70 29 0 22 0 148 136

Grand Total

49

42

28

37

77

29

22

284

(Source: Fieldwork Notes, 2004])

Table 5.14 shows the number of students from Years 10 to 13 enrolled in each TVET

course in 2004. The statistics above indicate that the majority of the TVET students

in CS4 chose to take Secretarial Management, which teaches skills in office

management and typing. A Year 13 Secretarial Management student revealed, “the

course is teaching me interpersonal, communication and organisation skills that will

assist me in finding an office job when I finish school” [S6, 2004]. Another student

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said that “it teaches him typing skills that he believes will be useful in the future”

[S11, 2004].

It is interesting that the number of students opting for FTT and DT exceed that of

computers. The computer teacher said that the reason is that FTT and DT are

examinable in the SSC and PSSC. These examinations are the gateway to further

studies and to the employment market. Therefore, students favour FTT and DT [T6,

2004]. The students’ comments were interesting. A Year 13 DT student had this to

say:

I chose DT rather than Computers because there are more people specialising in Computer Studies nowadays. It would be difficult to look for a job because there are tons of Computer graduates from Fiji, NZ, Australia and Hawaii. I believe we need plumbers, engineers and carpenters. DT prepares me for future training in these areas [S1, 2004].

An FTT student commented:

FTT is a broad area, not just for cooking and sewing. This course is assisting me in deciding what area to specialise in. I want to go to University to study Food and Nutrition, then return home and help Samoan people. There are a lot of people who are overweight, diabetic, have a high blood pressure and are asthmatic in Samoa. This is because of the change in our diet. We do not eat healthy food these days. I want to help in this area [S8, 2004].

It is important to note that the majority of the boys opt for Automotive, Mechanics,

DT, Metal and Art. According to Table 5.14, only two female students enrolled in

Metal. One of these girls commented:

At first, I felt uncomfortable because the boys were teasing me. They said that the subject is for boys, but I knew what I wanted, so I ignored them. Now, they are cool about it [S18: 2004].

This brings in the mentality that heavy work is for boys. For example, Engineering.

Plumbing and Carpentry are seen as employment for male only. On the other hand,

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the females take over the FTT, Secretarial and computer Studies. “This type of work

fit the strength of females” [T2, 2004].

CS4 students begin TVET courses in Year 10. Students are given the freedom to

choose which three of the seven TVET courses to take in Year 10. One courses for

each term. This allows students to explore their interests, talents, strengths and

weaknesses and to familiarise themselves with the different TVET courses before

they make a final decision on what course to enroll in for Years 11 to 13. Once they

made a decision in Year 11, they stay in that TVET course until they complete it.

In a group discussion, the students were asked if the courses prepared them for

employment. The following are some of the comments made by the students.

One of the TVET students commented:

I believe some of the skills will be useful when we go to the real world to find jobs. I am in Year 13. Last year, I made an entertainment set for career day. I made it on my own, putting to use what I have learned from my teacher. I know how to use the tools and the machines [S2, 2004].

Another student added:

I believe it will help me. In my Secretarial class I am learning a lot of skills pertaining to managing an office. I want to be a secretary and I am learning the right communication skills and techniques. My teacher is very helpful too. We have a new teacher each year but they are all good and helpful [S3, 2004].

CASE STUDY 5 (CS5)

Background CS5 is a government secondary school. It was established in 1964 as a junior

secondary school. Several years later, Year 12 was added to meet the growing

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number of district students who want to sit the SC examination. Year 13 was added in

2003. CS5 is included in the 10 schools under the Asian Development Bank (ADB)

2000 project (GOS, 2003d).

The school has an enrolment of 350. There are two streams in Years 9 to 12 and there

is one Year 13 of 40 students. The school serves the rural community of the two

nearby rural districts. The school committee runs the affairs of the school in terms of

the management of school fees, resources and maintenance. Similar to CS1 and CS2,

the MESC provides the curriculum materials and pays the salary of teachers.

CS5 offers academic courses in Chemistry, General Science, Biology, Physics,

History, Geography, Social Science, English, Mathematics, Samoan Language,

Accounting and TVET courses (DT, FTT and AS).

There are sixteen teachers including the principal and the vice-principal. The

principal received a teaching diploma from the Samoa Teacher Training College

(TTC). He graduated with a degree in Mathematics from the NUS in 2001. He

received extra training in DT from NZ, Australia and Fiji. He was appointed as

principal of CS5 in May of 2003.

TVET courses

FTT, DT and AS were introduced in 2003. All the three TVET courses are

compulsory in Year 9. It is basically an introductory course to familiarise students

with each TVET course so they can decide which one of the four to take in Years 10

to 13. Since FTT, DT and AS began in 2003, there are as yet no students in Years

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11, 12 and 13 taking these courses. The principal hopes that within the next three to

four years TVET students will be able to participate in the SSC and PSSC exams.

However, he said,

. . . if we have a new student enroll in Years 11, 12 or 13 that has taken any of these TVET courses [FTT, DT or AS] at their previous school, then we will make arrangements for them to continue taking those TVET courses here in our school [P5,2004].

This shows the devotion of the principal and TVET staff of CS5. He wants to build

up a solid foundation for TVET courses in CS5. One TVET teacher said:

It makes teaching easier when your principal is supportive. I like the fact that we both teach DT. Our principal is an intelligent person; his goal is to strengthen both the academic and TVET courses in our school [T1, 2004].

Similar to the other case study schools, the curriculum materials for the three TVET

courses come from CMAD. The Years 9 and 10 curriculums for FTT, DT and AS

contain three modules, one for each term. The teacher can adapt them to fit the

learning abilities of her/his students.

In CS5, there are six periods per day, each period is 50 minutes. TVET courses are

time tabled as double periods. Both the theoretical and practical aspects of the course

are covered in the two periods allocated.

TVET Facilities CS5 school building is a two-winged single-storey, concrete building. It contains a

small library, science lab, staff room, and the principal’s office. There is also a

Samoan ‘fale’ (house) that is used for the Samoan language classes. The TVET

building is a separate two room concrete building. CS5 is one of the schools included

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in the ADB project. The TVET building was built in 2002. The building contains

two rooms that are used for DT, FTT and AS classes.

The principal said:

I am grateful that we finally have a TVET building. Unfortunately, the rooms are smaller than the blueprint of the approved plan. The workshop areas should have enough room for the machines and for students to move around and work. The MESC passed and dedicated the building before I was elected principal in 2003 [P5, 2004].

CS5’s TVET building is similar to that of CS2. The rooms are about six metres wide

and six metres in length. CS5’s TVET facilities are partially furnished. The DT

classroom has 15 desks, hand tools such as hammers, nails and chain saws. DT is

awaiting the arrival of the rest of their equipment, machines and tools from the ADB

project. The FTT classroom has ten manual sewing machines, a kerosene stove and

utensils. According to the teacher, they are expecting more equipment such as stoves

and more sewing machines in June from the ADB project.

TVET Teachers and Teaching of TVET

Table 5.15: CS5 TVET Teachers Teachers Courses Taught Qualifications and Institutions

FTT Y9 and 10 FTT and Social Science Diploma FTT and Social Science – SPI & NUS

DT-1

DT-2

Y 12 Mathematics & Y10 DT

Y9 DT & Y10 Mathematics

Diploma IA and Mathematics – SPI & NUS

Diploma in Education - NUS

AS Y9 and 10 AS Bachelors in Sociology - NUS


Table 5.15 shows four TVET teachers for CS5, including the principal who teaches

Year 10 DT and Year 12 Mathematics. The FTT teacher was a former student of the

school. After Year 11 at CS5 she went to Samoa College for Years 12 and 13 where

she was awarded a government scholarship to study at the NUS. She graduated with a

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Diploma in Education. She has been a teacher at CS5 for nearly three years. She

teaches Social Science and FTT for Years 9 and 10.

The Table shows that the AS teacher has a Sociology Degree, however, she was

appointed by the principal to take AS until the MESC appointed an AS teacher. She

said, “I am trying my best to teach AS despite the limited knowledge I have of the

subject.” [T3: CS5, 2004].

One of the DT teachers is the principal, he teaches Year 12 Mathematics and DT for

Year 10. The other DT teacher teaches Year 9 DT and Year 10 Mathematics. He also

received his Diploma in Education from NUS and a Diploma in Industrial Arts from

the Western Samoa Technical Institute (WSTI), now known as SPI. TVET teachers

in CS5 teach at least two subjects. This is common amongst the case study schools.

According to the principal, this is seen as an overload for teachers, nevertheless, it is

done because of the limited number of teachers we get from the MESC [P5: 2004].

CS5 is looking for a qualified AS and FTT teachers. In addition, they are also short

of teachers for History, Chemistry and Biology. The principal declared:

I asked my staff to assist in teaching Agricultural Science, Home Economics and History because we are still waiting for teacher from the MESC. This is a common problem amongst government schools in the rural areas. Most of the graduates refused to teach in rural areas. The MESC should raise the salary of teachers in rural areas or provide some kind of incentive to attract teachers to this side of the island [P5, 2004].

One MESC official said that the government offers scholarship grants for students to

study at NUS. At the end of their studies, the government places them according to

the supply and demand of teachers. Unfortunately, the students are not bonded to a

contract; they can reject the offer and seek employment elsewhere where the salary is

attractive [M2, 2004]. Basically, the government is losing out on this deal because

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the graduates are free to take the job or leave it. If the teaching job is in the rural area,

the majority of the graduates will definitely look for a job somewhere else.

The vice principal said:

. . . teaching profession is one of the lowest paying jobs on the Islands, especially in the government schools. Every year we loose teachers; they either migrate overseas or seek employment in other firms. Graduates nowadays always go for the money [VP5, 2004].

The commonly used teaching technique is ‘chalk and talk’. Most of the teaching and

learning in CS5 is teacher-centered. The teacher is in control of the class 90 per cent

of the time. Ten per cent of the time is given to students to copy their notes in their

exercise books. One of the TVET teachers said:

We teach from the curriculum module given by CMAD. There are activities included in these lessons; however, the lack of equipment put our practical on hold. I teach basically the theory part. Once in a while we do practical [T2, 2004].

The teachers do not give students enough time for group discussion.

One of the teachers stated:

Group work is a hassle sometimes. I do use this strategy to facilitate students learning. However, I do not give them much time because they often use it as a chat time instead of discussing the lesson [T3, 2004].

In one of the DT classes that I observed, there were no desks and chairs, so, the

students sat on the mats on the floor. It was a Year 9 class of 12 boys. They sat on

the floor and wrote their notes in their exercise books. In the FTT class, the teacher

was lecturing for the first half an hour. Some students were not paying attention to

the teacher as he talked about the lesson. The remaining half an hour was used for

coping notes and doing the exercises in the text.

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TVET Students Table 5.16: CS5 TVET Students

DT AS FTT Total

Level M F M F M F M F

Year 9 14 4 15 2 0 14 29 20

Year 10 17 0 12 3 0 9 29 12

Total 31 4 27 5 0 23 58 32

Grand Total 35 32 23 90


The principal said that this was a good number considering the fact that TVET is new

in their school. He further stated that the school hoped to attract more students to

TVET next school year, 2005 [P5, 2005]. Table 5.16 above shows:

A total number of 90 TVET students. There are 35 students in the DT, 23 in the FTT and 32 in the AS. It also shows that the majority of TVET students are males and they opt mostly for DT and AS. This is seen common among all the case study schools. The Table indicates nine female enrolled in AS and DT, the majority of the females chose to take FTT.

These courses are offered only in Years 9 and 10 because the programme started in

2003. Students were interviewed concerning their participation in TVET. Some of

their comments are shown below. One student says that it was a new course in the

school and he wanted to know what DT is all about [S7, 2004].

Another student stated:

My mom has a restaurant at the new market and she wants me to take over one day, so I decided to join Home Economics to learn catering, so I can extend my mom’s restaurant someday when I finish school. I love my parents; the restaurant put us through school so it is something that I can do for the family [S13, 2004].

Another student took AS thinking it would be an easy ‘A-grade’ class. Since TVET

courses were new to CS5, the students seemed interested to check them out.

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One of the DT students said:

I chose to take Industrial Arts because I am weak in Mathematics. My IA teacher encourages me to do well in Mathematics because such skills are needed in IA too [S11, 2004].

Summary

A descriptive account of the findings of the study has been discussed in this chapter.

It commenced with an account on the management of education in Samoa, to give the

readers some understanding of the circumstances in which this research study is set.

Secondly, a brief descriptive account of the practice of TVET in the five case study

schools is given.

The next chapter will present the discussion of the research findings.

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CHAPTER SIX

DISCUSSION OF FINDINGS

INTRODUCTION

It is recalled that this study is set out to examine the management and implementation

of TVET courses in selected secondary schools in Samoa. This chapter, in particular,

discusses the fieldwork findings presented in Chapter 5. The focus is on analyzing the

management and implementation of TVET courses in light of the literature on TVET

and the conceptual framework of the study, which emerged from the literature on the

management of educational change. Based on this discussion, the implications of the

study for various audiences will be discussed in Chapter 7.

It is reiterated that the key areas of the conceptual framework include: the perceptions

of the stakeholders, the characteristics of the change, initiation, implementation and

institutionalisation. This chapter is presented under these headings.

PERCEPTIONS OF THE STAKEHOLDERS The review of literature in Chapter 3 indicates that the success or failure of any

innovation depends on how it is perceived by those involved (Fullan, 1991). Thus,

effective management and implementation of the Samoan TVET curriculum rely on

the readiness of the stakeholders. In this study, they include the MESC officials,

school principals, teachers, parents and students. The fieldwork findings revealed that

they were not well prepared before TVET was introduced. This section captures their

perceptions of TVET and the extent to which they understand its potential in the

overall national development.

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MESC Officials As mentioned previously, the education system in Samoa has long been criticised for

its examination-oriented curriculum that only serves a small fraction of Samoan

children who proceed to university studies. The findings reveal that the main goal of

education in Samoa is to ensure that all students are successful and contribute to the

country's economy. However, the academically oriented curriculum, inherited from

our colonial rulers, is not meeting the needs of all Samoan students. The majority of

the students, especially in the rural areas do not proceed to higher education due to

many reasons some of which include financial problems, family obligations and

students’ inability to cope with the pressure of examinations. As a result, there is high

failure rate and early school dropouts (Fieldwork Notes, 2003-2004).

The MESC officials who participate in this study, is concerned with school-wastage

and has introduced TVET subjects in its academically oriented secondary school

curriculum. TVET is seen as a means to provide employability skills to school

leavers. These officials felt that with such skills the school-leavers would be able to

enter wage employment or get involved in self-employment. The load lies on the

government in the provision of alternatives to cater for these students.

A MESC official said:

. . . the education system imposed by our colonial rulers was based on western ideas and standards. We are so accustomed to this system that any change that we want to implement seemed to fail. The government is aware of the problem and initiatives have been taken to improve the area of TVET. We are looking at some major changes at the primary and secondary levels. Some of the projects have been implemented already [M1, 2004].

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The study shows that the GOS and the MESC perceive TVET as an important aspect

of the Samoan secondary curriculum. This is shown by the GOS’s various attempts to

introduce TVET courses and programmes in the secondary school system.

The findings indicate that five of the six MESC officials interview felt that there was

a need for a balanced curriculum in secondary schools. The introduction of TVET

courses is therefore, an appropriate innovation. The research findings show that the

MESC officials are interested in introducing TVET courses at the primary level as

well.

According to one of the officials, the MESC plans to incorporate Basic Agriculture,

Arts and Crafts and Business Studies at the primary level. However, this would take

some time because the primary curriculum is now being revised. These TVET

courses would be added to the five core subjects: Mathematics; English; Samoan;

Social Science and Science (Fieldwork Notes, 2003-2004).

On the subject of resources, the government schools are provided with hand-tools and

some equipment. Unfortunately, the schools do not manage them properly resulting

in the ‘abuse’ and ‘misuse’ of school resources (Fieldwork Notes, 2003-2004:43). A

MESC official said that the schools are provided with resources but supplies only last

for as long as the external funding continues. He said that schools do not make any

effort to raise their own funds [M1, 2004].

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Figure 6.1: Summary of the Perceptions of the MESC Officials


In summary, the study reveals that the MESC recognises the importance of TVET.

They have not stopped trying, although the programme seems to have failed in

previous attempts. In general, the MESC believes that the new TVET curriculum

would yield greater results. However, the study indicates that the lack of resources

such as qualified teachers, equipment and materials along with poor management

strategies and no TVET policy hinder the successful implementation of TVET courses

in our schools. Moreover, the stakeholders at the school level were not ready to carry

out the change due to the lack of clarity of the TVET programme.

The study shows that the MESC is aware of these problems, therefore they provide

training programmes for teachers but with the above-mentioned limitations and the

lack of readiness of stakeholders, much success has not been achieved so far. These

training programmes should focus on teaching methodology, assessment and

evaluation procedures and resource management (Fieldwork Notes, 2004). There

should have been readiness sessions for administrators and teachers on TVET

programme. This could provide the principals, teachers, students and the member of

• TVET is necessary to provide basic skills and to familiarise students with various trades such as carpentry, cooking, wood work and sewing.

• TVET courses will assist students in choosing future careers as seamstress/tailors, electricians, plumbers, chefs, and carpenters to name a few.

• TVET courses give pupils the widest possible choices for employment in TVET areas. • The MESC relies on International aid donors for resources including fiscal and human resources. • TVET provides secondary students with the proper attitudes and realistic progression to further

training and studies. • TVET is expensive, but important. • The MESC believes that the schools should contribute to the purchase of equipment and tools through

fundraising or donation. • The management of TVET at the national level needs improvement in terms of management of

resources, teacher training and teaching and learning process.

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the school community with a clear vision of the programme and prepare them well to

get engaged in this area of education.

Teachers About 90 per cent of those teachers interviewed are TVET teachers. Other teachers

were also interviewed to get a wider perspective of the management and

implementation of TVET courses in the case study schools. Their views are helpful

in portraying the realities of TVET at the secondary level. The study reveals that

teachers' perceptions on TVET vary considerably depending on their education and

experience.

Most TVET teachers understand the need for TVET courses at the secondary level.

They believe that they are the main persons who are to communicate the vision of the

MESC regarding TVET to schools and the community. Their views are summarized

in the Table 6.2.

A statement from a TVET teacher captures the feelings of teachers on TVET fairly

well:

Samoa’s economy lies in agriculture, fishing and tourism. This has implications for TVET. Students who enroll in vocational courses learn how to utilize the natural resources we have. Moreover, these courses will prepare students for further technical studies and for employment in various trades. The Ministry should put more emphasis and money on these courses, because not all students can get office jobs. Samoa is a small country with limited white-collar jobs available for the hundreds of school leavers. But, we do have the natural resources, if students are well equipped with the skills and knowledge to use these resources we can solve the employment-associated problems [T2, 2004].

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Figure 6.2: Summary of Teachers’ Perceptions

On Teachers:

• We should be the main actors in implementing TVET courses. • The mainstream teachers do not care about TVET courses. • Some teachers are more interested in their salaries and promotions and not so much on TVET On Students: • A few students get enrolled in TVET courses. • Students should make use of the opportunity provided to them. • TVET courses will help the weak students. • The majority of the students are not familiar with the TVET programme. On TVET Courses: • TVET courses are helpful and it must be included in the secondary school curriculum. • TVET is giving teachers an extra workload. • TVET courses provide students with more options to choose from. • TVET courses prepare students for career opportunities. • TVET courses need to be aligned with SPI and NUS requirements. • The MESC should make TVET courses compulsory. • TVET courses taught in the secondary schools do not fully prepare students for employment. • TVET is expensive to manage. • There is a limited resource to carry out the practical component of the courses. (Source: Fieldwork Notes, 2004).

The study also shows that about 80 per cent of 31 TVET teachers studied are qualified

in their subject areas. Included in this ratio are a few TVET teachers who feel that the

courses are time-consuming and expensive. One of the AS teachers said that most

TVET teachers are overloaded because they also teach other subjects in the secondary

school programme. She further stressed that there should be an allowance for TVET

teachers because of the extra workload they carry [T3: CS3, 2004].

In addition, most TVET teachers are frustrated because of the lack of resources to

carry out the practical components of the courses. It is because of this that most of the

case study schools concentrate only on the theory part of the courses. The course

assessment, therefore, is examination-based as it is done in most of the core subjects

of the school curriculum. This is not a reliable method of evaluating students’

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competencies, especially for TVET courses. For TVET, the practical component of

the course is equally important, however, it is not taken effectively in most of the case

study schools.

According to the fieldwork findings, the teachers of other subjects tend to view TVET

as ‘light-weight’ innovation. These teachers are only interested in completing the

syllabi and testing students' recall ability in ‘pencil-and-paper’ tests. Therefore, there

is a lot of ‘note learning’ in TVET as well. This is consistent with the research

findings of Sharma (2000) on Fiji TVET programme in secondary schools.

A statement such as the one below clearly shows the attitude of teachers on the

Samoan study:

. . . leave vocational subjects to vocational teachers, I am satisfied with my history classes. If students do not want to learn, I care less . . . We have a lot to cover before SC and PSSC, if they fool around . . . [T4, 2004].

The study found that the negative attitude of some teachers stem from the lack of

clear understanding of the goals, objectives and expected outcomes of the innovation.

It also reflects on the dedication and integrity of those teachers concerned. According

to Huberman and Miles (1984) and Fullan (1991), this lack of clarity could lead to

poor practice in the classroom. This was found to be true in the Samoan study. This

lack of understanding on TVET leads to ineffective teaching in the classroom. The

TVET courses are taught exactly as it done for their academic counterparts. Based on

the fieldwork findings, some teachers (both non-TVET and TVET) have little

understanding of the TVET programme and its aim. This is the result of the lack of

training and awareness programmes in the schools. Teachers, parents and students

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should be aware of the aims of the TVET programme in order for them to fully

involve in the teaching and learning process.

One of the TVET teachers feels that the TVET courses should be closely related to

what is taught at NUS-Institute of Technology. This would allow the students to

continue the same courses at NUS if they decide to specialize in those courses. The

study shows that the courses offered in the secondary schools are in line with those

offered at local technical institutes. The MESC is also proposing that this same

relationship be extended to the primary schools in the near future. This is similar to

what is proposed by the Fiji Islands Education Commission (2000).

In short, the majority of TVET teachers consider TVET as an appropriate innovation

in the secondary school. On the other hand, academic subject teachers perceive

TVET as a ‘light-weight’ innovation. Most of the TVET teachers also teach other

subjects, this has caused an overload for them. The study found that the lack of

resources and time-constraints contribute to the poor teaching in the classroom. In

addition, the negative attitudes shown by some teachers hinder the successful

implementation of TVET courses at the school level.

Parents This study reveals that most of the parents interviewed have very little knowledge of

the TVET programme. They know that the programme exists but, lack awareness on

how the programme works and how it addresses the issues of early dropouts and

unemployment. Fullan (1991) referred to it as the ‘lack of clarity’ of the innovation.

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This is consistent with the findings of Sharma (2000) and Aveau (2003) in their

respective studies on TVET in their countries.

In this study, about 70 per cent of the 25 parents interviewed favoured the formal

education system. They believe that passing examinations is the only key to finding

productive-wage employment and acquiring scholarship for further academic studies.

Similarly, Burnett (1999) study of parents’ perception of secondary education in the

island of Kiribati found that the parents want their children to obtain a ‘body of

knowledge’ to improve their chances of cash employment.

A parent shared his intentions for his children in the following words:

I send my children to school to learn English, so they can get a good job. . . . not to make some fancy dish, make a table, or play sports. They can do that at home. My wife and I are farmers. We work hard so our children obtain higher academic education. I do not want them to be farmers because it is hard work but less income [PA5, 2004].

The negative attitudes of parents are derived from their preference for western ideas.

Parents do not want their children to take TVET courses because they feel it is labour

work. In addition, it earns a little salary. Most Parents would like their children to

work in office job because the salary is a little higher. This is common among Pacific

Island countries (Thaman, 2001; Taufeulunaki, 2001). By contrast, few of the

parents agreed that TVET programme is useful for their children.

During a group discussion, a parent said:

I was a primary schoolteacher before, so I value vocational education. The courses are useful and are well designed for students at all levels. I encourage my children to take at least one vocational course. Parents often think that these skills are taught at home, but this is not true [PA7, 2004].

The way parents perceive TVET courses can have a great impact on their children’s

choices. The study shows that most parents want their children to get white-collar

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employment. As a result, most parents in the case-study schools discourage students

from taking vocational courses. Parents’ perception is that TVET students receive

low wages and do ‘dirty’ and ‘hard’ work. According to the principal of one of the

case study schools, one of the greatest challenges for schools in Samoa is to change

parents’ attitude in favour of TVET. As the relevant literature suggest the successful

implementation of any innovation depends considerably on readiness of stakeholders,

especially the parents (Fullan, 1991; Sharma, 2000; and Aveau, 2003).

Some parents expressed concerns on the unavailability of suitable resources at the

school level. They strongly feel that the schools should provide the relevant

materials, equipment and tools and this can easily be met from the fees paid by the

students. It was found, however, that students bring tools, wood, fabrics and other

things for their school projects. Like the teachers, the parents feel that TVET is more

expensive than the academic subjects.

The study found that parents of TVET students are more likely from lower socio-

economic backgrounds and have less educated backgrounds. Most of these parents

see TVET as an obstacle stopping their children from getting white-collar

employment.

In summary, the majority of parents in the five case study schools preferred the

formal system of education. They see it as the pathway for better employment and

further studies in tertiary institutions. In contrast; TVET is seen as a way to low

paying jobs. About 5 per cent of the parents believe that it is important to include

vocational courses in the secondary school curriculum, but do not want their children

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to participate in any of the courses. The other 25 per cent wanted their children to

take TVET courses because they believe that it is vital to the total learning of their

children. These parents also expressed concerns on the quality of the education

system and the management of TVET courses and resources at the school level. They

strongly feel that the school is responsible for all the aspects of their children’s

education once their fees are paid in full. The summary of parents’ perceptions is

given in Tables 6.3 and 6.4.

Figure 6.3: Summary of Parents’ view on TVET courses

(Source: Fieldwork Notes, 2004). Figure 6.4: Summary of the Perceptions of Parents about their Children’s Career


• I was never told of such a programme. • TVET is expensive. • If it helps my kid to get a good job then it is okay with me. • The school should provide the tools and materials for practical work. • TVET courses are not effectively taught in the rural schools. • I have seen what my daughter can sew. Thanks to her sewing

teacher. • I enjoy going to career days (display day) became students made

beautiful things such as TV cupboards, beds and delicious food. • TVET is associated with low wage employment. • TVET teaching in the classroom is ineffective because of the limited

resources.

• I do not want her to end up like me doing housework. • She should study hard to earn a scholarship for UPY. • I want the best for my children. • My son wants to own a coffee shop, so I encourage him to take home economics. • I let my children choose what they want to take in school. • I want my children to take at least one vocational course.

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Students

The study shows that some of the student informants feel that TVET courses are for

low achievers of the formal education programme. This is indicated by some of the

comments made by some research informants during a group discussion.

A student said:

We were told by our teachers to study hard and pass our external examinations or else we will end up in the TTW programme. So, I have always thought that vocational subjects are for those who are weak in the core subjects such as English, Mathematics and Science. I have friends in the TTW programme. They also take tests and other fun activities [S11: CS4, 2004].

Another student added:

Yeah, I was so shy to tell my friends and other students that I am taking Agricultural Science, because they will think that I am a slow learner [S19: CS4, 200]).

The study found that students get this idea from teachers, principals, parents and other

students [T3: CS3, 2004]. Such negative comments are truly discouraging. People

always tend to associate TVET with the below average students. Another teacher

indicated that the principal keeps saying that the school does not have the money to

cope up with vocational needs; however, it provides the ‘second chance’ education to

many below average students of the school [T2, 2004] and those in the neighborhood.

The other group of TVET students said that they take TVET courses because the

school decided to put them there due to the low grades they received in core subjects.

This notion is common in all the five case study schools. It begins from the lack of

career guidance given to the students on TVET and the window of opportunities that

it offers the students. S9 [2004] said, “In Year 10, I was in BS, but when I reached

Year 12, the teacher advised me to take Woodwork or AS. I did not want to make a

fuss, so I just enrolled in woodwork”.

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There are also students who take TVET courses to ease their school workload.

A Year 12 SC Science student commented:

I am taking Science courses (Chemistry, Biology & Physics). These are difficult subjects. My Science teacher suggested taking one optional subject to ease my workload. So, I chose HE. There are 3 boys in the class including myself. I needed an easy subject and HE was the best choice. I could easily get an ‘A’ in this class [S24, 2004].

This comment reflects the negative attitudes of the school principals on the TVET

programme. A student indicated that their school principal does not care about TVET

students or courses because he is more interested in sports, especially in rugby and

netball, Science and English [S21, 2004].

Despite the negative viewpoint of some students, about 10 per cent have a fair

understanding of the rationale behind TVET courses. For them, it is a personal choice

that was not influenced by their parents, teachers or the school principals.

One of the DT students said:

When I was young, I liked drawing pictures of houses and objects, so my mom always told me that I could be an architect. I did not know what it was back then, but I kept it in my mind. This is one reason why I chose to enroll in this school, because they have a good TVET programme. I took Drawing and Woodwork since Year 10. I am in Year 13 now. My goal is to get a scholarship and study architect. I know that the courses I have taken so far have prepared me well for any studies in this area [S23, 2004].

A student in one of the FTT classes said that she wanted to be a chef and besides her

core subjects she is also taking FTT to prepare for her goal [S15, 2004].

As for the appropriateness of the courses offered in the TVET curriculum, a student

noted that the workbooks for FTT reflect ideas and concepts in the Samoan context

(S14, 2004). Likewise, a CMAD official stated that the course books provided by

CMAD are a combination of local and western concepts and ideas (C3, 2004).

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From the students’ perceptions, it can be said that students view is influenced to a

large extent by the perceptions of their teachers, principals, parents and friends’ hold.

Students have a limited view of the TVE programme and its outcome. This is a result

of the poor orientation given to students on TVET. The study, thus, proposed

workshops and counseling sessions as means to assist students in making TVET

choices and career opportunities.

Figure 6.5: Summary of the Students’ Perceptions on TVET • TVET courses are for the weak students. • It is easy to get an A grade in the TVET programme. • FTT taught me to sew professionally. • Students who do not pass their core subjects are placed in the TVET programme. • The principal put me in DT because I received a low grade in History. • The school should provide all the tools. • TVET can prepare students for employment in different areas. • TVET is no different from the core subjects, it is difficult and requires dedication.


CHARACTERISTICS OF THE CHANGE

It is reiterated that the success of any innovation relies on its need, clarity, quality and

practicality as well as its impact on the various stakeholders (Fullan, 1991). The way

it is perceived by the stakeholders is also important in its management. This section

discusses the characteristics of the Samoan innovation based on the fieldwork

findings. It will briefly look at the need, clarity and quality and practicality of the

Samoan innovation.

Need

Like the other small island states, Samoa has long perceived the need for a balanced

curriculum in its secondary school system (GOS, 1995a). As mentioned in earlier

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discussions, the secondary curriculum in Samoa is examination-driven and only caters

for those who could proceed to university studies. The fieldwork findings show that

the MESC introduced TVET because it (TVET) has the potential to cater for the

needs of all the students despite their academic capacity. In the light of the needs of

the school leavers and the job market three TVET courses – AS, DT and FTT are

incorporated in the secondary school curriculum. In particular, TVET courses are

introduced to provide more options for students, especially the weak students and

early school dropouts who are in danger of joining the already large number of

unemployed in Samoa. Furthermore, a principal told me that these subjects have the

potential to prepare students for further technical and vocational studies in local

tertiary institutions.

All the case study schools sees the need for TVET in the schools, however, it is not a

priority. This was shown by the way funds, time and resources were allocated in

some case study schools. For example, the principal of CS1 realised the need for

TVET in his school, but the school funds, time and resources are more geared to

sports and mainstream schooling rather than TVET courses (Fieldwork Notes, 2004).

In contrast, the principals of CS2, CS4 and CS5 are committed to the TVET

programme, however, the commitment of teachers and the community hinders the

successful implementation of TVET in their schools.

CS4 sees the importance of TVET courses. Therefore, it has added Metal, Mechanics,

Secretarial Management, Computer Studies and Art to the three courses introduced by

the MESC. In addition, the school also adopted the TTW programme for its Year 13

students. This programme allows senior students to acquire some work experience as

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well as developing work ethics as well as to arrange for their full-time employment

upon graduation. Some students get hired during this period of work experience.

Generally, the case study schools support the MESC in including TVET in the school

curriculum. The study also shows that ‘bureaucratic’ and ‘micro-political’ (extending

self-interests) motives that Sharma (2000) identified in his Fijian TVET study have

been the driving forces for some teachers and school administrators and the member

school management committees to accept TVET in their schools. This, of course,

hinders the successful implementation of TVET courses at the school level because

these persons get involved more in extending their personal interests rather than that

of TVET or the school. This is consistent with the literature on change management

(Fullan, 1991; Sharma, 2000; Nandlal, 2003).

Clarity The international literature on TVET indicates that TVET is difficult to define

because of the diverse selection of programmes and activities that are involved in it.

People defined it differently depending on their views of “education and

employment” (Sharma 2000:105). For this reason, it is important for the MESC to

clearly define the rationale behind the TVET curriculum. The study found that

neither the stakeholders at the national nor the school levels clearly understand the

rationale behind the TVET programme. The MESC and the schools fail to articulate

clearly the meaning and potential of TVET in providing a more realistic education

and employment opportunities. A teacher explains that this is one of the reasons why

the majority of the stakeholder family such as the change agents and users do not take

this innovation seriously. This finding is also consistent with the change literature

(Fullan, 1991; and Aveau, 2003).

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According to the teachers in some of the case study schools, they were just following

the principals’ directives in the hope to get a pay raise (Fieldwork Notes, 2003). As

mentioned earlier, this personal-interest driven motive resides in the micro-political

domain. This lack of clarity also account for the way some principals feel towards

TVET courses in their schools. One of the principals said that TVET is too expensive

and he would rather not introduce it in his school [P1, 2004]. Furthermore, it

contributes to the way teachers and principals facilitate the teaching of TVET courses.

The study shows that the teacher-centred approach dominates the teaching and

learning process in the classroom in all of the case study schools. This finding is also

consistent with a large body of change literature (e.g. Fullan, 1991, Sharma, 2000; and

Aveau, 2003).

It was also found that the lack of clarity contributes to the poor channel of

communication among the MESC officials, the schools and the communities. There

is less community support at the school level because the community members are not

aware of such a programme at the school. One of the parents said, “Most of the

activities that go on in the school, I hear it from my children” [P14, 2004]. The study,

therefore, argues that the innovation is not clearly communicated to its stakeholder

family.

Quality and Practicality

As for quality and practicality of the Samoan innovation, the study shows that the

three courses offered fit well in the Samoan context. For example, since Samoa is

agriculture-base, AS is needed to provide the basic skills and knowledge in

agriculture. An AS teacher from one of the case-study schools said that Samoa has a

vast fertile area of land suitable for agriculture but not too many people are using it

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because they all want to move to urban areas. The majority of the students does not

proceed to higher education or obtain wage-employment; therefore, teaching basic

skills and knowledge in farm management and crop production would help these

students use the land wisely for farming. In this way they would be able to provide

for their families and contribute to the economic development of Samoa.

In all the case study schools, FTT seems to be a popular TVET course among the

students. Some of the former students of CS2 and CS4 are working in various hotels

and restaurants in Samoa. Some have also gone to local TVET institutions.

An FTT teacher said:

The course familiarises students with the basic knowledge about food, nutrition, catering, … It is our goal to install in them an interest in FTT and a desire to proceed to higher studies for more knowledge and skills [T2:CS3, 2004].

Like FTT, DT provides basic carpentry skills to students. The course is well designed

to cater for the academic level of all students. Although these TVET courses are

suitable for secondary school students, the study found that the majority of the

students opt for Business Studies, other than other optional subjects such as DT, FTT

and AS. This is because TVET courses are still perceived by many as a ‘second class

option’ as found by Sharma (2000) and Aveau (2003) in their studies on TVET in

their countries.

The limited resources and facilities such as machinery and tools also affect the quality

and practicality of these courses. The study found that this dilemma is common at the

three government district schools involved in the study. According to P5 (2004), their

TVET classrooms were too small and not sufficiently furnished with tools and

equipment to the level where it could be used for practical sessions successfully.

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The lack of resources is a common problem in the government and district schools

owing to the limited financial support they receive from the government and the

community. Generally, the village community is responsible for the management of

the school.

Unlike government and district schools, the two mission schools, included in the

study are equipped. According to the fieldwork findings, mission schools are always

ahead of government schools in terms of resources because they are privately funded

by their church organizations. Nevertheless, other factors such as readiness of

teachers, their teaching approaches and community support hinder the successful

implementation of TVET in these mission schools.

In summary, the study found that the need for the innovation was satisfactorily

understood by various stakeholders at the MESC and the school level. On the other

hand, the clarity of the TVET curriculum was not well articulated to its change agents

and users. This was shown by the comments from various stakeholders concerning

the rationale behind TVET programmes. As for quality and practicality, the courses

are suitable and pertinent to the needs and aspirations of secondary students and their

future employment.

INITIATION OF TVET COURSES Chapter 3 provided an outline of the initiation stage of the change process that leads

up to implementing the change or innovation. The success of any innovation depends

largely on its relevance, the readiness of stakeholders and the availability of resources

(Fullan, 1991). These three factors are worth noting in the Samoan TVET context.

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The study found that TVET courses offered in the secondary schools were relevant to

the need and context of Samoa. However, readiness of stakeholders and availability

of resources were not fully taken into account in the planning process of the Samoan

TVET curriculum.

The literature indicated that some form of vocational education was going on in the

Samoan islands long before the arrival of the Western missionaries in the 1900s.

However, it was basically obtained hand-on experiences, observations and through

participating in daily village and family activities (Cox, 1984; Meleisea, 1987a;

Petana-Ioka, 1995). When the missionaries and colonial rulers arrived, they had

extended these courses in the formal education setting. This means, that vocational

courses were introduced as part of the formal school system. The main goals then,

were to teach basic skills and knowledge for survival as well as to provide tradesmen

for government activities. However, over the years the aims of TVET in Samoa has

changed to address the overall development of students.

In consistent with the relevant literature on educational change, the Samoan study

indicates that problem solving and bureaucratic motives are the two main factors

behind the move to incorporate TVET subjects at the secondary level (Aveau, 2003;

Fieldwork Notes, 2003-2004). This is common among PICs such as Fiji, Solomon

Islands and Kiribati (Levi, 1995; and Sharma 2000).

Problem-Solving Orientation As discussed in earlier Chapters, many developing countries have long been in search

of a curriculum to address the problems yielded by the formal education system. The

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relevant literature on education or schooling in the Pacific Islands clearly stated that

Pacific people relate their meanings of education from western cultures and ideas,

which often are irrelevant to Pacific way of life. The study found that the formal

system that exists in the secondary schools does not adequately prepare the majority

of Samoan children for a useful life in the village. This was admitted by most

research respondents who agreed that TVET has the ability to provide a balanced

curriculum in the Samoan formal school system.

The MESC acknowledges the 'irrelevant and inequality' of the formal education

system in preparing young people for the labour market and a useful life in the

village. Therefore, it was involved in policy reform in this direction. The MESC

officials went on to explain that there was a need to create a balanced curriculum that

would prepare young people to become useful citizens.

Chapter 5 reveals that TVET courses were long introduced in the Samoan school

curriculum. These subjects (DT, FTT and AS) were extended to Years 12 and 13

years later. Furthermore, these courses became examinable in the SC and PSSC

examinations in early 2000. The expectation that TVET courses would address the

issues of dropouts and unemployment is enshrined in their aims.

These include:

• raise the status of TVET; • offers training in life skills, paid and self-employment; • provide more options for secondary students, especially for those who are

struggling in the academic area; and • provide education and training that leads to higher education.


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In addition, a MESC official stated:

The new policy statement includes the introduction of TVET at Levels 12 and 13. The issue was raised in several meetings because the number of dropouts is increasing and so as the rate of unemployment (graduates and early school leavers). The new curriculum hopes to provide more options for students especially for those who are struggling academically. The MESC believes that enforcing these courses would provide secondary students with the basic skills that will assist them in future career opportunities [M6, 2004].

The initiation of any educational change seldom takes place without any supporters

(Fullan, 1991; Goddard and Leask, 1992: Cheng and Cheung, 1996; Sharma, 2000;

and Aveau, 2003). In this study, the MESC provided the first advocacy. The MESC

felt the need for a balance between academic and vocational education. Similar to

any innovation, the initiation of TVET courses in the Samoan secondary schools took

years to plan before it was actually put into practice. The research finding further

shows that the MESC took several attempts to incorporate TVET courses in the

secondary school curriculum. Some stakeholders even considered it as a failure. For

instance, a comment was made by a school principal during an interview, provides an

insight into this issue:

. . . TVET courses were introduced in the junior secondary school curriculum long ago. However, just recently the MESC has extended it to Years 12 and 13 and made them examinable in the SC. The equipment and tools for the teaching of TVET subjects are expensive; therefore, most of the schools teach only the theory part of these courses. TVET subjects cannot be assessed by theory only, an important part of the assessment and evaluation lies in the practical aspect of the course. The MESC should think of ways to provide the necessary resources before they introduced the curriculum. At the moment TVET is not considered important in some schools [P5, 2004].

The study reveals that TVET was implemented by the MESC to address the problems

of school dropouts and unemployment. Thus, the curriculum was handed out to the

schools. This top-down management process was described by the research

respondents as less productive because parents, teachers and students in the case study

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schools did not really understand what exactly TVET subjects were to offer in the

overall education of their children. As a result, they were reluctant to participate in its

implementation. The view that the involvement of change agents and users is

important in the initiation process (Miles et al. 1984) does not really apply in the

Samoan TVET. An official of the MESC stated that the schools were always notified

by memorandum of any new change made in TVET by the MESC. On the other

hand, school administrators and teachers in at least two case study schools were not

keen to change their existing practices and beliefs because they were comfortable with

their old ways [M6, 2004].

Three case study school principals indicated that the management of TVET is not

effective at the national level and as a result it is not well managed at the school level.

This top-down management process also exists at the school level. The teachers

admitted that the administrators overlooked the fact that teachers should also be

involved in any change that occurs at the school level. One of the teachers mentioned

that their principal makes decisions for the schools without consulting the teachers.

She said:

I was upset when I was told that HE was dropped. As a HE teacher, I felt that I should be notified before a final decision was made. I talked to the principal concerning the matter and he said that the management team decided. He said that it was best to drop the subject due to the construction of a new school building. He said, “Whatever decisions came from the management board should be supported by teachers and students [T2, 2004].

Apparently, this top-down management issue is well noted in the study. The effect of

this approach is prevalent throughout the system, including the case-study schools and

their classrooms. The persons situated on the upper side of the educational

management hierarchy make the decisions with no regards for the persons at the

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lower levels. The study, therefore, argues that this top-down approach is indeed a

contributing factor to the ineffective management and implementation of the Samoan

innovation.

The research findings show that the five case study schools feel that the innovation is

appropriate; however, the MESC did not give a clear policy and guidance. In

addition, the case study schools indicated that the programme was too expensive and

the MESC did not provide sufficient funding and resources to implement it

effectively.

Relevance of the Subjects Sharma (2000) identifies this factor as a limitation of TVET. Therefore, it is

important that TVET courses support the needs of the citizens and the country as a

whole. The international literature indicates that TVET graduates often end up in

professions unrelated to their skills and knowledge or remain unemployed. This

occurs when the TVET programmes are not in line with the aspirations of the labour

market and the economy of the host country.

The study found that the courses offered were relevant to the Samoan situation. The

GOS saw it fit to introduce AS, DT and FTT as options while stressing that they cater

for the majority of students who do not proceed to higher studies. As indicated

earlier, that TVET courses aim to provide secondary students with the skills that

would help them generate and find employment. A MESC official said that several

factors were taken into account during the planning process of these TVET courses.

These factors comprise the educational needs, circumstance of the Samoan economy

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as well as political desires [M1, 2004]. In other words, TVET courses are geared to

the labour market needs of Samoa. For example, the economy of Samoa lies in

agriculture. Therefore, the AS courses assist students to find wage-employment or

self-employment. Furthermore, Samoa needs more plumbers, carpenter and

electrician especially in the construction industry. Moreover, there is need for skilled

persons in restaurants and other areas of the tourist industry.

Although the aims of TVET is clearly stated, some school administrators, teachers,

parents and students did not satisfactorily understand the rationale behind the

incorporation of these subjects into the school curriculum and what they could offer to

the overall educational development of students. In other words, the lack of

awareness and clarity of the new innovation is one of the reasons for its ineffective

implement at the school and classroom level.

Readiness

The study found that the stakeholders in most of the case-study schools were not

prepared to accept TVET as a component of life long learning. The relevant literature

on TVET indicates that most stakeholders favor academic to vocational education

because of the promising opportunities offer by academic education. As regards,

about 80 per cent of principals and teachers in the five case study schools explained

that the innovation was enforced on them [P1, P2, 2003; T3; T7, 2004]. The lack of

clarity and the top-down approach taken took the stakeholders by surprise. Although

there were training workshops provided by the MESC, some teachers and school

administrators were confused. The lack of readiness of stakeholders at the school

level and the expectations at the MESC to implement the programme blueprint left

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them in confusion, often not knowing what to do. They were just not ready to take on

the innovation.

Resources The study revealed that the unavailability of suitable resources was the major problem

faced by the case study schools. The resources include both human and capital. This

hindered the successful implementation of the courses at the classroom level. M2

(2004) said:

The major constraint we face is the unavailability of resources. This includes teachers. Some of the government schools do not offer these courses due to the lack of qualified teachers. Also most government schools do not have the tools and equipment to carry out the practical part of these courses. The MESC and the schools have to work together to create a system so that this problem could be resolved [M2, 2004].

In essence, the Samoan innovation was initiated because the MESC and the Schools

saw it as a solution to address the school-dropout and unemployment problems.

Berman and Mclaughlin (1978); Fullan (1991); Sharma (2000); and Aveau, (2003)

also sustained this point. They say that problem solving is an important factor

associated with successful initiation of any innovation. The study by Aveau (2003) on

TVET at the post-secondary level in Samoa indicated that problem-solving and

bureaucratic intentions were the main factors driving the initiation of SPI. This is also

true in the initiation of TVET courses in the secondary school curriculum.

Sometimes, innovations are initiated because the schools see it, as a way of getting

funds and resources that may not have been received otherwise (Sharma 2000). This

is indeed true in the case of the Samoan innovation. The government and the case

study schools felt that through TVET courses, they could obtain extra resources

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through these courses. At least two case-study schools, according to their principals,

accepted the TVET courses because they knew it was a source of getting extra funds

and resources for their schools. In reality, they were more interested in obtaining extra

facilities and equipment that did not cost them anything. In this way, they were able

to extend the horizons of their personal interest in terms of promotions that promised

better salaries.

Bureaucratic Orientation Besides problem solving, the study also found that to some extent, the bureaucratic

intentions of some stakeholders led to the initiation of the TVET courses in the

secondary school curriculum. Other study such as Sharma (2000) has shown this as

well.

In developing countries, international aid donors play an important role in initiating

educational changes. This study shows that the GOS, the MESC and some schools

accepted these courses mainly because they provided the opportunity to obtain extra

funds and resources. The GOS relies much on overseas aid to provide resources and

financial assistance for most of its major educational projects (Fieldwork Notes, 2003-

2004). Therefore, the implementation of TVET as a means of obtaining more money

into the economy had motivated the GOS to introduce TVET in schools. The change

literature (Fullan (1991) refers to this as the bureaucratic strategy to initiating

educational innovations. These, at times may be inappropriate to the needs of the

recipient country as it can have a negative effect on the innovation itself and its

change agents and users. In most cases, the recipient country is aware of such issues,

unfortunately, continues to accept the offer because of the funds and resources that

comes with it. To some extent the Samoa TVET was encouraged by this strategy.

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As mentioned earlier, a major educational project currently running is the upgrading

of junior secondary schools. The Asian Development Bank (ADB) is the main

financier of this educational project. They are constructing TVET facilities in ten

selected Government junior secondary schools in both rural and urban areas. In

addition, ADB also agreed to furnish TVET facilities with the necessary tools and

equipment. The construction has been completed in some of the schools, two of

which are included in this study. One of the principals had this to say about the

project.

The TVET building was too small. It is nothing like the blueprint we had seen. We could put one machine inside and it could fill the entire room. Workshop areas should have more space for the students to move around and do their work. It is for safety reasons. The MESC passed the building without consulting us. They should have asked for our comments and feedback concerning the facilities, after all, we are the ones using them. This is the problem with aid donors. They pay no attention to the quality of the work and those who are directly involved in it [P5, 2004].

The assumption is that neither the aid donor nor the MESC is concerned with the

quality of the project. Their main objective was to complete the project as proposed.

People within the MESC and the schools seek to get gains from these projects. This

approach is commonly referred to as ‘micro politics’ (Sharma, 2000). Micro-politics

also exists in the Samoan study.

This is shown by a comment made by one of the principals in one of the case study

schools: The Government is getting money on these projects. However, our newly built TVET facility has not been equipped as promised. It has been a year since it was opened, and we are still waiting for them to furnish it. I just hope that the money is going for educational purposes. In any case the principals were promoted to a higher salary level. He benefited a lot [P2, 2004:21].

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The new innovation provided opportunities for additional positions to be filled at

MESC and school levels. Furthermore, it is seen as a way for promotion for some

administrators, teachers and the MESC officials. This is true in church schools where

there is abundance of resources and funds provided by the Churches.

A teacher from one of the case study schools said this during an interview:

TVET teachers in this school are fortunate. Everything is provided for the teaching of these subjects. We are given a budget to use for materials and things needed. Even the ingredients for our cooking classes and fabrics for our textile classes are supplied by the school. On top of that, we also enjoy our attractive salaries and allowances [T2, 2004:13].

By contrast, some principals and teachers see the new change as an imposed

innovation because it is expensive and it is an extra workload on the school staff.

A teacher said this about the new innovation.

Programmes such as this only benefit the top-level authorities but not the teachers. In our school, most of the TVET teachers teach at least two subjects. I teach Social Science and FTT, but my salary is no different than a teacher that teaches one subject. I personally think that there should be a salary increase for TVET teachers. The teachers do the hard work and the administrators get the allowances [T2, 2004].

Aveau (2003) indicates that ‘nepotism’ is prevalent in the management of post-

secondary TVET in Samoa. According to one of the principals, “It is not what you

know, it is whom you know that always get the job or the pay raise” [Field Notes,

2004].

Nepotism has an effect on productivity and quality of work in the teaching-learning

process, especially if people hired lack the necessary skills and experiences. They do

not deliver the kind of services that is expected of them. TVET appointments ought

to be based on merits.

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In summary, the study argues that problem solving and bureaucratic motives were the

major forces behind the initiation of TVET courses in Samoan secondary schools.

Furthermore, the study indicates that ‘micro politics’ and ‘nepotism’ permeated

through out the system. Other factors that led to the initiation of TVET were

advocacy, relevance, readiness and resources. In the case-study schools, these were

not sufficiently addressed. The findings of this study, therefore, these are consistent

with the relevant international literature.

IMPLEMENTATION OF TVET COURSES

This section focuses on the implementation process of TVET programme at three

levels: national, the school and the classroom.

National Level The fieldwork findings show that this is the top most level where educational

decisions are made. The MESC is responsible for any changes that occur in the

Education System. The MESC is divided into divisions that act as change agents.

There is a head TVET advisor and four TVET coordinators, one solely responsible for

each TVET course. The head TVET advisor oversees the work of each TVET subject

coordinator. The TVET advisor and the four coordinators worked under the CMAD

division. The CMAD is responsible for curriculum materials and the necessary

equipment as well as ensuring that assessment and evaluation are consistent with

national policies. They do this by school visitations where they check on teachers’

performance and through reports by the school principals.

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TVET is under the umbrella of the MESC [M2, 2004]. The TVET head advisor,

together with the four coordinators manages the TVET courses. At the time of the

study, the position for AS coordinator was vacant. In this case, the head advisor for

TVET was responsible for its issues and concerns.

Also during this time, the FTT was undergoing a staff development workshop to

provide training for FTT teachers. The FTT coordinator organises and conducts the

programme in consultations with the Head FTT teachers from various schools. The

FTT coordinator said that the training were necessary because some teachers

complain about the difficulty that they encounter in using the course book for FTT.

The research findings shows that there is a need for an on going staff development

programmes within the MESC, to train the untrained TVET teachers in their

respective schools. Such programmes could assist in familiarising the teachers with

the teaching methods and the use of resources and equipment. The staff development

is seen as essential aspect for promoting the implementation stage (Fullan, 1991).

However, this aspect was not fully practiced in the Samoa TVET programme. This is

because the relevant stakeholders are not well-prepared for the implementation

process.

Another significant finding is that the teaching strategies used in the case-study

schools are largely teacher-centred rather than the learner-centred approach that are

more suitable for TVET courses. Knowles (1990), Nasta (1994) and Sharma (2000)

point out that the learner-centred approach, commonly referred to as andragogy, is

appropriate for TVET teaching and learning because of “its self-motivated, self-

directed and related to learner’s work and life experience’ (Sharma 2000: 117).

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In Samoa’s case, the trend is more towards pedagogy due to the constraints such as

examinations and availability of suitable materials and equipment. Table 6.1 shows

the differences between pedagogy and andragogy as proposed by Nasta (1994) Table

6.1.

In summary, the TVET courses were well coordinated at the national level of the

MESC. Most case study schools largely employed pedagogical rather than

andragogical approach to teaching due to lack of training and lack of resources to

carry out the practical aspect of TVET courses. The relevant literature suggests

andragogy more suitable for vocational education courses.

Table 6.1: Differences between Pedagogy and Andragogy

Pedagogy Andragogy

Learning (teaching?) is externally directed by professional educators. The role of the teacher is to ensure that the teaching programme covers all elements of a set syllabus. Specific learning outcomes are prescribed by externally determined curricula and are related to particular career routes. Learning is sufficient when the goals of a prescribed curriculum are achieved Learning is compartmentalized into levels and subjects by external bodies. Learning choices is restricted by the compartmentalization of knowledge.

Learning is self-directed and self-rewarding. The role of the teacher is to act as a facilitator in enabling individuals to identify and achieve their learning aims. Specific learning outcomes are negotiable and often unique for each individual, the underlying goal of education being to enhance learners’ capacity to continue learning. Learning is lifelong, an intrinsic need that can never be fully satisfied. Learning expands choice in unpredictable ways. As learners become more developed and sophisticated, they perceive new learning needs.

Source: Nasta, T. (1994), How to Design a Vocational Curriculum, London: Kegan Page Limited, p. 56 (cited in Sharma, 2000:118).

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School Level

Similar problems seen at the national level of the change process existed in the

school. At the school level in particular, these were the lack of resources (fiscal,

human and materials), clarity, quality and practicality, poor management of resources

and structure and record keeping.

All the five case study schools are organized in a hierarchical manner, where the

principals are in the overall control of school management. They were assisted by the

Vice Principals (VPs) and the Head of Departments (HODs). The study revealed that

three of the five principals did not have any TVET management experience as well as

background information. These three principals depend largely on the TVET teachers

to manage the TVET programme in their schools. The study shows that only two of

the case study principals had some experience in the management of TVET. There

interest in TVET is discussed in the section on the management of TVET courses in

the schools provided later in this chapter.

Two of the case study schools are district schools, where the district plays an

important role in the management and smooth running of the school. It was found

that about 50 per cent of the principals and teachers do not like the idea of partnership

relations with the school district committees. In an interview, these principals and

teachers said that the school district committee members were demanding and they

were only interested in collecting school fees from the children but were not willing to

provide the necessary materials for school use [T2, T3, P2, 2004].

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One of the principals [P2, 2004] said: The school district committee in partnership with the MESC manages this school. I am the principal, but I cannot make the decisions for the school. The committee has to agree first, they cannot finalize any decision without notifying me. In extreme cases, there are cases where the school district committee expelled students and teachers without consulting me. So, I do not like the idea of partnership. This school would be better off under the MESC.

This shows that there is dominance over the principal. The study found that this

approach is rooted in the poor management and the lack of communication between

the school officials and the school district committee members. Moreover, there is the

lack of understanding of the roles that each partner ought to play in the management

of TVET. It was noticed that the members of the staff at each case study schools were

more concerned about the professional matters. On the other hand, the school

management committees concentrate more on administrative matters such as

managing finances. The school and community relationship assist in providing the

needed resources for the programme.

By contrast, the principal of another district school involved in the study was full of

praise for his school district committee. He said:

The school committee never bothers with our work. We do involve them in decision-making and school activities. They are very supportive and they do collect the students’ fees. This money is used for school supplies and school maintenance work [P5, 2004].

This indicates that the involvement of district committees varies from school to

school. In the above comment, it can be argued that there is a good relationship

between the committee and the school staff. As a result, the school is well organised

and managed. The school staff and the members of the committee understand each

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other’s role and cooperate in the smooth management of the school as well as TVET

portion of the school curriculum.

The fieldwork findings, therefore, reveals that the styles of school management differ

in the case study schools. Many depend on principals’ management philosophy. For

example, P2 believes in collegial governance and has introduced it in his school. A

teacher states that his principal is too involved in other areas such as Sports and

Science because he was a Science teacher prior to becoming the principal [T1, 2004].

For him, therefore, TVET is a ‘light-weight’ innovation and does not receive much

attention. Accordingly, its implementation process in his school suffers. This is

consistent with the change literature that states that ‘lightweight’ innovations do not

find as much attention as heavy weight innovations in the school management process

(Wallace and McMahon, 1994; and Sharma, 2000).

In addition, the study also reveals the lack of active community participation in

decision-making and school management in all the case study schools. The

community involvement is limited to the maintenance of school facilities, provision of

school materials and fund raising. The school community does not have much say in

curriculum development and in staff professional matters. Community involvement

in curriculum matters could bring to the fore the needs of the people. Moreover, the

school would be able to learn about limitations of the courses. This input from the

school community is necessary to improve their quality. On another level, their active

participation could involve providing personnel to assist teachers in facilitating the

teaching learning process on such as: weaving and cooking traditional food.

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The availability of suitable resources varies considerably amongst the case study

schools. It was found that the church-funded schools had a smooth management

process at the school level. Furthermore, they were well-equipped with the resources

for the teaching of TVET courses.

A comment by one of the TVET teachers supports this viewpoint:

The school provides everything from equipment, machines, tools, materials, safety boots, gloves and overalls, goggles, etc. Everything is provided. For each TVET course, there is a set budget allocated for materials to use such as wood, paints, and ingredients for cooking and fabrics for sewing. We should consider ourselves lucky compared to the other schools. I strongly feel that this is one reason why this school is the best in vocational education. Our programme is a little more than what is offered in the government controlled schools includes the work-study programme as well [T2, 2004].

On the contrary, a DT teacher in one of the government schools said that in his school

there is no budget allocation for TVET. The principal is given the school budget from

the government from which he has to make allocations for TVET. In most cases, the

funds are spent on sports and other academic subjects, the TVET courses are not on

their list of priority [T3, 2004]. It is important to note that some government schools

were given equipment and tools, however, their poor management resulted in the

misuse and abuse of tools, machines and facilities (Fieldwork Notes, 2003-2004). If

records are properly kept and inventories are taken regularly, then schools would not

waste money in buying new equipment every year.

The second area in the case study schools is record keeping. The mission schools

were better organised and had satisfactory records of materials, equipment, students

and ex-students. Moreover, they had satisfactorily kept students’ achievement

records. Government schools do not keep track of their past graduates. They kept a

few records such as information on present students, community projects and

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financial transactions, however, much of these were inadequate and outdated. It is

important to keep in touch with past graduates, help them in their work and take their

assistance in improving the quality of the programme.

Furthermore, teacher-centred approach was a common teaching strategy in the case

study schools. This approach hinders the successful implementation of TVET courses

because students were not engaged in innovations projects or in inquiry-based

learning. According to the international literature, the recommended approach for

TVET is andragogy because of its strength in student-centred learning. Knowles,

(1984a) emphasis that students are self-directed learners and are expected to take

responsibility and ownership for their own decisions and actions. This means that the

teaching learning process needs to focus more on the process and less on the content

being taught. The literature suggests that teachers need to act as facilitators rather than

as lecturers or directors. Strategies such as case studies, role-playing, simulations,

and self-evaluation are considered useful and interesting in the teaching learning

process of vocational education courses. Sadly, these were not found in the case

study schools (Knowles, (1984b).

Another notable problem found in the case study school was the absence of

collegiality amongst the teaching staff. This problem was also noted by Sharma

(2000) in his study of TVET in Fiji. The mainstream teachers had a high opinion of

themselves because the subjects they taught were regarded as superior. On the other

hand, TVET teachers were considered inferior because they were to teach the

academically weak students. Furthermore, most persons at the case study schools

perceived TVET courses as lower in status. A remark by an English teacher in a staff

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meeting illustrates this point well. She says, “I have two weak students in my SC

English class. They should be transferred to the vocational stream” [T4: CS4, 2003].

Some teachers, students and parents who participated in the study felt that TVET was

incorporated in the school curriculum to cater for the below average students.

According to a FTT teacher, the lack of cooperation and support from the mainstream

teachers stem from the lack of clarity of the TVET programme [T2: CS3, 2003]. As

discussed earlier, TVET receives less recognition from educators, parents, teachers

and students. Thus, its status is low in Samoa and in other PICs.

A member of the MESC officials stated that although the main reason behind

introducing TVET courses is to cater for the low achievers, the main focus now has

shifted to improving the employability status of school leavers. All the secondary

students have the same basic exposure to TVET in the case study schools, but in the

later stages children make choices on which strand to take. The MESC has tried to

create a balanced- school curriculum so that both the academic and vocational courses

are given significance in the overall education of students. It is the reason why the

government, through the MESC, chose to extend these courses to Levels 12 and 13

and made them examinable in the external examinations. Exhibit 6.1 is an extract

from the policy document, which indicates this wish of the GOS and MESC.

Exhibit 6.1 illustrates an attempt by the GOS and MESC to create a balanced

curriculum at the secondary school level. Despite this effort, the research findings

show that the majority of stakeholders considered TVET as a ‘second best option’

because a small percentage of students opted for the TVET strand. This is consistent

with the study by Sharma (2000) of TVET in the island of Fiji.

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Exhibit 6.1: A Comprehensive Curriculum

(Source: Western Samoa Education Policies 1995-2005, 1995: 9).

In short, the implementation of TVET courses at the school level is hindered by

several factors. These include (Fieldwork Notes, 2003-2004):

● ineffective management and implementation at the school level;

● poor record-keeping;

● lack of staff-development programmes;

● lack of commitment of the important of the stakeholders;

● lack of clarity and the quality of the TVET courses,

● lack of readiness of the stakeholders;

● unavailability of suitable resources; and

● lack of commitments involvement in TVET curriculum decision-making and teaching learning process; Classroom Level At the workshop level, teachers are the main change agents and the students are the

change users. Both, are important in the implementation process at this level.

1. During Years 9 to 11, every student must complete courses in the core academic subjects (English, Mathematics, Samoan, Social Science, and Science) and in at least two optional subjects: Food & Textile, Design & Technology, Agriculture Science and Business Studies;

2. Both core academic and optional subjects will determine access to Year 12 places;

3. Each school will supplement the basic programme with courses in art and craft, music and

drama and physical education: curricula in the supplementary subjects will be developed;

4. Senior Secondary students will be offered a comprehensive range of academic and optional subjects;

5. Year 12 students must complete courses in at least five subjects and;

6. Academic and applied [TVET] subjects will be equally valid in the examination

programme and the selection processes for higher education.

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Teachers The study reveals that 90 per cent of the 20 TVET teachers, who participated in the

study, were trained in their subject areas. Most of them graduated from the local

tertiary institutions. Some also received their education in New Zealand, Hawaii and

Australia. Less than 10 per cent have degrees in other areas, but they were put to teach

TVET courses and this was due to the shortage of qualified TVET teachers in various

areas.

Although the majority of the teachers are qualified, the study found that they lacked in

andragogical skills. This has implications on the type of teacher training programme

offered in Samoa. As indicated in the Chapter 5, teacher-centered method of teaching

was employed in all the case study schools. Clearly, therefore, cooperative learning

and inquiry-based learning were hardly used. The students merely copied notes from

the blackboard. Some teachers also provided photocopied handouts. Note learning

was emphasized so that students could obtain high marks in external examinations.

Most teachers who participated in the study said that they could not involve students

in inquiry-based learning because

• there was sufficient time;

• there was lack of resources for it (inquiry-based learning);

• the teachers were not well prepared to manage inquiry-based activities; and

• there was pressure of external examinations to complete syllabi.

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A FTT teacher had this to say about the teaching-learning process: We cannot help it if we have a whole lot to cover before the national and regional examinations. Our system is so examination-oriented that all we could think of is getting students to pass examinations. The pressures of examinations make teachers to adopt lecture-mode of teaching. Where is the time for inquiry-based learning? We even do not have sufficient time to conduct practical. [T2, 2004].

Therefore, most case study schools mostly teach the theory aspect of the courses. T2

(2004) said that once in a while students they would do practical exercises, but

seventy per cent of the learning process is theoretical and examination-driven. The

teachers teach directly from the course books written by CMAD. The course books

were to be contextualised at the school level, but most teachers did not do that. They

felt that it was easy to teach from the text. They did not prepare their own lesson plans

and student activities. This was reinforced by the following statement of the HOD of

AS:

Some teachers in my department are too lazy to think of local materials and example. We take teacher workshops to help teachers to develop styles and techniques to make teaching more interesting for students, but they always fall back to their own old ways. Believe me, I have come across such teachers who tell students to turn to page so-and-so and do the exercises then sit back and relax [T4, 2004].

Clearly, vision-building and initiative taking, the themes identified by Fullan (1991)

as important in successful implementation of any innovation are absent in the Samoan

TVET courses.

As indicated in the Chapter 5, one of the case study schools incorporated the

Transition to Work Programme (TTW) as part of the TVET programme. The

programme allows Year 13 students to do work experiences in various private and

public sectors as part of the course.

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During a group discussion a student stated:

I cannot wait to go for work experience. It will be a break from the classroom work. I cannot wait to have a feel of a working life. I want to work in an office; I am taking secretarial management . . . [S12, 2004].

I was also fortunate to talk to four former students who went through the TTW

programme. They were working in various jobs in town. One of the girls indicated:

I am grateful for the work experience programme at … now I have a full time job. I

came here to do my two weeks work experience. I worked hard during those two

weeks because I wanted the company to hire me. I was hired straight after

graduation. It has been two years now and I am still here enjoying my first job [FS1,

2004].

These students were also questioned about the relevance of the TVET courses they

took in the secondary schools. They said that the courses sufficiently prepared them

with the essential skills in SM and HE. Likewise, a male student said that the skills

he learned in DT prepared him well to take further studies at SPI [FS2, 2004].

The TTW programme is not offered in other case study schools because it was not

part of the national TVET curriculum. However, it is important for MESC to diverse

TVET curriculum in order to enlarge the employment market of the graduates. The

TVET curriculum at the secondary school should familarise students with skills to

enable students to choose employment or training of their own choice. This finds

support in the relevant literature, (Sharma, 2000) however, such provisions are not

made in Samoan secondary school TVET curriculum. TTW is also provides an

opportunity for hands-on-experience where students can put classroom theory into

practice at home or in the locality and learn from those already in the job market,

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Students The research findings show that TVET students were from the age range of 14-18.

They began taking TVET courses at Level 9. As indicated in Chapter 5, all TVET

courses are optional and students are free to choose the courses they prefer. It was

found that 70 per cent of the 195 TVET students opted for BS, which is also an

optional course. This was so because BS offers Accounting and Economics, which

are often associated with office jobs. About 70 per cent of the students talked to

associate FTT, DT and AS to blue-collar employment and, therefore, refrain from

taking them. This is one reason why TVET courses are not so popular in secondary

schools in Samoa. This is consistent with Sharma’s (2000) findings in Fiji.

The study also shows that although students have a choice, there were cases when

students were placed in the TVET programme because of their low grades in the core

academic subjects such as Mathematics, English and Science. This provides an

overall picture that TVET is for low achievers and consequently remains a second

option for most students.

According to the policy document, TVET courses are gender inclusive. However, the

study shows a disparity between the participation of male and female students in

TVET courses. In four case study schools, females dominate the FTT, SM and CS

courses. The males, on the other hand, dominate in DT, AS, Metalwork, Art and

Mechanics courses. The disparity is the result of the general perception that heavy

work is for males and this is present in courses such as carpentry, AS, and mechanics.

Most female students view heavy work as unsuitable for them, so they opt for other

courses on the TVET curriculum. According to Atchoarena and Delluc (2002), this

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division of responsibilities and tasks for men and women is based on a complex

system of long-standing traditional and cultural.

Interestingly, it was found that teachers also influence students on the choice of

courses. I have noticed that a large number of girls enrolled in the AS course in these

schools in comparison to the other three case study schools where the AS teachers are

males. As mentioned before, AS is always seen as a male course because it is seen as

heavy work. Thus, not too many females enrolled in it. However, since the AS

teachers in CS2 and CS5 are females, this has encouraged the girls to enrolled in AS.

To highlight this point a female student said: I was so excited when I found out that the AS teacher is a female. I am interested in the course, but I always think it is for boys. Having a female teacher helps us girls to have the courage to study agriculture [S9, 2004].

Another student also indicated:

I am used to having male teachers in the AS class. But this year, we ended up with a female teacher. It is strange to have a female teach a male-oriented subject. I have this idea that AS is for boys. Now the majority in the AS classes in Year 12 is girls. Due to machines, agricultural work is not longer considered heavy work suited to boys [S24, 2004].

The findings show that 35 per cent of the 195 students in the TVET programme took

TVET courses because they want to find jobs in vocational trades such as

engineering, carpentry, metal, agriculture and motor mechanics. The other 65 per

cent were put in the TVET programme because of their low grades in academic core

subjects. It is, therefore, argued that TVET in the Samoan study is largely seen as a

‘second class option’ rather than ‘second chance’ educational opportunities.

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On the whole, the study found that the implementation process at all three levels in

the case study schools is impeded by the lack of clarity, quality and practicality, lack

of readiness, poor management and inaccurate record keeping, lack of vision building,

evolutionary planning, staff development, and unavailability of resources. These

factors and themes, according to Fullan (1991) are vital in the implementation process

of any innovation. They were found to be lacking in the implementation stage of the

Samoan TVET curriculum.

INSTITUTIONALISATION OF TVET COURSES

For the sustainability of any educational change, it depends largely on the success of

its initiation and implementation phases (Berman and McLaughlin 1978; and Fullan

1991). When this happens, it can be said that the change has been institutionalized or

has become a part of the normal work of an institution. Sharma (2000), however, says

that this phase may or may not be realized. This is because some educational changes

are poorly implemented and hence, fail to continue. He, therefore, suggests that this

third phase of the change process should be referred as the ‘outcome phase’.

In the case study of the Samoan TVET, it is concluded that TVET courses are vaguely

institutionalised because it has become a part of the secondary school curriculum. It

can be argued, however, that it was not fully institutionalised because all the students

do not take TVET option. Ways should be found to address this. Some suggestions

are made in the next chapter. In the Fiji’s case, Sharma (2002) suggests that TVET

course should be compulsory for all students.

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Despite the fact that the innovation has become a part of the Samoan secondary

system, there are factors that are worth taking into account to ensure the success of the

Samoan innovation. Figure 6.6 (Appendix 17) shows these factors.

CONCLUSION

In short, the management of TVET courses in the Samoan school curriculum has been

discussed in the light of the findings presented in Chapter 5 and the relevant literature.

The discussion focuses on the perceptions of stakeholders, characteristics of the

innovation and three phases of the change process, namely; initiation, implementation

and institutionalisation.

The chapter first discussed the perceptions of various stakeholders on the TVET

programme, taking into consideration the characteristics of the innovation. Secondly,

the characteristics of the Samoan TVET curriculum were discussed under the

headings of need, clarity and practicality. Then, the three stages of the change

process were discussed: initiation, implementation and institutionalisation. The

chapter concluded with a brief discussion of the institutialisation phase of the Samoan

TVET courses. It was argued that these courses are not institutionalised.

The next chapter re-examines the key findings of the study presented in Chapter 5 and

discussed in Chapter 6. Moreover, it contains the implications of the study for its

various audiences.

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CHAPTER SEVEN

IMPLICATION OF THE STUDY INTRODUCTION

This chapter re-examines the significant findings of the study presented and discussed

in Chapter 5 and 6 respectively. Broader theoretically informed conclusions are also

drawn in the light of the relevant international literature and the research findings.

The key findings of the study are summarized in Figure 7.1. The implication of the

study for relevant TVET policy and practice and further research studies are also

considered.

KEY FINDINGS OF THE STUDY

In particular, this study examined the management and implementation of TVET

courses in the Samoan secondary school curriculum. It is recalled that the study

addressed the following key questions:

In harmony with the above aims, the study addresses the following research questions.

• How are TVET programmes managed in secondary schools? • How are TVET courses taught? • What is the quality and quantity of TVET resources and equipment in the

secondary schools? • What hinders the successful management and implementation of TVET courses? • What perceptions do the stakeholders hold of TVET courses? • What are the major implications of the study for policy and practice and for

further research?

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Figure 7.1: Key Findings of the Study PERCEPTIONS OF STAKEHOLDERS MESC Officials • TVET subjects are necessary for the total learning of an individual, especially it provides

basic skills for lifelong education that is useful in urban and rural areas. • TVET courses at the secondary level are more of a familiarization exercise so that students

upon leaving the school are more informed job-seekers.

• TVET courses were introduced in the secondary schools to provide a second chance education to those students who are unable to continue in the academic stream of education.

• The term TVET does not exist in the Samoan context, these courses are referred to as Applied

subjects. • Not all secondary schools offered TVET subjects due to limited resources (teachers,

equipment and money). Teachers • Some teachers view TVET courses as an extra workload and there is hardly any incentives; • Teachers perceive it as a useful innovation to promote students’ ability, skills and knowledge

in technical and vocational courses. • TVET is largely seen as a ‘second best option’ rather than a ‘second chance’ education. • TVET courses are for the low academic achievers in schools. Students • Only students with low grades in academic subjects take TVET courses. • Most of the students are not aware of the rationale behind TVET courses. • Students’ choices depend largely on their parents’ and teachers’ preferences and

recommendations. • Some students are forced to take TVET courses because of their low grades in external

examinations. Therefore, they are not well-prepared for TVET courses. • Less than 20 per cent of the students understand the rationale behind TVET courses and what

it could offer in the overall education development of students. Parents • Most parents do not understand the need for TVET courses in the secondary school

curriculum. • Parents view TVET courses as ‘dirty and heavy’ work, which should be taught only at home

and not in the formal school setting. • Most parents prefer their children to take academic subjects rather than TVET courses because

academic courses are seen as a gateway to white-collar jobs and scholarships abroad. • Parents’ views of TVET depend considerably on their own educational, socio-economic and

political background.

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In harmony with the findings of Sharma (2000) and Aveau (2003), this study found

that the international literature on planned educational change (Fullan, 1991) is indeed

a useful guide in understanding and improving the management of planned

educational change in developing countries such as Samoa. However, its application

is inadequate to developing countries (such as Samoa) because most of the research

conducted in this manner had been done in Western countries.

In regards to the study of the Samoan innovation, the three phases of the change

process: initiation, implementation, and institutionalisation were found to be essential

in comprehending the management and implementation of TVET courses at the

Samoan secondary school level. This study agrees that the factors and themes such as

readiness, relevance, resources, need, clarity, quality and practicality, vision building,

initiative-taking, evolutionary planning and effective monitoring are essential and

must be applied across the three phases of the change process. This study found that

the success of the Samoan TVET curriculum depends largely on these factors and

themes. Unfortunately, they were not well considered in the Samoan study. As a

result, the Samoan TVET curriculum is not fully institutionalised as it was planned or

initiated.

Sharma (2000) indicates that ‘micro-politics’ (extending the interests of the individual

or group) and ‘international aid’ play a major function in the management of planned

educational change in Fiji. It was found that these factors are also present in Samoa.

However, these issues are not specifically discussed in the international literature. It

was stated in Chapter 5 some stakeholders in MESC, schools and the communities

seek to make personal gains from Samoan TVET courses. It is said that ‘micro-

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politics’ exist in any organisation, it can either promote or hinder the successful

management of any innovation. The study found that ‘micro-politics’ also exist in the

Samoan TVET. In the light of this study, it is suggested that further research should

be taken to investigate the role and impact of ‘micro-politics’ on educational

management in Samoa.

It is reiterated that ‘international aid’ plays a significant role in educational reforms in

most Pacific Island Countries. It often comes in form of fiscal, material or human

resources. For instance, the Canadian government provided the curriculum materials

such as textbooks for the primary schools in Samoa. This study reveals that most

educational development (including TVET innovation) in the Islands of Samoa is

supported and funded by international aid agencies such as United Nation

Development Programmes (UNDP), United Nation Educational Scientific and

Cultural Organization (UNESCO), World Health Organization (WHO), World Bank

and others (Government of Western Samoa, 1995a).

In regards to this, the relevant international literature on TVET indicates that often

these initiatives fail when the aid discontinues. Furthermore, aid driven projects

depend on the economy and the technologies of western countries in most cases are

irrelevant to the local needs and culture of many recipient countries (Fullan, 1991).

Baba (1990) points out that in most cases; it is the international agency that benefits

from the projects rather than the country receiving the grant (cited in Sharma, 2000:

147). This study argues that the GOS needs to re-assess and evaluate the extent to

which the government benefits from international aid donors.

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The study also found that Samoa prepares skilled persons for NZ employment market.

Jobs opportunities are limited on the island and salaries are not impressive.

Therefore, the majority of skilled young Samoans are migrating to New Zealand and

other countries in search of job opportunities. Parents want their children to move to

New Zealand and other countries to work and send money home. Most families rely

on remittance from relatives in New Zealand and other countries.

In addition, indigenous skills such as arts and crafts are being ignored. These are not

taught in the schools. The majority of the courses at school focus on western

technology. Students could be benefit from these skills if they are taught and be

informed of their importance.

The implications of this study for policy and practice and for future research studies

are discussed below.

IMPLICATIONS OF THE STUDY

The international literature reviewed in Chapter 3 revealed that TVET is seen as a

vital component of the total learning system of an individual. This is because TVET

has the potential to provide students as well as adults with the basic skills and

knowledge necessary for employment, future career opportunities and for successful

life in the villages. Despite this, TVET is still seen as the ‘second class’ option rather

than the ‘second chance’ education. Such is the idea also drawn from the Samoan

study.

Some MESC officials, parents, administrators, teachers and students perceived TVET

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education as ‘inferior’ to academic education (Fieldwork Notes, 2003-2004). This

study believes that as long as academic education remains the focus and priority of

MESC, the schools and the community, TVET will continues to stay unpopular in the

Samoan education system.

It was mentioned that most young Samoans prefer migrating to New Zealand and

other overseas countries to work and earn money then send it to their relatives and

families in Samoa. In this regard, Samoa is preparing workers for the overseas

market. This is due to the lack of job opportunities and low salaries available on the

island. However, this could be eliminated if the government increases the salaries for

its workers.

The ignorance of indigenous skills such as crafting, weaving and carving (to name a

few) continues because of the popularity of western ideas and technology. However,

these skills could be emphasized in the schools as part of TVET. This has

implications for courses in arts and crafts to be introduced in the primary and

secondary schools.

Implications for Policy and Practice

The study highlights some significant issues for educational policy makers and

educators in the Samoan education system. The study argues that although the

majority of TVET teachers are degree and diploma holders, they lack the skills in

learner-centered approaches of andragogy, counseling, resource and financial

management. For these reasons, the study recommends the importance of on-going

staff development programmes at national, school and classroom levels in TVET

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curriculum, management and implementation. Such staff development and teachers

training programmes must focus on the following areas:

• management and monitoring of records; • management and monitoring of materials and equipment at the school and

classroom levels; • teaching methods in andragogy; • financial management courses for teachers and administrators; • professional development courses for administrators, teachers and MESC

officials; • counseling and career guidance; • leadership; and • non-formal and community education. The above issues are not given the full attention they deserve in the Samoan

innovation. Such staff development programmes could prepare stakeholders to

manage other educational innovations. This is because, as Wallace and Mc Mahon

(1994) argue, teachers are always involved in managing several innovations

simultaneously in school settings. Furthermore, they are not able to develop the

capacities of initiative-taking, evolutionary-planning and vision-building in their daily

work of the teaching and learning process.

In order to accomplish these changes, TVET senior officials and the school

administrators must take the lead in the management of staff-development as well as

to empower their subordinates to education programmes for stakeholders at their

respective levels.

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The education system in Samoa needs dedicated senior officials to train

administrators and teachers. It was once said that the wealth of a country lies not only

on the availability of resources, but how its people manage and utilize those

resources. Hence, the strength of TVET lies not only in the resources available, but

equally important also is a well trained and skilled human resources to utilize those

resources effectively in the management of planned educational change such as the

one understudy.

Another important area that is needed in the successful implementation of Samoan

TVET courses in the secondary school curriculum is community participation. The

findings of this study reveal that community participation is confined to providing

materials for school use, providing food for school functions and fund raising for

needy school projects (in some schools). This is consistent with Sharma’s (2000)

study of Fiji TVET programmes. One of the reasons, for the lack of clarity of TVET

courses is owing to limited participation of parental community in the learning

process of their children. It was mentioned in earlier chapters that the bottom-up

approach could be used in the developing countries to assist in the facilitation of

TVET more effectively. This approach needs attention in Samoan educational

setting. The advantages of this approach are cited in Sharma (2000: 140):

• generates a more relevant-learning programme and addresses the developmental needs of the school community;

• community involvement in school facilitates a more improved learning

environment for student; • community participation in the affairs of the school provides an opportunity

for the members of the school community to learn about TVET and other school programmes; and

• The involvement of the community in schooling makes it possible for policy-

makers and administrators to accommodate the interests of various social and

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economic groups of the population in education policy, programmes and projects.

The third implication that is worth considering is the relevant of the secondary school

TVET curriculum to the individual and labour market needs. It was mentioned in

previous chapters that TVET courses offered in the secondary schools include AS, DT

and FTT. These courses are found appropriate to Samoa context; however, there is

still need to incorporate more TVET courses in other areas such as tourism, fishery

and forestry (Fieldwork Notes, 2003-3004).

CS4 incorporated the transition to work (TTW) programme that caters for senior

students. It is therefore, recommended that TTW be incorporated as part of the TVET

programme in the secondary schools. This could facilitate on the-job-training for Year

13 students and assist them in finding gainful employment. CS4 also offers additional

TVET courses in metal work, mechanics, art, secretarial management and computer

studies to provide more preferences for their students. These TVET courses could

also be added to the secondary school TVET curriculum to give students a variety of

choices.

The study proposes a re-assessment of the TVET curriculum. There is a need to align

the courses offered at the secondary level with those at NUS Institute of Technology.

This is important to maintain a smooth transition of these courses from secondary to

the post-secondary level.

Furthermore, the TVET curriculum should be relevant to the current and future needs

of the job market. The backbone of Samoa’s economy lies in agriculture, fishery and

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tourism (GOS, 2002c). Therefore, courses in tourism, landscaping and gardening as

well as fishery should be added to the TVET section of the secondary curriculum in

order to broaden the options available to students for employment. TVET curriculum

should also include cultural and moral values. This is another issue that was not

addressed in the TVET secondary school curriculum. I like to stress that moral

education has a place in all the subjects of the secondary school curriculum. In other

words, TVET can be used to develop the social capital that most TVET programme

does not give the attention it deserves.

The study also suggests the introduction of TVET courses at the primary level so that

a firm foundation to develop TVET at the secondary level can be established.

Beginning courses in Gardening, Arts and Crafts and Health education must be

incorporated in the primary curriculum. This creates a link and a smooth transition of

knowledge and skills from the primary and to the secondary and post-secondary

levels. This was done by Sharma (2000) in the Fiji Island Education Report. It is

proposed that Sharma’s modular approach be used as a guide for this initiative.

Figure 7.2 (Appendix 17).

Fourth implication emerges from the TVET innovation itself. The Samoan innovation

supports the potential of TVET, as articulated in the international literature.

Therefore, there may or may not be taken by students. In Samoa, TVET courses are

part of the mainstream secondary school curriculum; however, these are optional

only. The study argues that TVET courses received less recognition by many

Samoans because of the domination of academic education. Therefore, it is suggested

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that in order for TVET to receive the respect it deserves, the following two

suggestions are worth noting.

First, the study suggests the creation of separate TVET schools in several

educational districts. The literature indicates that TVET is an expensive innovation. Therefore, separate district TVET schools could be cheaper than vocationalising the whole school curriculum.

Secondly, it is important to establish ‘clustered’ TVET schools in rural and

urban districts. The international literature considers this as less expensive and suitable for developing countries like Samoa.

The fifth implication for policy and practice was raised by Aveau (2003) in her study

of post-secondary TVET in Samoa. She indicated that secondary students who

enrolled at SPI (now NUS Institute of Technology) did not have a clue as to what

career they want to pursue. This is a result of the lack of counseling and career

guidance at the secondary level. Hence, it is recommended that ‘career guidance

workshops’ be provided in the primary, secondary, post-secondary and community

levels. These workshops should empower students to select the career they are

interested in and the one in which they demonstrate their greatest potential.

CS4 has a ‘career day’ towards the end of term three. This programme allows

employers from various trades to set up workshops for students and teachers at the

school. The employers orientate students about the skills needed in the workplace and

the type of work they would be required to do. Furthermore, senior students set-up

exhibitions where they display as well as sell their projects done in DT, Art, FTT,

Computing, Secretarial Management and Metalwork. Such programmes should be

adopted by the MESC to provide career guidance for all students at the secondary

school level as well as advertising TVET.

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The last suggestion for policy and practice is the creation of a national TVET board.

Having a national TVET board could assist in standardising the teaching and learning

process including assessment and evaluation criteria of TVET courses. It was found

in the study that assessment and evaluation of TVET were not consistent in the case

study schools.

In summary, the study has suggested some important aspects that could be improved

in order to effectively manage and implement TVET courses in the Samoan secondary

schools.

Implications for Future Research

In light of the implications explored thus far, the following suggestions are essential

for further research studies.

Firstly, it is suggested that an in depth study employing the case study approach be

undertaken to evaluate the effectiveness of the TVET courses offered in the secondary

school curriculum, its relevance to the labour market needs and socio-economic and

political development of the country. This area was not fully explored in this study.

Further research in this area is, therefore necessary ‘to inform’ the educators and

policy makers in curriculum reform and appropriate decision-making processes.

Secondly, this study revealed the importance of aid donors in developing countries.

Therefore, further research study is needed in this area to investigate the impact of,

and relationship between international aid and the relevance of proposed innovations.

This would assist policy makers by providing more information on the role of aid

donors and ways in which the ‘spirit of partnership’ between the aid donors and the

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recipient country. More research is necessary also to find ways of harmonizing aid

that is provided by various aid-donors on similar programmes. This would reduce the

duplication of funds and efforts.

The third recommendation for future research involves community participation in

schooling. A further in-depth study that would provide more information about

community participation at the school level is needed.

The fourth significant area for future studies is staff development. A study on the

impact of staff development on the teaching and learning process is necessary to

facilitate effective management of TVET.

It was indicated in the study that ‘micro-politics’ and ‘nepotism’ play a vital role in

the management of the Samoan TVET curriculum. Therefore, study is needed to

investigate the impact of micro-politics and nepotism on educational management and

administration in the Samoan perspective. Such study could contribute to the limited

literature available on ‘micro-politics’ in educational in Samoa.

It is also suggested that a study be undertaken to find out the skills needed by

employers. Such study would assist the curriculum development unit in designing the

syllabi of future TVET courses so students could be prepared better for the “world of

work” after secondary education. It is believed that research in different areas of

TVET when harmonized would provide a bigger picture of TVET and its place in

national development.

216

In particular, the implications of the study for future research would assist policy

makers, teachers, parents, the community and the students to better facilitate TVET in

the small island country of Samoa.

CHARACTERISTICS OF THE CHANGE Initiation It is believed that TVET was long practiced in the islands but in an informal mode of

learning that was introduced by the missionaries. The era of colonialism brought

instutionalized system of education that still exists today. This system is

examination-oriented and favoured by many Samoans. The GOS realised the

ineffectiveness and irrelevance of the formal system in providing a skillful labour

force and skills for students returning to the village. This brought back the interest in

TVET that was long forgotten. TVET initiatives go back to the late 1950s, but the

lack of support from various stakeholders and insufficient funds made TVET

unattractive.

Several attempts were taken to reinstate TVET in the school system. TVET courses

such as home economics, agriculture science and wood work has been introduced into

the secondary school curriculum. International aid agencies play an important part in

financing the TVET courses at the secondary school level in Samoa.

Implementation The Samoan secondary curriculum offered three TVET courses: (1) Food and Textile

Technology; (2) called Design and Technology; and (3) Agricultural Science. In

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reference to the implementation of TVET courses in the secondary schools, the

following were noted:

• The top-down decision making strategy accounted for the lack of basic understanding of the TVET philosophy at all three levels – national, the school and the classroom. There is less participation of teachers, parents and students in decision-making and teaching-learning process. Therefore, community talents and resources are not used effectively to facilitate TVET courses or any course for that matter.

• Record keeping is inadequate in some of the case study schools as well as the

MESC headquarters.

• The pedagogical approach is a common method used by TVET teachers.

• On-going staff-development programmes should focus on management, andragogy, career guidance, financial management, community participation and record keeping.

• The ideas of vision-building, evolutionary-planning, initiative-taking and

professional development was difficult to promote because of the lack of administrative support and commitment.

• The unavailability of resources and inadequate facilities and equipment hinder

the successful implementation of TVET courses at the school level. Institutionalization The study concludes that although TVET courses are now being considered important

in the Samoan secondary school curriculum, they have not been implemented

effectively. Therefore, TVET has not been fully institutionalized in the schools

curriculum. The study argues that it would take a few more years for TVET courses

to fully make an impact on the overall education of an individual.

Conclusion In summary, I like to stress that the five research questions are adequately addressed. These are:

1. How are TVET programmes managed in secondary schools?

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2. How are TVET courses taught?

3. What is the quality and quantity of TVET resources and equipment in the

secondary schools? 4. What hinders the successfully management and implementation of TVET?

5. What perceptions do the stakeholders have of TVET?

Firstly, the findings reveal that the management of TVET courses in the secondary

schools is a shared responsibility among the MESC-CMAD, the schools and the

communities. The CMAD evaluates and coordinates national TVET programmes

such as the curriculum, the training of teachers and the utilizing of (some) teaching

materials. The schools, on the other hand, are in charge of the management of

resources and equipment as well as fulfilling the objectives and goals of each TVET

course. The disparity in the management of TVET courses lies in the different

expectations of its stakeholders. However, this is an issue for another research.

Secondly, the findings show that the teaching of TVET courses in the five case study

schools varies depending on the teacher and the availability of resources in schools.

Although the literature suggests the student-centered approach, some schools still use

the teacher-centered approach. This is due to the lack of teacher preparation, shortage

of appropriate resources, pressure of the exam-oriented curriculum and the lack of in-

service training programmes.

Thirdly, the research findings point out that the mission schools are better organised,

equipped and resourced than their government and district counterparts. This is

because the mission schools are privately funded especially by their own church

organizations. In contrast, government and district schools are not well resourced and

equipped.

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The fourth finding of the study indicates several barriers that hinder the successful

management and implementation of TVET courses in the secondary schools. In short,

the main obstacle is limited resources. This includes qualified TVET teachers,

teaching materials, equipment and tools. In addition, the lack of staff-development,

lack of clarity, lack of readiness of stakeholders and the lack of commitment account

for the ineffective management and implementation of TVET courses in the Samoan

secondary schools.

Lastly, the research findings reveal that the perceptions of stakeholders differ

depending on their understanding and experience in TVET. The majority of the

stakeholders at the national and school levels view TVET as a crucial component of

the total learning of an individual. This is because it provides basic skills for lifelong

education. However, the majority of the stakeholders at the school level

(administrators, teachers, parents and students) feel that it is the ‘second best option’

rather than a ‘second chance education’ as stated in the literature. Two reasons

account for this dilemma. First is the exam-oriented curriculum that exists in the

Samoan education system. Second is the common mentality that TVET is associated

with labour work. Awareness and training programmes, counseling, workshops and

training classes can help stakeholders to acquire a positive view on TVET.

In this light, the implications of the study for policy makers and further research

studies have been made. These may be broad recommendations, however, provide

directions for the improvement of the management and implementation of TVET

courses in the Samoan secondary school curriculum.

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Although TVET courses were long been introduced in the secondary school

curriculum, it still receives less recognition from educators, administrators, parents

and the students. The study agrees with the international literature that TVET

initiatives in the islands of Samoa is seen as a ‘second best’ option and would stay this

way because of the attractiveness of western-driven education inherited from our

colonial rulers.

For TVET to receive the same status as academic education, the MESC in Samoa

must create a balanced curriculum where all areas of education receive equal

attention. Furthermore, the community, educators, administrators, employers, parents

and students must understand the rationale behind TVET. The cooperation and

participation of all the members of the stakeholder family is necessary in the

successful implementation of TVET courses as well as all the courses in Samoa.

221

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Appendices

Appendix 1 Figure 2.1: Map of Samoa

(Source: Samoa Public Service Commission, 2003: 7).

232

Appendix 2 Figure 2.2: Samoa Formal Education System

(Source: Based on information obtained from various MESC documents).

PRE-SCHOOL Ages: 3-5

PRIMARY EDUCATION Year 1-Year 8

Ages 5-13

(Year 8 National Exam)

SECONDARY EDUCATION

JUNIOR SECONDARY SCHOOLS Years 9-12 Ages 14-17

(Samoa School Certificate Exam Year 12 (WSSC)

SENIOR SECONDARY SCHOOLS Year 9 – 13 Ages 14-18

Samoa School Certificate Exam-Y 12 (SC) Pacific Senior Secondary Certificate Yr 13

TERTIARY EDUCATION

(Ages 18 and above)

NATIONAL UNIVERSITY

OF SAMOA

UNIVERSITY OF THE

SOUTH PACIFIC ALAFUA CAMPUS

233

Appendix 3

Figure 2.3: The Dual-Stream Structure of Secondary School

SECONDARY EDUCATION

Stream 1 Stream 2

(Source: Information derived from various documents obtained from MESC, 2003).

PRIMARY EDUCATION

Years 1-8 Year 8 National Examination

Junior (Colleges) Secondary

Schools Year 9 to Year 11

Year 11 National Examination

Senior (Colleges) Secondary Schools

Year 9 to Year 13


234

Appendix 4

Figure 2.4: New Single-Stream System of Education

SINGLE-STREAM SYSTEM

(Source: Information derived from various documents obtained from MESC, 2004).

PRIMARY EDUCATION

Year 1 to Year 8


SECONDARY EDUCATION Year 9 to Year 13

Year 12 Samoa School

Certificate (SSC) Year 13Pacific Senior Secondary Certificate

(PSSC)

235

Appendix 5 Table 4.1: The Case Study Schools Feature Case Study 1 Case Study 2 Case Study 3 Case Study 4 Case Study 5 Location • A secondary school semi-close

to town. • occupied by many urban & rural

students.

•An urban secondary – outskirt of town.

•Serves about 10 villages in the district.

•A secondary school on the east side of the Island

• Serves the urban and rural community

•A secondary school west side of the Island • Attended by both rural and urban students.

•A rural school located in the east coast.

• Attended by rural students

Type of Secondary School and Year of Establishment

• Government school • Became a Junior Secondary

school in 1988. • Year 12 & 13 were added in

1999.

• Government District School • Opened in 1964 • Became a college in the early

90s, when Yr 13 was added.

• Mission School • Formed in 1964 • Year 13 was added in 2000

• Mission School • Opened in 1955 • TVET program established in the 1970 • 1999 incorporated TTW

• Government District School • Established in the early 1960s • Junior Secondary Yr 9-12 • Year 13 added in 2003

School Enrolment

• About 1,400 students • Classroom ratio of 1:60 • 7 classes in each level

• 530 students • Classroom ratio of 1: 35 • 4 classes in levels 9-12, and 1 Year 13

• 390 students • Classroom ration of 1:25 • 4 classes in levels 9-12 and 2 Year 13.

• 800 students • Classroom ratio of 1:25 • 4 classes in levels 9-13

• 350 students • 2 classes in levels 9-12 • 1 Year 13 of about 40 students • classroom ratio of 1:30

School Administration and Teaching Staff

• Teaching staff of 48 including the principal and a vice principal • majority are NUS diplomas and

degree graduates

• 36 teaching staff, plus the Principal and Vice Principal. • 9 degree holders, majority Diplomas of Education from

NUS, USP.

• 20 teachers, plus the Principal, Vice Principal and Counselor.

• Majority are degree holders from USP, NUS and SPI [Now Institute

of Technology]

• 46 teaching staff, principal, vice principal, counselor. • Hawaii, NUS, USP graduates. • Majority are Bachelors degree holders.

• 15 teaching staff, principal and vice principal

• Majority were locally trained through the NUS, SPI &USP-

Alafua Departments

• Departments of Arts, Science, Mathematics, Business Studies, Design & Technology

• Department of Arts, Science, Mathematics, Business Studies. (Applied subjects are under the Science Dept.)

• Department of Arts, Science Mathematics, Business & Computing and Design & Technology.

•Department of Arts, Science, Mathematics, Business & Computing, Samoan, Religion and Transition To Work

• Department of Arts, Science, Mathematics, Business studies, and Applied subjects

School Facilities

• Old building, originally build in the early 50s by expatriates

for the teachers’ college. • three wings of single storey

wooden building • No workshop area for TVET

courses.

• New two-storey building about 40 classrooms. • TVET facility just opened in 2003, a single- storey concrete building • Two rooms shared by FTT and DT

• Three single-storey wing, wooden and concrete building, computer lab, science lab, library and a canteen

• TVET workshop area includes one

cooking room and one sewing room.

• Three wings single storey concrete building, contain 32 classrooms, a library, 2 computer labs, science lab,

gymnasium and a canteen • TVET building is a single storey

concrete building contain 5 classrooms, computer lab and four workshop areas.

• Two wings, single storey concrete building, contain a

small library, a small science lab and teacher’s lounge and

offices. • TVET building is a single-

storey concrete building with two rooms for DT and FTT.

236

TVET Students

• DT-Year 10-13 – about 50 boys (no girls) • FTT-Year 9-13 – 63 girls • Visual Arts-Yr 9-13-120 both

girls and boys. • Business Studies-more than

100 students. • Total TVE students of 433

• DT-Years 9-13 about 32 students (boys) • FTT-Years 9-13 about 62 both boys and girls • AS-Years 9-13 about 37

students, both boys and girls • Business studies – 60 • Total of 174 TVET students

• Design & Technology – 62 • Food & Nutrition –54 • Business Studies – 80 • Total TVET students – 196

• DT Year 10-13 – 49 • FTT Year 10-13 – 42 • Metal Year 10-13 – 23 • Sec. Science Year 10-13 – 77 • Mechanic Year 10-13 – 24 • Art Year 10-13 – 22 • Total TVET students of 237

• AS – Year 9 & 10 – 35 • FTT – Year 9 & 10 – 23 • DT – Year 9 & 10 – 32 • Total TVET students of 90

TVET Teachers

• 9 TVET teachers • DT – SPI (Math & IA) • DT – SPI Diploma • 2 Art – SPI, NUS • 5 FTT– HOD (trainings

overseas. Others locally trained thru NUS & SPI

• 7 TVET teachers • DT - HOD (SPI) • DT - SPI • AS – USP (BS Agri. Sc.2003) • 4 FTT Teachers

• HOD – 5 years teaching experience

• 3 Home Economic Teachers • FTT - HOD Bachelors of Accounting

from NUS, 10 yrs teaching experience, HE trainings in NZ Teaches Year 12 & 13

• FTT – local graduate • FTT – local graduate (NUS)

• 6 TVET teachers • DT – local graduate • FTT – trainings in Fiji, NZ &

Local • Art – Leulumoega Art school • Metal – BYUH • Mechanic – SPI • Secretarial Management - BYUH

• 4 TVET teachers • DT – Principal, SPI, NUS

degree in IA and Math • DT – SPI graduate • FTT – NUS graduate • AS – NUS Sociology

TVET subjects offered

• FTT • DT • Visual Arts • Business Studies Year 9 all

TVET subjects are compulsory

(Begin to be optional in Year 10)

• DT • FTT • AS • Business Studies (all optional subjects)

• FTT • Business studies

(all TVET subjects are compulsory Year9-11, optional when it comes to

Year 12 and 13).

• DT • FTT • Arts • Business studies • Metal • Mechanic • Secretarial Management (all are optional in Y10, Y11 choose one for the three years)

• DT • FTT • AS Began offering TVET subjects in 2003

Teaching/ Learning curriculum

• Curriculum provided by CDU (core & Applied Subjects except for • Year 13 which is Comes from Fiji

• Curriculum provided by CDU (core & Applied (TVET) subjects. • Year 13 curriculum materials comes from Fiji

• Curriculum provided by CDU (core & Applied (TVET) subjects. • Year 13 curriculum materials comes from Fiji

• Curriculum provided by CDU (core & Applied (TVET)

subjects. • Y 13 materials comes from Fiji • Develop their own curriculum materials for metal and

Engineering and religious education.

•Curriculum provided by CDU (core & Applied (TVET) subjects • Year 13 curriculum materials comes from Fiji

237

Appendix 6 Figure 4.2: Informed Consent Form

Source: Adapted from Dane, 1990:4

INFORMED CONSENT FORM (For Adults and children under 18 years of age).

The purpose of this research project is to examine the management of technical and vocational education courses in the secondary school level in Samoa. The information obtained from this research would assist the stakeholders, especially the Education Department in Samoa and the schools to formulate effective TVET policies and practice. In this study you will be asked to share you insights on the topic indicated above. The information gained from this study will assist the researcher in completing her MA (Education) Thesis from the University of the South Pacific-Suva, Fiji. Any information provided will be kept confidential and only the researcher will have access to the information collected in this project. For confidentiality, your name will remain anonymous when reporting the findings of this study.

Your participation in this project is voluntary and involves no risks to you. You have the right to withdraw at any time. There will be no negative consequences of the study.

The researcher will answer any additional questions that you may have regarding this study.

After having read the information provided above, I agreed to participate in the research project. I understand that any information provided will be kept confidential and will only be used for the purpose of this study. ______________________________________ ________________________ Signature of Participant Date ______________________________________ _______________________ Researcher Date

Please tick one that applies to you.

______ MESC ______ Administrator ______ Teacher _____ Parent _____ Student

For Children under the Age of 18:

You are making a decision whether or not to have your child participate in this study. Your signature indicates that you have read the information provided above and decided to allow your child to participate.

_____________________________________ _______________________ Parents or Guardian Date

_____________________________________ Child’s Name

_____________________________________ _______________________ Researcher Date

238

Appendix 7

Figure 4.3: Letter to the MESC

P.O. Box 6043 Apia, Samoa 12 August 2003 Chief Executive Office Ministry of Education Sports & Culture Malifa Dear Sir, I am a Master of Arts (Education) student at the University of the South Pacific in Suva, Fiji. I am working on a major research project on the topic of ‘Technical and Vocational Courses in Secondary Schools in Samoa”. I am writing to seek your authorization to use three government Colleges as case study schools for my project. Furthermore, I would like to interview TVET advisors and collect documents from the Ministry of Education. An in-depth study will be carried out to examine the management and implementation of vocational courses and recommend ways of improving the practice The research will involve in-depth interviews (of school administrators, teachers, students and parents), observations and documentary analysis. For confidentiality, the name of these schools and research informants will remain anonymous all the time. Any information pertaining to the research can be directed to me at telephone: 29014 or my supervisor, Dr. Akhila Sharma of the Department of Education and Psychology, USP-Suva on telephone: (679) 321 2350. Your assistance and support is much appreciated. Sincerely, Ioana J Ahhoy-Wright Researcher

239

Appendix 8 Figure 4.4: Thesis Supervisor’s Letter of Confirmation

Appendix 8

FACULTY OF ARTS AND LAW

School of Education Ph: (679) 323 2203

Fax: (679) 323-1571 www.usp.ac.fj

30 June 2003

TO WHOM IT MAY CONCERN This is to certify that Ms Ioana Ahhoy-Wright is a postgraduate student in the USP’s Department of Education and Psychology. She has successfully passed her postgraduate diploma in education and is now perusing her Master of Education degree.

For her research study, she is studying the management of the technical and vocational education and training component of the Samoan senior secondary school curriculum. She has adopted the qualitative case study approach to conduct the study in four senior secondary schools. She intends to spend four weeks at each school for this purpose. While at the school Ms Wright will be involved in observation, interviewing and collecting documentary data.

Vocational education and training is a contemporary research study worldwide. It is expected that her study will make useful implications for educational policy and practice in Samoa. I shall, therefore, be grateful if you could kindly provide her the opportunity and assistance needed in her work. Upon completion of the study, she will make a copy of the report available to you. I look forward to your support. Yours faithfully …………………………………………… Dr Akhila Nand Sharma Thesis Supervisor Associate Professor in Education and Psychology

240

Appendix 9 Figure 4.5: Letter to the Case Study Schools

P.O. Box 6043 Apia, Samoa 12 August 2003 The _________________ _____________________ _____________________ Dear Sir/Madam I am a Master of Arts (Education) student at the University of the South Pacific in Suva, Fiji. I am working on a major research project on the topic of ‘Technical and Vocational Education in Secondary School level in Samoa”. I am writing seeking your authorization to use your school as a case study. An in-depth study will be carried out to examine the management of vocational courses in your school and recommend ways of improving the practice. The research will involve in-depth interviews (of school administrators, teachers, students and parents), observations and documentary analysis. For confidentiality, the name of your school and research informants will remain anonymous when reporting the findings of this study. Any information pertaining to the research can be directed to me at telephone: 29014 or my supervisor, Dr. Akhila Sharma of the Department of Education and Psychology, USP-Suva on telephone: (679) 321 2350. Your assistance and support is much appreciated. Sincerely, ______________________________ _____________________ Researcher Date

Consent of the Principal

I ____________________________ on behalf of the faculty and staff agree for this school to participate in the research project indicated above. I understand that all the information that will be provided by administrators, teachers, students and documents will only be used for the purpose of this study. The school and participants’ name will not be revealed to anyone else apart from

the people involved in this study. ______________________________ _____________________ Principal’s Signature Date

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Appendix 10

Exhibit 5.2: Samoa Educational Goals

Source: GOS, MESC Corporate Plan, 2003: 7.

(Source: Western Samoa Education Policies 1995-2005, 1995: 28-29).

1. Development of policies, which meet the principles of equity, quality, efficiency, and relevancy.

2. Co-ordinate sector planning 3. Provide effective, quality, and efficient services 4. Development of a comprehensive and enriching curricula which:

• combines indigenous and global knowledge within a bilingual structure, and promotes an international standard of academic achievement;

• is based on and develops existing knowledge, skills and attitudes, and. • develops an appreciation of the pursuit of knowledge for its own sake.

5. Formation of active, Interactive and creative pedagogies to: • ensure the systematic presentation of essential knowledge by means of a sound

bilingual methodology; • develop the ability to analyse knowledge critically in a learning environment

which encourages inquiry, debate and independent thought and, • stimulate imagination and allow for individual expression.

6. Establishment of just and impartial evaluation and assessment methods which: • seek information which will benefit the student; • recognize and enhance the development nature of all learning, and, • enable equitable access throughout the system.

7. Promotion of the individual and society through a humane education system aimed at integration and which will: • foster the holistic development and self-esteem of individual students; • encourage both a strong sense of indigenous identity and an international perspective; • promote the social and cultural foundations of education, and, • be responsive to economic needs.

8. Recruitment, retention and development of an adequate supply of quality teachers

9. Promotion, preservation, retrieval and dissemination of Samoan values, tangible and intangible heritage.

10. Promotion of the development of sports through training and upgrading of facilities.

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Appendix 11 Figure 5.1: Sketch of CS2 School Facilities

Bushes

Bushes

E L E M E Bushes N T A Hallway R Y flag post

Rugby field Key New Concrete TVET Building Build through the ADB project Two-storey concrete building Built by JICA. Agriculture Science Farmland --- Fence Old Wooden School Building hallway

Main Gate

Main road (Source: Fieldwork Note, 2003).

Contains 10 classrooms,

Principal’s office & committee room

Classrooms Single-storey

building

Faculty Staff Room

(Single storey)

H A L L W A Y

Home Economic Workshop Industrial Arts Workshop

More Classrooms

(Wooden Building)

restrooms

Agriculture Science Farmland

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Appendix 12 Exhibit 5.4: Observation - Year 11-3 DT Lesson.

Classifying Tools There were only three boys in the Year 11-3 class. The three boys sat on the mat on a cement floor

because there were no chairs or desks. Each student had a textbook (one of the modules designed

by CMAD). The teacher began the discussion by asking the students to name some tools that

could be used in DT. The students named the common tools such as ‘samala’ (hammer), ‘ili toso’

(hand saw), and ‘fua toso’ (folding tape). It was interesting to notice that the teacher asked the

question in English and the students answered in Samoan. The teacher then wrote on the board the

names given by the students plus some of his own. Then he discussed with the students the uses of

these tools. Then, the teacher brought magazine and poster pictures of the various tools. As he

talked about each tool he also showed a picture. After the discussion, the students were told to do

the activity that was in the textbook. The activity was to organise the tools under the following

headings: Cutting Tools, Holding or Supporting Tools and Geometrical Tools.

After about seven minutes they marked the exercise together. The teacher cut out the three

headings as well as all the names of the tools listed in the textbook. He taped the three

headings on the board and asked the students to choose a tool from the cut out pile on the

floor and taped it under the correct heading.

Example:

Cutting Tools Holding or Supporting Tools Geometrical Tools

Hand saw tri square vice Tenon saw folding tape bench Ruler bench hook Combination Square

The teacher summarized the lesson and gave the students homework from the textbook.


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Appendix 13

Exhibit 5.5: Copy of an FTT Lesson Plan Source: Field notes, 2004

Date: March 23, 2007 Lesson No. 6 Course: FTT Class: Year 12 Topic: Tapioca plant and its uses. Aims: Teach students how to make ‘masoa’ and use it for cooking. Materials or tools needed:

Pots, grater, wooden spoons, knife, tapioca roots, coconuts, sugar and ripe pawpaws

LESSON OUTLINE: Introduction: Class discussion on:

Origin of the tapioca plant Its uses How to make ‘supoesi’ using ‘masoa’

Demonstration: How to peel and grate the tapioca root

Procedure: 1. Peel and mashed the pawpaws 2. Put the mashed pawpaw in a pot; fill the pot with water (half-full) 3. Bring to boil, then add 1and ½ cup of dried ‘masoa’. Stir constantly. 4. Shed coconuts and squeeze the milk out. 5. Add coconut milk and keep stirring until ‘masoa’ is cooked 6. Remove from the stove and some add sugar. Conclusion: Summarize the lesson and taste the ‘supoesi’. Assignment: No homework. (Remind students to bring their materials [fabric]).

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Appendix 14

Exhibit 5.6: Sample Interview with a Parent, 2004

Source: Fieldwork Notes, 2004: 38.

Researcher: What brought you to campus today? Parent: I came to bring my daughter’s material for her sewing class. Researcher: So you are one of those very supportive parents. Parent: Well, that is our role as parents, isn’t it? Researcher: Of course, yes! What class is your daughter in? Parent: She is in Year 11 Sewing class. Researcher: I do not want to keep you any longer, but how do you feel about your daughter taking TVET

courses? Parent: I support any programme that gives my children an education, whether it is

religion, social, etc. I let my children decide what they want to take in school. It is for their good and they should do what they like best, rather than forcing something that they are not interested in. Believe me, there are parents who decide their children’s education. Anyways, I support my daughter. She likes to sew and she wants to develop it. This school has a great TVET programme. I have visited some of the displays in previous years done by the HE classes. I was amazed with the quality of the work they did. I still have a pair of beautiful pillowcases that I bought from one of the display years ago when my eldest daughter was in Year 12…

Researcher: How do you feel about the TVET programme as a whole? Parent: It is a great programme to have in the schools. But, I heard not all the schools in Samoa are

involved in this programme. I am not quite sure if parents are aware of this programme. I was a teacher before, so I kind of have an understanding of the programme.

Parent: Researcher: So you were a teacher. What do you do now? If you do not mind... I do not! I am helping my husband with the family business. We run a small grocery

store….

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Appendix 15

Figure 5.2: Management Structure - CS4

(Source: Information derived from various documents from CS4 and Fieldwork Notes, 2003; 2004).

Director

Principal Bachelor of Education

Fiji

Counselor Bachelor of Social

Work Hawaii

High School -VP Samoa Teachers Training College

TTW (TVET) -VP Bachelor Degree

from Hawaii

Middle School-VP M.A from

U.S.A

7 Head of Departments

46 Teachers

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Appendix 16 Figure 5.3: Sketch of CS4 TVET Facilities

ACADEMIC SCHOOL BUILDING, GYMNASIUM AND LIBRARY Rugby Field

Tennis courts Basketball courts Rugby

Field

FRONT Y A R D GATE ENTRANCE Key: Door Agriculture Green house (Source: Fieldwork Notes, 2003}.

Metal Classroom Automotive Classroom TVET Vice Principal’s Office Secretary’s Office

H A L L W A Y

METAL & AUTO INDUSTRIAL ART ROOM MOTIVE ARTS & WORKSHOP WORKSHOP WORKSHOP

Art Home Computer Secretarial Class- Economics Room Management room Workshop

IA C/RM

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Appendix 17 Figure 6.6: Factors impede the successful implementation of the Samoan TVET curriculum.

Source: Fieldwork Notes, 2004.

• The rationale behind the TVET programme was not clearly understood by the MESC officials, principals, teachers, community, parents and students.

• The lack of vision building by stakeholders (national and school level).

• The top-down strategy in decision-making and management exclude the community, the teachers, the students and parents from active participation.

• The unavailability of resources (teachers, materials, equipment and tools).

• The lack of staff development and planning at the three levels hinders the

implementation process.

• Poor community support in the students learning process.

• Lack administrative and management support at the school level;

• Majority of parents and students favuor the formal academic school system;

• Principals and teachers were more involved in other areas such as sports, health education and mainstream schooling rather than TVET.

• Some stakeholders had political and bureaucratic motives and hence, attempted to

extend the horizon of their personal interest.

• The lack of clarity of the innovation. • Micro-politics and nepotism influenced decision-making at the National and school Level. • The lack of readiness of the change agents and the users. • The ineffective teaching approaches used by teachers in the teaching and learning

process.

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Appendix 18 Figure 7.2: Technical and Vocational Education and Training: Modular Approach.

WORKPLACE SPECIALISATION TERTIARY Techni Technical

& Vocational

Secondary 3 Module Form 7

Three modules from Those shown for

Forms 1-4

4 Modules Secondary Four modules from those shown Forms 5-6

For Forms 1-4 Secondary 5 Modules Form1-4

Forms 1-4 Agriculture, Information Technology, Carpentry &

Joinery, Light Engineering, Home Science, Electrical Work, Plumbing, Fishery, Forestry, BROAD Tourism, Cultural Studies BASE Primary 3 Modules Classes 1-6

Home crafts, woodcraft and Gardening (SOURCE: Sharma, 2000: 143).

DISTRICT

INSTITUTE

OF

VOCATIONAL

EDUCATION

AND

TRAINING

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