URBDP 591 I Lecture 3: Research Process Objectives What are the major steps in the research process?...
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Transcript of URBDP 591 I Lecture 3: Research Process Objectives What are the major steps in the research process?...
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URBDP 591 I Lecture 3: Research Process
Objectives• What are the major steps in the research process?• What is an operational definition of variables?• What are the relationships between validity and the
research process?• How do we select a research method?
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Research is a Dynamic Tension BetweenTheory and Real World
Theory
Real World
Research Question is the point of contact that links theories to the real world.
SubjectsMeasures
ProceduresProblem Analysis
Research Question
Field of InquiryArea of InterestProblem-Idea
TheoryHypothesis
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Research Process
Hypothesis development•Conceptualization•Construct•Operational Definition
Design Structure•Experimental•Individual Difference•Descriptive
Specification•Sampling•Instruments•Statistical testsImplementation
•Data Collection•Data Analysis•Evaluation
Research Question
TheoryDevelopment
Interpretation•Draw conclusions•Assess uncertainty •Evaluate process
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Research objectives
• What is the broad topic area/academic discipline?
• What are the main originating and specifying questions to be investigated?
• What is the rationale of the research? What debates, controversies,areas of knowledge does it aim to address and/or extend?
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Types of Research Projects
1. Fact-finding/filling gaps in knowledge
2. Testing hypotheses
3. Establishing a relationship between variables
4. Examining the adequacy of models or theories
5. Critical analysis of a theoretical position or proposition
6. Uncovering or explicating the meaning of a concept, practice, or situation
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Good Research Questions
• Grounded in theoretical and empirical literature
• Testable by empirical methods
• Stated clearly and simply
• Not too abstract
• Not too complex
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Hypothesis
A hypothesis is a tentative statement, subject to empirical testing, of the expected relationship between variables; sometimes in practice it is little more than "an educated guess". Essentially what happens is, a scientist will think "if my theory is correct, I should be able to predict that event X will occur with a higher than chance probability”.
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Evaluating Theory
• Testable
• Logical soundness (deductive validity)
• Communicable
• General
• Parsimonious: Necessary and Sufficient conditions
• Accurate (inductive validity) 0
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OperationalizationA procedure by which one selects observable indicators (variables) to
represent theoretical concepts.
A variable is a theoretically relevant concept which may be
observed to take different values in different cases
1. Independent variable (explanatory variable) - A variable that is taken as a given in our research and used to explain other phenomena.
2. Dependent variable (outcome, response variable) - A variable whose values we try to explain by looking at other variables.
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Operationalization of a variableOperationalization of a variable defines how the variables we have
identified and defined will be measured with real (available) data.
Obstacles to operationalizing variables
1. Conceptual obstacles to operationalization
2. Practical obstacles to operationalization
a. Reliability: a measure is reliable if it yields the same values for a particular case in repeated measurements
b. Validity: a measure is valid if it is an appropriate measure of the concept in which you are interested
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Types of ValidityMeasurement is a tool of research, and validity is the attempt to determine whether a type of measurement measures what it is presumed to measure.
A. Construct validity. Construct validation is interested in the degree to which the construct itself is actually measured. It makes use of the traits of convergence and discriminability.
B. Internal validity. Internal validity is the freedom from bias in forming conclusions in view of the data. It seeks to ascertain that the changes in the dependent variable are the result of the influence of the independent variable.
C. External validity. This type of validity is concerned with the generalizability of the conclusions reached through observation of a sample to the universe.
D. Statistical validity. This type of validity is concerned with the appropriate choice of statistical test.
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ReliabilityReliability: the extent to which a measurement procedure yields the same answer however andwhenever it is carried out.
1. Quixotic reliability: Refers to the circumstances in which a single method of observation continually yields an unvarying answer.
2. Diachronic reliability: Refers to the stability of an observation over time. This type of reliability is only appropriate when the phenomenon observed is not assumed to change over time.
3. Synchronic reliability: Refers to the similarity of results from the use of multiple measures within the same time period.
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Relationships between Validity and the Research Process
State QuestionsDefine HypothesesIdentify Variables
DetermineDesignStructure
IdentifyPopulationAnd Sample
Design InstrumentsAnd ClassifyOperationalDefinitions
SelectStatisticalTests
CollectData
AnalyzeData
InternalValidity
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Relationships between Validity and the Research Process
State QuestionsDefine HypothesesIdentify Variables
DetermineDesignStructure
IdentifyPopulationAnd Sample
Design InstrumentsAnd ClassifyOperationalDefinitions
SelectStatisticalTests
CollectData
AnalyzeData
ExternalValidity
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Relationships between Validity and the Research Process
State QuestionsDefine HypothesesIdentify Variables
DetermineDesignStructure
IdentifyPopulationAnd Sample
Design InstrumentsAnd ClassifyOperationalDefinitions
SelectStatisticalTests
CollectData
AnalyzeData
StatisticalValidity
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Relationships between Validity and the Research Process
State QuestionsDefine HypothesesIdentify Variables
DetermineDesignStructure
IdentifyPopulationAnd Sample
Design InstrumentsAnd ClassifyOperationalDefinitions
SelectStatisticalTests
CollectData
AnalyzeData
ConstructValidity
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Research Approaches
General Purpose Explore relationships between variables Describe variables
General Approach Experimental Non-Experimental Descriptive
SpecificApproach
RandomizedExperimental
Quasi-Experimental
Comparative Associational Descriptive
Specific Purpose DetermineCause
ExamineCause
Compare Groups Find Associations Summarize Data
Type of HypothesisDifference
Relate variables Descriptive
Statistics Difference Inferential Statisticse.g. ANOVA
AssociationalInferentialStatistics(eg. Correlation,Multiregression
Descriptive StatisticsEg, Histograms,Means etc.
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Selecting a research method for data collection
Experiment, Quasi-Experiment, Cross-Section, Longitudinal, Case study
Selecting a methods depends on: • the research question/purpose • the operational definition of the construct
of interest (difference/associational) • the required protocols for reliability and
validity
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Qualitative/Quantitative Research Continuum
Inductive Inquiry Deductive InquiryUnderstanding Social Phenomena Establishing RelationshipsGrounded-theory Theory-BasedHolistic Inquiry Focused on ComponentsContext-specific Context-FreeObserver-Participant Detached Role of ResearcherNarrative Description Statistical Analysis
QUALITATIVE QUANTITATIVE
Ethnographic Experimental Historical Quasi-experimental
Phenomenological SurveySource: Newman & Benz 1998
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Mixed-Method• Triangulation: tests the consistency of findings obtained through
different instruments.
• Complementarity: clarifies and illustrates results from one method with the use of another method.
• Development: results from one method shape subsequent methods or steps in the research process.
• Initiation: stimulates new research questions or challenges results obtained through one method.
• Expansion: provides richness and detail to the study exploring
specific features of each method.