State Institute of Urban Development

ATI Campus, Lalitha Mahal Road, MysorePhone: 0821

E-mail: directorsiud@yahoo.co.in

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Urban Development Department Govt. Of Karnataka

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State Institute of Urban Development ATI Campus, Lalitha Mahal Road, Mysore-570 011

Phone: 0821-2520116 Fax: 0821-2520164 directorsiud@yahoo.co.in Website: www.siudmysore.gov.in

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Contents

Sl. No. Particulars Page No.

1. Public Policy 1-5

2. Urban Planning and Transport 6-9

3. Introduction to National Urban Transport Policy,

CTTP, CMP 10-38

4. Public Transport 39-52

5. Comprehensive Mobility Plan (CMP) 53-100

6. Parking (Guidelines for Parking Measures: Policy

and Options) 101-140

7. Non-Motorised Transport Measures: Policy and

Options 141-180

8. Design Issues and Implementation 181-243

9. Traffic Management and Technology 244-246

10. Public Information Systems and Awareness Issues 247-267

11. Sustainability in Urban Transport 268-290

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Abbreviations and Acronyms

AADT : Average Annual Daily Traffic

ADB : Asian Development Bank

ADT : Average Daily Traffic

AMCN : AMC Rate/km

AMCO : Old AMC Rate/km

APMS : Advanced Parking Management Systems

ATC : Area Traffic Control

ATCAG : Automated Tracking and Control of Green Assets

ATM : Advanced Traffic Management

BBMP : Bruhat Bangalore Mahanagara Palike

BIAAPA : Bangalore International Airport Area Planning

Authority

BLT : Build-Lease-Transfer

BMA : Bangalore Metropolitan Area

BMICAPA : Bangalore-Mysore Infrastructure Corridor Area

Planning Authority

BMLTA : Bangalore Metropolitan Land Transport Authority

BMR : Bangalore Metropolitan Region

BMRDA : Bangalore Metropolitan Region Development Authority

BOOT : Build, Own, Operate and Transfer

BOT : Build-Operate-Transfer

BROT : Build-Rehabilitate-Operate-Transfer

BRT : Bus Rapid Transit

BRTS : Bus Rapid Transit Systems

BTO : Build-Transfer-Operate

BTX : Benzene and Volatile Components

CBD : Central Business District

CCTV : Closed Circuit Television

CDP : City Development Plans (CDPs)

CFCs : Chloro Fluoro Carbons

CH4 : Methane

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CNG : Compressed Natural Gas

CO : Carbon Monoxide

CO2 : Carbon Dioxide

CPCB : Central Pollution Control Board

CPHEEO : Central Public Health Engineering

CPIN : New Consumer Price Index

CPIO : Old Consumer Price Index

CSMCRI : Central Salt and Marine Chemicals Research Institute

CSS : Context Sensitive Solutions

CTTP : Comprehensive Traffic and Transportation Plan

CTTS : Comprehensive Traffic and Transportation Studies

DDG : Decentralised Distributed Generation

DFID : Department of Foreign and International Development

DHV : Design Hourly Volume

DIMMTS : Delhi Integrated Multi Modal Transit System

DOT : Department of Transportation

DPRs : Detailed Project Reports

DULT : Directorate of Urban and Land Transport

ECS : Equivalent Car Spaces

EIA : Environmental Impact Assessment

EIRR : Economic Internal Rate of Return

EMAP : Environmental Management Action Plan

FAR : Floor Area Ratio

FIRR : Financial Internal Rate of Return

FN : New Fare

FO : Old Fare

FPN : Old Fuel Price

FPO : New Fuel Price

FRH : Functional Road Hierarchy

FS : Feasibility Study

GDP : Gross Domestic Product

GEF : Global Environment Facility

GIS : Geographical Information Systems

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GoI : Government of India

GPS : Global Positioning Systems

HCBRT : High Capacity Bus Rapid Transit

I-CE : Interface for Cycling Expertise

IEE : Initial Environmental Examination

IRC : India Road Congress

IT : Information Technology

ITS : Intelligent Transport System

IUT : Institute of Urban Transport

JNNURM : Jawaharlal Nehru National Urban Renewal Mission

KMC : Kolkata Municipal Corporation

KSRTC : Karnataka State Road Transport Corporation

LoS : Levels of Service

LRT : Light Rail Transit

MGI : McKinsey Global Institute

MMTS : Multi Modal Transportation System

MoEF : Ministry of Environment and Forest

MoUD : Ministry of Urban Development

MPO : Metropolitan Planning Organization

MRT : Mass Rail Transit

MUZ : Multi Utility Zone

N2O : Nitrous Oxide

NMT : Non-motorized Transport

NMV : Non-Motorised Vehicles

NOx : Nitrogen Oxides

NURM : National Urban Renewal Mission

NUTP : National Urban Transport Policy

O&M : Operation and maintenance

O3 : Ozone

O-D : Origin-Destination

Pb : Lead

PFCs : Per Fluoro Carbons

PFI : Private Finance Initiative

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PH : Peak-Hour Traffic

PHF : Peak-Hour Factor

PHPD : Peak Hour per Direction

PIS : Passenger Information System

PPO : Pure Plant Oils

PPP : Public-Private Partnership

RITES : Rail India Technical and Economic Services

RP : Revealed Preference

RWIS : Road/Weather Information Systems

SCADA : Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition

SEIA : Strategic Environmental Impact Assessment

SEZs : Special Economic Zones

SF6 : Silicon Tetra Flouride

SFAT : System Factory Acceptance Testing

SLB : Service level Benchmark

SP : State Preference

SPV : Special Purpose Vehicles

SSD : Stopping Sight Distance

SuTRA : Sustainable Transformation of Rural Areas

SVO : Straight Vegetable Oil

TA : Technical Assistance

TBOs : Tree Borne Oilseeds

TDM : Traffic/Transportation Demand Management

TMC : Traffic Management Centre

TOD : Transit-Oriented Development

TPU : Transport Planning Unit

TRL : Transport Research Laboratory

TTMC : Traffic & Transit Management Centres

ULB : Urban Local Body

UMTA’s : Unified Metropolitan Transport Authorities

V/C : Vehicle/Capacity

VGF : Viability Gap Funding

VMS : Variable Message Signs

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Glossary

http://www.movingsustainably.net/index.php/movsus:a_joint_gloss__links

-A-

Accessibility

Accessibility refers to the ease with which people can access or participate in employment, shopping, education, health, entertainment, social and other activities available in an area. The word ‘accessible’ is often more narrowly used to describe improvements to transport for people with physical and other disabilities.

-B-

Benchmarking

Benchmarking (also "best practice benchmarking" or "process benchmarking") is a process used in management - particularly strategic management - in which organizations evaluate various aspects of their processes in relation to best practice, usually within their own sector. This then allows organizations to develop plans on how to adopt such ‘best practice’, usually with the aim of increasing some aspect of performance. Benchmarking may be a single event, but is often treated as a continuous process in which organizations continually seek to challenge their practices.

Best Practice

A technique or methodology that, through experience and research, has proven to reliably lead to a desired result. In government, there is special interest in best practice exchange as - unlike commercial enterprises - there is no competitive incentive to keep best practices secret.

Brownfield land

A tract of land that has been developed for industrial purposes, polluted, and then abandoned. In town planning, brown field land is an area of land previously used or built upon, as opposed to green field land which has never been built upon. In some cases, it may be land previously used by industry or commercial uses such as fuelling stations or mining, and therefore may be contaminated by hazardous waste or pollution. Generally, brownfield sites exist in a town's industrial section, in abandoned factories or other previously high-polluting buildings. Small brownfields may also be found in many older residential neighbourhoods. The redevelopment of these brownfield sites is an important part of the new urbanism.

Bus Lanes

Bus lanes are traffic lanes on a roadway that are for the use of buses. Bus lanes can be exclusively for buses and or shared with taxis and high occupancy vehicles.

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-C-

Car sharing

Car sharing is a system in which a fleet of cars (or other vehicles) is owned by a company or cooperative and available for use by members of the car share. Typically, the participants in such a program are city dwellers whose transportation needs are largely met by public transit, walking or cycling. Some households use a car share as an alternative to the hassles of owning (and parking) a second car.

Climate change

Long-term changes in temperature, precipitation, wind and all other aspects of the Earth's climate. Often regarded as a result of human activity and fossil fuel consumption.

-E-

EU-funding schemes for urban transport

EU funding schemes targeted towards urban transport; Civitas other FP7 calls, Intelligent Energy (renewable fuels/energy efficient transport), Marco Polo. More general funding instruments Interreg (different strands, A, B and C and geographical coverage), LIFE+, Urbact. Structural and cohesion funds in general.

-F-

Freight transport

Transportation of goods by ship, aircraft or other vehicles.

-G-

Gender equality

Concept meaning that all human beings are free to develop their personal abilities and make choices without the limitations set by strict gender roles; that the different behaviour, aspirations and needs of women and men are considered, valued and favoured equally.

Gender equity

Fairness of treatment by gender, which may be equal treatment or treatment which is different but which is considered equivalent in terms of rights, benefits, obligations and opportunities.

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[ -I-

Intelligent Transport Systems (ITS)

[Intelligent Transportation Systems] include the application of advanced information processing (computers), communications, technologies and management strategies in an integrated manner in order to improve the safety, capacity and efficiency of the transportation system.

Intermodal transport

A movement of goods using more than one means of transportation. The most common intermodal arrangement is for goods to be moved by truck at their origin, transferred to rail for the long haul between regions, and transferred again to truck near their destination.

Internalisation of external costs

The incorporation of an externality into the market decision-making process through pricing or regulatory interventions. In the narrow sense, internalisation is achieved by charging polluters (for example) with the damage costs of the pollution generated by them, in accordance with ‘the polluter pays’ principle.

-L-

Least-cost planning

Least-Cost Planning is an approach to resource planning that:

• Considers demand management solutions equally with strategies to increase capacity. • Considers all significant impacts (costs and benefits), including non-market impacts. • Involves the public in developing and evaluating alternatives.

Logistics

Logistics is the art and science of managing and controlling the flow of goods, energy, information and other resources from the source of production to the marketplace. The convergence of economic, political and technological forces in the mid-1990s dramatically increased the importance of logistics. The delivery of goods overtook production as the most critical factor in business success. Almost overnight, the responsibility of logistics grew from simply getting a product out the door to the science of controlling the optimal flow of goods, energy, and information through the purchasing, planning and transportation management. In the wake of this change, the role of logistics went from local to global, tactical to strategic, and from the backroom to the boardroom.

-M-

Mobility

The ability of groups or individuals to relocate/change jobs or to physically move from one place to another.

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Mobility management

Mobility Management is primarily a demand-oriented approach to passenger and freight transport that involves new partnerships and new tools. The aim is to support and encourage a change of attitude and behaviour towards sustainable modes of transport. The tools of mobility management are based on information, communication, organization and co-ordination. These tools require promotion. Mobility Management, which is both a novel and promising concept to promote sustainable transport, varies from country-to-country both in terms of scope and level of implementation.

Modal split

The proportion of total person-trips assigned to each available transport mode.

-P-

Parking management

Strategies aimed at making better use of the available parking supply. Parking management strategies include preferential parking or price discounts for carpools and/or short-term park-errs, and disincentives for those contributing more to congestion.

Participatory planning

Participatory planning - is involving the entire community in the strategic and management processes of urban planning.

Passenger transport

The conveyance of people over land, water or through air by automobile, bus, train, airplane or some other means of travel.

Public-Private Partnership

Public Private Partnership - cooperative venture between the public and private sectors, built on the expertise of each partner that best meets clearly defined public needs through the appropriate allocation of resources, risks and rewards. Canadian council for public-private partnership.

Public transport

The act or the means of conveying people in mass as opposed to conveyance in private vehicles. Public transport comprises all transport systems in which the passengers do not travel in their own vehicles. It is also called ‘public transit’ or ‘mass transit’. While it is generally taken to mean rail and bus services, wider definitions would include scheduled airline services, ferries, taxicab services, etc., i.e., any system that transports members of the general public.

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Public Transport Priority Schemes

Altering the sequence or timing of traffic signal phases using special detection in order to provide preferential treatment.

-R-

Renewable energy

Energy sources that do not rely on fuels of which there are only finite stocks. The most widely-used renewable source is hydroelectric power. Other renewable sources are biomass energy, solar energy, tidal energy, wave energy and wind energy.

-S-

Social inclusion

Positive action taken to include all sectors of society in planning and other decision-making.

Spatial planning

Spatial planning refers to the methods used by the public sec-tor to influence the distribution of people and activities in spaces of various scales. This includes urban (urban planning), regional (regional planning), national and international levels.

Stakeholder

In the last decades of the 20th century, the word "stakeholder" has evolved to mean a person or organisation that has a legitimate interest in a project or entity. In discussing the decision-making process for institutions -- including large business corporations, government agencies and non-profit organizations -- the concept has been broadened to include everyone with an interest (or "stake") in what the entity does. That includes not only its vendors, employees, and customers, but even members of a community where its offices or factory may affect the local economy or environment.

Sustainable Development Indicators

Sustainable development indicators are indicators that meas-ure progress made in sustainable growth and development. They can provide an early warning, sounding the alarm in time to prevent economic, social and environmental damage. They are also important tools to communicate ideas of sustainable development. Indicators for monitoring progress towards sustainable development are needed in order to assist decision-makers and policy-makers at all levels and to increase focus on sustainable development. Beyond the commonly used economic indicators of well-being, however, social, environmental and institutional indicators have to be taken into account as well to arrive at a broader, more complete picture of societal development.

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-T-

Transport Demand Management

Transportation Demand Management (TDM) (also Mobility Management) is a general term for various strategies known as that increase transportation system efficiency. TDM treats mobility as a means to an end, rather than an end in itself. It emphasizes the movement of people and goods, rather than mo-tor vehicles, and so gives priority to more efficient modes (such as walking, cycling, ridesharing, public transit and telework), particularly under congested conditions. It prioritizes travel based on the value and costs of each trip, giving higher value trips and lower cost modes priority over lower value, higher cost travel, when doing so increases overall system efficiency.

-U-

Urban Sprawl

Pejorative term for low-density development in suburban and the fringe of urban areas. Characteristics include distance from employment and commercial centres, dependence on automobile travel, extended public Infrastructure and little In-Fill Development.

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Chapter: 01: Public Policy

Current India’s Urban Scenario (Source: www.competitionmaster.com/ArticleDetail.aspx?ID=6a440beb-5f0c...)

Contrary to popular concepts of a predominantly rural India, an increasingly larger percentage of Indian population today lives in the urban areas. India's urban population is now second largest in the world after China, and is higher than the total urban population of all countries put together barring China, USA and Russia. Over the last fifty years, while the country's population has grown by 2.5 times, in the urban areas it has grown by five times.

In 1947, only 60 million people (15 per cent of the total population at that time) lived in urban areas. India’s urban population grew from the 290 million reported in the 2001 Census to an estimated 340 million in 2008 (30 percent of the total population) and it could soar to 590 million plus (40 percent of the population) by 2030. This urban expansion will happen at a speed quite unlike anything India has seen before. The steep growth in number of people living is partly due to the skewed development that has led to proliferation of commercial activities and greater job opportunities in towns and cities. Facilities like health and education, and infrastructure like roadways, telecommunication, airports, railways and ports are also many times better in urban areas.

In spite of its prominent role in Indian economy, urban India faces serious problems due to population pressure, deterioration in the physical environment and quality of life. According to estimates, nearly one third of the urban India lives below poverty line. About 15 percent of the urbanites do not have access to safe drinking water and about 50 percent are not covered by sanitary facilities.

Traffic congestion has assumed critical dimensions in many metropolitan cities due to massive increase in the number of personal vehicles, inadequate road space and lack of public transport. There is a huge and widening gap between demand and supply of essential services and infrastructure. Urban poor in India are forced to live under unhygienic conditions in slums, lacking in basic amenities. Slums have grown in almost all major cities due to inability of major chunks of population to afford accommodation in planned areas of the cities.

The five fold explosive growth in urban India has resulted in serious infrastructure constraints. Water, transport, housing, electricity, health and sanitation are some of the areas of concern. Infrastructure to meet these requirements calls for huge investments.

The Central Public Health Engineering (CPHEEO) has estimated the requirement of funds for 100 percent coverage of the urban population under safe water supply and sanitation services by the year 2021 at Rs 172,905 crores. Estimates by Rail India Technical and Economic Services (RITES) indicate that the amount required for urban transport infrastructure investment in cities with population 100,000 or more during the next 20 years would be of the order of Rs. 207,000 crore.

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The speed of urbanization poses an unprecedented managerial and policy challenge, says the McKinsey Global Institute (MGI) report. Unfortunately, India has not even started to engage in a national discussion on how to effectively handle the seismic shift in the demographic make-up of the country.

Unlike many countries that are grappling with aging population, India has a young and rapidly growing population—a potential demographic dividend. But, India needs thriving cities if that dividend is to pay out. New research by the MGI estimates that cities could generate 70 percent of new jobs created in 2030, produce more than 70 percent of Indian GDP, and drive a near four-fold increase in per capita incomes across the nation.

It is estimated that in terms of both population and GDP many Indian cities will become larger than many countries today. The GDP of Mumbai Metropolitan Region is projected to reach $265 billion by 2030, larger that the GDP of countries like Portugal, Colombia and Malaysia.

Besides, as India’s cities will expand, the economic make-up will also change. In 1995, India’s GDP split almost evenly between its urban and rural economies. In 2008, urban GDP accounted for 58 percent of overall GDP. By 2030, as per the MGI report, urban India will generate nearly 70 percent of country’s GDP.

Cities offer the promise of a higher quality of life for a large number of Indians. They are also vital for funding the development because they generate 80-85 percent of tax revenue. As per the MGI report, cities benefit beyond their own boundaries. Rural populations adjoining urban centres have been found to have an estimated 10 to 20 percent higher monthly incomes than the rural average.

Lack of vision among the political class and administrators is leading the Indian cities towards decay and gridlock. The MGI report believes that the “lack of serious policies to manage urbanization could jeopardize even the GDP growth rate (as projected by economic planners).”

Urban India is today failing many of its citizens. Across all major quality-of-life indicators, cities of India fall much short of delivering even a basic standard of living to the residents. As per the MGI report, if India continues to invest in urban infrastructure at its current rate—very low by international standards—in 20 years’ time the urban infrastructure will fall woefully short of what is necessary to sustain prosperous cities.

Life of the city dweller would become a lot tougher. Water shortage will result in a large section of the population having no access to potable water. More than 70 percent of the sewage will remain untreated, causing serious health problems. Increasing number of private vehicles and shortcomings in the public transportation infrastructure would create urban gridlock—similar to the acute congestion that cripples some Latin American cities.

In per capita terms, India’s annual capital spending on urban infrastructure and services of $17 is only 14 percent of China’s $116 and 4 percent of UK’s $391. The MGI report

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estimates that India needs to invest $1.2 trillion (Rs 53.1 trillion) just on capital expenditure in its cities over the next 20 years, equivalent to $134 per capita per year. That is almost eight times the current level of spending.

International experience has shown that cities can be turned around in about ten years or even less. UK, China and South Africa have done it. As per the MGI report, the planners have to work on five dimensions for effective result: funding, governance, planning, sectoral policies and shape.

Funding: The MGI report suggests four sources of funding that India should tap into—monetizing land assets, collecting higher property taxes and user charges that reflect costs, debt and public-private partnerships, and formula-based government funding.

Governance: India’s large cities are still governed by bureaucrats who can be transferred out of office at a short notice. This is in sharp contrast to large cities world-wide where the mayors have been empowered with long tenures and clear accountability. According to the MGI report, fully formed metropolitan authorities with clearly defined roles are absolutely essential for the successful management of large cities.

Planning: India’s urban planning is in very poor state. There are urban plans but they are not practical, are rarely followed and are riddled with exemptions. As per the MGI report, central to planning in any city is the optimal allocation of space, especially land use and Floor Area Ratio (FAR) planning. These plans need to be detailed, comprehensive and enforceable, and exemptions should be rare.

Sectoral policies: All good cities have policies in critical areas like job creation, affordable housing for low-income groups, public transportation and climate-change mitigation. As per the MGI report, India has largely failed to embrace the need for dedicated policy attention within cities. In the absence of policy to meet the housing needs of low-income group, Indian cities will continue to be effected by the slum menace.

Shape: India has to aim for a distributed model of urbanization to ensure its federal structure as also to ensure that migration flows are not unbalanced towards a particular city or cities. MGI report concludes that India should build at least 25 new satellite cities near today’s Tier 1 and 2 cities to accommodate populations in each of up to one million people. Such an effort, despite being more expensive than renewing existing cities, will act as a benchmark and a model for well-planned, environmentally sustainable world-class cities, while helping ease of the strains of rapid urbanization.

Integrated townships

Typically, an integrated township has the following key characteristics and elements:

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Social Infrastructure:

School: A quality school with education up to at least 10thstandard is set up within the township, reducing the travelling time between home and school and in turn providing the children with more time for play and studies.

Medicare: A good healthcare facility with at least 50-plus beds and an emergency care is set up within the township, thereby facilitating residents.

Recreation: Adequate space for basic sports such as football, cricket, tennis and badminton, fitness facilities including a gymnasium and swimming pools are set up within the township to enhance social lifestyle.

Community centre: A spacious, well-decorated community centre with a club house and a function hall is set up within the township.

Infrastructure and services:

Road network: A well-planned road network both within the township and connecting to the nearest highway or main road is built, thereby easing communication.

Water supply and management: A well-planned and sustainable water management system is built within the township, providing round the clock water supply to residents as well as treating the waste water generated within the township and recycling it. This also reduces dependence on municipal water supply.

Electricity supply and management: Although an integrated township depends on a public or private utility supplier for basic power supply, it has adequate, if not abundant, back-up power for both homes and common areas during temporary or scheduled power cuts or disruptions by the utility supplier.

Communication infrastructure: Good quality telecom services are also made available within the township and nearby.

Estate management:

Garbage and waste management: Good garbage collection, aggregation, treatment and disposal system is a must for a healthier and eco-friendly township.

Infrastructure maintenance: Proper and regular maintenance of roads, pathways, parks, electrical and plumbing infrastructure, children play areas and common areas including community centre is essential for a well-developed integrated township.

Security: Superior estate security and safety for all residents is a critical element of an integrated township.

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Shopping and Entertainment:

Entertainment: Quality cinema or multiplex, popular games and kid entertainment facilities should be established within the township.

Shopping: Well-stocked grocery stores as well as shopping centres including branded garment stores, electronic goods should be established within the township.

Food courts: Good quality and hygienic food courts with ample menu options should be established within the townships to cater to the taste buds of all types of residents.

Proximity to workplace:

While the intent of an integrated township is always to have the workplace and the residential dwelling in close proximity, in the current context of double-income families, it is practically impossible to achieve this objective fully. However, it can establish adequate, well-equipped office space infrastructure and offer lower rentals to attract companies, banks and corporate houses and create ample opportunities for residents. Apart from this, to smoothen communication between the township and the workplace for rest of the residents, the location of the township should be such that it is easily accessible from various parts of the city. Constitution (Seventy-Fourth Amendment) Act 1992

This is a revolutionary piece of legislation by which Constitution of India was amended to incorporate a separate Chapter on urban local bodies, which seeks to redefine their role, power, function and finances. The salient features of this Act are:

Urban local bodies, to be known as Municipal Corporations, Municipal Councils and Nagar Panchayat depending on the population shall be constituted through universal adult franchise in each notified urban area of the country.

These shall be constituted for a period of five years and if dissolved earlier, an election to reconstitute it shall be completed before the expiration of a period of six months from the date of its dissolution.

Not less than one-third of total number of seats in each urban local body shall be reserved for women.

The Legislature of a State may by law entrust on these bodies such power and authority as may be necessary to enable them to function as institution of local self government, including those listed in the Twelfth Schedule.

The Twelfth Schedule of the Constitution— has listed the following functions of the urban local bodies:

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Chapter: 02: Urban Planning and Transport

Transportation planning plays a fundamental role in the state, region or community’s vision for its future. It includes a comprehensive consideration of possible strategies; an evaluation process that encompasses diverse viewpoints; the collaborative participation of relevant transportation-related agencies and organizations; and open, timely, and meaningful public involvement.

What is the transportation planning process?

Transportation planning is a cooperative process designed to foster involvement by all users of the system, such as the business community, community groups, environmental organizations, the travelling public, freight operators, and the general public, through a proactive public participation process conducted by the Metropolitan Planning Organization (MPO), state Department of Transportation (state DOT), and transit operators. Figure 1 illustrates the transportation planning process.

Transportation planning includes a number of steps:

• Monitoring existing conditions

• Forecasting future population and employment growth, including assessing projected land uses in the region and identifying major growth corridors

• Identifying current and projected future transportation problems and needs and analyzing, through detailed planning studies, various transportation improvement strategies to address those needs

• Developing long-range plans and short-range programs of alternative capital improvement and operational strategies for moving people and goods

• Estimating the impact of recommended future improvements to the transportation system on environmental features, including air quality and

• Developing a financial plan for securing sufficient revenues to cover the costs of implementing strategies.

Figure: Transportation Planning Process

Integration of Land Use and Transportation

What is the relationship between land use and transportation?

Transportation's purpose is moving people and goods from one place to another, but transportation systems also affect community character, the natural and human environment, and economic development patterns. A transportation system can improve the economy, shape development patterns, and influence quality of life and the natural environment.

Land use and transportation are symbiotic: development density and location influence regional travel patterns, and, in turn, the degree of access provided by the transportation system can influence land use and development trends. Urban or community design can facilitate alternative travel modes. For example, a connected system of streets with higher residential densities and a mix of land uses can facilitate travel by foot, bicycle, and public transportation, in addition to automobile. Conversely, dispersed land dpatterns may facilitate vehicular travel and reduce the viability of other travel modes.

What are the role of the state DOT and the MPO in land use and transportation?

The state DOT and MPO role and level of involvement in land use varies according to state and local legislation and policies. However, state DOTs and MPOs are responsible for consultation with state and local agencies responsible for land use management; comparing transportation planning efforts with land use plans,inventories; and using current land use estimates and assumptions when updating planning products.

Figure: Transportation Planning Process

Integration of Land Use and Transportation

What is the relationship between land use and transportation?

Transportation's purpose is moving people and goods from one place to another, but systems also affect community character, the natural and human environment,

and economic development patterns. A transportation system can improve the economy, shape development patterns, and influence quality of life and the natural environment.

and transportation are symbiotic: development density and location influence regional travel patterns, and, in turn, the degree of access provided by the transportation system can influence land use and development trends. Urban or community

ilitate alternative travel modes. For example, a connected system of streets with higher residential densities and a mix of land uses can facilitate travel by foot, bicycle, and public transportation, in addition to automobile. Conversely, dispersed land dpatterns may facilitate vehicular travel and reduce the viability of other travel modes.

What are the role of the state DOT and the MPO in land use and transportation?

The state DOT and MPO role and level of involvement in land use varies according to state and local legislation and policies. However, state DOTs and MPOs are responsible for consultation with state and local agencies responsible for land use management; comparing transportation planning efforts with land use plans,inventories; and using current land use estimates and assumptions when updating planning

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Transportation's purpose is moving people and goods from one place to another, but systems also affect community character, the natural and human environment,

and economic development patterns. A transportation system can improve the economy, shape development patterns, and influence quality of life and the natural environment.

and transportation are symbiotic: development density and location influence regional travel patterns, and, in turn, the degree of access provided by the transportation system can influence land use and development trends. Urban or community

ilitate alternative travel modes. For example, a connected system of streets with higher residential densities and a mix of land uses can facilitate travel by foot, bicycle, and public transportation, in addition to automobile. Conversely, dispersed land development patterns may facilitate vehicular travel and reduce the viability of other travel modes.

What are the role of the state DOT and the MPO in land use and transportation?

The state DOT and MPO role and level of involvement in land use decision-making varies according to state and local legislation and policies. However, state DOTs and MPOs are responsible for consultation with state and local agencies responsible for land use management; comparing transportation planning efforts with land use plans, maps and inventories; and using current land use estimates and assumptions when updating planning

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The metropolitan and state-wide transportation planning processes are designed to promote consistency between transportation improvements and state and local planned growth and economic development patterns.

What are the requirements for considering land use and economic development in the transportation planning process?

Updates to long-range state-wide and metropolitan transportation plans must be reviewed for validity and consistency with current and forecasted transportation and land use conditions and trends. The transportation plan updates should be based on the latest available estimates and assumptions for population, land use and development, travel, employment, congestion, and economic activity. And, to promote the highest level of consistency between land use and transportation plans, it is advisable for the planning staff responsible for that planning to hold meetings and share information on a continuing basis.

Activities intended to stimulate economic development can affect the transportation network, and, in turn, the transportation network can affect economic development. Transportation decision makers can ensure the continued economic vitality of the region, state, and nation by appropriately planning for the many different uses of the transportation system, such as freight movement.

Policymakers should ask what effects proposed investments would have on economic development and on future transportation needs:

� Can the transportation system accommodate the increased growth that proposed development might bring?

� How can transportation funding support economic growth while balancing other transportation priorities?

What are some innovative approaches for better integrating land use and transportation?

Increasing recognition of the importance of integrating land use and transportation has led to the development of new approaches in planning. Two of the many possibilities include context sensitive solutions (CSS) and Transit-Oriented Development (TOD).

What are context sensitive solutions (CSS)?

CSS is an approach that considers the total context within which a transportation improvement project will exist. A CSS approach requires that transportation planning take a broad view and considers the interactions between transportation systems and facilities, and tailors them to local area human and natural environments. The goal is to develop solutions that are acceptable to a variety of parties, relevant to their needs and perspectives—consistent with the "context" of the setting. CSS is a collaborative, interdisciplinary approach that

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involves all stakeholders to develop a transportation facility that fits its physical setting and preserves scenic, aesthetic, historic, and environmental resources, while maintaining safety and mobility.

What are Transit-Oriented Development and Joint Development?

Transit-Oriented Development (TOD) is defined as compact, mixed-use development near transit facilities and high-quality walking environments, typically leveraging transit infrastructure to promote economic development. By enhancing the attractiveness and serviceability of transportation alternatives, TOD boosts transit ridership and reduces traffic congestion, while creating a sense of community and place.

Joint Development is a project-specific application of TOD, taking place on, above, or adjacent to transit agency property. It involves the common use of property for transit and non-transit, typically private sector commercial, purposes. Typical joint development arrangements are ground leases and operation-cost sharing, usually occurring at transit stations or terminals surrounded by a mix of office, commercial, and institutional land uses. To be eligible for federal funding, joint development projects must be related physically or functionally to public transportation, and must dedicate a fair share of the commercially derived revenue for public transportation.

Both TOD and joint development projects may be planned, designed, and implemented by local government, transit operators, Metropolitan Planning Organizations, and states.

What is the role of the MPO in Transit-Oriented Development and joint development?

All joint development and transit-oriented development projects with components involving federal funds must have those components approved by the MPO for inclusion in the metropolitan transportation plan and the fiscally constrained TIP and STIP. MPOs can play lead roles in developing and promoting transit-supportive land use policies, as well as disseminating information on these policies to the public and private sector. In addition, a growing number of MPOs have a TOD expert on staff and have policies and programs that support these projects.

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Chapter: 03: Introduction to National Urban Transport Policy, CTTP,CMP

Overview of National Urban Transport Policy

(Source: http://urbanindia.nic.in/policies/TransportPolicy.pdf)

Background

1. India is poised for rapid economic growth. Such future growth will largely come from the secondary and tertiary sectors of the economy, i.e., the industrial and service sectors. Since economic activities in these sectors primarily take place in urban areas, the state of our towns and cities is crucial to India’s future growth.

2. Further, India’s urban population is currently around 30% of its total population. Experience across the world has been that as economies grow, rapid urbanization takes this proportion to over 60% before it begins to stabilize. As such, it is projected that India’s urban population would grow to about 473 million in 2021 and 820 million by 2051, as against only 285 million in 2001. Hence, cities must not only meet the mobility needs of the current population but also provide for the needs of those yet to join the urban population. In this context, the Government of India has launched the National Urban Renewal Mission (NURM) that inter-alia seeks to bring about comprehensive improvements in urban infrastructure, committing substantial funds for this purpose and requiring a series of reforms that would make the investments sustainable.

3. For urban areas to be able to support the required level of economic activity, they must provide for the easy and sustainable flow of goods and people. Unfortunately, however, such flow of goods and people has been facing several problems. Most prominent among them have been the following:

� Accessing jobs, education, recreation and similar activities is becoming increasingly time consuming. Billions of man hours are lost with people “stuck in traffic”. The primary reason for this has been the explosive growth in the number of motor vehicles, coupled with limitations on the amount of road space that can be provided. For example, on an average, while the population of India’s six major metropolises increased by about 1.9 times during 1981 to 2001, the number of motor vehicles went up by over 7.75 times during the same period.

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� The cost of travel, especially for the poor, has increased considerably. This is

largely because the use of cheaper non-motorised modes like cycling and walking has become extremely risky, since these modes have to share the same right of way with motorized modes. Further, with population growth, cities have tended to sprawl and increased travel distances have made non-motorized modes impossible to use. This has made access to livelihoods, particularly for the poor, far more difficult.

� Travel in the city has become more risky with accident rates having gone up from 1.6 lakh in 1981 to over 3.9 lakh in 2001. The number of persons killed in road accidents has also gone up from 28,400 to over 80,000 during the same period. This again has tended to impact the poor more severely as many of those killed or injured tend to be cyclists, pedestrians or pavement dwellers.

� Increased use of personal vehicles has led to increased air pollution.

4. Unless the above problems are remedied, poor mobility can become a major dampener to economic growth and cause the quality of life to deteriorate. A policy is, therefore, needed on the approach to dealing with this rapidly growing problem as also offer a clear direction and a framework for future action.

Vision

� To recognize that people occupy centre-stage in our cities and all plans would be for their common benefit and well being

� To make our cities the most liveable in the world and enable them to become the “engines of economic growth” that power India’s development in the 21st century

� To allow our cities to evolve into an urban form that is best suited for the unique geography of their locations and is best placed to support the main social and economic activities that take place in the city.

Objectives

The objective of this policy is to ensure safe, affordable, quick, comfortable, reliable and sustainable access for the growing number of city residents to jobs, education, recreation and such other needs within our cities. This is sought to be achieved by:

� Incorporating urban transportation as an important parameter at the urban planning stage rather than being a consequential requirement.

� Encouraging integrated land use and transport planning in all cities so that travel distances are minimized and access to livelihoods, education, and other social needs, especially for the marginal segments of the urban population is improved.

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� Improving access of business to markets and the various factors of production.

� Bringing about a more equitable allocation of road space with people, rather than vehicles, as its main focus.

� Encourage greater use of public transport and non motorized modes by offering Central financial assistance for this purpose.

� Enabling the establishment of quality focused multi-modal public transport systems that are well integrated, providing seamless travel across modes.

� Establishing effective regulatory and enforcement mechanisms that allow a level playing field for all operators of transport services and enhanced safety for the transport system users.

� Establishing institutional mechanisms for enhanced coordination in the planning and management of transport systems.

� Introducing Intelligent Transport Systems for traffic management.

� Addressing concerns of road safety and trauma response.

� Reducing pollution levels through changes in travelling practices, better enforcement, stricter norms, technological improvements, etc.

� Building capacity (institutional and manpower) to plan for sustainable urban transport and establishing knowledge management system that would service the needs of all urban transport professionals, such as planners, researchers, teachers, students, etc

� Promoting the use of cleaner technologies.

� Raising finances, through innovative mechanisms that tap land as a resource, for investments in urban transport infrastructure.

� Associating the private sector in activities where their strengths can be beneficially tapped.

� Taking up pilot projects that demonstrate the potential of possible best practices in sustainable urban transport.

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Need for a National Policy

Although the responsibility for management of urban areas (and thus urban transport) rests with the State governments, a Central policy is considered necessary as:

� Several key agencies that would play an important role in urban transport planning work under the Central government, with no accountability to the State government.

� Several Acts and Rules, which have important implications in dealing with urban transport issues, are administered by the Central Government

� A need exists to guide State level action plans within an overall framework.

� The launching of the NURM has provided a timely platform for providing significant financial support from the Central Government for investments in urban transport infrastructure. As such, this offers an opportunity for a meaningful national policy that would guide Central financial assistance towards improving urban mobility.

� A need exists to build capacity for urban transport planning as also develops it as a professional practice.

� A need exists to take up coordinated capacity building, research and information dissemination to raise the overall level of awareness and skills.

Realizing the Policy Objectives

The objectives of this policy would be achieved through a multi-pronged approach that would revolve around the measures highlighted in the previous section. These are further elaborated in the sections that follow.

Integrating land use and transport planning

Cities in India vary considerably in terms of their population, area, urban form, topography, economic activities, income levels, growth constraints, etc. Accordingly, the design of the transport system will have to depend on these city specific features. Further, transport planning is intrinsically linked to land use planning and both need to be developed together in a manner that serves the entire population and yet minimizes travel needs. In short, an integrated master plan needs to internalize the features of sustainable transport systems. In developing such plans, attention should also be paid to channel the future growth of a city around a pre planned transport network rather than develop a transport system after uncontrolled sprawl has taken place. Transport plans should, therefore, enable a city to take an urban form

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that best suits the geographical constraints of its location and also one that best supports the key social and economic activities of its residents. Unfortunately, however, transport planning as not received the extent of attention it should have in drawing up strategic development and land use plans.

The Government of India would, therefore, promote the development of such integrated land use and transport plans for all cities. To enable this, all urban development and planning bodies in the States would be required to have in house transport planners as well as representation from transport authorities in their managements. The Government of India would extend support for the preparation of such integrated land use and transport plans, to the extent of 50% of the cost involved in developing such plans, provided the city also demonstrates its willingness to act in accordance with them. In order to create models for possible learning and replication, the Government of India would fully support pilot studies in a few sample cities, of different characteristics and in different regions of the country. As part of this exercise, each city would also be encouraged to identify potential corridors for future development and then establish a transport system that would encourage growth around itself. For example, radial corridors emerging from the city and extending up to 20-30 kms could be reserved for future development. Such corridors would have to be protected from encroachment by putting up physical barriers along such reserved corridors and physically constructing roads on short stretches even before settlements come up. This would imply that stretches of the corridor would come up first in order to guide the location of the settlements and not allow undue sprawl to take place.

A scheme already exists under which the Central Government provides partial financial support for traffic and transport studies in cities. This would be modified to enhance the extent of Central Government support and also make these studies more broad based to integrate transport planning with land use planning, keeping projected populations in mind.

Equitable allocation of road space

At present, road space gets allocated to whichever vehicle occupies it first. The focus is, therefore, the vehicle and not people. The result is that a bus carrying 40 people is allocated only two and a half times the road space that is allocated to a car carrying only one or two persons. In this process, the lower income groups have, effectively, ended up paying, in terms of higher travel time and higher travel costs, for the disproportionate space allocated to personal vehicles. Users of non motorized modes have tended to be squeezed out of the roads on account of serious threats to their safety. If the focus of the principles of road space allocation were to be the people, then much more space would need to be allocated to public transport systems than is allocated at present.

The Central Government would, therefore, encourage measures that allocate road space on a more equitable basis, with people as its focus. This can be achieved by reserving

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lanes and corridors exclusively for public transport and non-motorized modes of travel. Similarly lanes could be reserved for vehicles that carry more than three persons (popularly known as High Occupancy Vehicle Lanes). Past experience has been that such reserved lanes are not respected by motorists and therefore lose meaning. In order to facilitate better enforcement of such lane discipline, suitable provisions would be introduced in the Motor Vehicles Act and other instrumentalities to enable stringent penalties for violation.

Priority to the use of public transport

It is well known that public transport occupies less road space and causes less pollution per passenger-km than personal vehicles. As such, public transport is a more sustainable form of transport. Therefore, the central government would promote investments in public transport as well as measures that make its use more attractive than in the past.

Towards this end, the Central government would encourage all State capitals as well as other cities with a population of more than one million to start planning for high capacity public transport systems. In doing so, they should look at various proven technologies around the world, including the use of available waterways; they should adopt a technology that would best suit the city requirements in the next 30 years. Comprehensive city wide plans should be drawn up comprising trunk and feeder corridors as well as good integration with personal modes, suburban traffic, etc. High cost trunk route systems should, through appropriate hub-spoke arrangements be integrated with feeder systems that enable higher ridership on such trunk systems.

In order to effectively promote such investments, the Central Government would:

� Provide 50% of the cost of preparing comprehensive city transport plans and detailed project reports.

� Offer equity participation and/or viability gap funding to the extent of 20% of the capital cost of public transport systems.

� Offer 50% of the cost of project development whenever such projects are sought to be taken up through public-private partnerships, so that a sound basis for attracting private partners can be established. The remaining cost of such project development would have to come from the city development authority/State government and a project developer.

Some allied issues that need to be addressed in this context are:

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Quality and pricing of Public Transport

So far, fares for public transport have been set on the premise that this mode of travel is used by the poor, who have no other means of meeting their travel needs. As such, fares have been kept low as a measure of social equity. This has resulted in most public transport systems being unable to recover their operating costs. It has, in fact, encouraged poorly operated systems that have been financially sustainable only through serious compromises on the quality of the service they render. In the present day context, however, public transport serves another social purpose. It helps reduce congestion and air pollution, if users of personal vehicles can be persuaded to shift to public transport. Their needs are, however, for improved quality and not so much for low fares. It is, therefore, necessary to think of different types of public transport services for different segments of commuters. Those who place a premium on cost are the poorest sections of society and need to be given affordable prices. The cost of providing public transport for them needs to be subsidized by other sections of society.

However, there is another segment that values time saved and comfort more than price. This segment is comparatively better off and would shift to public transport if high quality systems are available to them. The cost of providing public transport to them need not be subsidized and can be met from the fare revenues. As such, the Central Government would encourage the provision of different levels of services – a basic service, with subsidized fares and a premium service, which is of high quality but charges higher fares and involves no subsidy.

To facilitate this, the Central Government would offer support under the NURM for premium service infrastructure such as improved bus stations and terminals, improved passenger information systems, use of intelligent transport systems for monitoring and control, restructuring of State Transport Corporations, etc.

To ensure that the fares charged are fair and reasonable, the Central government would require that a regulatory authority be set up by the State Government to, inter-alia, regulate the prices to be charged by different types of public transport services.

Technologies for Public Transport

There is a wide spectrum of public transport technologies. At one end are high capacity, but high cost, technologies like underground metro systems and at the other are low capacity bus systems running on a shared right of way. Within these extremes are a range of intermediate possibilities, such as buses on dedicated rights of way, elevated sky bus and monorail systems, electric trolley buses, etc.

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While some of them are most effective over high density trunk corridors others prove useful as feeder systems or subsystems that serve limited subareas within a city. Similarly, there are examples of available waterways being taken advantage of for public transport as also systems like ropeways that suit hilly terrains. While the high capacity rail systems and buses on shared rights of way are the only ones tried out in India, several of the others have proved successful in other parts of the world. Electric trolley buses have been running in San Francisco. New Bus Rapid Transit Systems (BRTS) have become very popular in cities like Bogota (Colombia) and Curritiba (Brazil).

Each of these technologies has its unique characteristics and is best suited to a specific situation. Factors such as the urban form, terrain, availability of waterways, level of demand, direction and extent of sprawl, projections for future growth, extent of population density etc. are major determinants of the technology that should be chosen. The table at Attachment – I highlights the advantages and disadvantages of some of the available public transport technologies also indicating the technologies that best suit different local situations.

While rail based systems seem to suit dense cities with limited sprawl and only a few spinal corridors, bus systems seem better where urban densities are lower and the city has spread over a large area. Given the wide range of possibilities, it is not possible to prescribe a particular technology in a generic policy and such a choice will have to be made as a part of city specific land use and transport plans. It would also depend on the kind of city that would need to evolve at the particular location. The Central Government would, therefore, encourage all proven technologies and not promote any specific technology. In order to facilitate the proper evaluation of all the available technologies around the world, it would create a knowledge centre that would provide the necessary information required for taking the right technological decisions for a specific city. Wherever necessary, support would be provided for techno-economic studies to be conducted by leading global consultants.

Integrated public transport systems

All cities have corridors that have varying densities of travel and hence need technologies that best match the level of demand on the corridor. This often requires different operators managing such systems. However, a good public transport system is one that is perceived by the user as a single system and allows seamless travel between one made and the other as also between systems managed by different operators. Such seamless interchange is possible if proper inter-change infrastructure is available and users are able to use a single ticket over all such systems. This also requires that a single agency takes responsibility for

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coordination so that there is a common approach to public transport planning and management.

Accordingly, the Central government would expect that investments in public transport systems would also seek to ensure that such systems are well integrated and offer a seamless system to the users. Central government’s financial support would be contingent on appropriate authorities/entities being set up to ensure that a coordinated and integrated public transport system becomes available.

Financing

The Central Government would encourage high capacity public transport systems being set up through the mechanism of Special Purpose Vehicles (SPV) and would offer financial support either in the form of equity or one time viability gap financing, subject to a ceiling of 20% of the capital cost of the project, after evaluating various parameters such as:

� Extent of resources mobilized by the State government through exploitation of its land resources.

� Extent of resources likely from private participation.

� Institutional mechanisms set up by the State government to ensure a well coordinated public transport system.

� Willingness to divert funds from projects that add to road capacity towards public transit systems

� Initiatives taken to promote non-motorized transport and improve safe access to public transport.

� Willingness to introduce premium public transport systems that are priced high but offer better quality with a view to limit the subsidy requirements in normal services.

� Willingness to involve the private sector in operations under the overall supervision and coordination of a public agency.

� Willingness to price public transport systems in such a manner as to be financially sustainable at the operating stage or depend only marginally on public budgets

The basic principle in financing such public transport systems would be that the government should provide the infrastructure but the users (direct and indirect beneficiaries within the city) must pay for the operating costs and the rolling stock.

The Central government’s capital support would take the form of equity participation or one time viability gap funding and would be subject to a ceiling of 20% of the capital cost

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of the project. Preference will be given to those who are able to demonstrate additional resources for the project through dedicated taxes and innovative financing methods.

Role of para-transit

Para transit is normally expected to fulfil a need that neither public transport or personal vehicles are able to fulfil. They normally cater to a category of occasional trips such as trips to airports or rail stations with excessive baggage, or emergency trips that have to be undertaken immediately and it is not possible to wait for public transport. Para transit would not normally be used for regular commute trips to work or school. However, when the quality of public transport deteriorates, para-transit tends to substitute for public transport. Unfortunately, this has started happening in many Indian cities. As such, this policy would seek to restore para-transit to its normal role by persuading the improvement of public transport.

Priority to non-motorized transport

With increasing urban sprawl and rising income levels, non-motorized transport has lost its earlier importance. Statistics show that the share of bicycle trips out of the total trips in Delhi has declined from 17% in 1981 to 7% in 1994. The longer trip lengths have made cycling more difficult. Further, non-motorized modes are also exposed to greater risk of accidents as they share a common right of way with motorized vehicles. However, non-motorized modes are environmentally friendly and have to be given their due share in the transport system of a city. The problems being faced by them would have to be mitigated.

First of all, the safety concerns of cyclists and pedestrians have to be addressed by encouraging the construction of segregated rights of way for bicycles and pedestrians. Apart from improving safety, the segregation of vehicles moving at different speeds would help improve traffic flow, increase the average speed of traffic and reduce emissions resulting from sub-optimal speeds. Such segregated paths would be useful not only along arterials, to enable full trips using NMT but also as a means of improving access to major public transport stations. Such access paths, coupled with safe bicycle parking places, would contribute towards increasing the use of public transport. Creative facilities like shade giving landscaping, provision of drinking water and resting stations along bicycle corridors would also be encouraged as they can mitigate, to a large extent, adverse weather conditions. The use of the central verge along many roads, along with innovatively designed road crossings, seems to offer promise for being developed as cycle tracks.

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It has been the experience that many such cycle tracks and pedestrian paths do not get used as initially envisaged. However, a view has been that this is because these facilities are designed badly and without fully recognizing the limitations and problems faced by cyclists or pedestrians. It would, therefore, be essential that such facilities be constructed after an open debate on the designs with experts and the community that is expected to use them. It is expected that such public appraisal would lead to designs that enable greater use by the potential beneficiaries. Encroachment of footpaths too affects pedestrian safety adversely and requires strict enforcement coupled with public participation. Pedestrian safety is also adversely affected by the lack of safe crossing facilities at busy intersections of even high traffic corridors.

The Central Government would give priority to the construction of cycle tracks and pedestrian paths in all cities, under the National Urban Renewal Mission (NURM), to enhance safety and thereby enhance use of non-motorized modes. Cities would also be encouraged to explore the possibility of a public bicycle program, where people can rent a bicycle for use in specially designated areas.

The Central government would support the construction of safe pedestrian crossings at busy intersections and high traffic corridors.

The Central Government would support formulation and implementation of specific “Area Plans” in congested urban areas that propose appropriate mix of various modes of transport including exclusive zones for non-motorized transit.

The Central Government would also take up pilot projects, in a sample set of cities, to demonstrate the improvements that are possible through the enhanced used of cycling, for possible replication in other cities.

Parking

Land is valuable in all urban areas. Parking places occupy large portions of such land. This fact should be recognized in determining the principles for allocation of parking space.

Levy of a high parking fee, that truly represents the value of the land occupied, should be used as a means to make the use of public transport more attractive. Preference in the allocation of parking space for public transport vehicles and non-motorized modes as well as easier access of work places to and from such spaces would go a long way in encouraging the use of sustainable transport systems. Park and ride facilities for bicycle users, with convenient inter-change, would be another useful measure.

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Simultaneously, a graded scale of parking fee, that recovers the economic cost of the land used in such parking, should be adopted. The objective would be to persuade people to use public transport to reach city centres.

State governments would be required to amend building bye laws in all million plus cities so that adequate parking space is available for all residents / users of such buildings. To enable this, FAR norms would be made more liberal. Multi-level parking complexes should be made a mandatory requirement in city centres that have several high rise commercial complexes. Such complexes could even be constructed underground, including below areas declared as green belts in the master plan. Such complexes could come up through public-private partnerships in order to limit the impact on the public budget. All such parking complexes would be encouraged to go in for electronic metering so that is there is better realization of parking fees to make the investments viable and also a better recovery of the cost of using valuable urban space in the parking of personal motor vehicles. In residential areas too, appropriate changes in bye-laws would be considered to free the public carriage way from parked vehicles that impede the smooth flow of traffic. Proposals for parking complexes would also be given priority under the National Urban Renewal Mission. Provisions would also be made in the appropriate legislation to prevent the use of the right of way on road systems for parking purposes.

Freight traffic

As economic activities in cities expand and city population grows, a substantial amount of freight traffic would be generated. The timely and smooth movement of such freight is crucial to the well being of the people and the viability of the economic activities they undertake. However, with limited capacity of the transport system, it is essential that freight traffic and passenger traffic are so staggered as to make optimum use of the transport infrastructure. It is a time honoured and tested practice to use off-peak passenger travel times to move freight. Many cities have earmarked late night hours for the movement of freight and restricted the entry of heavy vehicles into cities during day time. Further, several cities have by-passes that enable through traffic to go around the city and not add to city traffic. These practices are sound and would be encouraged in all cities. For this purpose, cities would be encouraged to build by-passes, through innovative and viable public – private partnerships. Similarly, facilities for the parking of freight vehicles outside city limits, such as truck terminals, would also be encouraged through public-private partnerships. Proposals for such facilities would be considered under the National Urban Renewal Mission.

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Legal and Administrative Issues

The current structure of governance for the transport sector is not equipped to deal with the problems of urban transport. These structures were put in place well before the problems of urban transport began to surface in India and hence do not provide for the right co-ordination mechanisms to deal with urban transport. The Central Government will, therefore, recommend the setting up of Unified Metropolitan Transport Authorities (UMTA’s) in all million plus cities, to facilitate more co-ordinated planning and implementation of urban transport programs and projects and an integrated management of urban transport systems. Such Metropolitan Transport Authorities would need statutory backing in order to be meaningful.

The Central Government would also encourage the setting up of professional bodies that have the capacity to make scientific assessment of the demand on various routes and contract services that can be properly monitored. Towards this end, it would encourage the setting up of umbrella bodies that regulate the overall performance of the public transport system and ensure that the city has a comprehensive public transport system. Such bodies would, inter-alia, design networks and routes, assess demand, contract services, monitor performance, manage common facilities like bus stations and terminals, etc. They would have representation from all the major operators and stakeholders.

Model legislation would be drafted for cities to consider and adopt, with such modifications as may be required to suit city specific requirements.

Capacity building

The responsibility for the planning and implementation of urban transport systems rests with the State governments and the municipal bodies. However, since the problems associated with urban transport are of relatively recent origin in India, having surfaced only from the early 1990s, the ability to fully understand and deal with these problems is yet to fully mature. This calls for concerted efforts at strengthening capabilities at the State and city level to address these issues and undertake the task of developing sustainable urban transport systems.

Capacity building will have to be addressed at two levels – institutional and individual. Institutional capacity would primarily involve creating a pool of knowledge and a knowledge management center that would sustain and enhance expertise as well as facilitate more informed planning. It would also sponsor regular research to help formulate the right mitigation strategies, without merely adopting what other countries have tried. The Institute of Urban Transport (India), an existing institute under the purview of the Ministry of Urban Development would be suitably strengthened to discharge this responsibility. It would be built up to serve as a national level facility to provide continuous advice and guidance on the principles of good urban transport planning as emerges from its research. Advice on new technologies would also be regularly available to implementing agencies from this institute. For this purpose, the institute would become a store house of information on the various

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public transport technologies being used in different parts of the world and would maintain the latest information and literature on the experience with such technologies. It would, in fact be a comprehensive repository of the best practices in the field.

The virtual lack of a database on urban transport statistics has severely constrained the ability to formulate sound urban transport plans and reliably assess the impact of the different initiatives that have been taken. The national level institute would build up a database for use in planning, research, training, etc in the field of urban transport.

The Central Government would also encourage the development of such institutional capacity at the State level through the platform of the National Urban Renewal Mission. A specific scheme would need to be formulated for this purpose.

At the individual level, a major exercise of training and skill development of the public officials and other public functionaries would be taken up to make such officials aware of the nuances of urban transport planning and the specific issues involved in managing city transport. This would be targeted at personnel belonging to the State transport departments, municipal corporations, metropolitan development authorities, traffic police, environmental authorities, State Transport Corporations, Public Works Departments, etc.

It is recognized that there are several proven technologies for public transport around the world that have yet to be adopted in India. In order to build up the necessary capacity to adopt such technologies within the country, the Central Government would facilitate joint ventures and collaboration agreements between such technology providers and suitable Indian companies. Necessary incentives would be provided to enable such technologies to get commercialized in India. This could be by way of financing customized prototypes, development of designs to suit Indian conditions, trial operations, training of the technical personnel, etc. The objective would be to ultimately build a level playing field for all proven technologies.

As part of the exercise of skill development, academic programs in urban transport, especially at the post-graduate level, would be strengthened so that a nucleus of qualified urban transport professionals becomes available in the country. Suitable collaborations, with leading institutes abroad, would be established to offer expertise to such programs in the initial years. An annual urban transport conference would also be institutionalized, to bring together the urban transport professionals in the country to share their experiences. International experts would be invited to such a conference so that Indian professionals are able to exchange information and learn from developments and experiences abroad. A well rated urban transport journal would also be started.

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Use of cleaner technologies

While petroleum based fuels are by far the most commonly used today, other alternatives have been emerging, though slowly. CNG has been adopted in a big way for bus transport in Delhi. Electric trolley buses are also being proposed in the city. Electric vehicles have already entered the market for cars and auto rickshaws. Electric two wheelers are also under development. Such cleaner technologies need to be encouraged so that the problem of vehicular pollution can be more effectively dealt with. Besides, renewable sources need to be tapped as a measure of sustainable development and in recognition of India’s energy security concerns. The Central Government would, therefore, encourage the research, development and commercialization of cleaner technologies.

New technologies always find it difficult to enter an established market and new auto fuel technologies would also face this problem. However, in view of their many advantages, they would be offered suitable concessions and benefits that would enable them to make an entry and compete with established technologies on more equitable terms. It is expected that such competition will also encourage established technologies to improve their performance characteristics and compete with the emerging choices.

Several vehicles on our roads tend to be poorly maintained and are overly polluting. This is partly because the requirements of proper maintenance are not stringent and are largely driven only by the owner’s motivation to save on fuel cost. Even where such motivation exists, the lack of a widespread network of good quality repair facilities discourages them for the exertion of having their vehicles periodically tested.

In order to overcome these problems, the Central Government would, lay down a clear and time bound schedule of progressively tighter emission norms, with adequate lead-time, to allow the auto and oil industry to make the required investments. Measures would also be introduced to incentivize the use of fuel efficient (zero pollution) and small sized vehicles that use up little road space and also cause low pollution. Statutory provisions would also be introduced requiring all in-use vehicles in a city, including personal motor vehicles, to undergo a periodic check up and obtain a specified certification. States would be encouraged to set up such certification facilities, in partnership with the private sector. The Central Government would also support the establishment of training centres for the staff of such certification establishments so that there are adequate skilled personnel, both for certification and for undertaking the required repairs. All of these would require that an effective regulatory body be set up to prescribe, monitor and enforce the adherence of emission and safety standards.

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Innovative financing mechanisms using land as a resource

It is evident that huge capital investments will be required in dealing with the urban transport problems. Whether they are for constructing capital intensive mass transit systems or segregated rights-of-way for cycles and pedestrians, a substantial financial burden would devolve on the government. Most State governments and local bodies do not have the required resources and, therefore, alternative methods of financing would have to be explored.

The Central Government would encourage the levy of dedicated taxes to be credited to an urban transport fund and used exclusively to meet urban transport needs within the State. Such dedicated taxes could be in the form of a supplement to the petrol and diesel taxes, betterment levy on land owners or even an employment tax on employers. In fact, revenues from a betterment levy along new high capacity public transport corridors would be included as a component of the financing plan for such new public transport systems.

The Central Government would also encourage partnerships and greater use of private capital in areas where the private sector can competitively deliver urban transport services. More specifically, the greater use of private buses in city areas would be encouraged to reduce the dependence on public budgets. The commercial utilization of land resources, available with public transport service providers, is also recommended to raise additional resources.

Association of the private sector

There are several activities in which the private sector can be beneficially engaged, thereby saving financial resources for activities that only public agencies can best perform. However, these have to be done under conditions that strike a fair balance between the universal obligations of the government and the profit motive of the private operator. Accordingly, the Central Government would encourage a more liberal use of the private sector, especially in activities like the operation and maintenance of parking facilities, certification facilities, repair facilities, construction and management of terminal facilities, etc. Till the mid 1980s most public transport services were largely provided by publicly owned State Transport Corporations. Since then, however, some States have permitted privately run services. While public operations have tended to be high cost and most State Transport Corporations have run up heavy losses, the reliability and safety record of inadequately regulated private operators has been poor. On balance, the Central Government would encourage the State Governments to involve the private sector in providing public transport services, but under well structured procurement contracts.

Need for Public Awareness and Cooperation

Urban transport policies cannot succeed without the fullest co-operation of all the city residents. Such cooperation can be best secured if the objective of any initiative is made clearly known to them. It is, therefore, necessary to launch intensive awareness campaigns

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that educate people on the ill effects of the growing transport problems in urban areas - especially on their health and well being. The campaigns would seek their support for initiatives like greater use of public transport and non-motorized vehicles, the proper maintenance of their vehicles, safer driving practices, etc. Such campaigns would also encourage individuals, families and communities to adopt “Green Travel Habits” that would make travel less polluting and damaging. The Central Government would take up a major awareness campaign in this regard and seek the support of the State Government in its implementation. Particular emphasis would be laid on bringing about such awareness amongst children through inputs in their school curricula.

Annex 1

Table: Relative characteristics of available public transport technologies Technology Advantages Disadvantages Some cities where

operating Useful for

Heavy rail systems – underground, elevated or at grade

• Very high carrying Capacity

• High speed

• Very low pollution in operations

• Needs very little urban space

• Very high capital costs

• High per unit operating costs if capacity utilization is low

• Inflexible Long gestation period

• Needs extensive feeder network or very dense captive area

• Complex interconnectivity with feeder system

• Relatively complex technology requiring

highly specialized manpower for O&M

Singapore, Tokyo, Hongkong and several cities in Europe and North America

• Very high density corridors, where

road space is very limited.

• Well suited for densely populated cities that have low sprawl and

few spinal, long haul corridors

• At grade systems are very good for urban systems and the fringe areas of a city where space is more easily available

Light rail systems

• Capital costs are less than for

• Capital costs higher than for

Several cities in North America

• Medium density corridors where

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heavy rail systems

• Per unit operating costs are less than for heavy rail systems.

• Low pollution levels

• Needs less urban space than bus based systems

• Needs limited urban space if elevated or underground (however capital costs go up)

bus systems

• Inflexible

• Per unit operating costs higher than for bus systems if capacity utilization is low

• Needs substantial urban space if at grade

• Carrying capacity is lower than for heavy rail systems though comparable to high capacity bus systems

• Needs extensive feeder network or dense captive area

• Complex interconnectivity with feeder system

• Relatively complex technology requiring specialized skills for O&M

and Europe space availability is adequate for supporting elevated structures or at grade tracks

• Medium density cities with limited

sprawl

High capacity bus systems on dedicated

• Capital costs lower than for rail based systems

• Low O&M costs

• Capacity not as high as heavy rail systems though comparable to light rail

Brazil, Colombia and several other cities in Latin America

• Medium density corridors where space availability is adequate for supporting the dedicated right of

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lanes • Higher capacity than normal bus services

• More flexible than rail based systems

• Needs less extensive feeder network than rail based systems

• Easy connectivity with feeder system

• Relatively simple technology with easy availability of manpower for O&M

systems

• More polluting than rail based systems

• Needs imported fuel

• Needs urban space for dedicated corridor

way

• Medium density cities with limited sprawl

Sky bus System is non-polluting Needs limited urban space for supporting elevated structures

Not yet proven anywhere on commercial operations Inflexible

• Medium density corridors where space is limited

• Promising for dense city centres

Electric Trolley bus

Advantages / disadvantages of normal bus system but with a higher capital cost, though non-polluting. Relatively inflexible and impacts city aesthetics due to overhead clutter.

San Francisco All routes suitable for buses but where local pollution has to be low

Normal buses on shared right of way

• Very low capital cost

• Low operating costs

• Highly flexible

• Do not need feeder systems

• Very low capacity

• Polluting

• Low speeds

• Poor social image

Most cities around the world

• Low density corridors where local pollution is not a critical issue

• Feeder to higher capacity systems

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Acts and Rules related to transport sector

� The Central Motor Vehicles Act, 1988.

� The Central Motor Vehicles Rules, 1989.

� The Karnataka Motor Vehicle Rules, 1989.

� The Karnataka Motor Vehicle Taxation, Act, 1957.

� The Karnataka Motor Vehicle Taxation, Rules, 1957.

� The Road Transport Corporation Act, 1950.

� The Karnataka State Road Transport Corporation Rules, 1961.

� The Karnataka Civil Services (Service & Kannada Language Examination) Rules,

1974.

� The Departmental Promotion Committees.

� The Karnataka Civil Services (General Recruitment) Rules, 1977.

� The Karnataka Civil Services (Probation) Rules, 1977.

� Reservation roster for Scheduled Castes, Scheduled Tribes & other backward Classes.

� The Karnataka Civil Services (Performance Reports) Rules, 1994.

� The Karnataka Public Service Commission (Consultation) Regulation, 2000.

� Appointment to the dependents of Government Servants who die while in service on

compassionate grounds.

� The Karnataka Civil Services (Classification, Control & Appeal) Rules, 1957.

� The Karnataka Civil Services (Conduct) Rules, 1966.

� The Karnataka Government (Allocation of Business) Rules, 1977.

� Karnataka Transaction of Business Rules, 1977.

� The Karnataka Government Servants (Medical Attendance) Rules, 1963.

� The Karnataka Civil Services Rules.

Role and Functions of DULT

As per the recommendations of The National Working Group on Urban Transport for the 11th Plan and the guidelines of the National Urban Transport Policy, the Government of Karnataka in its Government Order No. UDD 134 BMR 2006 (I) Bangalore. Dated 8.3.2007 has created the State Directorate of Urban Land Transport [DULT] under the Urban Development Department. The key objective of the DULT is to ensure integration and coordination of land-use planning and development of transport related infrastructure in urban areas. The functions of DULT have been defined in the above referred Government Order. Accordingly, one of the key functions is to take up Comprehensive Traffic and Transportation

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Studies [CTTS] for all urban areas in a phased manner. Thus the need for integrating land-use planning and transportation is seen as a major thrust and challenge for the DULT.

Functions of DULT

On the lines of National Urban Transport Policy (NUTP), 2006 and recommendation of National Working Group on Urban Transport for 11th Plan Govt. of Karnataka has constituted the Directorate of Urban Land transport (DULT). As indicated in Government Order following are the functions of the DULT.

1. Periodic assessment of travel demand

2. Determination of the level of public transport required in different corridors and the type of transport systems required

3. Assessment & recommendation of the new investments needed creation of infrastructure

4. Procurement of public transport service from private operators

5. Policy guidelines for development of total network in urban areas/ new layouts

6. Designing and developing integrated policies and plans for city level transportation

Comprehensive Traffic And Transportation Plan (CTTP) For Bangalore

Problems and Issues

Bangalore population has been growing at a rate of 3.25% per year in the last decade. There has been a phenomenal growth in the population of vehicles as well especially the two and four wheelers in this period due to rising household incomes. The number of motor vehicles registered has already crossed 28 lakhs. In the absence of adequate public transport system, people are using the personalized modes which is not only leading to congestion on limited road network but also increasing environmental pollution. An average Bangalorean spends more than 240 hours stuck in traffic every year. Such delays result in loss of productivity, reduced air quality, reduced quality of life, and increased costs for services and goods.

The analysis of collected data from primary and secondary sources has brought the following major issues regarding the transport system of Bangalore.

1. Road network capacity is inadequate. Most of the major roads are with four lane or less with limited scope of their widening. This indicates the need for judicious use of available road space. The junctions are closely spaced on many roads. Many junctions in core area are with 5 legs. This makes traffic circulation difficult. There is need to

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optimise the available capacity by adopting transport system management measures and by making use of intelligent transportation systems.

2. Traffic composition on roads indicates very high share of two wheelers. The share of cars is also growing. This indicates inadequate public transport system. V/C ratios on most of the roads are more than 1. Overall average traffic speed is about 13.5 kmph in peak hour. This not only indicates the need of augmenting road capacity but the also to plan high capacity mass transport systems on many corridors.

3. Outer cordon surveys indicate high through traffic to the city. This points to the need of road bypasses not only for Bangalore Metropolitan Area (BMA) but also for Bangalore Metropolitan Region (BMR). High goods traffic also indicates the need of freight terminals at the periphery of the city.

4. The household travel surveys indicate high share of work trips. This segment of travel demand needs to be mostly satisfied by public transport system. Considering the large employment centres being planned in the BMA, the public/mass transport system needs to be upgraded/extended substantially.

5. At present, modal split in favour of public transport is about 46% (exclusive of walk trips). The trends show a decline in this share over the last two decades. This is further expected to fall unless adequate and quality public transport system is provided to the people of Bangalore. Share of two wheelers and cars in travel demand is disturbingly high. This trend needs to be arrested.

6. There is high pedestrian traffic in core area and some other areas in Bangalore. Footpath facilities are generally not adequate and their condition is deteriorating. Therefore up gradation of their facilities is very important. Share of cycle traffic has declined over the years. This mode of transport needs to be promoted by providing cycle tracks along the roads.

7. Parking is assuming critical dimensions in Bangalore. Parking facilities need to be augmented substantially. In the long run, city-wide public transport system needs to provide not only to reduce congestion on roads but also to reduce parking demand.

8. Area of the BMA has been increased as per Revised Master Plan-2015. This plan has provided for densification of existing areas, Mutation corridors, hitech areas etc in various parts of the city. This likely to have a major impact on traffic demand. The transport network including mass transport system needs to be planned taking the proposed development in to consideration.

9. Major developments have been proposed in the suburban towns of Bangalore by BMRDA in the BMR. This is likely to increase interaction between Bangalore and these suburban towns. There will be need to provide commuter rail services to these towns from Bangalore.

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Thus while planning for the transport system of Bangalore, the above problems and issues need to be kept in consideration. The issues relating to traffic and transportation in a large and growing city like Bangalore need to be viewed in the larger perspective of urban planning and development. Issues relating to land use planning and development control, public-private transportation policy and industrial location would need to be integrated at the perspective planning level. With Metro Rail under implementation there is the need to coordinate inter modal transport issues.

The Preferred Strategy for Transport Development

In order to prepare the Comprehensive Transport Plan the following policy measures have been considered

1. Extension of mass transport system to provide wide coverage and transport integration with other modes of transport.

2. Provide substantially large network of medium level mass transport system such as BRT to cover the areas beyond the Metro network and on over loaded corridors.

3. Landuse adjustments and densification of corridors along mass transport corridors where possible.

4. Extension of commuter rail system upto the BMRDA’s New Townships & beyond upto Tumkur, Hosur etc. to act as sub-urban services.

5. Rationalisation of local bus system and its augmentation.

6. Improvement in traffic management through TSM measures.

7. Special facilities for pedestrians within the entire network specially in the core areas; pedestrianisation of selected shopping streets inside the core area going to be served by Metro. Provision of pedestrian sky walks/subways, footpaths and road furniture along the roads where necessary.

8. Diverting through traffic on Peripheral Ring Road. Providing transport hubs at the junctions of Peripheral Ring Road with important radials such as; the National Highways and other heavily loaded roads.

9. Improving primary, arterial and other important roads (particularly radial and ring roads) by providing grade separation, junction improvements, adding missing links, widening and other road side facilities wherever necessary.

Transport Demand Analysis

Population of the BMA is expected to increase from 61 lakh in 2001 to 88 lakh in 2015 and 122 lakh in 2025. Considering proposed land use, transport sector requirements upto 2025 have been assessed using travel demand modeling. The transport sector recommendations contained in the Master Plan for BMA, city development plan proposed by Bruhat Bangalore Mahanagara Palike (BBMP) under the auspices of Jawaharlal Nehru National Urban Renewal Mission (JNNURM), region development plan prepared by

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Bangalore Metropolitan Regional Development Authority (BMRDA), development plans of Bangalore International Airport Area Planning Authority (BIAAPA) and Bangalore-Mysore Infrastructure Corridor Area Planning Authority (BMICAPA) have been examined.

For the purpose of transport demand analysis, various scenarios have been considered as follows.

Scenario 1: This scenario considers a ‘do minimum’ situation wherein Improvement & augmentation in existing system for the bus network and roads already proposed. The purpose of the scenario is to capture the intensity of the problem if no measures are taken to overhaul the transport system in the city.

Scenario 2: In addition to what has been considered in scenario 1, scenario 2 considers the implementation of metro project as planned, a mono rail system covering 50 km, a BRT system covering 30km, commuter rail system covering 62 km, elevated core ring road of 30 km, a peripheral ring road of 114 km and intermediate ring road of 188 km as proposed IN Master Plan.

Scenario 3: This scenario is developed to address the anticipated demand with extensive public transport system as the focus for development. It is developed upon scenario 2 with additional lines of mass transport systems (about 650 km).

127 lakh person trips by mechanical modes are estimated to be generated in 2025 against 56 lakh in 2006. Present modal split of 46% in favour of public transport is estimated to fall to 29% by 2025 for scenario 1. Thus most of the trips would be undertaken by personalised modes creating unbearable congested conditions. For scenario 2, modal split in favour of public transport is expected to improve to 50% by 2025. However, this is also not enough for the city of size of Bangalore and many roads would still be overloaded. For scenario 3, the modal split in favour of public transport is estimated as 73%. This modal split is in conformity with the desirable modal split for the city of size of Bangalore as recommended by a Study Group of Government of India. The study, thus, recommends scenario 3 that would fulfil the objectives of the transport sector development integrated with the proposed land use and giving predominance to the public transport system.

The Proposed Traffic and Transportation Plan

On the basis of projected traffic, an integrated multi-modal mass transport system plan on various corridors has been suggested in order to cater to traffic up to the year 2025. The mass transport systems have been proposed on various corridors considering expected traffic demand by 2025, available road right-of ways and system capacity. The balance traffic should be carried by road system in order to satisfy the needs of normal bus system and other modes such as two wheelers, cars, bicycles, trucks, pedestrians etc. The proposed Traffic and Transportation Plan for Bangalore contains the following types of proposals, which will cater to requirements of the projected travel demand up to the year 2025

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• Mass Transport System

- Metro System - Monorail/LRT System - Bus Rapid Transport (BRT) System - Commuter Rail Services

• City Bus System

- Augmentation of Bus Fleet - Grid Routes - Bus Terminal cum Traffic & Transit Management Centres (TTMC) - Volvo Depot cum Traffic & Transit centre - New Bus Stations/bus shelters - Additional Depots - IT Infrastructure - HRD Infrastructure - Environment Protection Projects

• Inter-city Bus Terminals

• Transport Integration

• Transport System Management Measures

• Pedestrian/NMT Facilities

- Footpaths - Skywalks/Subways - Pedestrian zones - Cycle Tracks

• Road Development Plan

- New Roads/Missing Links (Peripheral Ring Road, Core Ring Road, New - Airport Expressway etc). - Road Widening - Grade Separators - Re-alignment of Outer Ring Road

• Parking Facilities

• Integrated Freight Complexes

Integrated multi modal transport system has been recommended in order to ensure seamless travel. For the balance travel demand, road improvement proposals have been

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formulated. While making road proposals, entire corridor has been proposed to be improved instead of isolated improvements.

The proposed mass transport corridors are shown in Table 1 and Figure 1. Proposals pertaining to city bus system (other than BRT), parking, pedestrian and road improvement proposals are shown in Figures 2 -4. Summary of proposals is given in Table 2.

Summary of the cost estimates for various projects is also given in Table 2. Overall cost of the entire plan is estimated as Rs 46,944 Crore of which Rs 31,377 Crore is proposed for Phase I (2007-12). Cost of the projects proposed in Phase II (2013-18) is Rs 14,157 Crore.

Table 1: Proposed Mass Transport Corridors Sl. No Corridor Length (km)

Metro Corridors 1 Baiyyappanahalli to Mysore Road East-West Corridor 18.0 2 Peenya to R.V terminal North-South Corridor 18.8 3 Extension of North –South corridor from R.V. Terminal upto PRR 10.2 4 Baiyyappanahalli to Benniganahalli along Old Madras Road. 1.5 5 Yelahanka R.S to PRR via Nagavara , Electronic City 36.0 6 Indira Nagar Metro Stn to White field Railway Station via 100ft

Indira Nagar Road 19.5

7 Proposed Devanhalli Airport to M.G.Road via Bellary Road 33.0 Total length 137.0 Monorail/LRT Corridors 1 Hebbal to J.P. Nagar (Bannerghatta Road) along the western

portion of outer ring road 31.0

2 PRR to Toll Gate along Magadi Road 9.0 3 Kathriguppe Road / Ring Road Junction to National College 5.0 4 Hosur Road - Bannerghatta Road Junction to PRR along

Bannerghatta Road 15.0

Total Length 60.0 Commuter Rail Corridors 1 Kengeri - Bangalore City Station 13.0 2 Bangalore City Station - Whitefield 24.0 3 Bangalore City Station – Baiyyappanahalli Via Lottegollahalli 23.0 4 Lottegollahalli to Yelahanka 7.0 5 Banaswadi upto BMA Boundary 29.0 6 Kengeri- BMA Boundary 9.0 7 Yeshwantpur to BMA Boundary 14.0 8 BMA Boundary – Hosur 12.0 9 BMA Boundary- Ramanagaram 23.0 10 BMA Boundary to Tumkur 50.0 Total Length 204.0

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Bus Rapid Transit (BRT) Corridors 1 Hebbal to Bannerghatta Road along eastern crescent of outer ring

road 33.0

2 Benniganahalli (ORR) to PRR along old Madras Road 7.0 3 From ORR to Hosur Rd along Hi-tech Corridor 8.0 4 Hosur Road to Tumkur Road along PRR (western part) 41.0 5 Tumkur Road-PRR Junction to Hosur Road along PRR via

Tirumanahalli, Old Madras Road, Whitefield 76.0

6 Along Core Ring Road 30.0 7 Vidyaranyapura to Nagavarapalya via Hebbal, Jayamahal Road,

Queens Road, M.G. Road, Ulsoor, Indiranagar, CV Raman Nagar 29.0

8 Kengeri Sattelite Town to J.P. Nagar along Uttarahalli Road, Kodipur

13.0

9 Banashankari III stage to Banashankari VI stage Ext. along Ittumadu Road, Turahalli, Thalaghattapura

6.0

10 Domlur Ext. to Koramangala along inner ring road 5.0 11 PRR (Mulur) to Maruti Ngr. (up to Hitech corridor) along Sarjapur

Road 7.0

12 Peenya to PRR along Tumkur Road 6.0 13 Old Madras Road near Indiranagar to ORR near Banaswadi along

Baiyyappanahalli Road -Banaswadi Road 5.5

14 Hebbal to Devanahalli Airport along Bellary Road 25 Total Length 291.5

Table 2: Summary of Proposed Projects and Cost Estimates (2007 prices) (Rs Crore) ITEM Length

kms/Nos Total Cost

(Rs. Cr.)

Phase-I 2007-12

Phase-II 2013- 18

Phase-III 2019- 24

MASS TRANSPORT CORRIDORS Metro System 137 19921 11086 8835 0 Mono Rail / LRT System 60 5100 3825 1275 0 Commuter Rail System 204 3060 690 1620 750 BRT System 291.5 3498 1866 1632 0

IMPROVEMENT IN CITY BUS SYSTEM Improvement in City Bus System

5721 4401 660 660

ROAD INFRASTRUCTURE New Roads 209.2 5192 5192 0 0 Outer Ring Road Realignment

17 311 311 0 0

Road Improvements (Inside ORR)

142 142 142 0 0

Road Improvements 503 433 433 0.00 0.00

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(Outside ORR) GRADE SEPARATORS

Grade Separators-Road (Nos.)

28 713.0 713.0 0.0 0.0

Rail Over Bridges / RUBs-Rail (Nos)

18 432 432 0 0

Elevated Roads (Kms) 16.5 990 990 0 0 PEDESTRIAN FACILITIES

281 281 0 0

PARKING FACILITIES (No. of car spaces)

10000 380 380 0 0

Integrated Freight Complexes (IFC):

6 270 135 135 0

B-TRAC 500 500 0 0 GRAND TOTAL 46944 31377 14157 1410 Institutional Strengthening

The current structure of governance for the transport sector is not adequately equipped to deal with the problems of urban transport. Multiplicity of organizations, independent legislations and inherent conflict in the roles and responsibilities of stakeholders actually impede in the process of planning and implementation of major schemes aimed at development. Government of Karnataka has recently accorded sanction for the creation of State Directorate of Urban Land Transport (DULT) under the Urban Development Department with the intended objective of ensuring integration of transport planning and development of transport infrastructure in urban areas. The government has also sanctioned setting up of Bangalore Metropolitan Land Transport Authority.

(BMLTA) for BMR. BMLTA will function as an umbrella organization to coordinate planning and implementation of urban transport programmes and projects. All land transport systems (excluding Railways) in the BMR will be brought under the purview of BMLTA. Therefore it is important that BMLTA is established at the earliest with statutory backing and adequate technical staff provided for this organization. It is also important that BMLTA is also given with the power to assign various projects to various organizations. All the finances to the concerned organizations should also be routed through BMLTA in order to make BMLTA effective and to ensure timely completion of projects.

Transport Planning is an essential component of town planning. Presently there is no proper technical body for required transport planning inputs. It is necessary that technical expertise is created within BDA and BMRDA to undertake this task. For the purpose Transport Planning Unit (TPU) is proposed to be established in BDA and BMRDA. A large number of agencies deal with road system such as BBMP, BDA, Traffic Police, PWD, NHAI, BMRDA, Transport Department, KUIDFC, BMRCL, BMTC, BMLTA etc. There are numerous issues of proper road geometrics, traffic circulation, junction design, traffic signals,

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road signs/markings, street furniture etc which are not properly attended to by these agencies due to lack of traffic engineering expertise. Traffic planning is a continuous affair. It is therefore important that Traffic Engineering Cells are established in these organizations with qualified and adequate staff such as traffic engineers and transport planners. This will ensure that the traffic schemes are properly implemented with better results and fine-tuned later, if necessary. This will go a long way to improve traffic flow in Bangalore. As bus system will continue to be an important sub-system in future also, it is also important that BMTC is adequately strengthened through its HRD initiatives.

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Chapter:04: Public Transport

Multimodal Transit System and its integration in Delhi

(Source:http://www.nbmcw.com/articles/miscellaneous/others/5024-multi-modal transportation-system-in-delhi-good-choice-for-better-mobilty.html)

Introduction

The applications of technological and scientific principle to the planning, design, operation and management of facilities, combine two or more modes to provide utility and service for safe, rapid, convenient and environmentally compatible movement of the people. This combination is known as Multi Modal Transportation System (MMTS). In MMTS, two or more different modes are used for single trip between which the traveller has to make a transfer. Transfer is an essential part of multimodal trip and travellers have to change modes at transfer nodes. Hence seamless travel is an important requirement of the system.

The Ministry of Urban Development, Govt. of India formulated National Urban Transport Policy, 2006 with broad objective to ensure safe, affordable, quick, comfortable, reliable and sustainable access for public transport to the commuters within cities. One of the objectives is to "enabling the establishment of quality focused multi-modal public transport systems that are well integrated, providing seamless travel across modes." The choice between public transport and personalized mode is an individual decision depending on trip length, duration, route, purpose, fare, parking facilities, convenient and comfort. It is further influenced by Govt. policies and Urban Local Body (ULB) decisions priority.

There are many factors affecting individual modal choice for different types of journeys. Variables can include the availability of transport technology, the relative location of homes and workplaces, and the cost of different transport modes, accessibility, routing, convenience and personal preferences. Economic theory provides a suitable framework for looking at people's purchasing behavior. Economist's model of choice is based on concept of utility. Hence, all the attributes including safety, comfort, etc act simultaneously on the mind of commuters for mode choice behavior.

Choice Behaviour Techniques

Multi Modal Transportation System involves co-ordinated use of public and private modes of transport. It also involves modal shift from private to public mode and vice versa. This modal change occurs at interchange node where public mode is to be alighted. It is important to assess demand of commuters for new multimodal transport services and hence preferences and choice behavior of commuters must be evaluated throughout the trip chain and related need for transfer. However, attributes of the services (time, reliability, etc) and information about the services influence travel choice behavior. In this context, two approaches are adopted:

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1. Revealed Preference (RP) Approach: It deals with the existing choice of the commuter in which the commuter makes a comparison between existing modes of travel and the preferences is related to the chosen alternative over the rejected alternatives. In fact, it is records of travel decisions which people have already made (such as from travel diary/OD survey). These decisions are revealed in their behavior and are called revealed preferences. It cannot be used to predict the demand of an innovative mode which is yet to be introduced. However, it is used to model a hypothetical travel scenario to estimate the demand of new mode.

2. State Preference (SP) Approach: It helps operating and planning authorities to study the patronage of an innovative mode by presenting hypothetical policy options before the commuters and then asking them about the mode they would prefer if the given policy options are implemented. In fact, it is records of travel decisions which people say they will make, such as from an interview survey where people are asked to make decisions between alternatives which the interviewer puts to them. It is called Stated Preferences. Thus the effect of change in policy options can be studied to know the demand of new mode.

Various studies have been conducted to analyze the passenger switching behavior from personalized vehicles to public transport mode and transfer from one to another public mode. It has been found that SP technique is an effective tool for predicting the share of modes in MMTS. Similarly, change in the share of modes in MMTS as a result of NTP 2006 and local body policy decisions can also be assessed by using the above techniques.

The demand estimate of any mode can be done by studying the switching over behaviour of commuters which involves making a choice between different modes. A commuter chooses a particular mode of transport if its utility is higher i.e. maximum in comparison to other modes. The concept of utility assumes that there is a method of combining the various attributes (variables) of an alternative mode including the fare, travel time, etc to give better utility for that alternative.

It is generally the weighted sum of attributes.

A commuter wants to decide either car or metro to go for work. It is observed that travel cost, in-vehicle–time, comfort and convenience, etc influence his choice for car mode while fare, waiting time, in-vehicle time, no. of interchange, interchange penalty, requirement of seamless travel, etc affect his choice of metro. If total satisfaction derived from using the car is less than that of the metro, commuter will prefer metro. The utility for car and metro can be specified as below:

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The overall utility consists of the measured part (V) and unmeasured part (e)

Choice of Multi Modal Transportation System

In metro cities, public transport modes are metro, commuter rail, high capacity bus, bus rapid transit, bus transport system (intra/intercity) along with LRT and monorail. Metro provides urban services and commuter rail serves mainly suburban traffic. In recent years, integration of MRTS and BRTS are also getting momentum in Indian cities. The National Urban Transport Policy 2006 also promotes development of bus based public transit system in Indian cities as a cost effective means of providing quality transit services.

Mathematically, Umetro = Vmetro + emetro

where, Umetro = Overall Utility.

Vmetro =the part of utility that can be calculated directly.

emetro = the part of utility that can not be measured directly.

The utility function of car is as follows:

Ucar = Vcar + ecar

where, Ucar= Overall Utility.

Vcar=the part of utility that can be calculated directly.

ecar= the part of utility that cannot be measured directly.

If Umetro > Ucar then the commuter will choose metro.

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Public transport should be more reliable and attractive so that the commuter willingly abandons the use of personalized vehicle and take to public transport. It should also meet the needs of the weaker sections of the society. Further, public transport should available from origin to destination with minimum interchanges involving least time loss and stations are easy and safe to access. Hence public transport network must be integrated and multimodal. It is equally important to integrate various modes of mass transport with IPT. Integration of walk and bicycle may also be taken with public transport to enhance share of non-motorized modes.

Improved integration among various modes of mass transport helps people to move around easily and reduces the cost and inconvenience of travel. Thus, it brings reduced congestion on the road, convenience to commuters, efficiency and cost effectiveness. The information regarding parking facilities near interchange station, unified ticket, co-ordinated time tables and public awareness play important role.

A well developed multimodal transportation system use applications of intelligent transport system. Smart card tickets in Delhi metro; car taxi using wireless system in Delhi, Chennai; vehicle tracking and monitoring system using GPS/GIS in Bangalore; automatic vehicle tracking system using GPS technology by DTC in Delhi; etc are good examples of ITS applications.

Multi Modal Transportation System for Delhi: Good Choice for Better Mobility

The share of public transport is based on the city size. It is necessary to have organized public transport for a city having population one million and above. A city with 6.0 million populations needs mass transit system on certain corridors. A city with population of 9.0 million and above must have several major city modes connected by mass transit system.

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Public transport in Delhi carries only about 60% of total vehicular person trips but the same should be 80% as per population size of the city. The population of Delhi is estimated to grow from 13.8 million (2001) to 23 million (2021). In the same period, the intra city vehicular trips per day are estimated to grow from 10.7 to 24.7 million. If about 15% inter city trips are added, the total trips to be catered to by 2021 will be about 28.7 million per day. Thus 80% of these trips i.e. 24 million should be carried by the public transport by 2021. The present bus services, metro rail and IRBT, if implemented as planned together are estimated to carry about 15 million trips per day by 2021. Thus 9 million trips per day must be additionally catered to by other public transport. Hence it is necessary to take appropriate step for optimum use of carrying capacity of public modes and their proper integration with other modes such as monorail, LRT, etc.

The Government of NCT of Delhi (2006) has developed an Integrated Multi Modal Public Transport Network for NCTD using modes such as Bus Rapid Transit, Light Rail and Monorail in addition to the metro rail and the present DTC bus services duly integrated through multimodal interchange points. This project has been approved by GNCTD for phased implementation by 2020. The total length of the public transit network

including 250 km of Metro will be 750 km. To implement this project, the Government of NCT Delhi has incorporated a 'Special Purpose Vehicle ‘under the name of Delhi Integrated Multi Modal Transit System (DIMMTS) Limited on 19th April, 2006. DIMMTS Ltd. will be

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responsible for all aspects of implementation, operation and maintenance of the proposed multimodal network i.e. planning, design, financing, implementation, operation and maintenance of services and associated infrastructure. In the proposed multimodal transport framework different modes of transport such as Delhi metro rail corridor, existing bus routes, ring railway, high capacity bus system, LRT, mono rail and IRBT are to be integrated.

In MMTS, integration of various modes should be in such a way that most of commuters do not have to walk more than 500 mt. to reach public transport, make more than two or three interchanges to reach their origin/destination and spend too much time at interchange. Coordination between Delhi Metro, DTC buses, Ring Railway System and High Capacity Bus System should ensure a well-integrated system that will take care of entire journey of commuters. The transfer time at transit interchange must be reduced and a

shift of passenger from private and intermediate transport of public transport is expected. Reduction in congestion and delay along with better level of service and conservation of energy are the main features of multimodal mass transportation system.

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Improved integration among various modes of mass transport helps people to move around easily and reduces the costs and inconvenience of travel. Thus a coordinated integration of different modes brings about reduced congestion on the road, greater convenience for commuters, efficiency and cost effectiveness.

The information regarding parking facilities near interchange stations, unified tickets, co-ordinated time tables and public awareness play an important role in achieving the coordination among various modes.

Conclusions

In the present context, there has been a rise in the number of middle class families having desire to own personalized mode. Further, automobile companies are also coming up with new models of cars at reasonable cost. Thus personalized vehicles will increase which will further cause deterioration in traffic and environmental conditions. Hence it is necessary to change travel behaviour of the commuters from personalized vehicles to IPT, shared taxi, etc for short journey and to public transport for long journey.

Choice of MMTS is primarily based on demand level of a corridor, available ROW and the capacity of mode. Similarly, land use along the corridor, development along transit route and nearby transit node, potential for increasing the ROW, etc affect choice behavior. Car owner and chartered bus commuters are reluctant to switch over to metro while bus commuters prefer to save time by availing metro. Feeder bus service to pick up and drop the passengers from MMT stations to CBD/major work centre can promote to choose multi modal transport.

Multimodal transportation system demands synchronization among various modes of transport for better, advanced and efficient service. Further, it also requires need and demand based traffic circulation plans to integrate various modes and improvement of major road stretches and intersections to facilitate smooth movement. In mixed land use areas and

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intensive development zones, there is need to prepare integrated land use transport plan as per availability and operation of constituent modes of MMTS. It is also equally important to integrate underutilized ring rail with other modes of mass transport for better mobility in Delhi.

Bus Stop Design Elements

(http://www.statetransit.info/publications/Bus%20Infrastructure%20Guidelines%20-Issue%202.pdf)

Location

Some of the factors taken into consideration when considering bus stop locations are;

• Curvature of the road and sight distance • Location in relation to traffic signals and pedestrian crossings

• Adjacent land uses • Vegetation and street tree plantings • Adjacent traffic or parking restrictions

• Distances to adjacent bus stops

In considering the locations of bus stops, consultation with the STA should be undertaken to ensure the proposed location is suitable. As a guide, the following factors should be taken into consideration in a preliminary assessment for bus stop locations.

Straight roads

Bus stops should be located on a straight section of roadway. This improves the sight distance for bus drivers as they leave the stop, and is easier for the driver to draw in.

Signalised intersections

The location of each stop should always be considered based on the individual characteristics of the site in question. However, it is often preferred to position bus stops on the departure side of signalised intersections.

Sight distance at intersections

In determining appropriate sight distances at intersections, section 2.1 of the RTA Road Design Guide should be consulted.

Heavy left turns

Bus stops should not be located on the advance side of an intersection that is subject to heavy left turns, as vehicles turn left in front of the bus as it leaves the stop.

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Pedestrian crossing facilities

Where possible, stops should be placed on the downstream side of a pedestrian crossing to reduce the risk of passengers crossing the road in front of a stopped bus.

Weave length

There must be adequate weave length provided where buses are required to enter the traffic lane and cross additional lanes to make a turning movement. The determination on the appropriate weave length is dependent on the particular circumstances of the site and must be undertaken in consultation with State Transit.

Taxi ranks

Bus stops should be placed in front of taxi ranks. Positioning taxi ranks in front of bus zones will result in taxi queuing back into the bus zone when the rank is full.

Street Furniture

Street furniture such as seats or bus shelters may be placed in the bus zone or bus stop area provided that it does not conflict with passenger movements on and off buses.

In determining the position of street furniture, councils should consult with the STA to ensure there are no conflicts with passenger movements. Further information regarding bus stops see section 3.9 for Clear zones and 4.3 Passenger waiting areas.

Planning considerations

Retail, commercial and community facilities

It is highly desirable to locate bus stops close to land uses that are likely to attract the most passengers, such as retail areas, commercial buildings and community facilities.

Shops with high parking turnover

Bus stops should not be located adjacent to facilities that induce a high parking turnover, such as ATM’s, post boxes, video stores, newsagents etc as is likely that vehicles will park illegally within the bus stop.

Bus stop spacing

The Ministry of Transport is responsible for determining bus stop spacing. As a guide, bus stops are generally to be spaced at 200m to 400m intervals. The number of bus stops will be kept to a practical minimum to reduce journey times and passenger delays.

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J-stems, U-stems, blades and plinths

Bus stops and zones are identified by the use of J-stems, U-stems, blades or plinths. Measurements to items such as posts, trees, bus shelters should be made using this as the reference point. R

Bus Stops & Bus Zones

Bus stops with no bus zones

A bus stop is identified by the use of a J-stem or plinth. Australian Road Rule 195 outlines the permissions for stopping in a bus stop, and states that stopping is prohibited within 20m on the approach and 10m on the departure of a bus stop

Bus stops with bus zones

A bus zone is used where a bus stop is considered to give inadequate provision for buses. Bus zones should be installed at bus stops where it is likely that more than one bus will use the stop, or where parking is at a premium and vehicles encroach within the bus stop. Australian Road Rule 183 outlines the permissions for stopping in a bus zone.

The length of a bus zone should not be less than the 30m requirement specified by Australian Road Rule 195. No stopping restrictions may be substituted for draw out and draw in lengths in conjunction with a Bus zone. A No parking restriction cannot substitute draw in and out lengths as vehicles are permitted to stop for up to 2 minutes.

The STA is willing to consider the use of operation times to regulate bus zones, however the use of operation times on bus zones where bus operations commence prior to 9am will not be supported due to the likelihood of vehicles parking in the zone during the evening not being moved prior to 9am.

Bus stop configurations

Bus stops/zones can be configured in a number of ways:

Bus bay

Bus bays are most suited where they are adjacent to bus or bus only lanes. On major bus corridors it is often necessary to provide bus bays so that limited stop or express buses can pass other buses. Bus bays should be regulated by a bus zone and should not be used

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where a bus will be delayed in re-entering the traffic stream. Consideration should be given to the following issues before installing a bus bay.

Traffic Volume

Acceptable gaps must be available in the through traffic lane so that the bus can re-enter the traffic stream.

Sight distance

Sight distance as specified in section 2.1 of the RTA Road Design Guide to be provided.

Traffic Speed

Bus bays should not be used on roads where the speed limit, or 85% percentile speed, exceeds 60 km/h, unless adequate deceleration and acceleration lanes /can be provided.

Bus volumes

Bus bays cannot be readily extended or shortened as demand and bus configurations change. Adjoining land uses must be taken into consideration in determining bus bay lengths

Kerbside

Kerbside Bus Stops are the most common type. They can be readily increased in length to accommodate the changing dimensions and types of buses.

Open bus bay

An open bus bay is a variant of the indented bus bay. It allows buses to drive straight into or out off the stop. They are generally located in advance or after intersections. A bus zone should regulate open bus bays.

In-lane bus stop

Consideration for in-lane bus stops will be on a case by case basis. Factors that need to be taken into account when considering the suitability of an in-lane bus stop include;

• Average Annual Daily Traffic (AADT) of the road in question • Route service frequency

• Passenger loadings and bus dwell time • On-street parking demand • Obstructions on the footpath such as trees that prevent the bus from manoeuvring

close and parallel to the kerb.

If an in-lane bus stop is deemed appropriate, the kerb extension to facilitate the in-lane stop should be a minimum of 9m long to accommodate both doors on a rigid and 3 door articulated bus (see section 2.2 for bus door locations). The kerb extension should be sufficient in width to allow the bus a straight and unimpeded run in to the stop. A suitable pedestrian connection that complies with AS 1428.1—2001 Design for Access and Mobility should be provided from the in-lane bus stop to the nearest sealed footpath. A typical in-lane bus stop arrangement is shown below. R

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Draw in and draw out lengths

The minimum lengths for draw in and draw out are shown in the table below.

Bus Stop Dimension (m) Standard Long Rigid Articulated Length of Bus 12.5 14.5 18.0 Minimum draw-out length 6.0 6.5 8.0 Minimum draw-in length 11.5 14.0 14.0 Bus Zone length for one bus

30.0 35.0

40.0

Note: (1) Dimensions are based on stopping at the bus stop sign with a suitable length of straight, flat standard height kerb to stop alongside.

Independent and nose to tail operation

The independent operation of bus movements requires the full length of bus zone as specified in the table above. For nose to tail operation of a bus zone a clear distance of 6m should be allowed between buses.

Bus stop accessibility

The provision of accessible bus stops is the responsibility of council. Bus stops should be designed in accordance with AS 1428.1—2001 Design for Access and Mobility.

Shelters

State Transit does not undertake provision of bus shelters and seats. Bus shelters and bench seats should be designed and located so that they do not interfere with passenger movements on and off buses (see section 2.2 for door locations). The positioning and dimensions of bus shelters are to comply with AS 1428.1—2001 Design for Access and Mobility.

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Bus stop capacity

Bus stop capacity is dependent on the frequency of bus arrival and the dwell time at the stop. The following table is provided as a guideline to the number of spaces required. It is based on a 20 – 30 second dwell time.

Note: (1) Dimensions are based on stopping at the bus stop sign with a suitable length of straight, flat standard height kerb to stop alongside.

Independent and nose to tail operation

The independent operation of bus movements requires the full length of bus zone as specified in the table above. For nose to tail operation of a bus zone a clear distance of 6m should be allowed between buses.

Bus stop accessibility

The provision of accessible bus stops is the responsibility of council. Bus stops should be designed in accordance with AS 1428.1—2001 Design for Access and Mobility.

Shelters

State Transit does not undertake provision of bus shelters and seats. Bus shelters and bench seats should be designed and located so that they do not interfere with passenger movements on and off buses (see section 2.2 for door locations). The positioning and dimensions of bus shelters are to comply with AS 1428.1—2001 Design for Access and Mobility.

Bus stop capacity

Bus stop capacity is dependent on the frequency of bus arrival and the dwell time at the stop. The following table is provided as a guideline to the number of spaces required. It is based on a 20 – 30 second dwell time.

Minimum Bus Stop Capacity Buses Passing Stop in Busiest Hour

Number of Bus Spaces

Up to 15 1 30 -45 2 60 – 75 3 75 – 90 4 90-120 5 120-180 6

Note: Source: TCRP Report 19. Guidelines for the Location and Design of Bus Stops (1) Space requirements for buses dependant on operational, ticketing and scheduling. (2) Scheduling and operational circumstances may require up to 50% more bus stop space (3) Bus spaces required could be standard, long rigid and articulated buses depending on the type(s) of buses used.

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Critical design elements

Clear Zones

All bus stops and routes should have a clear zone of 800mm across the footpath from the face of the kerb and 4.3m (the allowable height for medium rigid vehicles as determined by the RTA) above pavement level. The camber of the road at the bus stop should be taken into account when determining the clear zone.

When re-sheeting the road, care must be taken to ensure the cross fall is not increased such that it will encroach on the zone. The relevant road authority’s policy on street tree plantings adjacent to bus routes should take the following points into account.

• Tree branches within the clear zone are to be pruned. • Young trees are to be adequately braced to prevent them being blown or sucked

into the clear zone. • Replacement / removal if they cannot be stopped from growing into the clear zone. • When trimming to vertical clearance, vertical deflection of branches due to wind

and rain loads must be taken into account

Tail swing and front overhang

The front and rear overhang of buses can result in the front and rear of the bus overhanging the kerb line on turning movements

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Chapter:05: Comprehensive Mobility Plans (CMPs) Preparation Toolkit

Introduction

Background What is a CMP? Relationships between a CMP and Other Existing Plans

FAQs on Comprehensive Mobility Plan

Preparation Process

Understanding Key CMP Tasks Stakeholder Consultation Update and Maintenance of CMP Preparing for a CMP: Where to Start?

Task Description

Task1 : Defining Scope of the CMP Task 2 : Data Collection and Analysis of the Existing Urban

Transport Environment Task 3 : Development of Integrated Urban Land Use and Transport

Strategy Task 4 : Development of Urban Mobility Plan Task 5 : Preparation of the Implementation Program

(Source: http://sti-india-uttoolkit.adb.org/mod1/index.html)

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Preparing Plans

Comprehensive Mobility Plans (CMPs)

(Source: http://sti-india-uttoolkit.adb.org/mod1/index.html)

Background

Recent rapid urban development in India has resulted in transport problems, such as traffic congestion and an increase in traffic accidents. Although the national and state governments have made substantial efforts to improve urban transport, problems have been exacerbated by the rapidly increasing number of private vehicles.

Existing local government capacity for urban transport planning is still insufficient. Specifically, the following problems are noted:

� Although many proposals have been submitted by local bodies for the Jawaharlal Nehru National Urban Renewal Mission (JNNURM) fund to implement various urban transport projects, including Mass Rail Transit (MRT), Bus Rapid Transit (BRT), flyovers, roads etc., some proposals contained inadequate information and incomplete analyses, therefore the justifications drawn from them for project implementation were not always acceptable.

� One of the main planning issues is that most cities do not have a long-term comprehensive urban transport strategy. Accordingly the proposals for specific projects are often not integrated with other urban transport measures or with land use patterns.

� Some cities have prepared urban transport master plans by conducting Comprehensive Transport and Traffic Studies. However, these studies mainly focused on vehicle movements and did not pay enough attention to the mobility of people and goods.

It is important to prepare long-term strategic plans focused on mobility of people as a basis for developing cost-effective and equitable urban transport measures with an appropriate and consistent methodology, in line with the National Urban Transport Policy (NUTP). Accordingly, the Ministry of Urban Development (MoUD) encourages cities to prepare “Comprehensive Mobility Plans” (CMPs) as part of long-term urban transport strategy providing for a sustainable improvement of people’s mobility in metropolitan regions.

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Role of CMPs in the JNNURM Process

The CMP is a key document providing the rationale for transport proposals. Therefore, within the overall planning hierarchy, the CMP can be considered as a prerequisite for the submission of DPR (Level 1) for JNNURM funding. Although it is not mandatory, all cities considering a funding application to central government are recommended to submit the CMP and to obtain approval from MoUD. A separate study for Alternative Analysis is required for major projects with the cost greater than or equal to 5 billion rupees (Rs 500 Crore) in 2008 prices. The Alternative Analysis may be included as part of the CMP or DPR for projects less than 5 billion rupees.

Figure: Role of a CMP in the JNNURM Process

Use of Guidelines and Toolkits

The Ministry of Urban Development recommends that the preparation of CMPs and feasibility studies, including DPRs (Level 1), should follow suggested methodologies and approaches as shown in the ‘Guidelines and Toolkits for Urban Transport Development.’ These guidelines and toolkits are, however, not necessarily complete, therefore, it is up to each city to develop their methodology and to provide the Ministry with their comments to be reflected in future versions of the guidelines and toolkits. The Ministry intends to refine and update these documents to reflect progress in research and technology in the urban transport sector in India and worldwide.

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What is a CMP?

Objectives of CMPs

The ultimate objective of a CMP is to provide a long-term strategy for the desirable mobility pattern of a city’s populace. To achieve this objective, the following are the main objectives:

1. To provide a long-term vision(s) and goals for desirable urban development in each city;

2. To illustrate a basic plan for urban development and include a list of proposed urban land use and transport measures to be implemented within a time span of 20 years or more; and

3. To ensure that the most appropriate, sustainable and cost-effective implementation program is undertaken in the urban transport sector.

Figure: Objectives of a CMP

Main Features of CMPs

The main features of CMPs are the following:

1. To optimize the “mobility pattern of people and goods” rather than of vehicles;

2. To focus on the improvement and promotion of public transport, NMVs and pedestrians, as important transport modes in Indian cities;

3. To provide a recognised and effective platform for integrating land use and transport planning; and

4. To focus on the optimization of goods movement.

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Figure: Main Features of CMPs

A CMP focuses on the mobility of people rather than that of vehicles: Conventional urban transport plans focused on addressing issues relating to vehicles and often recommended extensive infrastructure development such as road networks and flyovers. The improvement of vehicle flows in this approach, however, is often achieved though decreased mobility of pedestrians, NMV and public transport users. Consequently, mobility of people as a whole has not been appropriately addressed. The CMP, on the other hand, focuses on mobility of people to address urban transport problems, to promote better use of existing infrastructure, improvement of public transport, pedestrian and NMV facilities. It also emphasizes integration of land use and transport development.

A CMP focuses on improvement and promotion of public transport, NMVs and pedestrians as important city transport modes: Promotion of the use of public transport, NMVs and pedestrians is vital for improving the mobility of people in urban areas. Public transport and NMVs are widely recognized internationally as environmentally friendly transport means and should be promoted to reduce the rate of increase in the number of vehicles.

A CMP provides a platform for integrating land use and transport planning: Since land use patterns directly influence travel patterns, it is essential to examine desirable land use patterns in cities from the viewpoint of urban transport development. For instance, commercial and residential area development should be integrated with mass transit development, in pursuit of transit-oriented development, reducing dependence on private vehicles. Such integration of land use planning and urban transport planning is urgently required in Indian cities (and in cities everywhere).

A CMP develops an urban transport strategy that is in line with the National Urban Transport Policy (NUTP): Since the NUTP is the upper-level strategy on urban transport development; all CMPs should pursue the concept of the NUTP, contribute to introducing NUTP strategy into each city and propose specific measures to realize the NUTP concept.

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Key Outcomes of CMPs

In accordance with the objectives set out above, a CMP includes the following major outcomes: long-term visions and goals, a preferred form of urban growth and a list of proposed urban transport measures and priority projects. As a long-term strategy document, a CMP should include a clear statement of visions and goals consistent with the NUTP, as CMPs follow the concepts of the NUTP. It should also detail comprehensive transport development measures including high priority projects and project sheets. Indicative costing and implementation schedules need to be provided in the CMP. The primary objective of the recommended measures is to improve the mobility of people in the short, medium and long term.

Figure: Key Outcomes of CMPs

Relationships between a CMP and Other Existing Plans

There are a few important plans and studies that need to be referred to when a CMP is prepared: City Development Plans (CDPs) and Master Plans and Comprehensive Traffic and Transportation Studies (CTTS). A comparison of the tasks involved in these plans and studies is summarized in Table 1 and the relationship with the CMP is explained below.

Table: Illustrative Comparison of Major Tasks of CMPs and Other Existing Transport Plans

Major Tasks Existing CDP

Existing Master Plan

Existing CTTS

CMP

Review of Existing Transport System

✓ ✓ ✓

Transport Demand Survey ✓ ✓

Review of Land Use Plan ✓ ✓

Analysis of Urban Transport Situations

✓ ✓

Preparation of Future Land Use Scenario

✓ ✓

Future Transport Network Scenario

✓

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Transport Demand Forecast Model

✓ ✓

Network Evaluation

Preparation of Mobility Framework

✓

Formulation of Urban Transport Measures

✓ ✓ ✓ ✓

Social and Environmental Impact Assessment

✓

Institutional Scheme for Project Implementation

✓

Preparation of Implementation Programs

✓ ✓ ✓

Stakeholder Consultation ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓

Periodical Update and Maintenance

✓ ✓

Relationship with the CDP

A City Development Plan (CDP) is prepared by each city in advance of requesting JNNURM funds from MoUD. The CDP addresses various urban development sectors, including urban transport. Usually, CDPs include project proposals for both infrastructure and regulatory measures, but the development of urban transport measures is not comprehensive. CDPs rarely adopt a transport modelling approach and do not include a clear strategy regarding long-term urban transport development and the ‘mobility’ concept. Comprehensive Mobility Plans (CMPs) will review transport sector programs and integrate them into more comprehensive transport sector programs that focus on integration of land use and transport and improvement of the mobility of people. A CDP also provides valuable information regarding the existing and future development of the urban area.

Relationship with the Master Plan

A Master Plan (or Development Plan) is a statutory document for guiding and regulating urban development. It is prepared by urban development authorities in each metropolitan area, defines the future area for urbanisation, and addresses planning issues for various sectors. The transport sector plan, however, is one of the most important sectors, and contains development measures such as road network (arterials, collectors, and distributors etc.), parking facilities and MRT systems. In preparing a CMP in target cities, where a Master Plan is available, it should serve as an input to the CMP. In this process, the CMP reviews the future land use patterns in the Master Plan from the mobility optimization point of view and selects a preferred pattern of land use/transport integration if necessary. If the recommendation by the CMP on urban growth pattern differs from the one in the Master Plan, the CMP recommendation may be reflected in a future version of the Master Plan. For

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cities where a Master Plan is not available, a CMP must be prepared first and used as an input for the preparation of the Master Plan.

Relationship with the CTTS

Some cities have already conducted CTTSs by examining traffic and transport issues and recommending improvement measures. Some of these documents concerned mainly roads and flyovers, while others proposed MRT systems. While existing CTTS documents focus on vehicle flows, the CMP will concentrate on the mobility of people. A CMP addresses a wider range of land use/transport issues and investigates a wider spectrum of policy options to bring the city towards its desired mobility patterns. As the CTTS is a transport sector study, the information, methodology (including demand modelling) contained and recommended projects/programs are highly relevant to the CMP tasks. All of these findings are, however, carefully reviewed in the process of CMP preparation so as to achieve vision and goals to optimize the mobility pattern of the metropolitan region.

FAQs on Comprehensive Mobility Plan

What is a CMP?

A CMP presents a long-term vision of desirable mobility patterns (people and goods) for a city and provides strategy and policy measures to achieve this vision. It should follow the NUTP, which emphasizes the importance of pedestrian facilities, non-motorized transport measures, and public transport systems, including buses and sustainable mass rapid transit systems.

Who should use this toolkit?

Targeted users of this CMP toolkit include policy makers, city authorities and consultants. The toolkit provides: (i) guidance in setting CMP visions/objectives for policy makers; (ii) the structure and process of CMP development for city authorities, and (iii) detailed tasks to be performed by consultants.

Why is it called a Comprehensive Mobility Plan (CMP)?

Existing CTTS documents typically focus on mobility needs of car users, while CMPs are to address the mobility needs of all people and the infrastructure requirement for all modes, as well as to integrate both the land use (i.e., the spatial distribution of activities) and transport systems. The “comprehensive” in CMP conveys this all-encompassing scope. Existing CTTS documents allocate the majority of resources to “solving” vehicle congestion, while CMPs will focus on providing “mobility” for all people, the most important issue to be addressed for effective and sustainable urban development.

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Who should be responsible for the preparation of CMP?

City authorities should be responsible for the preparation CMPs. During the process of the CMP preparation, it is recommended to establish an advisory committee consisting of key stakeholders and to organize seminars and workshops to obtain feedback from a wider audience.

Is a CMP different from a CTTS?

Yes, a CMP differs from a CTTS. While the focus of a CTTS is on the mobility of vehicles, a CMP concentrates on the mobility of all people. CMPs address a wider range of land use/transport issues and investigate a wider spectrum of policy options to bring the city towards desired mobility patterns.

Do we need a CMP when a CTTS has already been prepared and approved?

Yes. Cities with an approved CTTS should also prepare a CMP in order to re-examine the effectiveness and sustainability of policy measures. However, if the existing CTTS follows closely the tasks required for a CMP, the Ministry may ask only for an improved CTTS and may not require the city to prepare a wholly new CMP.

What should a city do when the preparation of a CTTS has already started?

If the city has made significant progress, it should continue preparing the CTTS and later prepare a CMP reflecting the findings of the CTTS. If CTTS preparation is still at an early stage, the city may modify the terms of reference and commence preparation of a CMP instead.

Who should be involved in the preparation of a CMP?

Preparation of a CMP should involve not only the engineering division, which is responsible for building roads, but also the municipal/state passenger transport authority, as well as the city development authority. In addition, other relevant agencies and stakeholders should be consulted throughout the planning process.

Why do CMPs need to be prepared BEFORE feasibility studies of specific projects?

The Ministry of Urban Development has been receiving a number of DPRs for specific projects from many cities that fail to examine the wide range of policy options available. The projects often represent preconceived “solutions” and the documents try only to justify such “solutions”. The Ministry considers that the submission of a CMP is a prerequisite for the submission of DPRs, because any projects or policy measures recommended should effectively contribute to the attainment of “comprehensive mobility”

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visions that are effective and sustainable from the long-term perspective of future city development.

How much detail is required in recommended policy measures included in a CMP?

Although a CMP serves as a visionary document, it should provide a clear and logical methodology. As such, any project recommended in a CMP should be broadly defined in its characteristics, such as basic concepts, form, area covered, components, and preliminary estimation of costs, financing options, implementation organization and social/environmental implications. A further level of detail required for feasibility assessment and detailed design should be performed after the CMP is approved.

Is the application of demand modelling always necessary to prepare a CMP?

It is recommended that the strategy for land use and transport development be based on a scientific approach. For cities where demand models have already been developed, for example within the existing CTTS, the models should be utilized to in preparing the CMP. For cities with limited time and resources, a simplified approach to transport demand modelling may be applied. A simplified modelling technique adopts techniques, such as a reduced sampling rate for the OD survey, use of larger traffic zones, use of strategic transport network, which help resource and time required for transport demand modelling.

What are the planning horizons of a CMP?

The typical CMP planning horizon will be 20 years, but CMPs should also cover actions to be taken within 5 and 10 years.

Do CMPs need to be updated regularly?

Yes. Since cities are constantly changing, it is recommended that every city update its CMP at least once every five years.

CMP Preparation Process

Understanding Key CMP Tasks

The major tasks to develop a CMP are set out below and shown in Figure 6. Detailed task descriptions are found in Section III.

� Task 1 : Identification of Scope � Task 2 : Data Collection and Analysis of the Existing Urban Transport Environment � Task 3 : Preparation and Evaluation of the Urban Transport Development Strategy � Task 4 : Development of Urban Mobility Plan

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� Task 5 : Preparation of the Implementation Program

Task 1: Defining Scope of the CMP

As a preparatory task, the scope of the CMP should be clearly defined. Specifically, the document should indicate:

• Planning Area; and • Target Year or Planning Horizons (long, medium and short term).

Planning Area

The target area should be clearly described at the beginning of the CMP. The planning area of a CMP should cover the “Agglomerated Area,” rather than the area within the municipal boundary. The planning area for CMP can be adopted from the Master Plan.

A CMP must be prepared not only catering for city transportation needs, but also to the need for connectivity with satellite towns and Special Economic Zones (SEZs). Since the future limits of the city will be influenced by the development of transport corridors, CMPs must take into consideration the entire planning area in relation to major activity areas outside the planning area. If implemented in isolation, it will be difficult to optimize mobility patterns as addressed in the vision and goals statements.

Planning Horizon

The CMP planning horizon is to be 20 years from the base year. In addition, 5 years and 10 years should be defined as the short-term and medium-term target years, respectively. Since the social and economic situation in Indian cities is rapidly changing, a CMP should be updated at least every five years.

Task 2: Data Collection and Analysis of the Existing Urban Transport Environment

Task 2-1 Review of the City Profile

A brief description of the profile of the planning area should be presented. The relevant section may include:

• Location • Recent population trends • Land area • Regional linkages • Demographic information • Socio-economic data and • Environmental issues, such as natural conservation areas.

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The description in this section may be simpler if the required information/data are retrieved from existing planning/study documents.

Task 2-2: Review of Land Use Pattern

Data on existing land use pattern and land use plans should be collected and presented in the CMP, through a detailed review of existing development plans, including the Master Plan and/or the City Development Plan (CDP). Such plans show existing land use patterns and planned growth scenario, as well as the location and relationship between/among different land uses e.g., residential, slum, commercial, industrial, utility, recreational, transportation, agriculture, wasteland, forest and body of water.

In particular, new development areas that will affect future transport demand should be thoroughly reviewed and summarized in Survey Form 4-1 in Annex 1.

Task 2-3 Review of the Existing Transport Systems

It is important to properly understand the existing transport situation in order to develop a rational land use and transport plan and mobility improvement measures in a CMP. Types of information required at this stage include the following (suggested data items to be collected are shown as survey forms included in Annex 1):

(1) Review of Existing Studies, Reports and Proposals

All existing transport-related studies, plans, proposals, laws and standards should be compiled and be briefly summarized. All projects related to urban transport under construction, design, planning and preparation, as well as institutional and organizational measures, should be summarized and listed.

Review of Existing Studies, Reports and Plans:

• City Development Plan • Master Plan • Comprehensive Transport and Traffic Studies • Industry Development Plan • Detailed Project Reports (DPRs) related to Transport Measures • Any other related plans/studies

A table is to be prepared to compare problems and analyses addressed in each report/study. A sample form is shown in Survey Form 1-1A of Annex 1.

Review of Existing Legal Framework and Standards:

• Laws and regulations related to transport/traffic • Engineering design standards

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• Environmental standards • Regulations related to social issues such as involuntary resettlement

Inventory of Planned/Proposed and Ongoing Projects: Literature reviews, as well as an inventory of projects proposed or planned in the existing reports or studies, or by relevant agencies, should be listed and summarized in Survey Form 1-1B included in Annex 1.

(2) Review of Existing Transport Infrastructure

Review of existing transport infrastructure and facilities includes: roads, flyovers/ underpasses, intersections, parking, safety facilities, traffic signals, pedestrian and NMV facilities, and traffic calming facilities. Critical areas of the existing system should be identified for more detailed analysis. Some of this information will be used in preparing a network model for demand forecasting and in assessing road capacity and flow/capacity, in addition to providing essential geometric data for potential improvements. Suggested review items for existing transport infrastructure are listed in Table 3 and example survey forms are shown in Annex 1.

Table: Suggested Review Items for Existing Transport Infrastructure Survey Items Description Sample

Form Outline of Road Network

In order to provide a comprehensive outline of the city’s road network, collect information such as road length, right of way, and road density.

Survey Form 1-2A

Inventory of Arterial Road Network

Compile inventory of the arterial road network of the city to be used for subsequent development of a transport demand model.

Survey Form 1-2B

Inventory of Flyovers and Underpasses

Identify all existing flyovers at intersections, railway over bridges (ROBs), and railway underpasses.

Survey Form 1-2C

Inventory of Major Intersections

Identify and inventory critical intersections and roundabouts, in particular those intersections that are important from the viewpoint of the entire road network or that are heavily congested.

Survey Form 1-2D

Parking Facilities Review of the city’s existing parking facilities for both on-street and off-street parking.

Survey Form 1-2E

Traffic Control Facilities

Compile a list of traffic control facilities such as signals.

Survey Form 1-2F

Pedestrian Facilities Summarize data on pedestrian facilities. Survey Form 1-2G

NMV Facilities Facilities for non-motorized vehicles (NMVs), such as bicycles and cycle-rickshaws are recognized as an important component of a sustainable transport plan.

Survey Form 1-2H

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Level Crossing Collect data on level crossings as level crossings are not only major bottlenecks of the network, but also cause accidents for both road traffic and the railway.

Survey Form 1-2I

Public Transport and Paratransit Facilities

Prepare a list for bus stops, paratransit stops, parking and terminals.

More details in the next section

Maps of road infrastructure and facilities

Based on the above inventories, prepare maps indicating locations of infrastructure measures.

(3) Review of Public Transport Systems

The existing public transport system (bus services) in terms of infrastructure (e.g., bus lanes, stops, and terminals), fleet size/types, fare structure and regulatory and institutional framework is to be reviewed at this stage (Table 4). This task aims at identifying the areas where services are inadequate and there is scope for improving existing services. The task requires, for example, interviewing public transport operators to obtain information on operational characteristics, route structure, financial status and opinions on required improvements.

Table: Survey Items for Public Transport Survey Items Description Sample

Form Inventory of Available Public Transport

In a city where buses are operating, the CMP will clarify the public bus situation, including that of mini buses, but excluding inter-city bus services.

Survey Form 1-3A

Inventory of Bus Operation, Maintenance, and Economic and Productivity Indicators

Survey Form 1-3B

Map of All Public Bus Routes

An initial survey will be undertaken to identify and map all public bus routes in the city and vicinity, including the neighbouring towns, for public bus operators licensed by the state government. The contents of these bus network route maps may include, but not be limited to, the following:

• Designated bus routes; • Terminals and transfer points; • Names of bus stops (for those that have a name); • Names of final destinations;

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• Major street names and common destinations; and

• Route coverage area (area within 500m from routes).

Inventory of Paratransit

Paratransit modes such as auto rickshaws, cycle rickshaws, and taxis, are an important component of public transport operations in most Indian cities, especially in cities where bus services are not provided.

Survey Form 1-3C

Inventory Intermodal Facilities

Intermodal facilities including bus terminals, railway stations, airports, and ferry ports are essential elements in the public transport system.

Survey Form 1-3D

Inventory of River Transport

River transport, including ferry transport, fulfils an important role in some Indian cities, e.g., where a major river cuts across the city centre.

Survey Form 1-3E

(4) Review of Urban Goods Distribution

A review of urban goods distribution includes: location and function of major freight terminals, markets; regulation, and practices relating to heavy goods vehicles, transporting hazardous goods movement, such as petroleum products.

(5) Review of Traffic Safety and Enforcement

Traffic safety is one of the most important urban transport issues. A review of accident data collection methods and analysis should be made (Table 5) and potential improvement measures should be identified. It is recommended that targets for accident reduction and measures to improve safety in the areas of engineering, education and enforcement be included in the CMP.

Table: Survey Items for Traffic Safety and Enforcement Survey Items Description Sample

Form Inventory of Traffic Accidents

Collect statistics on traffic accidents and outline trends. Survey Form 1-4A

Hazard Map of Traffic Accidents

Prepare a map showing the number of accidents and locations to identify accident-prone spots. Locations with a high number of accidents may indicate deficiencies in the network, such as problems related to geometric design, signalling, engineering and provisions for vulnerable road users.

Enforcement Enforcement is a key aspect in realizing an efficient urban transport system.

Survey Form 1-4B

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(6) Review of Institutional and Financial Situation

Information regarding institutional arrangements for planning, implementation and coordination of urban transport development should be reviewed (Table 6).

Table: Survey Items for the Institutional and Financial Situation Survey Items Description Sample

Form Inventory of Agencies/Organizations Active in Relation to Urban Transport

Review the overall organization and hierarchy of the government in relation to land use and transport systems development.

Survey Form 1-5A

Assessment of Planning, Implementation and Coordination Capacity

Capacity in planning, implementation and coordination of urban transport measures are important issues for Indian cities.

Survey Form 1-5B

(7) Review of Environmental and Social Conditions

Motor vehicles directly contribute to air pollution and cause social problems. In order to understand the current situation, initially, existing information, standards and monitoring data should be collected through a literature review.

Environmental Conditions and Issues: Urban transport affects several environmental parameters, including air pollution (including CO2 emissions), noise and vibration. Data should be sought on these parameters from relevant environmental agencies and further sampling be carried out where data are inadequate, missing, or out of date. In this way, the importance of these issues can be reviewed and appropriate mitigation measures be recommended. The following items should be summarised and presented in the CMP:

• Issues on air pollution, noise and vibration; • Issues on regulations and standards on air pollution, noise and vibration; • Regulations and standards on vehicle emissions and vehicle inspection; and • Other major city environmental issues relating to urban transport.

Social Conditions: Urban transport is strongly related to social problems such as involuntary resettlement and urban poverty. Data should be collected on these issues from relevant agencies and further sampling carried out where data are inadequate, missing, or out of date. In this way, the importance of these concerns can be reviewed and appropriate mitigation measures be recommended. The following items should be summarised and presented in the CMP:

• Poverty situation; • Resettlement issues;

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• Mobility and accessibility issues for the poor; and • Other major city social issues.

Task 2-4 Transport Demand Surveys

Traffic demand data such as traffic volume and origin-destination (O-D) data are essential for urban transport planning. The following surveys should be carried out.

(1) Collection of Transport Demand Data

Information such as population and employment distribution is essential in transport demand modelling. This type of information relates to the land use pattern of the metropolitan area. The following data (Table 7) should be collected.

Table: Survey Items for Transport Demand Data Survey Items Description Sample

Form Population and Socio-Economic Conditions

Collect population and socio-economic indices by zone, which should be as small as possible. Zones may consist of one or more census districts.

Survey Form 2-1A

Vehicle Ownership Survey

Collect vehicle ownership data for the same zones as above.

Survey Form 2-1B

(2) Traffic Volume Surveys

Traffic volumes should be inventoried on all major roads by reference to existing traffic counts and by new surveys. Since traffic data are also necessary for developing and calibrating a transport demand model as well as updating it, the survey should not be conducted on an ad hoc basis, but systematically. Required traffic surveys are described in Table 8 and the concepts of screen-line and cordon-line surveys are shown in Figure 8.

Table: Survey Items for Traffic Volume Surveys Survey Items Description Sample

Form Screen Line Survey (optional)

A screen line survey identifies major traffic movements between two areas divided by a screen line such as a river or railway.

Survey Form 2-2A

Cordon Survey A cordon survey is a traffic count survey on a major cordon line that shows the volume of traffic entering/departing a target area or a city centre.

Survey Form 2-2A

Intersection Turning Movement Survey

Measures turning movements at key intersections during the morning and evening peak hours.

Survey Form 2-2B

Queue Length A queue length survey at major bottlenecks can show the Survey

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Survey severity of traffic congestion quantitatively Form 2-2C

Travel Speed and Time Survey

Conduct travel speed and time surveys on main corridors and strategically important roads in order to assess the efficiency of the road network at both peak and off-peak times.

Survey Form 2-2D

Figure: Concept of Screen Line Survey and Cordon Line Survey

(3) Implementation of an Origin-Destination (O-D) Survey

O-D surveys to establish travel patterns (where people are moving to/from) can be carried out by a household interview survey, a commercial vehicle survey and a roadside interview survey. The results of these surveys are used to develop O-D matrices, to calibrate a transport demand model (Annex 4 describes the tasks involved in the four step transport demand modelling).

Household and roadside O-D surveys should be conducted. Table 9 summarizes the characteristics of these surveys.

Table: Outline of Origin-Destination Survey Household O-D Survey Roadside O-D Survey

Objective To identify the travel activities of residents.

To clarify the travel movements between locations outside and inside the metropolitan area.

Methodology Interview survey of each household. Interview survey of drivers on target roads.

Survey Area and

The whole CMP target area. On major roads on the border of the target area (the same as the cordon line traffic count survey).

Zoning The survey zones should basically follow the census district pattern. A

Zoning should be consistent with that in the household O-D survey.

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zone may consist of one or more census districts.

Questionnaire Forms

Survey Form 2-3A(1) and (2) Survey Form 2-3B

Sampling Rate A sampling rate of 4% in each zone is preferable. If there is significant time and cost constraints, the sample rate may be reduced to 1%.

A sampling rate of 20% of all traffic on the road is recommended. The rate can be reduced on roads with heavy traffic.

(4) Implementation of a Traffic Movement Survey

To complement the above surveys, the survey shown in Table 10 should also be conducted.

Table: Outline of Traffic Movement Survey Public Transport Vehicle

Movement Survey Freight Vehicle Movement

Survey Objective To identify the travel movements of

buses, taxis and rickshaws To identify truck movements

Methodology Interview survey of public transport vehicle drivers, including drivers of buses and rickshaws

Interview survey of truck drivers

Questionnaire Forms

Survey Form 2-4A Survey Form 2-4A

Sampling Rate A sampling rate equal to 20% of the total number of registered vehicles is preferable.

A sampling rate equal to 20% of the total number of registered vehicles is preferable.

(5) Development of Base-Year Transport Demand Model

In the CMP preparation process, transport demand modelling is used to analyse/evaluate urban land use and the transport system. The modelling technique provides a quantitative and scientific approach to improving mobility. The CMP modelling technique emphasizes person-based travel patterns, along with vehicle movements. It includes more NMV/pedestrian movements than conventional modelling approaches. It also enables integrated planning of urban land use and the transport system.

In this task, a base-year demand model will be developed by using the results of the O-D survey. Key steps in the demand modelling are elaborated in Annex 4.

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Task 2-5: Analysis of Existing Traffic/Transport Conditions

Based on the information/data collected and analyzed above, a basic analysis of existing transport and traffic conditions should be carried out to identify the characteristics and issues for each city.

(1) Analysis of Travel Characteristics

Based on the results of the traffic surveys, the travel characteristics of the metropolitan region should be analysed:

Major Travel Pattern: Major travel patterns must be identified from the results of the base-year modelling analysis. The following drawings may be prepared:

• Desire line drawings: Desire lines can be used to represent travel demand. Through such drawings, major travel corridors can be identified.

• Drawings of major traffic corridors : The major movements should be shown as traffic corridors. Usually such corridors follow the trunk road network, such as along national highways.

Trip Characteristics: The following trip indices should be presented in the CMP:

• Trip length distribution; • Average trip length; • Average cost of trip; • Trip rate (trips/person/day); • Modal share (with and without walking); and • Average occupancies for each mode.

(2) Analysis of Vehicular Traffic and Bottlenecks

Vehicle Traffic Characteristics: The following information may be summarized, based on the output of the base-year transport demand analysis:

• Drawing showing volume/capacity (V/C) ratios on the road network; • Drawing showing travel speeds on the road network; and • Average travel speed in the city.

Bottleneck Analysis: Bottleneck road sections, intersections and level crossings should be identified. Bottleneck sections on roads are usually identified by examining V/C ratios. Roads with the highest V/C ratios are most likely to suffer from bottlenecks. The reasons for the bottlenecks identified should be analyzed, e.g., insufficient road capacity, lack of alternative routes. It should be noted that this analysis is mainly for vehicle trips and not for trips by NMVs and public transport.

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(3) Analysis of Social Conditions

Social considerations are an essential part of urban transport development. Urban transport for the poor should be considered at all stages of development. The following indices, which can derived from the household O-D survey, may be useful to assess social conditions:

• Distribution of income level; • Average trip length by income level by purpose; • Per capita trip rate by income level; and • Vehicle ownership rate (bicycle, motorcycle and car) by income level.

(4) Identification of Issues

From the data collection and analysis described above, a comprehensive list of issues and problems concerning the transport network should be compiled, with an indication of severity. These issues will form the basis for further study and recommendations, in devising appropriate, strategic and sustainable solutions.

Survey Form 6-1A shows typical problems or issues that may arise within a city’s urban transport system. The list is by no means exhaustive and other specific issues in each city should be described.

(5) Comparative Analysis of Urban Transport Environment

Extensive data collection and analysis in 30 cities was carried out by Ministry of Urban Development. The statistical information contained in this study provides an opportunity to compare mobility conditions of various cities and therefore to identify specific mobility issues of the concerned city. The indices shown in Table 11 can be used to diagnose mobility issues.

Table: Index for Comparative Analysis Index Description Average

Value Data Source

Congestion 1 - (Average travel speed/30) 0.25 Base-Year Traffic Model

“Walkability” (Footpath length / Length of major roads in the city) x 0.5 + (rate estimated based on estimates of available pedestrian facilities) x 0.5

0.52 Road Infrastructure Survey

City Bus Transport

Number of public and private city buses per 100,000 people

14 Public Transport Survey

Safety (Number of annual traffic accident deaths per 100,000 people) x 0.5 + (Number of

0.10 Traffic Safety Survey

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fatalities per 100,000 people) x 0.5

Paratransit Number of paratransit vehicles per 100,000 people

61 Public Transport Survey

Slow Moving Vehicles

Slow moving vehicle share in total trips 0.07 Household O-D Survey

Trip Distribution

Average trip length (km) 5.2 Household O-D Survey

NMVs Number of NMVs per 100,000 people To be prepared

Socio-economic survey

Passenger Vehicle

Number of passenger vehicles per 100,000 people

To be prepared

Vehicle Ownership Survey

Based on the above, a diagnosis of transport conditions in the subject city can be undertaken. The flowchart and checklists shown in Annex 5 may be used to identify high priority measures.

Task-3: Development of Integrated Urban Land Use and Transport Strategy

The urban transport strategy should be presented in the CMP. Upper-level strategy visions and goals should be developed. Also, several strategic scenarios for urban growth and the trunk network should be developed. Through the evaluation of these scenarios, preferred future urban growth and trunk transport networks should be identified.

To properly evaluate scenarios, a transport demand forecasting model should be developed. This will be a strategic model, providing an overview of travel behaviour; it need not be as precise and detailed as will be required for the Detailed Project Report.

• Task 3-1 Development of Vision(s) and Goals • Task 3-2 Preparation of Urban Growth Scenarios • Task 3-3 Future Transport Network Scenarios • Task 3-4 Development of Urban Land Use and Transport Strategy

Task 3-1 Development of Vision(s) and Goals

It is essential that transport interventions form a coherent package with a consistent vision and goals for the desirable direction of city urban transport. Vision(s) and goals should be developed that clarify how transport measures will comprehensively benefit urban transport and these should be presented clearly in the CMP.

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(1) Vision Statement

As a long-term strategy document, a CMP should include a clear statement of visions and goals, based on a review and diagnosis of the urban transport environment. The visions and goals define the desired long-term urban transport system. While visions are statements of the desirable direction of urban transport development, goals are quantitative/qualitative targets for major indices, to be achieved within the planning horizons. Such indices include average travel speeds and average volume/capacity (V/C) ratios. The emphasis should be on the improvement of specific measures for NMVs and pedestrians. Visions and goals should be consistent with the NUTP, as CMPs follow the concepts of the NUTP.

Box 1: Example of CMP Vision and Goals Statement

Example Vision Statement:

1. To improve connectivity and travel throughout the city and its region.

2. To improve mobility within neighbourhoods, wards, zones and satellite towns to address inner- and inter-city transportation needs.

3. To achieve efficient arrangement of land use and transport systems to minimize overall travel cost.

4. To offer viable and reliable transportation options that aim at reducing dependence on cars, with widespread use of non-motorized modes and mass rapid transit systems.

Example Goals Statement:

1. Sixty percent of trips are made by public transport, with one (or two) modal changes.

2. Ninety percent of the population is served by public transport. Trip origins and destinations will be within 500 m of public transport terminals and stops. For those who do not have access to public transport within walking distance, safe bicycle lanes should be provided to reach the public transport system, with secure bicycle parking provided.

3. Safe and convenient pedestrian/NMV facilities are provided throughout the urban area. These facilities exist particularly in residential, educational and commercial areas.

4. Motor vehicle restricted streets are provided in commercial and market areas.

5. Integrated urban land use and transport systems result in efficient and sustainable mobility for everyone, and provide greater accessibility to opportunities (e.g., employment, education, health, goods, and other services).

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(2) Context and Strategies

The aim of a CMP is to address the issues identified in Task 2-5, while creating a sustainable and efficient environment. Projects may not only be technically and economically feasible, but they also should be packaged in a way that supports a realistic way forward for the city. The rationale for a proposed strategy should be fully described by the evaluation of alternative concepts.

As each city has different characteristics, visions and goals specific to each city’s environment may have to be developed. Key documents identified from the review process in Task 2, including the City Development Plan (CDP), can be used to formulate a framework built on the visions and goals set out in these documents. The framework could focus on the following strategies, which aim to ensure integrated or linked solutions rather than piecemeal measures; consider the movement of people rather than vehicles; and begin a process of replication of successful solutions throughout the network:

Strategy 1: Transit-Oriented Development (TOD);

Strategy 2: Adaptive Transit;

Strategy 1: Transit-Oriented Development (TOD): Transit-Oriented Development arises from investment in infrastructure that guides the urban growth of the city. Typically, TOD involves implementing or strengthening a mass transit system with development focused on major transport nodes. This strategy supports the objective of achieving a desirable modal split of 50-70% as advised by MoUD. Mass transit can be strengthened by:

• Enhancing the public transport network by careful and robust selection of an optimum mass transit system, including bus service improvements, bus rapid transit (BRT), and/or rail-based solutions; and

• Developing an integrated public transport system that combines modes and services through interchanges and feeder services, rationalises existing services, and improves passenger dispersal at terminals

Cities with strong central business districts (CBDs) are generally good candidates for transit-oriented development. Trips can take place along radial axes between the CBD and suburban communities, with concentrated mixed use development around the suburban nodes.

TOD can be facilitated by identifying major corridors and investing in them as primary mass transit corridors. This can be undertaken with reference to analysis of travel demand and desire line patterns from the modelling exercise.

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Strategy 2: Adaptive Transit: Adaptive transit refers to the development of transport systems that can be adapted to the existing city structure, typically for cities with low density and spread out development patterns. Decentralization of workplaces and commercial premises within cities causes high levels of cross-town and lateral trip movements, often on infrastructure that was not originally designed for such demand. In such situations paratransit, such as minivans, motorcycles, and rickshaws, is often popular as it offers the advantage of door-to-door convenience.

Adaptive transit typically involves:

• Implementing a public transport system that adequately caters to the multiple desire lines of the population; and

• Creating a Functional Road Hierarchy (FRH), defining roads according to their function, rather than by their design standards or physical characteristics, using traffic management methods

Many cities have road networks that do not present a reasonable FRH, with most roads performing mixed functions for through traffic, local traffic and roadside activities, such as hawkers. A FRH provides a framework for developing a road network that can serve the needs of pedestrians, passengers, cyclists and drivers. Without it, a road network tends to favour motor vehicles at the expense of other users. With a FRH, the city can better meet the needs of all transport users and address growing traffic and urban development demand.

Paratransit can be an effective alternative to private vehicles; it is a popular mode and does not require public subsidy. However, paratransit is only effective up to a threshold demand level. The strategy of adaptive transit is not without merit if appropriate land use planning is implemented, i.e., planning that does not promote travel. For example, while it may not be possible to change land use in the short-medium term, it is possible to adapt transit.

As cities do not always develop a structure that is conducive to one particular strategy, in some cases it is preferable to seek a combination of transit-oriented development and adaptive transit. Whichever strategy is selected, it is important to consider an optimal mix of modes. Trip length is an important factor in the selection of appropriate measures. Table 12 shows desired transport modes for different trip lengths.

Table: Desired Transport Modes by Trip Length Trip length (km) 0-2 2-5 5-10 10-15 >15

Share of trips 25–50 20–25 15–20 10–15 >15

Desired travel modes

Walk, cycle,2-wheelers, rickshaw

Cycle, 2-wheelers, cars, rickshaws

Cycle, 2-wheelers, cars, 3-wheelers, bus, taxi

Car, bus, taxi, metro/rail

Car, express bus, metro/rail, taxi

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Source: Geetam Tiwari, Urban Passenger Transport: Framework for an Optimal Modal Mix, INRM Policy Brief No.1, Asian Development Bank, 2006.

Task 3-2 Preparation of Urban Growth Scenarios

In this task, optimal land use and transport systems will be examined. For analytical purposes, urban growth scenarios will be developed in combination with strategic level transport networks. Box 2 provides typical urban development forms.

Master Plans regulate land use pattern, but the CMP could provide a preferred growth scenario from the viewpoint of an optimal urban land use and transport development pattern. If the preferred urban growth pattern differs from that specified in the Master Plan, such changes may be reflected in future versions of the Master Plan.

Box 2: Basic Prototypes of Urban Development Forms

(This box is extracted from Module 2a Land Use Planning and Urban Transport, Sustainable Transport: A Sourcebook for Policy-makers in Developing Cities, GTZ, 2002.)

• Business-as-usual-city – simply an extension of current development practices.

• Compact city – increased population in the inner suburbs

• Edge city – growth in population, housing density and employment at selected nodes, and increased investment in freeways linking these nodes.

• Corridor city – growth along arteries arising from the central business district, radial links and upgraded public transport

• Fringe city – growth predominantly on the outskirts

• Ultra city – growth in regional centres within 100 km of the CBD. High-speed trains link the regional centres to the city heart.

Figure: Structural options for urban growth

Source: Newton, 1999

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Task 3-3 Future Transport Network Scenarios

(1) Modal Split Scenarios

The future modal spilt should be prescribed by the modelling specialist if an aggregated model is used for modal split. The modal split ratio is usually estimated by trip length and purpose. When it is difficult to estimate future modal split based on available data, it is recommended that several case studies be conducted by using different modal split scenarios:

The following scenarios are generally useful for analyzing future transport demand:

• Do Nothing Scenario: In this scenario it is assumed that private vehicle users will increase at the current growth rate and a certain proportion of current public transport users will shift to private vehicles in the future. For example, 10-20% of public transport users may be assumed to use private vehicles in 10 years due to economic growth.

• Moderate Public Transport Improvement Scenario: Through implementation of public transport improvement measures, in this scenario it is assumed that no more public transport users will shift to private vehicles, i.e., the current modal split rate applies.

• Significant Public Transport Improvement Scenario: Through implementation of public transport improvement measures, as well as private vehicle restriction measures such as Traffic/Transportation Demand Management (TDM), in this scenario some private vehicle users shift to public transport, for example 5-10%.

(2) Transport Network Scenarios

The road network in the target year should be prepared. The following cases are typically used:

• Do Minimum Case: The future transport network includes the existing network and ongoing MRT and arterial development projects. No other transport systems (corridors) are assumed to be constructed.

• Do Maximum Case: The future transport network consists of the existing network and future alternative network. If new MRT systems are to be proposed, locations of their corridors need to be specified in relation to the future growth scenarios in Task 3-2. Appropriate MRT systems will be examined in detail in Task 4-1.

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Task 3-4 Development of Urban Land Use and Transport Strategy

Each combination of transport network and urban growth scenario developed in the previous tasks should be assessed using the transport demand model. Land use patterns will be included in the modelling analyses, in terms of a specific distribution of residential population and employment. This information is required for each of the growth scenarios. Based on these results, a desirable urban development strategy will be proposed. Figure 9 illustrates the process.

A reduction in travel demand can be achieved by various land-use planning measures in relation to transport development strategies. Examples of such policies are shown below:

• Major developments should be located in areas served by public transport, or public transport provision will be required as part of major land use development.

• The planning agency and developers ensure adequate facilities are provided for pedestrians and NMVs. Footpaths and NMV lanes/parking/waiting areas should be provided within the planned areas, and, in particular, for schools, activity centres, commercial zones and around public transport stops/stations.

Figure: Indicative Processes for the Evaluation of Preferred Development Scenarios

The following criteria may be used when evaluating the alternative development scenarios and for selecting a preferred scenario:

Potential for Developing Public Transport System: A preferred pattern of land use and transport system should possess a high potential for developing public transport. If the city is large enough, the potential for MRT development can be measured by the demand density along major corridors. Physical characteristics of these corridors should be suitable for MRT. In general, where the land use pattern has high density development along corridors, it is recommended to provide other forms of public transport as well. Improvement to NMT facilities will be made cost effective under such a development pattern, which leads to improved mobility for all.

Total Travel Time and Average Travel Speed: Total travel time and average travel speed are important indices for evaluating mobility. A preferred system would have a lower value for the total travel time and higher values for travel speeds on the network. The total

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travel time can be calculated on the basis of person trips as well as vehicle trips to better understand the mobility implications.

V/C Ratio: This index is often used for the analysis of vehicle mobility. The V/C ratio is one of the most widely used indices for measuring the degree of congestion on the network. The V/C ratios on links can be compared and analyzed. Through an analysis of V/C ratios and traffic volumes, bottleneck sections and intersections should be identified. It is often found that the road network around new development areas is very congested, with bottlenecks caused by large increases in traffic volume.

Economic Indices: An economic analysis of each development scenario may be performed to develop a preferred solution with the lowest net economic cost. If a detailed demand model is available, travel time savings, vehicle operating cost savings and required infrastructure may all be incorporated in this analysis.

Task-4: Development of Urban Mobility Plan

Based on the preferred land use and transport development scenario, a more detailed urban transport development plan will be prepared. The list of existing/ongoing transport projects, prepared in Task 1, could serve as a starting point for project preparation. Some projects will be added and others may be deleted through this process. Throughout, the integration of land use and the transport network should always be taken into consideration.

• Task 4-1 Formulation of the Public Transport Improvement Plan

• Task 4-2 Preparation of Road Network Development Plan

• Task 4-3 Preparation of NMT Facility Improvement Plan

• Task 4-4 Preparation of Mobility Management Measures

• Task 4-5 Preparation of Regulatory and Institutional Measures

• Task 4-6 Development of Fiscal Measures

• Task 4-7 Mobility Improvement Measures and NUTP Objectives

Task 4-1 Formulation of the Public Transport Improvement Plan

The public transport improvement plan should be developed through the following procedures.

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(1) Preparation of a Service Improvement Plan for Buses, Tram, and Paratransit Systems

In medium-sized cities, conventional bus services will play a primary mobility role. They could also serve as a feeder mode to MRT systems. A Bus Service Improvement Plan includes the following components:

• Overview of the existing situation • Issues and problems • Proposed strategy • Explanation of proposed strategy in terms of land use patterns • System Integration with other modes (Integrated fare policy) • Intermodal facilities • Recommendations for infrastructure (busways, terminals) • Improvement in operations (routes, service level, fare structure, regulatory

changes) • Costs and benefits

A detailed methodology for planning bus service improvements can be found in Module 3: Bus Service Improvement: Policy and Options.

Similarly, service improvement plans for paratransit should be prepared. If a tram system exists, a strategy to improve or upgrade it should be examined in relation to the MRT development plan.

(2) Preparation of an MRT Development Plan

Mass rapid transit can achieve reduced travel times through the provision of widely accessible networks, higher speed vehicles, exclusive right-of-way infrastructure, special limited-stop or express services, efficient fare collection systems, and/or faster boarding and alighting. Higher capacities may be achieved through larger vehicles, multiple sets of vehicles (i.e., a bus platoon or a train) and/or more frequent services (although there are limits on headways). Each major city has, according to its structure, one or more major corridors with mass transit requirements or that can be developed to be suitable for mass transit. Selection of MRT systems should be undertaken by considering corridor characteristics and the technical parameters of available MRT systems.

Mass Rapid Transit (MRT) refers to a public transport system carrying passengers within and between urban areas. It is designed for high capacity. Many designations are used applied MRT systems; three are covered in this report: Bus Rapid Transit (BRT), Light Rail Transit (LRT) and Metro.

Bus Rapid Transit (BRT): A variety of concepts have been developed in many cities to improve bus services. These are designated, for example, Busway System, High Capacity Bus

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System, or Integrated Transport System. They are slightly different in focus, as well as in specification and performance. The term Bus Rapid Transit includes these variations, but with the following characteristics:

• Corridors are mainly segregated (with a minimum mix with general traffic in non-segregated sections)

• Rapid boarding and alighting at customer-oriented stations • New bus technology (low floor, wider doors and articulated) and • Routes are organized in a trunk-and-feeder system.

A detailed methodology for a BRT study can be found in Module 2: Bus Rapid Transit (BRT): Toolkit for Feasibility Studies.

Light Rail Transit (LRT): LRT is a railway system characterized by its flexibility in operation and technology compared to heavy rail system. It can operate in single cars or short trains along exclusive rights-of-way on an elevated structure, at grade (sometimes on-street), or underground. The system can be designed with a shorter distance between stations and with relatively steeper/sharper curves horizontally/vertically, providing relative flexibility in route alignment. As such, designed operating speed and line capacity is lower than for metro systems.

Metro: Metro is a heavy rail system, often referred to as a subway or underground, although part of the route may be at-grade or elevated. The term here refers to urban grade-separated heavy rail systems, with the highest capacity among MRTs.

Following below table shows a summary of the technical parameters of Metro, LRT and BRT, in relation to other mode of public transport systems.

NUTP summarizes the relative characteristics of available public transport technologies, including heavy and light rail systems, high capacity bus systems, and conventional buses on shared rights of way. It briefly notes the advantages and disadvantages of each type of technology and the conditions where the technology is most appropriate (see Table 14).

Table: Technical Parameters of Public Transport Options Metro LRT Tramways HCBRT BRT Bus

Priority Lanes

City Bus

Line Capacity (PAX/hr/dir.)

40,000 – 75,000

15,000 – 45,000

5,000 – 15,000

20,000 – 35,000

7,500 – 15,000

5,000 – 7,500

Below 1,000

Cost per km (Infrastructure, vehicles,

Very high

High Medium/high

Medium/high

Medium Low Very Low, only bus stops

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OCC, Maintenance)

and maintenance shop required

Alignment Double-track

railway

Double-track railway, elevated, a-grade or in

tunnels

Double track

tramway, at-grade

4 Bus Lanes (2 per

direction)

2 to 3 Bus Lanes

2 Bus Lanes Use public roads

Segregation 100 % segregated in tunnels, elevated or at-grade

High degree of segregation preferred, but sections with shared right of way possible

Uses public roads, but may have reserved right of way on sections with higher demand

All Bus Lanes must be segregated to achieve high capacity

Bus Lanes must be in general segregated, exceptions possible, reduce capacity and speed

Bus Priority Lanes must be exclusively

for busses

None

Road space required

None None in case of elevated and tunnel alignment, 2 lanes at-grade, additional space required for stations and terminals

2 Lanes, additional space may be required for stations and terminals, tracks can be shared with public roads or pedestrian roads

4 Lanes; more linear space for Interchanges and Terminals

2 Lanes, possibly 3 or 4 at Stations and Interchanges, space for major Interchanges and Terminals

2 to 3 Lanes (3 to 4 Lanes at Bus Stops)

Shared with cars and pedestrian

Vehicles High capacity EMU

Medium to high capacity EMUs (upgraded

Trams, articulated and or with wagons as an option

Special articulated bus with at-floor

Articulated buses; pre-paid boarding required

Standard City Bus, articulated as option

Standard City Bus

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trams as an option)

boarding and wide doors

Passengers per Vehicle/Train

1.200 – 2.500

250 – 1.500

Depends on length

180-240 150-180 75 - 100 75

Traction Electric Electric Electric Diesel Diesel (Electric as an option)

Diesel Diesel

Feeder System

Necessary

Necessary Not necessary

Necessary

Desired Not necessary

Not necessary

Flexibility of route changes

Very low Low Low Very low Medium Medium Very high

Ticketing System

Closed Closed Open Closed Closed or open

Open Open

Table: Advantages, Disadvantages and Applicable Corridors for MRT Options Heavy Rail Systems

–Underground, Elevated or At grade

Light Rail Transit (LRT)

High Capacity Bus Systems (HCBS) on Dedicated Lanes, or BRT

Normal Buses on Shared Right of Way

Advantages • Very high carrying capacity

• High speed

• Very low pollution in operation

• Needs very little urban space

• Capital costs are less than for heavy

rail systems • Per unit operating

costs are less than

for heavy rail systems

• Low pollution levels

• Needs less urban space than bus-based systems

• Needs limited urban space if elevated or underground

• Capital costs lower than for rail-based Systems

• Low operation and maintenance costs

• Higher capacity than normal bus Services

• Operational planning and capacity expansion are

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(however capital costs increase)

more flexible than rail-based systems

• As the distance between stations are shorter, it requires a less extensive feeder network than rail-based systems.

• Relatively simple technology with easy availability of personnel for

operations and maintenance

Disadvantages • Very high capital costs

• High per unit operating costs if capacity utilization is low

• Inflexible

• Long gestation period

• Needs extensive feeder network or very dense captive area

• Complex interconnectivity with feeder system

• Relatively complex

• Capital costs higher than for bus systems

• Inflexible

• Per unit operation costs higher than for bus systems if capacity utilization is low

• Needs substantial urban space if at grade

• Carrying capacity is lower than for heavy rail systems though comparable to high capacity bus systems

• Capacity not as high as that of heavy rail systems although comparable to that of light rail systems

• More polluting than rail-based systems in operation

• Needs imported fuel

• Needs urban space for dedicated corridors

• Very low capacity

• Polluting (if not run by cleaner energy)

• Low speeds

• Poor social image (without improving the system

• performance and its image)

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technology requiring highly specialized manpower for operation and maintenance

• Needs extensive feeder network or dense captive area

• Complex interconnectivity with feeder system

• Relatively complex technology requiring specialized skills for operations and maintenance

Heavy Rail Systems –Underground, Elevated or At grade

Light Rail Transit (LRT)

High Capacity Bus Systems (HCBS) on Dedicated Lanes, or BRT

Normal Buses on Shared Right of Way

Applicable

Corridors

• Very high-density corridors, where road space is very limited

• Well suited for densely populated cities that have low sprawl and few spinal, long-haul corridors

• At-grade systems are very good for

suburban systems and the

fringe areas of a city where space

is more easily available

• Medium density corridors where space availability is adequate for supporting elevated structures or at grade tracks

• Medium density cities with limited sprawl

• Medium density corridors where space availability is adequate for supporting the dedicated right of way

• Medium density cities with limited sprawl

• Low density corridors where local pollution is not a critical issue

• Feeder to higher capacity systems

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(Source: Based on National Urban Transport Policy for India, Ministry of Urban Development, Government of India, April 2006.)

(3) Selection of Appropriate MRT Options

Every city is different and requires its own study of the potentially realistic options. The guidelines shown in below Table are to assist decision makers in narrowing down the applicable options. As can be seen in the table, population density is an important criterion. City shape/form (linear or circular) also influences the concentration of demand; therefore, this factor may be incorporated when selecting appropriate MRT options.

Table: Suggested Approaches for Selecting Appropriate MRT Options

MRT Options

City Requirements

BRT • Cities with a medium-to high-density urban area

• BRT should be one of the first considerations in MRT system development in any city.

• BRT system can be developed as trunk systems as well as feeders to an existing (or planned) MRT system

• Suitable for cities where an MRT system needs to be developed quickly and incrementally as conditions and funding allow

• A well-developed traffic planning/management capability should be available (this may be brought in initially)

• Existing bus and paratransit operations can be regulated/restructured

• Road space is available for BRT development (2-4 lanes from existing roads)

LRT • Cities with a medium- to high-density urban area

• Cities where environmental issues are critical and there is a need to attract car users to use public transport systems; however, if the core requirements are operational effectiveness, BRT system should be developed that is more flexible and costs less

• Appropriate for cities with an existing tram operation, which may be cost-effectively enhanced.

• A well-developed traffic planning/management capability should be available

• Existing bus and paratransit operations can be regulated/restructured

• Road space is available for LRT development (2-3 lanes from existing road) or existing tram track can be converted to an LRT route

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Metros • Preferably a national/provincial capital city or a major regional commercial centre

• Existing public transport flows on the main corridor of the order of 10,000-15,000 passengers per hour per direction with more than 15km trip length

• City incomes that are not low (typically at least US$1,800 per person)

• Prospects for sustained economic growth and an expanding centre

• Existence of a low-cost metro alignment

• Fares policy – a fares policy on metro and bus systems to encourage ridership yet limit the need for financial support

• A well-developed traffic planning/management capability should be available

• Existing bus and paratransit operations can be regulated/restructured

• Strong and largely autonomous management of metropolitan region, with clear objectives

(4) Examining Potential to Develop a Trunk and Feeder Public Transport Network

Where MRT systems are to be introduced, the potential for re-organizing the public transport system should be examined. If existing buses or paratransit are to compete with the proposed MRT, the situation will create excessive congestion, which will lower MRT viability. Ideally, existing buses and paratransit should serve as feeders to the MRT to form a ‘Trunk and Feeder System’ of public transport. Such an arrangement will maximize the value of the MRT, increase its catchment area and improve mobility for more people.

The concept of a Trunk and Feeder System is shown graphically in Figure 10. Potential trunk corridors and feeder links as well as major interchange locations may be included in the CMP. This form of public transport, however, is suitable for relatively large cities with a higher dependence on public transport to reach city centres. For smaller cities with lower density development, some other pattern of public transport may have to be considered.

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Figure: Concept of Trunk and Feeder System

(5) Preparing Intermodal Facility Plan

To promote public transport network, provision of intermodal facilities is essential. Public transport is generally able to work more efficiently if there is a good network and connections with other modes are provided. This is because public transport usually requires access transport from users’ origination and egress transport to their final destination, via walk, NMV, and auto-rickshaw. Therefore intermodal facilities can provide substantial benefits in time savings as well as comfort. The following facilities should be examined together with the public transport network plan.

• Bus stops (with seat, shelter, and information board) • Bus terminal (for transfer between urban and intercity buses) • Intermodal facilities at existing on proposed MRT stations • Paratransit facilities • Pedestrian facilities around bus stops and terminals

Task-4: Development of Urban Mobility Plan

Task 4-2 Preparation of Road Network Development Plan

Road projects will be developed and listed in the CMP, including the following:

• Hierarchical Road Network; • Arterial Road Construction/Widening Projects;

• Secondary Road Construction/Widening Projects; • Intersection Improvement Projects; • Flyover Projects; and

• Railway over Bridge (ROB) or Underpass Projects.

Road projects may appear to be the most obvious solution to city congestion problems. However, as noted by many observers, more roads attract more traffic and new

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flyovers transfer bottlenecks to neighbouring intersections. As such, road projects will not solve traffic congestion forever.

With an understanding of the above, generally the following road projects are especially effective and should be prioritized in medium sized cities:

• Introduction of Hierarchical Road Network;

• Ring Road (with strict regulation of roadside land use); • Intersection Improvement;

• Road construction/widening only to provide space for public transport and NMV, such as exclusive bus lanes or NMV lane.

The Road Network Plan should include the following aspects:

(i) existing and future traffic bottlenecks, (ii) explanation of proposed strategy in terms of land use pattern, (iii) public transport network, (iv) role and benefit of each project within the Road Network Plan, (v) recommendations for infrastructure, (vi) operations and maintenance on existing and proposed road networks, (vi) provision of sidewalks and NMV lanes, and (viii) estimated costs of proposed projects.

Task 4-3 Preparation of NMT Facility Improvement Plan

Walking, cycling and other NMVs provide a large part of the mobility needs in medium sized cities in India. Thus, planning for pedestrians, bicycles and cycle rickshaws will be one of the most important tasks in CMP preparation. As the CMP sets out vision/goals for the metropolitan region and serves as a strategic level plan for urban land use and transport systems, the NMT policy level planning may be accepted. However, detailed NMT improvement plans and traffic management measures can be worked out for CBD, commercial centres, and other major activity centres, which refine NMT policy for the whole region and provide the costing basis to implement such policy.

A methodology for planning NMT facilities can be found in Module 5: Non-motorized Transport (NMT) Measures: Policy and Options.

Task 4-4 Preparation of Mobility Management Measures

In general, traffic management measures are cost-effective as compared to infrastructure development projects, but they may not function without proper regulation and enforcement. In the CMP, a traffic management plan should be developed with implications for regulation and enforcement. The topics to be covered in this plan include:

• Parking Plan; • Traffic Control Measures; • Intersection Improvement Projects (at-grade improvements only);

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• Intermodal Facilities (public transport terminals and truck terminals) • TDM Measures; • Traffic Safety Plan; • Paratransit Facility Plan; and • Intelligent Transport System (ITS) and User Information.

Guidelines for planning parking measures can be found in Module 4: Parking Measures: Policy and Options.

Task 4-5 Preparation of Regulatory and Institutional Measures

Effective development of urban land use and the transport system often requires regulatory and institutional changes. Such requirement should be thoroughly worked out and documented in the CMP. These measures can be developed region-wide or be project specific. The regulatory and institutional plan should include the following:

Regulatory measures in relation to:

• Bus service improvement (concession, privatization, and lease contract);

• Traffic safety improvement (traffic regulation, mandatory road user education, enforcement systems);

• Introduction of Transport Demand Management (TDM) measures ;

• Vehicle emissions (focus on non-fuel based vehicles and compressed natural gas/CNG vehicles); and

• Public-Private Partnerships

Institutional measures in relation to:

• Coordination mechanism to integrate public transport operation and to integrate fares;

• Establishment of Unified Metropolitan Transport Authorities (UMTA);

• Establishment of SPVs for the implementation of proposed projects; and • Other changes necessary to promote Public-Private Partnerships (PPPs).

Task 4-6 Development of Fiscal Measures

Fiscal measures should also be considered to achieve balanced modal split, and to secure the budget necessary to implement urban transport projects. As fiscal measures usually correspond to institutional and regulatory measures, the following aspects may have to be examined in the CMP document:

• Fare policy for public transportation, and parking; • Subsidy policy for public transport operators;

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• Taxation on private vehicles and public transport vehicles; and • Potential for road congestion charging.

Task 4-7 Mobility Improvement Measures and NUTP Objectives

The land use and transport measures proposed in the CMP will improve mobility in the metropolitan area and cover the critical issues addressed in the NUTP. A table can be prepared summarizing the relationship between the NUTP objectives and the measures proposed in the study, together with a classification of the measures according to their implementation time frame (short, medium and long term). Table 16 shows an example of such a summary in relation to NUTP objectives.

Table: Summary of Mobility Improvement Measures in Relation to NUTP: Example NUTP Objectives Proposed Mobility Improvement Measure Priority for Pedestrians

• Pedestrian paths are recommended in all residential and commercial areas and on major corridors.

• Pedestrian crossings are proposed in all commercial areas and school zones.

• Pedestrian underpasses are recommended at critical locations.

Priority for Non-motorized Vehicles

• Recommended bicycle tracks on major corridors and in school zones.

• Requirement for bicycle parking is recommended for offices, railway stations, schools and all markets and shopping centres.

• Rickshaw stands are proposed at critical locations.

Priority for Public Transport

• Development of an MRT system is proposed. • Recommended improvements to existing bus services and

necessary regulatory/institutional changes.

Parking • On-street parking facilities are proposed for critical locations.

• Recommended regulatory changes in building permits to secure parking demand.

• Construction of off-street parking is proposed for several locations, and a funding mechanism is developed including the possibility of private sector participation.

• Changes in parking tariff policy are proposed to optimize the use of existing off-street parking facilities.

Integration of Land Use and Transport Planning

• A preferred urban growth scenario is recommended in the CMP document and its compatibility with the Master Plan is analyzed.

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• Land use control principles to minimize the mobility requirement are presented.

• Proposed MRT corridors with feeder modes of transport cover major residential, commercial and industrial areas in metropolitan areas.

• High-density residential and commercial development around proposed MRT stations is recommended.

Equitable Allocation of Road Space

• MRT corridors and bus priority lanes are proposed. • Pedestrian and NMV lanes are recommended.

Integrated Public Transport Systems

• Recommended that inter-city bus terminals be moved to peripheral areas of the city and integrated with inner-city bus services.

• Intermodal (taxi/rickshaw stands, vehicle, NMV parking, and bus-loading/unloading) facilities are proposed at MRT stations.

Introduction of Paratransit Services

• Recommended the introduction of paratransit services to supplement the existing/new public transport services.

Freight Traffic Improvement

• Truck terminals proposed. • Entry restrictions for heavy vehicles during peak hours

recommended. Source: based on Comprehensive Mobility Plan for Coimbatore, 2007.

Task-5 Preparation of the Implementation Program

Detailed procedures for implementing proposed measures should be shown in an Implementation Program, which includes timeframe, financing options and implementation agencies/organizations for each project. General project information will be required at this stage, such as project title, location and estimated cost. Proposed projects will then be evaluated and prioritized based on pre-determined criteria and classified into short-term (high priority), medium-term, and long-term. For the High Priority Projects, slightly more detailed project descriptions will be required, in the form of Project Profile Sheets (or simply Project Sheets).

Once the CMP is approved, feasibility studies in the form of Detailed Project Reports (DPR-1) may be developed to fully assess technical, financial and economic feasibility.

• Task 5-1 Preparation of Implementation Programs

• Task 5-2 Social and Environmental Impact Assessment • Task 5-3 Preparation of Project Profile Sheets

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Task 5-1 Preparation of Implementation Programs

(1) Preparation of Project List

The CMP includes the list of all proposed urban transport projects and this list can be called a Project Long List. The long list will be prepared by reviewing existing and ongoing projects which will become potentially effective measures to approach the vision(s) and goals stated at the outset of the CMP. The long list will include a very brief summary of each project, as shown in Survey Format 7-1A in Annex 1.

(2) Selection of Priority Measures

When considering the implementation timeframe of proposed measures, a selection process should be developed to screen prime candidates based on certain critical criteria, such as their importance and any constraints to implementation. The criteria that make up these two conditions are described in Table 17.

Table: Criteria for Selection of Priority Measures Criteria Description

Project Importance i. Consistency with

Overall Policy Framework

Assessment of the degree of consistency between a project and the existing development policy in the city, such as the NUTP, CDP, Land Use Plan, and other master plans.

ii. Consistency with Strategic Framework for Transport Network:

Assessment of the level of consistency with the strategic framework described above.

iii. Impact on Reducing Traffic Congestion

Assessment of the anticipated impact on reducing traffic congestion. This impact should be considered from the viewpoint of the whole road network. Therefore, a locally limited impact, such as congestion reduction at only one intersection, should not be given a high score.

iv. Promotion of Public Transport

Projects that promote public transport should be given high scores. Not only public transport projects, but also some road infrastructure and traffic management projects can promote public transport.

v. Enhancement of Traffic Safety

Projects that enhance traffic safety should be given high scores. Traffic safety includes not only road traffic safety, but also railway safety.

vi. Cost Effectiveness Comparison of project costs with project benefits. vii. Level of Commitment

by Implementing Agency

Projects that local government is strongly committed to implement should be given high scores. The stronger the support for the project, the higher the score.

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viii. Degree of Support from Transport Users

This involves an assessment of the support from transport users. Projects with stronger user support should be evaluated highest and ideally based on the results of a transport user interview survey.

Constraints i. Whether the transport measure can be implemented within the timeframe of the

CMP ii. Whether land acquisition/resettlement is manageable iii. Whether the environmental impact is adverse

The long list projects should be prioritized in a systematic manner. Qualitative scoring is one productive method for prioritization. The scoring methodology may be decided in discussions in each city. Table 18 shows a sample methodology for scoring in consideration of the above criteria. The scoring form is shown in Survey Form 7-4A.

Table: Example Methodology for Scoring/Selecting High-Priority Projects Project Importance Criteria Score Weight

(Example) Consistency with Overall Policy Framework 1~3 (S1) 1 (W1) Consistency with Future Framework for Transport Network

1~3 (S2) 1 (W2)

Impact on Reducing Traffic Congestion 1~3 (S3) 2 (W3) Promotion of Public Transport 1~3 (S4) 3 (W4) Impact on Enhancing Safety 1~3 (S5) 1 (W5) Cost Effectiveness 1~3 (S6) 1 (W6) Level of Commitment by Relevant Agencies 1~3 (S7) 3 (W7) Degree of Support from Transport Users 1~3 (S8) 1 (W8)

Constraint Criteria Score Weight (i) Whether the transport measure can be

implemented within the timeframe of the CMP

0, 1 (C1)

(ii) Whether land acquisition and resettlement are manageable

0, 1 (C2)

(iii) Whether environmental impact is adverse 0, 1 (C3)

The total score can be calculated as shown below.

Through the above evaluations, all projects should be classified into at least three categories:

i. High-priority

ii. Medium-priority and

Total Score = ∑i SiWi x C1 x C2 x C3

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iii. Low-priority projects. The evaluation results should be presented in the CMP.

(3) Implementation Agencies/Organizations

Implementation and operating agencies for each project should be identified, together with other relevant organizations that require a coordinated approach. In addition, considering existing implementation capacity, new agencies may be proposed. Usually implementation of an MRT system requires a new agency. A unified metropolitan transport agency (UMTA) can be implemented to strengthen coordination between concerned agencies.

(4) Identification of Possible Financing Options

Financing options for each project, in particular for high-priority projects, should be assessed. The options outlined below should be considered. Some projects could use a combination of options. The evaluation form is shown in Survey Form 7-5A:

• Funding by the Local Government; • Funding by the Central Government (including from the JNNURM fund); • Private sector financing (or PPP); and • Funding by international development partners (donor agencies).

In addition, the financial constraints of the local body should be clarified. The possible budget for the transport sector for 5, 10 and 20 years should be considered.

(5) Implementation Program

Based on the above examination, the implementation program should be summarized. While certain projects such as improvement of NMV facilities, design and implementation of transport demand measures, or bus service development may be completed within a relatively short-term, some other projects such as development of MRT systems or major highway projects will require longer periods to complete. Considering the timeframe of each project, prepare an implementation program can be prepared which indicates a realistic schedule for implementing all recommended projects and measures. Such an implementation program includes:

• Assumed growth patterns (maps) after 5, 10 and 20 years;

• Implementation schedule of all proposed projects/measures (with indication of inter-dependence) over the entire planning period; and

• Funding requirement for the projects in each planning periods.

Through the preparation, the mobility improvement projects and measures should be classified into the following three categories according to the planned implementation schedule:

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(i) Short-Term Projects (to be implemented within 5 years) (ii) Medium-Term projects (within 10 years) and (iii) Long-Term Projects (within 20 years).

Task 5-2 Social and Environmental Impact Assessment

In the CMP document, it is not necessary to include Initial Environmental Examination (IEE) or Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA reports). However, very preliminary social and environmental impact assessments of each priority project may have to be performed and the results and implications be fully reflected in the recommended projects. Also, it would be beneficial to conduct a Strategic Environmental Impact Assessment (SEIA) in order to examine and evaluate the project justification within the national/regional and/or municipal planning framework. Below Table shows the outline tasks of the SEIA:

Table: Outline of SEIA Tasks Category Task

A. Screening 1. Decide on need for SEA and create commitment B. Scoping 2. Find stakeholders and announce start of plan process

3. Develop shared vision on problems/objectives/alternatives 4. Perform consistency analysis: new vs. existing objectives

C. Assessment 5. Set ToR for SEA report, based on results of scoping 6. Perform assessment, document and disseminate 7. Organize (independent) quality assurance

D. Decision Making 8. Discuss with all stakeholders, present alternative 9. Substantiate (policy) decision in writing

E. Monitoring 10. Monitor implementation and discuss results.

Task 5-3 Preparation of Project Profile Sheets

A Project Profile Sheet will be prepared for each High Priority Project. The project sheet should include the project outline with project rationale and justification, along with conceptual drawings (if necessary) to facilitate the understanding of readers. The next stage of project implementation, i.e., DPR 1, should commence from this project sheet. The project sheet should include the following items:

• Project Code; • Project Name; • Categories; • Location; • Rationale and Justification; • Objectives; • Status; • Anticipated Timeframe; • Project Description ;

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• Social and Environmental Impacts; • Implementation Arrangements; • Cost; • Implementation Schedule; and • Conceptual Site Location and Physical Plan.

Sample project sheets are found in Annex 2.

Annex 2 Project Code Project Name Categories Location R18 (RF27) Construction of

Railway Underpasses for Light Vehicles

Road/Railway Underpass

KMC

Project Rationale and Justification

- At-grade railway disturb traffic flows and become traffic bottlenecks

- Illegal pedestrian and vehicle crossings are dangerous and slow trains.

- Segregation of road traffic and rail lines will contribute not only to enhancing the safety, but will also improve railway services by increasing travel speed.

- There are two level crossings, which have more than 500,000 TVU, but there are difficulties in constructing railway overbridges due to land acquisition issues because the two underpasses are located between Sealdah and Park Circus and both roads are narrow secondary roads.

- In addition to the above, it is often observed that many people illegally cross railways. Even in locations where there are railways over bridges, pedestrians and rickshaws usually prefer level crossings to the bridge. This situation not only endangers people, but also reduces train speeds.

- Underpasses for light vehicles and pedestrians will contribute to improving this situation, because people prefer to use underpasses.

The Study Team proposes the following four railway underpasses for light vehicles.

1. Two level crossings between Sealdah and Park Circus 2. Kankelea crossing between Ballygunj and Dhakuria 3. Selinpur Road between Jadabpur and Dhakuria

Project Objectives

- To enhance safety of pedestrian, vehicles and trains - To remove traffic bottleneck and reduce traffic congestion - To increase travel speed of trains

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Project Status Concept Stage. Anticipated Timeframe

Short-term

Project Description

Construction of Railway Underpasses Locations:

1. Two existing level crossings between Sealdah and Park Circus 2. Kankelea crossing between Ballygunj and Dhakuria 3. Selinpur Road between Jadabpur and Dhakuria

Length - Around 400-500m

Construction component: - Underground construction for Underpass.

Issues to be solved

- Water drainage during the rainy season should be considered at the engineering design stage of underpasses and subways

Social and Environmental Impact

- Air and noise pollution during construction phase. - Reduction in noise and air pollution on the project corridor.

Stricter enforcement of vehicular emission and noise pollution standards would further reduces air and noise pollution levels.

- For protection of the trees within a rural settlement, road design is very important.

- Construction should be avoided over water bodies to protect the aquatic environment.

- For aesthetic reasons, green belt development is necessary. Implementation Arrangements

Eastern Railway and Transport Department will implement. The two agencies will share the cost.

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Chapter:06: Parking (Guidelines for Parking Measures: Policy and Options)

Introduction

Use of the Guidelines

FAQs on Parking

Vehicle Parking: Policy and Strategy

Parking Policy Parking Development Strategy

Designing a Vehicle Parking Scheme

An Overview of the Design Process STEP 1: Diagnose Existing Situation STEP 2: Consider Potential Measures STEP 3: Select Appropriate Measures STEP 4: Design Appropriate Measures

Other Forms of Parking Facilities

Parking for Bicycles Rickshaws and Auto-Rickshaws Stands On-street Parking for Goods Delivery

Annexes

(Source: http://sti-india-uttoolkit.adb.org/mod4/index.html)

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Parking (Guidelines for Parking Measures: Policy and Options)

Introduction

Use of the Guidelines

Parking is an important consideration for all cities. Well designed and balanced parking controls can maximize the efficiency of road space, allowing clients to visit businesses, customers to visit retail establishments and local residents to improve their mobility while undertaking economic and social activities. Adequate parking supply is needed in cities to encourage retail and commercial activities and to satisfy residential and visitor demands. At the same time, and increasingly in cities with high vehicle ownership, parking controls can provide a powerful tool for restricting excessive use of private modes by limiting public space allocated to parking, thereby encouraging preferred modes such as public transport. A parking scheme can be introduced to a city to address existing transport problems or be introduced to support and compliment a large cost-intensive public transport scheme, thereby improving the cost effectiveness of that scheme.

This module addresses measures not only for car parking, but also for bicycles, freight vehicles, taxis, and rickshaws. PPP schemes are also important as a means to implement parking initiatives and appropriate guidance is included in this module.

In the first section of this module, policy background and development strategies for medium sized cities in India are explained. This is followed by an explanation of the process and necessary steps for parking planning. Tools for designing parking measures are explained with reference to international experiences and case studies. The requirements for the parking of rickshaws, bicycles and freight vehicles are also discussed. Finally, standards for parking and examples of parking developments using PPP schemes are set out in the Annexes.

FAQs on Parking

Why do we need to control parking?

Well designed and balanced parking controls can maximize the efficiency of road space allowing people to expand their mobility for conducting economic and social activities to the advantage of the city. This is achieved directly by reducing kerbside obstacles which can reduce traffic congestion, and indirectly by encouraging public transport, which is not subjected to restrictions in central areas.

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Do we always need to provide parking space to meet demand?

No. Parking controls can provide an effective tool for restricting excessive use of private cars by restricting parking supply (number of parking spaces) below demand levels, thereby encouraging the use of public transport systems or NMTs for shorter trips. In some areas, there may be demand for long term parking, in which case time duration controls can be implemented to encourage a ‘turnover’ of parking for the benefit of nearby commercial activities.

What types of parking control measures are available?

Parking control measures include: on-street parking measures such as no stopping, no parking schemes in busy streets, resident permit schemes, and parking tickets or parking meters for time limitations, which can be implemented on a street or zone basis; and off-street parking measures such as ground level parking, multi-story car parks, underground car parks provided by public, private, or PPP initiatives. An efficient means of enforcement is required to ensure parking measures are effective.

Why do we need to introduce parking fees for on-street parking?

For exceptional cases free parking can be allowed, but in general, parking fees should be introduced on urban streets. Essentially, these streets are built to provide mobility to people and goods, but not to freely provide parking space for private users. The National Urban Transport Policy of India (NUTP) stipulates that the levy of a high parking fee that truly represents the value of the land occupied should be used to make public transport comparatively more attractive. It is also common practice in many cities for the parking fees to directly subsidize the costs of an enforcement agency, which usually require additional resources for new parking schemes. Fees therefore contribute to the success and sustainability of the parking controls.

How can we collect parking fees most effectively? What types of new technology available for this purpose?

Parking fees can be collected manually, but various types of parking machines are available which allows operation of fully automated car parks. Most of the parking machines accept graded scale parking fees, and cash (coins or notes). The latest technology allows taking credit cards that eliminates cash gathering or risk of pilferage.

Where should we build NMV parking?

NMV parking should be provided at commercial areas as well as transport terminals, such as MRT stations. Most suburban rail stations (and some bus stops) in Japan and Europe provide bicycle parking space so that transit users can use bicycles as a convenient feeder

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mode. It is generally recommended to build NMV parking facilities off-street, but on-street parking may be arranged where sufficient space is available.

What options are available to get the private sector involved in providing parking control measures?

Private sector involvement in parking is an attractive option to solve parking problems in a city when high investment costs are required and the Municipality alone cannot meet the needs for construction, development, and maintenance of parking facilities. Several possible scenarios exist for attracting private sector involvement in parking, based on the scope of powers delegated to the operators by the Municipality either for on-street parking, off-street parking, or both. The type of property upon which parking lots are located, either public or private, is also an important consideration.

Would the Ministry subsidize construction of car parks?

Yes. Multi-level parking complexes should be a mandatory requirement in city centres that have high rise commercial complexes and will be given priority under the JNNURM initiative, but such a proposal must indicates clearly a strategy for parking controls in the area.

Vehicle Parking: Policy and Strategy

Parking Policy

Parking Policy Objectives

An appropriate parking policy can address a number of objectives thereby benefiting the transport network of a city in a number of ways. Such objectives are:

• To discourage the use of private vehicles thereby encouraging public transport • To remove obstacles from carriageways thereby improving the steady flow of

traffic and increasing carriageway capacity • To contribute to a city’s economic activities by ensuring a ‘turnover’ of different

vehicles rather than long stay vehicles in commercial areas • To satisfy social objectives of supplying adequate parking space at certain

locations for certain social groups e.g. residents, mobility disadvantaged.

National Parking Policy

In addition to the above general objectives, parking measures proposed by an Indian city should conform to existing policy at national, state and city level. The National Urban Transport Policy for India (published by Ministry of Urban Development, Government of India, April 2006) refers to parking in paragraphs 34 and 35. A summary is shown in Box 1.

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City Parking Policy

Each city should develop a Comprehensive Mobility Plan or Transport Master Plan that includes an outline of a strategy for parking controls within the city and that conforms to the above national policy. The following list provides a summary of components of a parking strategy that are typically utilized by cities worldwide. The design of parking measures should conform to the adopted strategy of the city.

• Utilize parking controls to regulate car usage

• Minimize the impact of on-street parking and encourage off-street parking (particularly for long-term parkers, such as commuters)

• Optimize existing parking capacity, before creating new parking facilities

• Prioritize parking in the following order: physically disadvantaged, residents, short-term visitors or commercial activities, long-term parkers such as work commuters

• Improve safety for pedestrians by reducing illegal parking and opening additional public space for pedestrians and cyclists.

Box 1: Parking Policy (NUTP)

� Levy of a high parking fee that truly represents the value of the land occupied should be used to make public transport comparatively more attractive

� Provide park and ride facilities for bicycle users with convenient interchange

� Graded scale parking fees should aim to recover the economic cost of land used for parking and electronic metering should be used widely

� State governments should amend building by-laws in all million plus cities so that adequate parking space is available for users of such buildings

� By-laws should also control carriage way parking in residential areas

� Multi-level parking complexes should be a mandatory requirement in city centres that have high rise commercial complexes and will be given priority under the NURM

Source: National Urban Transport Policy for India, Ministry of Urban Development, Government of India, April 2006.

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• Introduce paid parking as a method to dissuade car use and/or raise revenue

• Utilize fees and fines from parking to invest in the building of car parks and to improve public transport

• Develop public-private partnerships (PPP) for the operation of either on-street or (more often) off-street parking facilities

Parking Development Strategy

- Strategy considering Location and Land Use - Characteristics of On- and Off-Street Parking - Selection of On-Street Parking Options - Potential for Private Sector Involvement - Pricing Strategies - Legislation - Additional Considerations

Strategy considering Location and Land Use

Appropriate parking strategy should be developed for different types of land use over time. Below Table provides an example of such a strategy. Parking in the CBD and commercial areas, for example, can be on-street in the short term, with expanded off-street facilities in the medium term. Parking demand in suburban/residential areas can be facilitated by building regulations.

Table: Parking Development Strategy by Location and Land Use

CBD/Commercial/Developed Area

Suburban/Residential/Developing Area

Short (5 years)

- Provision of on-street parking - Preparation of regulation

relating to parking and PPP

- Building regulation for off-street parking

- Introduction of resident permit scheme (for on-street parking)

- Assessment of demand Medium to Long (10-20 years)

- Provision of off-street parking - Building regulation for off-

street parking - Implementation of regulation

and enforcement for on-street parking

- Provision of on-street parking - Demand analysis

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Diagnose Existing Situation

A diagnosis of the existing situation should be prepared with regard to parking in the city to highlight any problems. Critical areas should be identified where parking causes adverse impacts, such as bottlenecks, congestion, risk of accidents. An important aspect of the existing situation is the relationship between parking supply and demand. The ratio between the two provides a measure of occupancy and whether parking demand is exceeding available space. Surveys should be carried out to quantify this relationship.

At this stage, an existing and future land use plan for the study areas should also be identified, which categorizes areas or zones of land use, such as residential areas, commercial, and business sites. This information is important to determine whether existing parking controls and tariffs are appropriate to land usage and to formulate appropriate parking improvement plans. For example, integrated parking policies encourage the establishment of short-term parking in primarily retail-oriented areas to promote high turnover rates and therefore greater likelihood for open spaces for prospective shoppers.

Parking Supply Inventory

A parking inventory survey should be carried out to produce a list of parking spaces by category, distinguishing between:

- On-street and off-street supply - Type of on-street parking (i.e., on the left-hand side or right-hand side of the

street, parallel, slotted, angled) - Type of off-street parking (multilevel, underground, aboveground, at-grade, etc.) - Publicly and privately operated lots - Parking restrictions (e.g. time of day, duration, private) - Waiting and loading restrictions for private, public transport, and freight vehicles - Short-term (including hourly) versus long-term (including weekly and monthly)

parking supply.

At this stage, the existence (or lack) of proper signage or pavement painting for on-street facilities can also be recorded. The survey sheet for enumerators is attached in Annex 3.

Annex 3: Sample Forms for Parking Survey

A set of sample forms for parking surveys is provided in this section.

This form can be used for an inventory survey, recording the number of spaces by street.

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On Street Parking Inventory Survey Form

Forms for a demand survey of on- and off-street parking are given below. For the off-street demand survey, enumerators should be assigned to an area and record the number of vehicles parked by off-street parking facility every 30 minutes, through an interview survey. For the on-street demand survey, similarly to the off-street survey, enumerators should count the number of vehicles parked by street every 30 minutes. The surveyor should designate the areas for analysis and prepare appropriate survey forms.

Off Street Parking Demand Survey Form

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On Street Parking Demand Survey Form

Many streets in Indian cities are not demarcated with areas for parking. In such cases, an initial assessment will need to be made of the available capacity that the streets could provide, bearing in mind parking ‘bay’ requirements and areas that should have parking prohibitions.

The inventory survey should also include a survey of tariffs i.e. an inventory of parking charges by:

� Time of day � Day of week � Type of parking (on- and off-street as well as public and privately operated spaces);

and � Location. The method of payment should also be stated, as well as any parking

discounts (perhaps from local merchants or retail enterprises).

Demand Analysis

Parking demand basically has two aspects, i.e. ownership related and usage related. Ownership related parking is typically parking that takes place at the origin of a trip, usually the residence of the vehicle owner, and overnight. Usage related parking takes place at destinations (trip-ends) and tends to vary over time.

An analysis of parking demand should be carried out. This should include reporting of the key variables (i) Supply Occupancy, and (ii) Parking Duration, as described below.

Occupancy: The occupancy of an area or zone is a measure of the ratio of parking demand to supply. It can reveal whether existing supply is sufficient and whether unregulated parking

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is taking place. A 100% occupancy indicates that on average all available parking spaces are occupied ─ i.e. within an average or peak hour of the day. A parking utilization survey should be carried out to record the number of vehicles that occupy space on an hourly basis or at critical hours, such as morning, midday, and evening peaks. Such surveys should avoid days of unusual events, which could cause results that do not reflect the norm. Surveys over several consecutive days help to produce a reliable average. Permission may be required to survey parking areas run by private entities. In addition, parking duration surveys will determine the average length of stay of parked vehicles.

Duration: Parking duration provides a measure of the average length of time that vehicles are parked in particular areas. Typically the length of time is categorized into short (less than 2 hours), medium, and long term (all day) bands. This provides information on the nature of parking ─ i.e. the type of users and subsequently the type of controls that may be needed.

Whilst surveys will provide important information on the existing situation, the future scenario should also be assessed. It is difficult to forecast future parking demand, particularly in fast developing cities, such as small to medium sized cities in India. However, use can be made of a transport model to assess the volume of trip ends in particular areas (zones). In this way, the required timeline for implementing a parking scheme can be developed.

An example of parking demand and supply analysis in a CBD in Tokyo is provided in Annex 5

Annex 5 Analysis of Parking Demand and Supply: Example Drawings Created in the Process

This annex shows an example of parking demand and supply analysis in Tokyo’s CBD. It summarizes key tasks and provides various maps created in the process.

Land use, Major Facilities and Traffic Volume

The land use map shows a heavily commercialized CBD within one kilometer radius of the central station. Initially, major destinations were identified and traffic volumes on major arterials are measured.

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Land Use Map

Location of Major Commercial Facilities

Location of Major Cultural

Destinations

Traffic Volumes on Arterials

Source: PADECO

Figure 1 Case Study: Land Use, Destinations and Traffic Volume

Parking Demand Survey

Parking management zones are defined based on traffic flow on arterials and land use characteristics. Extent of illegal parking and the parking demand in the area were then estimated by various parking surveys. The figure below shows the seven designated parking management zones, the extent of on-street illegal parking by street, and the calculated parking demand by zone.

Figure 1 Case Study: Zoning and Parking Demand

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Assessment of Parking Supply

On- and off- street parking supply was be identified and shown on a map by area and compared with the estimated demand. A one-way system was considered to improve utilization of parking facilities.

One-way regulation in the area

On-street parking supply

Source: PADECO

Figure 2 Case Study: One-way Regulation and On-street Parking Supply

Source: PADECO

Figure 3 Case Study: Off-street Parking Supply

The figure above illustrates the supply of off-street parking, showing capacity and parking location, parking management system, one-way regulation and the location of car park entrances. Supply has been aggregated for each of the seven zones.

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Consider Potential Measures

Before devising a parking scheme, it is important to have sufficient knowledge of what tools are available. The following paragraphs provide a list of commonly utilized measures, which either address parking supply or demand. Supply typically includes parking infrastructure, building regulations and provisions for particular user groups. Demand measures typically include regulation, transport demand management, enforcement, and guidance systems.

Tools to Influence Parking Supply

Infrastructure: Infrastructure improvement measures include allocating or removing on-street areas for parking (e.g. by pedestrianization), building off-street car parks, and reorganizing public space.

In areas where urban space is limited such as the CBD or commercial areas, mechanized and multi-storey parking may be built to expand parking supply. The below figure shows examples of mechanized and multi-storey parking facilities.

Source: PADECO

Source: PADECO

Figure: Mechanized and Multi-Storey Parking

When planning for these off-street parking facilities, it is important to consider that the volume of traffic entering/exiting the parking facilities does not severely impact the traffic on the frontage road. In Japan, it is mandatory to conduct a traffic impact study when proposing development of large scale commercial buildings. If the volume of parking traffic exceeds 600 vehicles per hour, the following countermeasures should be considered:

- Road widening and additional lane for access road; - Traffic management and optimization of signal phasing; - Modification of number, location and distribution of entry/exit points; and - Feeder transport services development.

Relatively small available space in the CBD area may be used for temporary off-street parking by introducing an automated system. Wheel stoppers may activate if the tariff payment expires, thereby requiring penalty fees to be paid. Such parking facilities mainly

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meet short term parking requirements and delivery vehicles could also use them. This type of off-street parking, however, does not accommodate long-term parking in the area.

Source: PADECO

Figure: Off-Street Parking Meter (UK) and Wheel Stopping Boards (Japan)

� Building Regulations: Building regulations provide an opportunity to set limits on the number of parking spaces to be provided during the development stage. A balance has to be found. A minimum requirement for a private development may result in too many parking spaces at the premises, encouraging car use and resulting in lower demand for public parking spaces (and therefore potentially less public revenue). A maximum requirement, on the other hand, may result in more demand for public parking than there is available capacity.

Annex 2 provides recommendations for parking space provision by development type as prepared for Delhi in 2005.

Annex 2: Example Standards for Parking Areas for Development

IRC Standards for Parking Areas for Development (1988)

The following table provides the IRC recommendations on the Provision of Parking Spaces for Urban Areas. The IRC standards may still be used for smaller sized cities/towns in India:

Table: Recommendations on the Provision of Parking Spaces for Urban Areas

Residential Detached, semi-detached and row houses Plot Area up to 100 sq.m No private or community parking space is required Plot Area 101–200 sq.m Only community parking space is required Plot Area 201–300 sq.m Only community parking space is required Plot Area 301–500 sq.m Minimum one-third of the open area should be earmarked for

parking Plot Area 501–1000 sq.m Minimum one-fourth of the open area should be earmarked for

parking Plot Area 1001+sq.m Minimum one-sixth of the open area should be earmarked for

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parking Flats One space for every two flats of 50 to 99 sq.m One space for every flat having 100 sq.m or more floor area Special, Costly Developed Area One space for every flat of 50 to 100 sq.m of floor area One and a half spaces for every flat of 100–150 sq.m of floor area Two spaces for every flat of above 150 sq.m of floor area Multi-storeyed, group housing schemes One space for every four dwellings, except in cities like Calcutta and Bombay where demand may be more. Offices One space for every 70 sq.m of floor area Industrial Premises One space for upto 200 sq.m of initial floor area. Additional spaces at the rate of one for every subsequent 200 sq.m or fraction thereof. Shops and Markets One space for every 80 sq.m of floor area Restaurants One space for every 10 seats Theatres and Cinemas One space for every 20 seats Hotels and Motels Five and Four-star Hotels One space for every 4 guest rooms Three Star Hotels One space for every 8 guest rooms Two-Star Hotels One space for every 10 guest rooms Motels One space for each guest room Hospitals One space for every 10 beds

Source: Special Publication “Tentative Recommendations on the Provision of Parking Spaces For Urban Areas”, Indian Roads Congress, New Delhi 1988.

Minimum parking space requirements are recommended as:

Table: Minimum Parking Space Requirements

Car 3m x 6m When individual parking space is required 2.5m x 5m When parking lots for commuter parking are

required Trucks 3.75m x 7.5m Any open space left within the premises of a building will be deemed to serve the parking demand provided it fulfils the minimum area of parking specified above.

Source: Special Publication “Tentative Recommendations on the Provision of Parking Spaces For Urban Areas”, Indian Roads Congress, New Delhi 1988.

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Provisions for Residential and Commercial User Groups: In an area where parking will be limited, either in duration or/and in capacity, it is advisable that provisions be made for certain interest groups, such as residents or commercial users, to be able to use parking facilities with fewer limitations. The following instruments can be used:

Parking Permit: Holders of a parking permit are (for a certain area) exempted from the parking limitations.

Season Parking Tickets: Holders of a season ticket can make use of a particular parking location (for instance a car parking), usually for a reduced fee. Season tickets can be limited in time, for instance only valid from Monday to Friday, during office hours.

Temporary Exemptions: A temporary exemption will give drivers the right to park without limitations in a particular location, for instance for one day or a specific time. These exemptions are useful during building activities or other special occasions.

Tools to Influence Parking Demand and TDM

� Marking and Signage: Most ordinary tools can control parking demand. Annex 1 provides a summary of regulations for line marking and road signs related to parking in India.

� Regulating Parking Duration: This instrument is mainly used to limit the amount of long-stay parking in an area, which is to be used mainly for short-stay parking. Systems for paid parking to regulate parking duration are common internationally. In the long run, sophisticated systems may be introduced, such as Pay-and-Display machines, in-car devices, and payment via mobile phone. The choice of a system will be influenced by different aspects, such as acceptance by the population (with probable impact on travel behaviour), enforcement opportunities, effectiveness etc. The tariffs to be used, and possible variations in the tariffs (introducing different zones as well as differences between on-street and off-street parking) should be the responsibility of the Municipality. The photos below show typical methods used in the UK.

Source: PADECO

Figure: On-Street Paid Voucher Parking (Pay & Display) Sign and Bays

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In other cities, simplified application using paper tickets has been implemented. In Singapore, drivers must buy a bundle of coupons for short-term parking, and tear off the coupon to cover the required duration. The driver must show the commencement of the time on the coupon. The bundle consists of a variety of tickets covering various durations and is sold in authorized shops and at kiosks.

� Transport Demand Management: Transport demand or mobility management can be used to bring about a modal shift, thus reducing the incoming car traffic in favour of (mainly) public transport usage. Possible means include improvement of public transport and also development of Park N’ Ride facilities, located outside the core city area. The photo below shows a dedicated park and ride bus that provides transport from the edge of a city (Cambridge, England).

Figure: Park and Bus Ride Facility

Payment for parking and public transport use can be integrated by the use of IC cards. In Japan, IC cards are used to provide discount parking for rail users at certain railway stations.

� Enforcement: An effective parking policy requires strict enforcement. Parking measures, which are introduced, but not observed will quickly lose their effect. An efficient enforcement policy should be an integral part of a municipal parking strategy. Typically, parking enforcement is carried out by traffic police, who are empowered under transport acts to penalize parking violations. However, parking schemes require higher levels of manpower to ensure that they are adequately enforced and this should be considered during design. For example, extra costs may be incurred to bring in additional enforcement.

Some cities introduce innovative approaches to inspection and enforcement. In Delhi, retired military veterans are hired as inspectors. In major cities in Japan, private contractors undertake the inspections, and the private inspectors are certified after three days training. In Cuenca, Ecuador, the municipality contracted out the inspection and enforcement work to a private company, Autoparque S.A, which undertakes painting of parking areas, facilitation of ticketing, inspection and enforcement (vehicle disabling or clamping) and collection of penalties. Under the contract, 15% of penalties are reimbursed to the municipality. Details of franchising and concession processes for on-street parking are explained in the “Parking Measures by PPP” Section of this module.

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� Parking Guidance System: A system guiding car-users efficiently to available parking locations, that may also indicate if there are any free spaces available, will prevent car-users from driving around looking for a parking space. In some cities, 10% or more of the traffic in a city center results from this kind of traffic. A similar system can be put up by the Municipality, but requires cooperation of all (or most) of the private operators of parking facilities, to be efficient. The photo below shows a typical system common in many UK towns and cities, which guides vehicles to off-street parking lots.

The Parking Guidance System above needs initial investment in infrastructure. ITS applications can distribute the information and users can receive the information via mobile phones.

Figure: Electronic Parking Guidance Sign

Select Appropriate Measures

In considering the choice of parking measures, cities should consider their current stage of development and level of parking control. Most Indian medium sized cities are at an early stage of development of parking regulations, infrastructure, and enforcement. The initial stage would therefore be to organize parking prohibitions and allocate parking areas, rather than pursuing advanced solutions. Such a parking scheme may complement the proposal or introduction of a mass transit scheme to ensure that public transport is encouraged over private modes and that access is suitably provided.

The figure below outlines the typical stages in the development or evolution of city parking controls. Most Indian medium sized cities have reached level 1 or 2.

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Figure: Development of Urban Parking Controls

STEP 4: Design Appropriate Measures

Parking measures should be designed according to consistent standards. For on-street parking Traffic and Transportation Policies and Strategies in Urban Areas in India (RITES, 1998) recommends the following norms for on-street parking:

� No on-street parking should be permitted at locations on primary and secondary road network where carriageway width is less than 7 metres;

� Street parking should not be allowed on roads where V/C (volume/capacity) ratio is more than 0.8 or speeds less than 15km/hr;

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� Intersections and other critical locations should be kept free from parking and other encroachments;

� Suitable kerbside lengths should be kept clear of parked vehicles near bus bays

� Bus bays should be provided at bus stops;

� No parking should be allowed on raised footpaths or other corridors meant exclusively for pedestrians; and

� In central areas, street parking may be permitted on one side of the road one day and on another side on another day depending on the site location.

The below figure illustrates examples of street design for the regulation of on-street parking. Colored pavement is used to regulate stopping or parking vehicles near intersections. Another example shows that street furniture (bollards) can be used to prevent vehicles parking on pedestrian areas. Sidewalk build-outs allow some parking bays while providing easy crossing for pedestrians.

Figure: Examples of Street Designs for Regulating On-Street Parking

Design Considerations

The following criteria should be appraised when designing a suitable parking scheme.

1. Is the number of on-street parking spaces limited to encourage public transport modes and an attractive pedestrian environment?

2. Is the number of off-street parking spaces increased to provide a balance considering reductions in on-street parking supply?

3. Is public off-street parking facilities located within acceptable walking distances from actual destinations? (for short-stay parking – i.e. less than four hours – acceptable walking distances rarely exceed 500 meters.

4. Is priority given to residents and short stay parking? (commuter parking can be accommodated but it should not be at the expense of residents and short stay visitors)

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5. Does the parking scheme divide the city into coherent zones with controls that are appropriate to the particular conditions of each zone (i.e. the strictest controls are usually required in the areas that attract the highest parking volumes).

6. Are the controls and tariffs for public on-street parking higher than those for off-street parking?

7. Is there adequate enforcement to ensure compliance with the parking controls?

Other Forms of Parking Facilities

- Parking for Bicycles - Rickshaws and Auto-Rickshaws Stands - On-street Parking for Goods Delivery

Parking for Bicycles

Dedicated bicycle parking facilities are widely observed in Asian cities. Japan, the world’s leading nation in providing bicycle parking areas, has thousands of bicycle parking facilities, of which many are multi-storey and fully computerized. In other cities, bicycle parking facilities are provided on sidewalks, in residential areas, and at common destinations. Many parking spaces are provided without charge, but some parking lots are guarded and charge cyclists at daily or monthly rates. It is also observed that many Indian cities also provide bicycle parking at offices, railway stations, factories, as well as shopping centres and markets.

As bicycles are the most popular mode of mechanized transport in India, the supply of bicycle parking facilities should balance its demand, and as far as possible, such facilities should be provided free of charge or at low tariffs. If supply cannot meet demand and cyclists use footpath space to park their bicycles, pedestrian flows will be obstructed and safety will be jeopardized as pedestrians overflow into vehicle carriageways. Multi-storey bicycle parking and bicycle racks can provide high capacity bicycle parking in narrow and unutilized spaces as shown in Figure A.

An innovative approach to excessive bicycle parking is to reduce the population of cycle units by common sharing among users. For example, an advanced share-ride system in Paris called Velib uses IT and GPS; however, it can be a costly option as it requires relatively high set-up and operating costs. Rent-a-cycle systems near railway stations are also adopted in Japan and Netherlands. The units are rented on hourly bases, and the same units can be used more than once in a day.

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Figure A: Bicycle Parking (a: Uncontrolled bicycles at railway stations in Tokyo, b: Velib, shared bicycle service in

Paris)

Figure A: (continued) (c: Multi-storey parking, d: Bicycle racks)

Rickshaws and Auto-Rickshaws Stands

Some Asian cities provide cycle-rickshaw stands. For example, Surabaya (Indonesia) provides rickshaw parking facilities at the city’s night markets, transport terminals, and schools. Similarly, the Government of George Town (Malaysia) constructed rickshaw stands at several locations. Faridabad (India) also plans to develop cycle-rickshaw stands near major intersections within the city. However, the utilization of rickshaw stands still depends on the level of enforcement as the drivers prefer to congregate in areas of high pedestrian activity often close to busy intersections.

On-street Parking for Goods Delivery

Provision for goods delivery is vital for cities. Providing temporary parking spaces for goods delivery along arterials with adjacent commercial activities is an option to reduce traffic congestion. The pictures below show cases in Tokyo where freight vehicles must park inside a designated area and then take goods onwards by trolley via well paved footpaths. Such a high-grade footpath network is essential infrastructure to ensure this system is successful.

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Figure: On-street Temporary Freight Parking

An option to reduce traffic in commercial areas is to introduce shared delivery services. Transport service providers or wholesale operators served in designated areas can establish a company/cooperative facilitated by the public sector. The company/cooperative then develops common freight terminals and receives all parcels and goods delivered to the area, then sorting them into small trucks by destination. The government may subsidize the cost of infrastructure development.

IRC Regulations for On-Street Parking

Road Marking

The Code of Practice for Road Markings (First Revision) IRC: 35-1997 published by Indian Roads Congress, New Delhi provides a uniform system for road markings in India. ‘Marking indicating Parking Restrictions’ states:

“Kerb or carriageway marking shall be used to show where parking is prohibited. The marking should be continuous yellow line 100mm wide covering the top of the kerb or the carriageway close to it. The face of the kerb may also be painted similarly.”

The marking of the parking space limits on urban roads promotes more efficient use of the parking spaces and tends to prevent encroachment on fire hydrant zones, bus stops, loading/unloading zones and other such locations where parking of vehicle will be undesirable. Such parking space limits should be indicated in the carriageway by typical road markings as shown in Fig. 31. The markings shall be solid white lines 100mm wide.

The limits of the designated parking places should also be indicated by informatory parking signs mounted on the kerb side in accordance with IRC: 67-1977.

The word TAXI, CARS, SCOOTERS, AUTO-RICKSHAWS, etc. may also be written if the parking area is specific for any type of vehicle. These words should also be indicated on the supplementary plate of the Parking sign.

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Parking bay dimensions: the width of a bay varies according to site requirements, though on-carriageway parallel parking should have a width of 1.7–2.5m and a length of 4.5–6m. Angled parking should have a bay length of 4.2–4.5m. Taxi bays should have a width of 2.4m.

Road Signs

The Code of Practice for Road Signs IRC: 67-2001 published by the Indian Roads Congress, New Delhi provides regulations for mandatory/regulatory, cautionary/ warning, and informatory signs and is legislated by Section 116 of the Indian Motor Vehicles Act, 1988.

Figures 13.20 and 13.21 of this publication illustrate the signs for ‘No Parking’ and ‘No Stopping or Standing’ respectively. Definition plates can be added, such as the period during which the restrictions will be in force, or the particular vehicles to which it applies.

Figure: Signage for Regulation

Figures 15.29 to 15.35 provides illustrations for general on-street parking (one side or both sides), parking for scooters and motorcycles, parking for bicycles, parking for taxis, parking for auto-rickshaws and parking for cycle-rickshaws.

Figure: Signage for Parking

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Standards for Parking Areas for Development

Parking Norms

Parking Space Requirements

(a) The minimum parking space requirement for each car and truck is as follows:

Car 3 m x 6 m When individual parking space is required. 2.5 m x 5 m When community parking space is required.

Truck 3.75 m x 7.5 m

(b) Residential: detached, semi-detached and row houses

Plot area upto 100 sq. m No private or community parking space

Plot area : 101–200 sq. m Only community parking space

Plot area : 201–300 sq. m. Only community parking space

Plot area : 301–500 sq. m Minimum 1/3rd of open area for parking

Plot area : 501–1000 sq. m. Minimum 1/4th of open area for parking

Plot area : 1001 sq. m.+ Min. 1/6th of space area for parking

(c) Flats

50–90 sq m. or more of floor area

One space for every two flats

100 sq. m. or more of floor area.

One space for every flat

Warehouses and godowns

One space for initial 500–1500 sq. m of floor area. Additional spaces at the rate of one for every subsequent 1000 sq. m

For all kinds of developments excepting residential, warehouses and godowns

Two spaces for initial 500–1500 sq.m of floor area Additional spaces at the rate of one for every subsequent 500 sq.m

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(d) Parking Norms for Work Centres

(ECS/100 sq. m. floor area) Work Centre Type Commercial Offices

Delhi Master Plan 1981 1.14 0.63

Delhi Master Plan 2001 1.67 1.67

New Delhi Redevelopment Advisory Committee, 1972

2.28 1.14

Indian Road Congress, 1973 1.25 1.42

Central Public Works Department

1.23

Equivalent Car Space (ECS) by Type of Vehicle

Parking Measures by PPP

Introduction

Private sector involvement in parking is an attractive option to address parking problems in a city where a large investment is required and the Municipality alone cannot meet the needs for construction, development and maintenance of parking facilities. Private sector participation allows the Municipality to concentrate on its primary responsibility of delivering public services while facilitating mutually beneficial agreements with private investors. In order to do this, the Municipality needs to fulfil its obligations in terms of a regulatory and organizational framework to allow proper operation and protect the interests of citizens from possible operator abuse.

There are several scenarios for attracting private sector participation in parking, based on the scope of powers delegated to operators by the Municipality, either for on-street parking, off-street parking, or for both. The type of property upon which parking lots are located, either public or private, is also an important consideration.

Car / Taxi 1.00

Two wheeler 0.25

Auto rickshaw 0.50

Bicycle 0.10

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The following guidelines outline how public-private partnerships may be considered for urban parking measures.

� Advantages and Disadvantages � Concession Types � Build-Operate-Transfer (BOT) � Operating Revenue and Risk � Role of Municipality � Tendering and Contracting � Enforcement

Concessions

Concessions may be defined as contractual arrangements through which a private entity obtains the right from a government agency to provide a service under market conditions. The arrangement allows asset ownership to remain in public hands, but allows the private operator to take responsibility for new investments in addition to operation and maintenance.

The underlying characteristics of concession contracts make them successful models for attracting private sector participation. They also give the Municipality maximum protection in its role as public owner.

Typical key characteristics of concessions are as follows:

� The concession permits the Municipality to conduct and oversee monitoring functions, while the private investor is responsible for and obligated to provide parking services, which may include financing of activities and constructing new public properties. The Municipality is obliged to repay invested money to the concessionaire (for construction activities) in the case of early termination of the concession. A minimum investment amount may be determined for the entire concessionary period, either annually or by other terms.

� The property of newly constructed parking facilities remains within the public sector. After the concessionary term expires, the concessionaire transfers the facilities to the Municipality.

� Failure to meet established operating performance requirements in the contract is sanctioned (as agreed upon) by monetary penalties paid to the Municipality. It is possible that in the concession contract, requirements for off-street parking facility construction may be defined, as well as performance requirements. The concessionaire has relative operational independence, as far as the scope of obligations established under the concession contract set in consideration of initial activity parameters, are met.

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� On-street parking prices are regulated by the Municipal Council under the Traffic Law, which the concessionaire must comply with. Off-street parking prices may be set by the concessionaire, so long as consent is granted by the Municipality.

Concession Types

As parking is divided into on-street and off-street, several types of concession exist, as follows:

On-Street Parking Concession

For on-street parking, the only possible means of attracting private involvement is through a concession, since streets and sidewalks are considered municipal public property and are therefore usually subject to a Municipality’s property law (this is also the case for off-street parking facilities situated on municipal public property). Under such laws, municipalities have the right to concede particular rights over property for the initiation of trading activities. As such, a concession is the only legal means of granting rights to a proprietor, with the intent to use municipal public property for economic purposes. Typically, several legal possibilities exist for realizing such concessions, with the Municipality as the owner of the property, including: (i) initiation of activities by commercial entities with municipal property or by municipal enterprises; and (ii) issuance of concessions to private entities to perform such activities.

In granting concessions for on-street parking, it is possible for the city to be split up into concessionary zones, with on-street parking in different zones managed by different operators.

The main issue, which arises in a concession contract, is whether the concessionaire will have enough time to obtain a satisfactory return on investment made in the parking operation (such as the construction of parking facilities and garages). Considering the amount of investment that concessionaires will make, a 15-year concessionary period (or longer) is usually advised. In granting concessions for on-street parking only, the concessionary period may be significantly shorter, as the scope of required infrastructure investment is limited, thereby minimizing startup costs.

Off-Street Parking Concession

Since land is public and should be assigned for direct or indirect usage by all citizens, the property under the concession should directly benefit the concessionaire and indirectly benefit the Municipality through income. To use public property, the concessionaire must pay certain agreed fees in the contract. The concessionaire does not have the right to sell, concede, or in any other way transfer the object of the concession, nor can the concessionaire mortgage it or constitute rights of use etc.

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The concessionaire is selected under a tender procedure. Therefore, the contract with a particular candidate is based on its ability to satisfy and meet the stated objectives. As such, should a selected concessionaire cease operation, a contract should be terminated, unless the Municipal Council consents to extend the contract with a successor to the concessionaire. By defining the minimum concession conditions in the contract, the Municipal Council may incorporate some provisions for the improvement of the property, as well as other related obligations. Improvements made by the concessionaire later become municipal property, with the concessionaire able to receive compensation (through a legal claim). The situation is similar for future construction undertaken by the concessionaire.

The concessionaire is the sole operator on the property, and third parties cannot perform the established obligations pursuant to the concession agreement. The Municipality, however, continues to retain rights to the property. The minimum rights are defined by a decision of the Municipal Council for the granting of a concession. The concessionaire must compensate the Municipality for the special exploitation rights and/or concession permits. The concession is non-transferable through complete/partial rights succession and/or inheritance. The concession right is valid for a specific period of time and may be extended by mutual consent of the concession parties and the Municipal Council (the decision-making body for the concession).

On-Street and Off-Street Parking Concession

A concession for both on- and off-street parking can be granted simultaneously, which presents a better opportunity for the concessionaire to recover the initial investment cost for construction of parking lots and resources, from income realized at on- and off-street locations. It simplifies management, provides incentives for coordination of on- and off-street capacity, ensures the control and better management of on-street spaces, while creating a demand for off-street spaces, and also contributes to financing the supply of such spaces. The positive cash flow from the on-street concessions could be used to subsidize the construction of off-street facilities. Clearly, a private concession would have to be operated under strict guidelines to ensure the proper use of on-street revenue. These might include open tendering for the off-street facilities, restrictions on the on- and off-street tariff levels, strict reporting requirements and auditing, penalties for delays in providing the off-street spaces, and possibly profit-sharing with the Municipality, should revenue exceed forecast. There would also need to be guarantees to protect the interest of investors: for instance the right to operate all parking spaces within the concession area and restrictions on the construction of competing capacity within the concession area and possibly in adjoining areas.

Advantages and Disadvantages of Granting a Concession

The option of granting a concession to involve the private sector within parking operations has the following characteristics:

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� The concession is a method by which all responsibility (in terms of financial and technical, depending upon the agreement) is transferred to the private sector.

� A concession permits an operator to have greater freedom and flexibility to obtain maximum operating effectiveness (using its own management, financial, and technical abilities and knowledge) and guarantee the success of the project.

� A concession allows the Municipality to guarantee the construction of needed facilities despite the fact that existing funds are insufficient to publicly finance them.

� The clear division of obligations between the contract parties decreases the likelihood of conflicts between the Municipality and the concessionaire, leading to improved project results.

� The public sector has the opportunity to concentrate on monitoring and regulation of the concession obligations from the contract, as well as in other areas.

Negative aspects of a concession include the facts that:

� A concession is a binding agreement with a long-term contract, which naturally requires longer period of research and preparation.

� Expenses for concession preparation are significant, emanating from various administrative procedures (including bid organization and preparation, coordination between different municipal departments, preparation of concession contract, and contract signing). It should be noted that possibilities exist to reduce the cost and expedite the process, based on worldwide best practice in similar projects. Furthermore, international financial institutions may be invited to assist in the financing of preparatory activities using their broad international expertise to facilitate the process.

Build-Operate-Transfer (BOT)

Apart from the stated possibilities for attracting private investors, other options exist for off-street parking on private land, which is municipal property. Build-Operate-Transfer, or BOT, is a broadly applied scheme for financing the construction of facilities requiring high initial infrastructure costs. Under this scheme, the Municipality provides private land (which is municipal property) for the project. The private investor is tasked with organizing, financing, and constructing the required infrastructure and facilities, based on previous studies or projects. The construction requirements are agreed and financing is covered completely by the investor. After construction is complete, the investors are given the right to operate the facilities, obtain benefits from operations for a set time period (in order to recover the initial investment) as well as the expenses, and obtain a profit, estimated by a financial model and previously agreed upon by both parties.

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Usually, the agreement between the parties includes a guaranteed minimum annual profit for the investor, in order to guarantee that a minimum set of parameters under the financial model and the capital return are obtained.

Operating Revenue and Risk

The two primary risks in provision of parking concern legislation and demand. For off-street spaces to be taken up, on-street parking in the adjacent area must be effectively controlled, both in terms of number of spaces and fee level. Without such control, demand forecasts for the off-street facility would be jeopardized. The true demand for paid parking is uncertain in many Indian cities due to the high level of evasion and illegal free parking now permitted. The demand for paid parking will need to be “proved” before a major construction program of off-street facilities is undertaken. This requires proper control of on-street parking, combined with revenue enforcement and a restriction on the use of exemptions.

MoUD Check-list Point: does the DPR for the parking measure provide adequate attention to enforcement of parking measures, either through existing human resources or imported for the project?

A concession holder has two prime concerns: to obtain a reasonable return on equity investment (the required rate of return reflecting the degree of perceived risk borne by the holder) and to be able to service loans. Attracting private participation depends on an environment that is conducive to achieving these requirements. Establishing a robust revenue estimate can be problematic as off-street demand in a particular area is not simple to estimate. Considering the expense of providing off-street structures, new development of off-street capacity may be curtailed unless there is a suitable strategy and proper investigations are made. A risk analysis of the revenue-flow would be a prerequisite for private sector investment. Also, policies for on- and off-street parking must be carefully coordinated.

Willingness to pay for parking is likely to be largely untested given the disregard by parkers of existing regulations in many Indian cities. A proposed strategy would typically rationalize on-street parking, thereby creating increased demand for paid off-street parking. Potential revenue is also more location-specific than is construction cost. A feasibility study for a given site would need to carefully consider this issue and until the on-street parking system had been successfully rationalized, revenue estimates would be subject to substantial risk.

MoUD Check-list Point: does the DPR for the off-street parking measure include a plan for rationalizing on-street parking with appropriate enforcement?

For a base case, operating revenue in the opening year could be calculated with an assumption for average annual occupancy of short-term spaces. For example, 1,250 hours is at the lower end of international experience in major cities. The calculation of revenue would involve a number of assumptions relating to space occupancy. For example, three-quarters of

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the spaces could be assumed to be available for short-term use and an acceptable and affordable tariff set. Depending on the space allocation, revenue from long-term use spaces could be based, for example, on one-third of these being let annually at a set fee and one-third monthly for an average of nine months a space per year, and one-third for weekday-only use for an average of eight months a year. Both long and short term tariffs could be increased by 2% annually over the concession period to reflect future inflation. Occupancy could be increased by 5% annually over the first five years, then held constant. However, such assumptions are dependent on local conditions and should be fully justified. Sensitivity should be applied to assess the risk of lower than expected demand or different tariffs. The relative proportion of long and short term spaces is also a consideration. Increasing the proportion of long-term spaces typically reduces the rate of return, but the tariffs can be attractive to customers. Significantly higher long-term fees usually become justified once the on-street capacity is fully rationalized.

When considering whether an off-street parking lot should be constructed above or below ground level, the difference in rates of return will almost entirely be accounted for by the treatment of the land acquisition cost of the former. Typically, both sites would produce a similar return when the full land cost is borne by the aboveground concession holder. If the land cost were borne by the Municipality, the return on the aboveground site would rise, which is an attractive proposition for the private sector. Thus, a concession for an aboveground site could be let by partially subsidizing the cost of land. An underground site concession may require another form of support.

MoUD Check-list Point: does the DPR for the off-street parking measure include a robust calculation of revenue and risks?

Role of Municipality

The Municipality’s objectives within a concession agreement would be to assure that sufficient parking capacity is provided, while protecting the interests of users by limiting parking fees to a reasonable level, while also minimizing its own capital expenditure. The Municipality should also ensure that the legal framework allows the parking improvements including identification of modifications to existing legislation.

The results of a financial analysis will indicate whether a private sector concession is practicable, given some support from the Municipality (possibly in turn from central government funding assistance, such as the JNURRM initiative). It is recommended that such support be mainly in the form of a subsidy towards land acquisition and through guarantees provided in the concession agreement. The financial analysis would determine the necessity for the Municipality to provide up-front financial support for the construction or implementation cost of facilities. Typically this is not required, as the primary guarantee needed would be to implement an action plan for on-street parking in the catchment area to support the demand for the off-street facility. However, in the case of Indian cities where

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parking management is at a relatively low development level, demand risks are higher and may not be easily taken by the private sector.

Tendering and Contracting

Typically, it is in a Municipality’s interest to invite expressions of interest for a concession at the outset to generate demand, while providing only outline details, without commitment. It is recommended that detailed bids for off-street facilities should not be sought until most of the risks concerning on-street parking have been addressed (i.e., that a strategy and action plan has been agreed and is either on-going or at a minimum, committed, possibly through a Comprehensive Mobility Plan). Failure to do this may make in effect concessions unleasable. The tenders should include a detailed financial analysis and the Municipality would need to develop an informed judgment on the bidders’ assumptions.

The concession agreement should detail the responsibilities of the parties. The concession holder should agree to provide a set number of off-street spaces by a given date. The operating period would be fixed and delay in entering service would be a revenue risk borne by the concession, while early entry into service would extend the revenue period. Such an arrangement provides a considerable incentive for timely construction. The responsibility for design and construction should be delegated to the concession, subject to applicable standards. Construction bidding would also be delegated, subject to the requirements of the loan providers. The Municipality should, via the concession agreement, distance itself from implementation responsibility, while providing for proper project monitoring.

The fee structure would be set out in the concession agreement, possibly with some flexibility in the short-term, long-term mix of spaces, and in rates by time period, subject perhaps to an overall average maximum rate per hour per space for each year of the concession.

Enforcement

Adequate enforcement of parking rules is essential to the success of a parking scheme. Control over parking regulation compliance is of particular importance for the successful realization of a parking strategy and effective concession functioning. This activity can be undertaken by traffic police or, preferably, a municipal office or company having sufficient staff size and competently trained parking inspectors/controllers. Existing legislation will reveal whether municipalities have powers to appoint controlling functions to other parties. Without an appropriate plan for enforcement showing adequacy of resources, a parking scheme is likely to fail, the environment will not be improved, and revenue will not be achieved.

MoUD Check-list Point: does the DPR for the parking measure provide adequate attention to enforcement of parking measures, either through existing human resources or new resources imported for the project?

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Checklist for Evaluating Parking Studies

The following checklist may be used to assess the suitability of a parking scheme. Yes No

� Is the number of on-street parking spaces appropriate to encourage use of public transport and to promote an attractive pedestrian environment?

� Is the number of off-street parking spaces sufficient to provide a balance where there is a reduction in on-street spaces?

� Is public off-street parking facilities located within an acceptable walking distance of actual destinations? (For short-stay parking – i.e. less than four hours – acceptable walking distances rarely exceed 500 meters.)

� Is priority given to residents and short stay parking? (Commuter parking can be accommodated, but it should not be at the expense of residents and short stay visitors.)

� Does the parking scheme divide the city into coherent zones, with regulation appropriate to the particular circumstances of each zone (i.e. the strictest regulations are usually required in areas with the highest parking volumes).

� Is the regulation and tariff for public on-street parking higher than for off-street parking?

� Is there adequate enforcement to ensure compliance with the parking regulations?

Best Practices in PPP: Kolkata Car Parking System

Kolkata Car Parking System

Context

Kolkata is the capital of the Indian state of West Bengal. It is located in eastern India on the east bank of the River Hooghly. As of 2001, Kolkata city had a population of 4,580,544, while the urban agglomeration had a population of 13,216,546. The Kolkata Municipal Corporation (KMC) area has registered a growth rate of 4.1% during 2001-11, which is the lowest among the million-plus cities in India. When referred to as Calcutta, it usually includes the suburbs, and thus its population exceeds 15 million, making it India's third largest metropolitan area and urban agglomeration as well as the World's 8th largest agglomeration.

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Situation before Implementation of the Project

Problems and Needs Addressed by the Project

Central Kolkata, particularly the New Market area near the KMC Head Office, is a very busy commercial zone with narrow streets and roads. The Lindsay Street, part of this locality and a very busy place with a market, shops and vegetable vendors around, is one of the most congested roads in terms of traffic. The problem was further aggravated by haphazard, unruly parking that led to serious traffic jams sometimes even resulting in brawls.

Reason for Adoption of Particular Parking Project

Parking in central Kolkata, the heart of this mega city, has always been a hassle as is the case with most inner city areas. The traffic woes are a source of concern, not only for the owners of vehicles but also the pedestrians. In an attempt to mitigate the situation, the KMC decided to utilize the rights to the space underground and undertake the parking project as a PPP (Public-Private Partnership) project on a Build, Own, Operate and Transfer (BOOT) basis. The project benefited all the stakeholders – the KMC, the construction company/contractor (also known technically as the concessionaire) and most of all, the car owners and the harassed pedestrians – all in a most sustainable manner. The uniqueness of the project lies in the two direct car lifts for drivers to take their cars to and out of the parking lot.

Description of the Project

i) Project Description

There are two levels of basement in the system, of which the upper basement (Level-1) has been utilized for the purpose of commercial development while the lower basement (Level-2) is exclusively used for the car parking. This was a double-concession BOOT project, one for Level-1 and the other for Level-2.

Underground Level - 1: Commercial Development

To make the project self-sustaining and as part of BOOT arrangement, the KMC granted permission to Simplex to construct and lease out the commercial blocks on a long term basis on mutually agreed terms and conditions. Simplex pays the lease rent as well as basic rent. It was granted the right to enter into a lease agreement with the prospective trader (‘lessee’) for an initial period of 60 years during which it will collect the lease rent (the lease agreement is renewable in blocks of 30 years). The KMC collects the basic rent directly from the lessee for the period of the lease.

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Figure 10.1: Underground Shopping Arcade Simples Mall on Level‐‐‐‐1

Underground Level - 2: Parking Lot

On the basis of entry and exit to the parking area, the mechanics of movement of vehicles from the surface to the parking bays is of two categories: shuttle dolly system and palette shifting system. Each palette is 6 meters in length and 2.5 meters in width.

Underground Level - 2: Parking Lot

On the basis of entry and exit to the parking area, the mechanics of movement of vehicles from the surface to the parking bays is of two categories: shuttle dolly system and palette shifting system. Each palette is 6 meters in length and 2.5 meters in width.

Figure: Movement of vehicles from surface to Level‐‐‐‐2 parking bays

The type of elevator also varies accordingly, blocks 1-3 and 5 have hydraulic elevator, while block 5 has provision for an electric elevator. The movement of vehicles, from the time it is set on the palette at the ticketing counter on the surface to being taken to level 2 and placed in the parking bay is fully automated and works more or less on the principle of a jigsaw puzzle. The ticketing is also done with the help of SCADA (Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition) software, where each entry of vehicle is marked with a Unique Identity Number given in a card to the vehicle owner. Database of every car is maintained by feeding in the car and license number. This is used daily to check revenue generation.

At the expiry of the concession period of 20 years, the parking system will be handed over to the KMC. After the expiry of such a period, Simplex may undertake to execute an

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annual maintenance and operation contract with the KMC on mutually agreed terms and conditions. At that point of time, and as per the agreement, Simplex shall train, free of costs, a maximum of 4 Engineers or qualified personnel nominated by the KMC to manage and maintain the system. This will be done during the period of 12 months prior to the expiry of stipulated period (notified in advance to KMC) to enable smooth hand over of the system.

Figure: Types of Parking: a) Palette Shifting and b) Shuttle

Goals of the Project

- To provide multi level underground car parking system at Lindsay Street on BOOT basis.

- To provide commercial complex at same place.

i) Strategy Used to Achieve the Desired Goals

The PPP parking project was conceptualized as a two-part BOOT project with two concession periods – one for the parking system and the other for the commercial complex (both underground). The overland portion was converted into a pedestrian plaza. KMC is the owner of the stretch of land along Lindsay Street Opposite New Market, with all underground rights thereof. It offered the concessionaire, Simplex projects and the right to construct the parking system including the shopping complex at that location.

ii) Activities Implemented to Achieve the Desired Goals

The KMC has allowed Simplex to impose and collect the parking charges for all the vehicles parked within the system on a mutually agreed terms and conditions. Simplex pays the KMC, 5% of the gross annual revenue earned from parking for the concession period of twenty years.

If Simplex makes any profit after meeting its expenses towards loan servicing, debt obligations, provision for all liabilities, contingencies, including the operation and

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maintenance cost but excluding payment of all dividends, then on availability of cash profit, the KMC would be given an extra bonus of 10% of the said profit.

Simplex has been given the right to put up advertisements in the form of show-windows, kiosks and other such formats of advertisement at no extra costs. The KMC has prohibited ‘on-street parking’ in the ‘zone of influence’ around the system and within a radius of 100 meters. This ensures that the people use this parking facility and in order to decongest the Lindsay Street locality.

iii) Role and Activities of the Partner

The KMC and Simplex Projects entered into a BOOT agreement for a period of 20 years for the parking system. All architectural designs and drawing were approved by the KMC. The technical design was from Holland from where engineers from Simpark took training.

iv) Important Stakeholders Involved and Communication / Networking Procedure for the Project are

- KMC - Simplex Pvt. Ltd.

Factors of Success

- 250 parking slots in the underground parking system at L-2 level. - Market complex at L-1 level with 200 shops on lease; the premium goes to the

Concessionaire as charged by him. - The pedestrian plaza on the ground is a bonus for the pedestrians. - Street parking is no longer allowed on Lindsay Street, the traffic jams have become a

thing of the past.

Budgetary Implications and Sustainability

i) Total Cost of the Project

The Cost of Project is ` 36 crore (approx.) and is to be borne by the Concessionaire (SimplexProjects).

ii) Source of Finance for Sustainability of the Project

Parking Fee: Rs 10/- per hour (with a provision of discount for long-term parking) – to be collected by Simplex. KMC will get 5% of the parking revenue from Simplex Projects for 20 years until handing over of the project to KMC. This will generate estimated annual revenue of Rs 5 lakh for KMC. Besides, the KMC will get Secondary Basic Rent @ Rs 60/- per sq m per quarter (subject to upward revision by 10% after every five years) from the commercial space. This will generate an annual revenue of Rs 9, 20, 000/-.

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Figure: Underground Parking Bay that can accommodate 250 cars in 5 blocks

Impact of the Initiatives

A public-private partnership model on BOOT basis has many advantages. Over a long concession period, both the BOOT operator and the KMC are bound to earn revenues and even profits. More importantly, a very sensitive issue of traffic has been resolved on a particularly busy street.

1) PPP models of partnership in infrastructure development form the most sustainable approach for a city government that most often has a resource crunch both, in terms o finance and in terms of engineering staff.

2) Public service provided by a local government can also become an alternative source of additional revenue.

3) Underground development can be an alternative where ground level space is scarce, especially in all mega cities.

Summing Up

In order to solve haphazard, unruly parking of vehicles at the Lindsay Street of Central Kolkata, KMC decided to utilize the rights to the space underground and undertake the parking project as a PPP (Public-Private Partnership) project on a BOOT (Build, Own, Operate and Transfer) basis.

There are two levels of basement in the system, of which the upper basement (Level-1) has been utilized for the purpose of commercial development while the lower basement (Level-2) is exclusively used for the car parking. This was a double-concession BOOT project, one for level 1 and the other for level 2. The overland portion was converted into a pedestrian plaza.

To construct and lease out the commercial blocks on a long term basis, KMC has granted the right to Simplex Pvt. Ltd (private sector) to enter into a lease agreement with the prospective trader (‘lessee’) for an initial period of 60 years. During this period, it will collect

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the lease rent (the lease agreement is renewable in blocks of 30 years). The KMC collects the basic rent directly from the lessee for the period of the lease.

The KMC and Simplex Projects entered into a BOOT agreement for a period of 20 years for the parking system. KMC has allowed Simplex to impose and collect the parking charges for all the vehicles parked within the system on a mutually agreed terms and conditions. Simplex pays the KMC, 5% of the gross annual revenue earned from parking for the concession period of twenty years.

The aforesaid PPP based model has many advantages as over a long concession period, both the BOOT operator and the KMC are bound to earn revenues and even profits. It may be treated as most sustainable approach for a local government that has a resource crunch both, in terms of finances and in terms of technical / engineering means. Moreover, underground parking can be one of the alternatives where ground level space is scares, especially in megacities.

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Non-Motorised Transport Measures: Policy and Options

Introduction

Use of the Guidelines FAQs on NMT Planning

NMT Policy and Strategy

NMT Policy NMT Best Practice

Designing Measures for Non Motorized Vehicles

Overview of the Planning Process 6 Step 1 - Diagnose Existing Situation Step 2 - Consider Policy Options Step 3 - Consider Potential Measures Step 4 - Select Appropriate Measures Step 5 - Design Appropriate Measures

Designing Measures for Pedestrians

Overview Step 1 – Diagnosis Step 2 – Consider Policy Options Step 3 – Consider Potential Measures Step 4 – Select Appropriate Measures Step 5 – Design Appropriate Measures

Annexes

(Source: http://sti-india-uttoolkit.adb.org/mod5/index.html )

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Chapter:07: Non-Motorised Transport Measures: Policy and Options

Introduction

Use of the Guidelines

Background

These guidelines focus on the detailed tasks required for the planning of Non-Motorised Transport (NMT) projects within the context of an overall transport strategy. NMT covers not only non-motorised vehicles (NMVs) such as bicycles, tricycles, cycle-rickshaws, but also pedestrians. As the needs of both types of road user can be very different, they are treated separately within these guidelines. European or Australian mixed facilities not be appropriate for many Indian cities, where the large number and mix of NMVs may overwhelm dedicated pedestrian facilities.

Consequently, these guidelines present two types or categories of project. One is for NMV-Focused Projects, the other for Pedestrian-Focused Projects. Although they may be combined, this should be done with care as many of the objectives and resulting measures for each category differ.

FAQs on NMT Planning

Why do we need to provide NMT facilities?

Conventional traffic/transport studies focused on vehicular movement rather than NMT. While large investment was made to improve vehicular traffic flow, except in a few cities, minimal budget has been allocated to improve the convenience/safety of NMT. The importance of pedestrians and NMVs in Indian cities has largely been neglected in planning for mobility improvement. Mechanized trips, however, also involve walking as feeder or transfer. A high percentage of trips below 3 to 4 kilometers in urban areas are performed solely by walking or NMVs, such as bicycles and rickshaws and there is an acute need to improve NMT facilities and safety considerations.

Do we need to remove NMVs to become a modern city?

Pedestrians and NMVs should not be considered as a ‘nuisance’ to motor vehicles. A number of modern cities in developed countries such as the Netherlands, Germany and Japan are pioneers in facility improvements for pedestrians and NMVs. Most of the remaining modern cities are designed also in an NMT-friendly manner.

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What types of NMV facilities do we have to consider?

Types of NMV facility to be considered include footpaths (sidewalks), pedestrian crossings, pedestrian signals, pedestrian overbridges and subways, NMV lanes, NMV signals, NMV parking, NMV standing areas, and relevant signs and marking. This module provides options and examples for such facilities.

What should we do when pedestrians do not use pedestrian facilities?

Some city officials complain that they cannot force the use of pedestrian facilities such as pedestrian crossings. Pedestrians are vulnerable and therefore should be protected. Cities must re-examine the possibility of improving the design and location of pedestrian facilities. Pedestrians do not use crossings if they have to make long detours. Pedestrian signals can be provided at crossings with busy traffic. Driving manners and regulations (if necessary) must be improved to give priority to pedestrians. Pedestrians will use improved facilities and if they feel respected.

How can we introduce NMV lanes on narrow streets?

If traffic speed is low, NMT can mix with other vehicles. Provision of dedicated lanes is preferable, but clear marking alone also functions as ‘NMT priority’ facilities. There are a number of cases in developed countries where narrow streets are closed to vehicular traffic and dedicated as NMT-only streets. In encouraging increased use of NMT, it is particularly important to provide safe and comfortable facilities which form a continuous network.

Where in the city are NMV parking facilities most required?

Bicycle parking facilities are required at almost all major destinations such as schools, offices, railway stations, shops and markets. Rickshaw stands are necessary particularly around railway stations, shops and markets. If adequate parking space and waiting areas are provided, traffic disturbance caused by uncontrolled NMV parking will be minimized.

What types of bicycle parking are available? What types of new technology are available for bicycle parking?

Technologies for bicycle parking are advanced in some countries. There are multi-story bicycle parks and some fully computerized ones, with some privatized facilities. However, these facilities may not be suited for medium cities in India, as the hi-tech facilities are capital intensive and costly to operate. Space for bicycle parking may be easily found in cities where land use densities are relatively low. In such situations, however, ‘bicycle racks’ may be used to make efficient use of space, or for security reasons (i.e., prevention of theft).

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Can we charge parking fees for bicycles, or should we provide free parking?

In principle, bicycle parking should be provided free of charge, but a minimal charge can be levied to make the facilities operationally sustainable. Provision of secure parking space with a minimum charge is preferable to not providing facilities.

Would the Ministry support NMT projects?

Yes. As stated in the NUTP, the Ministry would support: (i) construction of bicycle lanes and pedestrian paths; (ii) the construction of pedestrian crossings at busy intersections and road sections with busy traffic; and (iii) formulation and implementation of pilot projects for NMT improvement. Bicycle parking facilities are relatively less costly and may not be proposed as a stand-alone project. They can be included as part of other projects, such as BRT, terminal improvements, and traffic management packages.

NMT Policy and Strategy

NMT Policy

India’s National Policy on Non-Motorized Transport

NMT measures proposed by an Indian city should conform to existing policy at national, state and city level. The National Urban Transport Policy for India (published by the Ministry of Urban Development, Government of India, and April 2006) refers to priority for non-motorized transport in paragraphs 27 – 32. A summary is shown in Box 1.

Box 1: Priority for Non-Motorized Transport (NUTP) – excerpt

� The safety concerns of cyclists and pedestrians must be addressed by encouraging the construction of segregated lanes for bicycles and pedestrians. Segregation of vehicles moving at different speeds would improve traffic flow.

� Segregated NMV paths are required not only along arterials but also access roads to public transport terminals. This will increase the use of the public transport system particularly when combined with the construction of NMV parking.

� It is essential that NMT facilities be designed and constructed by consulting experts and community (i.e., potential users).

� Activities on footpaths such as street vendors must be properly controlled to secure pedestrian safety.

Source: National Urban Transport Policy for India, Ministry of Urban Development, Government of India, April 2006.

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The NUTP recognises the important role of para-transit, particularly for occasional trips, as well as its increasing, but inadvisable use as a substitute for deteriorating public transport services. Ideally, general improvements in public transport will restore the role of para-transit (including rickshaws) to its original position in the transport hierarchy, and this should be borne in mind when considering NMV facility improvements, so that improvements do not conflict with other strategies.

NMT Best Practice

Five Guiding Principles for NMT Facilities

It is internationally recognized that the five main requirements for providing effective NMT facilities are those listed below. These provide the basic or fundamental advice note or guideline for NMT scheme design. Whilst the type and use of NMTs in India may be different from other countries, these principles still apply.

Safety: Maximise the safety of users in relation to other road users as they have a high degree of vulnerability

Coherence: Form a coherent and continuous network linking all origin and destination points for users, and not ad hoc facilities that end abruptly

Directness: Form a direct route from origin to destination without significant detour that will cause the users to ignore the facility

Attractiveness: Plan and implement NMT facilities to make NMT travel attractive both by day and night

Comfort: Ensure a smooth, quick and comfortable flow of NMT traffic without excessive gradients or uneven surfacing

European Best Practice

The Netherlands is frequently referred to as a model country for promoting high levels of cycling and subsequently restraining motor vehicle use. Typical Dutch methods take into consideration many aspects of infrastructure planning. For example, traffic calming measures are incorporated into housing developments, which themselves incorporate or encourage cycling by specific infrastructure, low vehicle speeds, and low motor vehicle volumes. Urban infrastructure is constructed in an open manner, without hard borders between public and private premises e.g. minimal use of walls, fencing, dead-end streets, so that continuous, direct cycle routes can be provided. Public space is designed to integrate greenery with walking and cycling facilities, and local authorities allocate annual budgets for maintaining public utilities, including cycle infrastructure. City centres are divided into sectors with borders that can be crossed by pedestrians and cyclists whilst motor vehicles are forced to

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make detours. Housing developers must contribute financially to area-wide services including cycle-friendly streets. Finally, a wide variety of secure cycle parking facilities are provided, sometimes obligatory with building permits.

Asian Best Practice

Asia typically shows high levels of NMV use. In Tokyo, the national Bicycle Law, enacted in 1980, encouraged local governments to provide bicycle lanes, paths, and parking facilities near railway stations in order to promote the use of bicycles as a feeder mode for rail services. Other factors that contributed to high cycle use include the development of the Japanese bicycle industry, low bicycle prices in relation to income, the shared use of sidewalks and footpaths with pedestrians. Examples of Asian facilities (particularly from Japan) are presented throughout this Module.

NMT Measures Applicable to the Indian Environment

In much low income Asian cities there are large numbers of NMVs, which assert their own right-of-way and it may be considered that there is little need to create an NMT network. However, with increasing motorization and congestion and decreasing inclination to use non-motorised methods, it is becoming increasingly necessary to design appropriate facilities for non-motorised traffic. High density Indian cities present a very different environment to the relatively low density urban environments in Europe, such as in the Netherlands. Also, the lack of road user education and erratic driving environment in some Asian cities suggests the necessity for segregated facilities for NMVs on safety grounds alone. It is noticeable that in many western countries with high rates of motor vehicle ownership and use, the NMV is viewed by planners as a preferable alternative and is fully encouraged to the practical extent. However, many Asian cities with historically high volumes of NMVs view the effectiveness of NMT less favourably as it is seen as a slow mode that obstructs the smooth movement of traffic, causing congestion. These differences render a global guideline less effective though best practice lessons can still be applied.

In the case of India, the issues relating to non motorised vehicles and pedestrians need to be addressed separately as the nature of their movement and requirements are different. Whilst countries such as Japan and parts of Europe tend to mix pedestrian and cycle movements, the characteristics of Indian NMT makes this more difficult. For example, certain categories of NMT cater to hawkers and social activities within cities whilst the ubiquitous cycle-rickshaw needs to be accommodated in areas separate from pedestrians. For this reason, this Guideline addresses NMVs and pedestrians as separate components.

There is no single correct solution to providing suitable infrastructure for NMVs: much will depend on the broader traffic, environmental and planning objectives and on available funds. Measures are likely to be more easily funded and implemented if they benefit the wider community, not just NMVs. Strategies that emphasize traffic restraint, speed reduction and promotion of environmentally-friendly modes will tend to benefit NMVs.

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Different scenarios for NMVs require the consideration of techniques for managing them. In the end, the success of the chosen scenario will depend on the effectiveness of the techniques for implementing it. An overview of techniques relevant to the Indian case is given below providing the backdrop to the scenarios and guidance in selecting them. It is important to regularly review NMV transport in order to monitor flows and usage characteristics for future planning and for evaluating the effectiveness of any measures.

Designing Measures for Non Motorized Vehicles

- Overview of the Planning Process 6 - Step 1 - Diagnose Existing Situation - Step 2 - Consider Policy Options - Step 3 - Consider Potential Measures - Step 4 - Select Appropriate Measures - Step 5 - Design Appropriate Measures

Overview of the Planning Process

The selection and subsequent design of appropriate NMV measures requires a number of stages, summarized below. Each stage is described in the following paragraphs.

Figure: Stages in Designing an NMV Scheme

Step 1 – Diagnose Existing Situation

The first step is to undertake a diagnosis of the existing situation for NMVs. This involves a profile of NMV users as well as trip characteristics. It is anticipated that much of this information may be drawn from the Comprehensive Mobility Plan.

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Profile of NMV Users

The variety of NMVs is a significant factor in the planning and design of appropriate facilities. Target users will tend to be from the poorer sectors of society and typically include the following:

Table: Typical NMV Use in Indian Cities

Type Use Bicycle owners Commuters; working bicycles for delivery of goods and

services Tricycle owners Working tricycles used for the delivery of goods Cycle-rickshaw owners Public transport service preferred by women who may not

wish to use buses; delivery of goods Rickshaw owners/pullers

Public transport — hand-pulled rickshaws now in decline in most Indian cities (except Kolkata)

Animal cart owners Used for deliveries (but now in decline)

These users reflect a situation very different to that of developed countries and in other Asian countries, such as China, where NMVs are essentially personal passenger vehicles. In Indian cities, NMVs are working vehicles providing public passenger and cargo delivery services, but rarely used for personal passenger use (mainly bicycles). Trip characteristics may vary between types of NMV user, such as their origins and destinations, average trip lengths, timing of their trips, and journey speeds.

Existing NMV Facilities

A plan of the city should identify existing infrastructure that may be classified as facilities for NMVs. Though it is anticipated that few facilities will be currently installed, the inventory may include:

- Lanes reserved for NMVs (cycles or rickshaws); - Footpaths allocated for both pedestrians and NMVs; - NMV crossings at junctions; - NMV management at markets and in shopping areas; - Areas allocated to NMV parking

NMV Demand

At an early stage it is important to identify existing and potential NMV demand. This may be obtained from information or data on the origins and destinations of NMV users, and traffic counts. A plan should be developed showing:

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- Numbers of NMVs on key routes and classified by type - Desire lines of NMVs showing most popular routes (derived from either O-D

surveys or known routes such as residential to school routes) - NMV growth showing NMV and MV data over the past five years with annual

growth rates - Ownership and use (if available): NMVs/1,000 population likely future trends;

transition between different types of NMV; transition to motorised transport.

Data should be collected to the extent practical. Whilst origin-destination (O-D) data is useful to determine popular routes of NMVs and therefore the areas for implementing facilities, it is appreciated that the collection of such data may not be cost-effective. An understanding of movements based on known generators and attractors may be sufficient to plan routes and planners should use their discretion in this respect. However, volume of demand is still likely to be an important consideration to justify capital investment.

Social Aspects

Social aspects may include the relation of NMVs to employment and poverty. Also, considerations may be social and cultural attitudes, costs, affordability, manufacturing and spare parts etc.

Safety Aspects of NMVs

NMVs are vulnerable road users and safety aspects should be identified, including accident and casualty data related. To the extent possible, ‘black spots’ may be identified where relatively high accident rates occur. Plans may be drawn up indicating rate of accidents, typically over a 3 year period. Problem areas will require priority measures.

Regulation and Enforcement

Existing NMV registration and licensing arrangements should be described as well as traffic regulations and bylaws that relate to NMV use. This may include legislation related to licensing and training of rickshaw drivers, enforcement issues, as well as requirements for NMVs, such as night reflectors for safety. Page top

Summary of Key Issues

Following the diagnosis stage, a list of key issues can be drawn up. This list will assist in the subsequent stages. The list may include the following.

� Positive factors of NMV use e.g. environmental, employment � Factors affecting ownership and use of NMVs � Impact of NMVs on congestion; reduction in V/C ratios on links and degree of

saturation at junctions � Safety concerns in specific areas

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� Severance (where NMV users have difficulty accessing areas better served by MVs)

� Cultural issues, such as low image of NMVs and aspirations for motorization; � Low priority given to NMVs in the travel hierarchy � Lack of NMV facilities � Poor enforcement � Poor road user education (RUE) � Inadequate and inappropriate regulations related to NMVs.

Step 2 – Consider Policy Options

Following the identification of key issues, policy options for NMVs should be considered. Such policy should concur with national policy, such as the NUTP, as well as state and city level directives or strategy. Globally, NMVs are viewed positively in helping to create a sustainable city environment, whilst contributing to the health of the populous. Therefore, most types of NMV are encouraged.

Aims for Promotion of NMVs

NMVs may be promoted through the following initiatives.

� Providing better facilities to accommodate existing NMV use and encourage more NMVs through visible infrastructure.

� Developing a strategic NMV plan including a network of routes available to NMVs throughout the city.

� Segregating NMVs/MVs to improve safety and smooth passage of NMVs.

� Promoting freight NMVs for the transport and delivery of small goods to markets and shopping areas.

� Identifying sub-projects which make positive, pro-active provision for NMVs as part of a balanced approach to traffic planning.

� Giving NMVs priority over MVs on selected routes and in selected areas.

� Strengthening Road User Education (RUE) programmes for NMV users to improve behaviour and road safety.

� Rationalising and improving NMV registration, licensing for use as a PT or freight vehicle, regulation and enforcement.

Mandatory or Advisory Measures

NMV measures can be implemented either as mandatory or advisory. Mandatory measures are ‘formal’ and require to be backed up by appropriate traffic regulations. For example, part of the highway may be designated for NMVs only. Advisory measures are usually designed to encourage NMV use, or where mandatory measures are difficult to

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implement due to the requirement of traffic regulations or the practicalities of accommodating motorized vehicles within limited road space. For example, part of the highway may be allocated for NMVs, but MVs would be allowed to encroach for side accesses or when traffic volume is high. Even advisory measures can incur costs such improved road surfacing or removal of physical obstructions to ensure that NMV passage is smooth and comfortable.

The advantages and disadvantages of mandatory and advisory measures are summarized below.

Table: Advantages and Disadvantages of Mandatory and Advisory Measures Advantages Disadvantages

Mandatory � Provide maximum benefit and encouragement to NMV users, such as physical segregation (protection)

� Require regulations, which may need public consultations, and therefore take time to implement

� Requires enforcement resources to ensure compliance

� Can be more difficult to design due to higher level of restriction on access by other vehicles

Advisory � Do not require formal regulations

� Can be introduced quickly � Usually relatively cheap � Do not require enforcement

� Such measures are usually only indicative, so may not always be effective

Mixed or Segregated NMV Measures

There are two main options that city authorities can pursue to better manage NMV and MV movements:

- Option 1: Segregate NMVs and MVs as far as possible - Option 2: Allow NMVs to mix with MVs and reduce MV speeds

It is usually recommended that the first option be practiced as much as possible. The second option relies heavily on traffic calming and there are many examples in the Netherlands, Australia and Japan, though frequently in low-volume streets.

Segregated NMV measures can take the form of dedicated lanes within the highway (with physical dividers or simple line demarcation) either with-flow or contra-flow, and streets that prohibit motor vehicles. Mixed flow measures allow all types of traffic to mix within the highway and are typically a do-nothing or minimum case, though some treatments can be implemented to improve the comfort level of NMVs or provide priority, e.g. at intersections.

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The table below compares the mixed and segregated approaches.

Table: Comparison between Mixed and Segregated Approach Mixed Segregated

Definition Utilises streets and areas for mixed NMV/MV use

Measures that segregate vehicles and pedestrians; such as dedicated lanes. Segregation can be in terms of time or space

Conditions Appropriate on low–flow roads and NMVs can mix safely with vehicular traffic below 30km/h. NMVs can also mix safely with vehicular traffic at speeds between 30km/h and 50km/h unless volumes are high or there are significant numbers of trucks

Preferable when traffic flows are heavy or speeds are above 50km/h and there are few side roads. Above 65km/h segregation is necessary for the majority of NMVs. Segregation is best suited to new areas and developed early in the planning process, though can be applied at later stages

Advantages Relatively easy and inexpensive to implement using existing road space

- Provides a safe and efficient network for NMVs

- Gives priority to NMVs - Suitable for areas with high volumes

of NMVs Disadvantages - Mixing slow modes with

motorised traffic can reduce road capacity

- Safety issues for NMVs due to presence of motorised vehicles

- Does not visibly promote pro-active NMT policy

- Expensive to implement (especially in existing urban areas where there is a lack of road space)

- Difficult to enforce

Trunk or Feeder Routes

NMVs measures can be implemented either on main transport corridors or on feeder routes to interchanges, after which transfer to a different mode such as public transport, would take place.

The feeder route approach is advantageous when the network requires relatively long origin-to-destination trips, such as within large or elongated cities, and NMV use for the entire route are less feasible. Segregated facilities for NMVs on feeder

Figure: Trunk Cycle Route

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routes are unlikely to be necessary or cost-effective as they are often in outlying suburban areas where traffic volumes and congestion are relatively low.

NMV measures on main corridors provide continuous multi-destination facilities for intra-city travel. They assist NMV use and effectively display a visible message that NMVs are being strategically accommodated within the transport environment.

Ad Hoc or Area-Wide Facilities

Facilities for NMVs can be implemented either on an ad hoc basis to ameliorate specific problems or as an area wide plan. The latter option is usually preferred to ensure a consistent strategy and that routes are comfortable from origin to destination. It is often considered that an NMV route is only as effective as its weakest link. Therefore an area-wide plan should be designed that accommodates targeted users on actual travel desire lines. Ad hoc improvements can be implemented to ameliorate safety problems at specific points within the network.

Step 3 – Consider Potential Measures

Measures that may be suitable for NMVs can be categorised under institutional/regulatory and physical measures.

Institutional/Regulatory Measures

� Development of an NMV policy and strategy for the long term; � Development of a 3–5 year rolling program of measures, subject to review and if

necessary change, given the rapid pace of development in cities; � Institutional strengthening and capacity building by exposure to international and

domestic experience, and by in-situ training courses; � Establishing the foundations for better regulation and enforcement by:

- Equipping the traffic police - Establishing an NMV vehicle and rider database linked to registration and

licensing - Updating traffic regulations

Suitable traffic regulations can promote NMV usage and enforcement of measures. For example, the allocation of highways for NMV use needs to be backed up by regulations so that the allocation can be enforced.

NMV ownership management techniques can be introduced or improved, such as registration, annual licensing and inspection, and “deregistering” of unused or scrapped NMVs. This will help to provide better data on actual “active” ownership and usage.

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Physical Measures

NMV Lanes

NMV lanes are a popular and highly visible measure for accommodating NMV traffic. In general, NMV lanes within carriageways allow NMVs to overtake slow moving or congested traffic without obstruction. They also safely separate vulnerable NMV users from motorised traffic. NMV lanes may be segregated by median, barrier or road markings and can be with-flow (in the same direction as general traffic) or contra-flow.

Figure : Road Area Allocated for NMVs with Physical Segregation

(Indonesia)

Figure : Road Area Allocated for Cycles with Physical Segregation

(China)

Contra-flow NMV lanes carry NMV traffic in the opposing direction to a one-way MV lane. In this way, the NMV gains an access advantage over motorized vehicles, such as the means to ‘short cut’ the motorized route. They need to be carefully designed; to avoid the risk of collision and physical separation may be preferable unless traffic speeds are very low.

NMV Separators: Several types of separators can delineate NMV lanes. The simplest is to provide a single solid line with a minimum width of 10–15cm to ensure visibility. Solid lines usually delineate mandatory lanes whilst broken lines delineate advisory lanes, though it may be acceptable and preferable to provide solid lines even if encroachment and enforcement cannot be guaranteed. However, if violation rates significantly reduce the practical capacity of the cycle lane, it may be necessary to upgrade the separator to a physical barrier. To augment the lines, symbols and word markings can be provided. In most cases, physically separated NMV lanes (Type III) are more appropriate to the high NMV environment of Indian cities, though they are more expensive to implement. Physical barriers can take the form of steel railings, vertical posts, or raised curbs and can utilize local labour and materials. Such materials should be carefully selected so that they do not cause hazard if struck by an NMV or MV. Physical barriers can either by implemented with spacing at intervals, such as for use during certain times only, or continuously. The spacing is recommended to be 1.5–3.0m, to discourage MVs from entering the lane.

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Allocation of Footway for NMVs: Footways converted to shared use with NMVs in urban areas rarely provide a good quality NMV facility and may inconvenience pedestrians. Space should first be sought within the carriageway. If footways are converted they should have light pedestrian flows, few driveways or minor road crossings and good visibility. NMV tracks away from the carriageway will have different characteristics, but should still conform to high standards of safety and design, particularly regarding sightlines, personal security and maintenance .Where they are intended as main routes, lighting is desirable.

Road Access Restrictions

Vehicle access restrictions can be applied to streets or lanes within a street and at certain times of the day, though adequate enforcement of time-based restrictions may be problematic for many Indian cities. These restrictions on motorized vehicles effectively offer access advantages to NMVs. The access restrictions should be well-defined, through the installation of visible and legible road signs. Movable barriers, such as drums or concrete blocks can be utilized to prevent MV access.

Figure : Road Prohibiting

Motorized Vehicles at Certain Times of the Day(China)

Figure : Road Prohibiting Entry of

Motorized Vehicles from One Direction(UK)

The above figures show examples from China and from the UK of a road with a restriction on access for motorized vehicles from one direction. In the UK case, cycle parking is provided on one side of the street and pedestrian crossings with surface dressing have been implemented at the street entrance to calm traffic and aid pedestrians.

Intersections

Traffic signals offer designers various possibilities for installing features to assist NMVs including:

- Dedicated phases for NMVs - Extra clearance time to allow NMVs to cross - Tighter junctions so that clearance time is minimized

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- Advanced stop lines for NMVs to enable them to position themselves ahead of MVs thus reducing conflicts between left-turning vehicles and straight-ahead or right-turning NMVs.

The position of the approach NMV lane (nearside or central) needs to be carefully considered and there is no evidence that advanced stop lines reduce the capacity of the junction. On roads with three or more lanes, a two stage, “jug handle” turn will assist less confident NMV users to turn right. “Staggered stop–lines”, where the NMV lane is continued one or two metres ahead of the main stop line, but without a widened reservoir, can also be beneficial to NMVs. These help to place NMVs in the driver’s view. Staggered stop lines may be appropriate where the right turn is not available or where, for some local reason, a standard advanced stop line cannot be accommodated.

“Cycle by–passes” may also be incorporated into signal-controlled junctions to enable NMVs to bypass the signals, particularly for NMVs turning left or going straight ahead at T-junctions. NMV speed and manoeuvres should be considered when determining signal phasing, cycle times and linking of sets of signals. The length of the green time on staggered junctions is particularly important. Traffic signals are generally preferred to roundabouts by NMV users for safety reasons and because their rights of way are better respected.

Other NMV Facilities

Ramps: In order to reduce the obstructions to NMVs caused by pedestrian steps in streets or subways, ramps can be provided. These allow NMV users (typically cyclists, but also wheelchairs, prams, carts) to push their vehicles over the stepped area. Such ramps can be implemented as an addition to existing steps or be designed at an early stage within the stairs.

Figure: Cycle Ramp at Steps

Aesthetic considerations: In order to encourage NMV use, measures should be designed to provide socially attractive routes. Designers should consider aspects such as landscaping, surfacing, and lighting to provide routes that are attractive to NMV users. Routes across parks are likely to have high aesthetic value. Such considerations are extensively utilised in European countries to

Figure: Attractive Cycle Route

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promote NMV use as an attractive and healthy mode. Leisure routes are also developed to promote cycle use.

Signs and Road Markings: Signing can be either mandatory or advisory. For example, signs can indicate where only NMVs may enter streets or provide advice on a suitable NMV route which uses relatively quiet streets that avoid heavy motorized traffic. Signing can also visibly indicate areas for NMV parking.

Traffic Calming

Traffic calming facilities aim to reduce the speed of motor vehicles, thereby creating a safer environment for NMVs and pedestrians. At speeds up to 20mph, motor vehicles and NMVs can generally mix with comfort, however at higher speeds, dedicated traffic calming facilities may be considered. Traffic calming measures can include signing such as speed limits, but physical measures tend to be more effective. Such measures can include vertical or horizontal deflections to the carriageway.

Vertical Deflections: speed humps (raised areas across the carriageway); speed tables (flat topped speed humps); raised sidewalks (speed tables that also indicate pedestrian crossing areas).

Horizontal Restrictions: realigned intersections (to reduce the approach speed of motor vehicles); pinch-points (build outs on both sides of the carriageway that reduce carriageway width); chicanes (build outs staggered on alternate sides of the carriageway); central islands (islands within the carriageway that reduce carriageway width). Such facilities are especially beneficial to NMVs if their needs are considered within the design. For example, the above horizontal restrictions are most effective to NMVs if they include NMV ‘bypasses’ allowing the NMV, such as a cycle, to circumvent the restriction at its side and proceed smoothly without interruption. Textured or colored surfacing can also be beneficial as a means to increase driver awareness when entering areas of NMV activity.

NMV Parking Facilities

The strategic location of parking for NMVs is an important consideration. NMV parking facilities should be located at markets, transport hubs (rail, bus and metro stations), institutions such as schools and hospitals, and where NMV users gather to seek work. Where there is high cycle parking demand, extra land space may be necessary and innovative measures could be considered such as multi-storey or basement parking. Some cycle parking facilities have theft prevention devices, while others are basic stands or security staff on site. The wheel holding parking loop is no longer recommended as it can cause damage to the bicycle wheel. Parking facilities that attach to the bicycle frame are now preferred.

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Figure: Wheel Holding Cycle Parking Facility

Figure: Basement Cycle Parking Area Concept

In addition to NMV parking facilities, cities may also provide waiting areas e.g. for cycle rickshaws. The allocation of dedicated space for cycle rickshaw waiting helps to reduce road congestion and avoid obstruction to pedestrians on sidewalks. However, the measure may require frequent enforcement, as the allocated area may not be in the ideal place for patronage and therefore not be fully utilised.

Step 4 – Select Appropriate Measures

Following consideration of policy and design options, appropriate measures can be selected. The city authorities should determine the optimum facilities considering the profile of NMV users and the city environment. Measures should be selected that are practical and cost-effective and consider the expected user demand.

Route Choice

NMV networks and the location of NMV facilities should be planned on the basis of NMV trip origins, destinations and desire-lines. Information on actual and suppressed demand, including leisure trips, should be collected. As mentioned in Step 1, this can be obtained from surveys or from a transport model (if the city has one) of journey-to-work data, classified traffic counts, specific surveys and consultation with local NMV owners.

Route-choice criteria must be taken into account. NMV users will usually choose the quickest route for most journeys. They are reluctant to accept detours, unless there are significant compensating advantages. NMVs will avoid routes that are hilly, perceived as dangerous or have bad riding surfaces. Once the pattern of demand has been established, opportunities for traffic management or construction measures should be assessed. In practice, this will be an iterative process. It is important that physical opportunities alone do not determine which measures come forward, in isolation from knowledge about NMV users’ desire-lines. A network proposal plan should be produced, that shows speed limits, traffic calmed routes/areas, traffic management and accident remedial schemes, NMV lanes/tracks and NMV parking locations.

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Selection of NMV Lane Measures

Following identification of key NMV routes, the physical characteristics of the NMV facility should be determined. For example, the figure below (adopted for London, England) provides guidance on the type of cycle measure required for traffic conditions in terms of all vehicle flow and traffic speed. Generally, higher traffic flows and vehicle speeds require a greater degree of facility, such as traffic calming or segregated lanes.

Figure: Required Cycle Measures According to Vehicle Flow and Travel Speed

Traffic calming is particularly common in developed European cities. In Asian cities, ‘alley systems’ are created which provide NMV networks in narrow roads or spaces between buildings, which have less motorized traffic and can provide short cuts to longer motorized routes.

Selection of Parking Facilities

The areas for implementing NMV parking facilities should be strategically considered. Typically, they should encourage both origin-to-destination trips and feeder trips for modal transfer to public transport. Therefore, facilities should be provided or encouraged close to shopping centers, employment areas, schools, leisure facilities, rail stations, and bus interchanges. Areas should also be socially attractive to encourage use and dissuade theft. Within existing parking areas for motorized vehicles, some space should be allocated for NMVs.

Space should be sought and allocated for rickshaw parking/waiting to reduce obstruction to vehicles and pedestrians on the road or sidewalk. It is advisable to make use of local knowledge, so that the allocated parking areas are close to the areas frequently used by rickshaw owners. Generally, in selecting appropriate areas for NMV parking it is important to bear in mind where there is existing parking activity. This will help to ensure that investments

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are successful. Provision of facilities per se can help to manage existing demand and encourage NMV usage to some extent, but not generate significant new demand.

There are a number of types of NMV parking facilities used worldwide ranging from simple stands to elaborate locking facilities and devices for bicycles. The choice of such facilities depends largely on availability of hardware from local suppliers, the level of budget for NMV facilities from the city authority, whether revenue is expected from parking, and the level of maintenance that may be necessary. Where NMV use is being encouraged as the preferred alternative to motorized modes and public affordability is low, it is recommended that relatively simple, free facilities are implemented at strategic locations throughout the city.

Financial Analysis

The selection of measures should include a financial analysis, including a breakdown of all capital and recurrent costs. Benefits are likely to include savings in vehicle operating costs and travel time savings, however it is generally considered that selection and implementation of NMV measures should be policy driven, rather than based on detailed economic calculations.

Step 5 – Design Appropriate Measures

Once appropriate measures conforming to a city’s cycle policy have been selected, they should be designed appropriately. Most cities worldwide tend to adopt and develop their own detailed design guidelines; however the following section provides guidance on the basic design of common measures and can be used as advisory design notes.

NMV Lanes

NMV lanes can generally be classified into four main categories as listed below.

Table 4 Types of NMV Lane Type Cross Section

Type I NMV Lane

NMV lanes shared with MVs and designated by signs

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Type II NMV Lane

NMV lanes designated by lane markings (e.g. striping) and within the highway right-of-way

Type III NMV Lane

NMV-exclusive lanes physically separated from MVs by barriers (e.g. concrete blocks, steel railing, raised curb) and within the highway right-of-way

Type IV NMV Lane

NMV-exclusive lanes within an independent right-of-way (often referred to as NMV paths)

Minimum recommended widths for bicycle lanes vary from country to country, however they typically fall within the range of 1.2–2.0 metres, which allows for the physical width of a bicycle’s handlebar plus a margin of safety. For different NMV types, recommended lane widths are provided in Table 5.

Table 5 Recommended NMV Lane Width NMV Type Type II Lane Type III & IV Lanes Increment Increase

Minimum Standard Minimum Standard Minimum Standard Bicycles 1.2 1.4 1.5 1.5 1.0 1.0 Cycle-Rickshaws

1.8 2.3 2.3 2.5 1.5 1.7

Animal Carts 2.0 2.4 2.5 2.7 1.7 1.8

Note: These NMV lanes are considered to operate as one-way facilities

In cities with high use of one or more NMV types, these lanes should be widened to provide sufficient capacity. The recommended increment to increase the width of the facility is also provided in the Table.

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The recommended maximum gradient of NMV lanes should be no greater than 5%. This is the maximum slope that would still allow safe downhill speeds and reasonable climbing effort for NMV operators.

If Type II, III, or IV NMV lanes are to be provided, a certain percentage of expected (or observed) NMV traffic volume during the peak hour should be used to determine the number of NMV lanes that would be required to meet demand. An indication of volume/hour that could be accommodated by type of lane is shown in Table 6.

Table 6 Maximum NMV Demand by Type of NMV Lane Type II Types III & IV

Bicycles 1,210 2,070 Cycle-Rickshaws 640 1,120 Animal Carts 310 570

Note: These NMV lanes are considered to operate as one-way facilities

Designing Measures for Pedestrians

• Overview • Step 1 – Diagnosis • Step 2 – Consider Policy Options • Step 3 – Consider Potential Measures • Step 4 – Select Appropriate Measures • Step 5 – Design Appropriate Measures

Overview

Pedestrian travel is categorized as a form of NMT. The appropriate national policy as advocated by the NUTP is described in the NMV section of this Module.

The steps in designing measures for pedestrians are similar to those for NMVs, commencing with a diagnosis of the existing situation to ascertain the baseline condition, followed by consideration of policy options, then potential measures and finally selection and design of appropriate facilities.

Facilities for pedestrians should also take into account the needs of disabled persons to create a barrier free environment accessible by all sectors of society.

Step 1 – Diagnosis

The first step is to undertake a diagnosis of the existing situation for pedestrians. This involves a profile of pedestrians as well as their trip characteristics. It is anticipated that much

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of this information may be drawn from the Comprehensive Mobility Plan. To the extent possible, plans showing existing pedestrians facilities should be compiled including information on sidewalk width, condition, and occupation by hawkers and main pedestrian areas. The diagnosis should include the components listed below. The level of detail of this first step should reflect the level of investment planned.

Profile of Pedestrians in the City

A profile of pedestrians within the city should include an analysis of the existing situation and trends covering the following topics:

� Descriptions of the typical types of pedestrian in the city including commuters, passengers, traders, and their place in society (e.g. poorer sectors of society)

� Main origins and destinations and average trip lengths � Pedestrian volumes in selected areas — especially transport hubs and

market/shopping areas and an indication of route desire lines � Identification of peak periods of pedestrian activity � Proportion of walking trips as part of the person-trip modal split � Likely future trends for pedestrian activity, such as an increase or decrease and the

reasons � Comments and key issues with regard to pedestrian trends

Existing Pedestrian Facilities

Existing pedestrian facilities may include the following:

� Crossings (at-grade signalised / non-signalised), grade-separated (overbridges/subways); number and location; issues of design and location;

� Pedestrian safety facilities: physical reserves, safety islands, barriers; � Segregation of pedestrians from vehicles; � Pedestrianised areas and areas not formally pedestrianised but predominantly used

by pedestrians (transport hubs, shopping areas); � Sidewalks: percentage of roads with sidewalks, sidewalk widths, sidewalk condition; � Occupation of sidewalks by hawkers and illegal markets; � Urban design and street furniture for pedestrians; � A description of pedestrian management at markets

Social Aspects of Pedestrians

� Employment issues; � Poverty issues; � Attitudes towards pedestrians by sectors of society: types of pedestrian and desired

routes; � Social attitudes; other cultural factors;

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� Land use influencing pedestrian activity

Safety Aspects for pedestrians

� Accident and casualty data; pedestrians involved in accidents; pedestrians causing accidents; pedestrian casualties

Regulation and Enforcement

� Traffic regulations for (or affecting) pedestrian activity

Summary of Key Issues

A summary of key issues should be presented, which typically include the following:

� Pedestrians neglected in infrastructure planning � Inadequate sidewalks; occupation of sidewalks by hawkers and illegal markets � Dispersion from transport hubs, especially rail and bus stations � Congestion; use of shared carriageway � Impact of pedestrians on congestion; reduction in V/C ratios on links and degree of

saturation at junctions � Safety � Severance � Low priority given to pedestrians � Lack of pedestrian facilities � Land use issues � Poor enforcement of pedestrian areas � Poor Road User Education (RUE) � Inadequate or inappropriate regulation

Step 2 – Consider Policy Options

Level of Provision for Pedestrians

The level of provision for pedestrians in the transport network is an important early consideration in the planning process. City policy-makers should determine how much capacity and road space should be allocated to pedestrians in the short and long term to achieve the goals of the Mobility Plan. Much will depend on the trip characteristics of pedestrians and the city land use. Existing and future pedestrian volumes and patterns will also need to be examined.

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Aims for Promotion of Pedestrian Trips

Appropriate pedestrian policy should achieve both short term and long term aims. Once aims are identified, potential measures to achieve those aims can be determined.

Short Term Aims

� To provide a high standard of pedestrian facilities including greater sidewalk space with less encroachment by hawkers, illegal markets, and parked vehicles;

� To minimise changes of level on continuous pedestrian routes; � To improve at-grade crossing facilities for pedestrians by installing pedestrian traffic

signals; � To remove obstacles on sidewalks, such as NMV and MV parking, and unauthorised

hawker activity; � To implement pedestrian-only areas on a trial basis

Long Term Aims

� To provide city-wide facilities providing a high level of mobility, accessibility, convenience and comfort for pedestrians

� To establish a podium level network at 2nd floor levels in areas of heavy pedestrian use and in new business and shopping districts

� To provide protection from weather by building arcaded sidewalks in shopping areas � To implement over bridges across main motorised routes � To minimise severance between areas of the city � To implement formal pedestrian only areas with appropriate street furniture and

aesthetic value

Step 3 – Consider Potential Measures

Potential pedestrian measures should seek to give priority to pedestrians in selected areas and separate them from motor vehicles. A variety of measures that are popular worldwide is presented below.

Footpaths

Footpaths (pavements, sidewalks) should be provided to the extent possible to safely segregate traffic from pedestrians. This is particularly important in Indian cities which typically have accident records in pedestrian/vehicle conflicts. Even in narrow streets, delineation can be implemented to provide a visible demarcation of pedestrian space. This alerts motorists to space that is allocated for pedestrian activity. The additional provision of zebra

Figure: Trunk Cycle Route

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crossings provides areas for pedestrians to cross and a form of traffic calming.

Pedestrian Crossings and Signals

At-grade crossing facilities for pedestrians can be improved by installing pedestrian crossings and traffic signals. This will not only improve conditions and safety for pedestrians, but can also improve capacity for MVs. In addition to traffic signals (with or without dedicated pedestrian phases), other types of pedestrian crossings are defined below.

Table: Types of Pedestrian Crossings Type of Crossing

Description

Zebra: Black and white demarcated areas in which vehicles are to give way to pedestrians

Pelican: Typically uses green and red person icons to instruct pedestrians to cross or wait

Puffin: Detects the presence of pedestrians and adjusts the timing for pedestrian crossing

Toucan: Joint pedestrian and bicycle crossings

Note: UK terminology

Figure: Pedestrian Crossings with Dedicated Phase for Pedestrians (Tokyo, Japan)

Pedestrian Bridges and Underpasses

Pedestrian over bridges and underpasses provide the safest means to cross busy roads whilst maximising the road traffic capacity. They may be provided at intervals to be decided by the city authority. Whilst the interval length will vary according to the situation, in commercial areas it is recommended that a crossing facility at least every 300m be provided and every 500m for other areas. Underpasses should have sufficient headroom and should also consider social concerns, such as lighting to ensure that they do not promote anti-social behaviour. In both cases of overbridges and underpasses, due care should be taken to ensure that the facilities are fully utilised by pedestrians and that they do not continue to cross at-

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grade, which undermines the capital investment and perpetuates safety concerns. Pedestrian barriers may need to be implemented.

Pedestrian Zones

Pedestrian-only areas and zones are frequently implemented in cities of developed countries and increasingly as trials in developing countries, usually by road closure and often during particular times only, such as weekends. They may be formal pedestrian spaces or temporary market areas. When implementing pedestrian zones, consideration should be given to access for delivery vehicles to ensure that commercial activity can be maintained. This may require extensive consultation with local businesses. Access for emergency vehicles should also be considered.

Figure: Pedestrian Zones (Cambridge, England)

Facilities for Disabled Pedestrians

During the planning and development of pedestrian facilities adequate consideration should be given to accommodating disabled or less mobile users. Typically, this includes wheelchair users and the visually impaired. Such facilities can include provision of ramps, elevators, at-grade crossings without steps, tactile surfacing, audible crossings and other detectible warnings. Care should also be given to the location of street furniture so that it does not cause obstacles. Other considerations may include lighting and use of non-slip materials.

The pictures below shows yellow tactile (dimpled) surfacing that is comprehensively implemented on walkways and pavements throughout cities in Japan, both indoor and outdoor.

Figure: Ramps for Wheelchairs Users

(Tokyo, Japan)

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Figure: Tactile Coloured Surfacing for Visually Impaired Pedestrians (Tokyo, Japan)

Upper Level Pedestrian Areas

New commercial and office buildings can incorporate space at the second floor level for integrated pedestrian walkways through the buildings, linked by external walkways and overbridges. These also help to standardise the level heights of building floors. Such vertical development helps to maximise inter-modal facilities, such as transfers from public transport or other vehicles, and maximises commercial activity. Figure shows the provision of steps, escalators, and elevators to access such pedestrian areas.

Figure: Accesses by Escalator and Elevator to 2nd Level Pedestrian Areas (Tokyo,

Japan)

Aesthetic Considerations

In order to encourage pedestrian use, areas should be designed to provide socially attractive routes. Designers should consider aspects such as landscaping, surfacing and lighting to provide routes that are attractive to pedestrians. Routes across parks are likely to have high aesthetic value.

Figure: Pedestrian Walkways Connecting Buildings

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Figure: Pedestrian Area with Lighting and

Covered Walkway for Shelter(Tokyo, Japan)

Figure: Landscaping Adjacent to Pedestrian Path (Tokyo, Japan)

Step 4 – Select Appropriate Measures

Following consideration of policy and design alternatives, appropriate measures can be selected. The city authorities should determine the optimum facilities considering the profile of pedestrians and the city environment derived from Step 1. Measures should be selected that are practical and cost-effective and accord with the expected pedestrian demand. Some considerations for selecting measures are summarized here.

Identification of Pedestrian Priority Areas/Sections

Each city usually has areas or sections with high pedestrian activity, such as railway stations, bus terminals, markets and schools. As these generally have high demand for vehicles and parking, which often threaten pedestrian safety, it is essential to provide necessary facilities for pedestrians. The city authorities should identify such pedestrian priority areas/sections.

Location of Pedestrian Crossings

When investigating where to implement pedestrian crossings, the following factors should be taken into account:

� Number of pedestrians crossing the road within a certain distance of the proposed facility (typically 50m either side)

� Two-way traffic flows � Accident record of the site, particularly accidents involving pedestrians � Speed of vehicles � Special circumstances, such as proximity of schools

In terms of quantifiable indicators, a calculation can be made to justify the crossing based on demand. For example, some countries use a PV2 calculation, in which pedestrian

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(P) and vehicle (V) flows are recorded for the four busiest hours to give a combined value. If this value exceeds a minimum requirement, the crossing is justified. This formula also allows potential sites throughout a city to be ranked in terms of priority, though other aspects such as accident rates should also be taken into account.

Financial Analysis

The selection of measures should include financial analysis including a breakdown of all capital and recurrent costs. Benefits are difficult to quantify and it is generally considered that selection and implementation of pedestrian measures should be policy driven rather than based on detailed economic calculations.

Step 5 – Design Appropriate Measures

The next step is to design the selected facilities and care should be taken to ensure that the final product will achieve the original objectives. Cities typically develop their own design standards for pedestrian facilities based on international best practice and national guidance. Some standards from Japan for footpath design are provided below. The UK Transport Research Laboratory produces guidance notes (TRL Notes) on cycle and pedestrian facilities. In the case of India, further advice notes on the appropriate design of pedestrian facilities are set out within the ‘Pedestrians FIRST’ publication.

Footpath Design

According to Road Design Requirements practiced in Japan, the minimum space (width) required for one pedestrian to walk is 0.75 m. and in the case of a wheelchair 0.9 m. For this reason the minimum width of a sidewalk should be 2.0 m. With this width, two persons walking, or one person walking with another in a wheelchair, will be able to proceed along the sidewalk comfortably. If a bench is provided on the sidewalk, an additional 1.0 m. should be added and 1.5 m. for the planting of roadside trees. The Japanese standard for Road Structure states minimum width of sidewalk according to road location / class as shown in Table 8. A class 4 road is located within an urban area and is administrated by the Municipality. Category A refers to desirable width, and B is for low pedestrian flows. The unique characteristic in Japan is that bicycles can be allowed to pass on sidewalks upon police approval of the passable section. The above standard does not take into account pedestrian volume and the Japanese government is currently in the process of revising this to include actual volume. These standards are expected within a year and an approximate outline is 3.5 m. for high volume area and 2 m. for others.

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Table: Japanese Standards for Footpath Width Class Vehicles

(AADT) Required width of sidewalk where bicycle are allowed to pass

Required width of footpath

A (m) B (m) A (m) B (m) 1 Over 10,000 3.5 2.75 3 2.25 2 4000 –

10,000 3.5 2 3 1.5

3 500 – 4000 2 1.5 1.5 1 4 Less than

500 2 1.5 1.5 1

For comparison, the UK IHT guidelines on ‘Providing for Journeys on Foot’ quotes absolute minimum footway width as 1.8 m., desirable minimum width of 2.0 m. and preferred width of 2.6 m.

Case Studies

International Case Studies

Mexico City, Mexico – Bicycle Planning

Transportation-related issues present a serious challenge to improving the quality of life for Mexico City’s 19 million residents. Of the 2.5 million tons of pollutants emitted into the city’s air each year, more than 80% is from cars and other motorized vehicles.

Though only 20% of all daily trips in Mexico City are by car, 80% of its physical space is dedicated to travel by car. Seven out of ten Mexican citizens are overweight or obese. (NOTE: is this comment really appropriate)

ITDP is working with the Mexico City government to develop a Bicycle Master Plan that will strengthen cycling as a safe, attractive, healthy and convenient travel option for city residents. The goal of the Master Plan is to increase bicycle trips as a proportion of all trips to 2% by 2010 and to 5% by 2012.

To achieve this goal, the Master Plan project is undertaking a number of key actions:

• Mobility: Design bicycle path networks with an eye for safety, attractiveness, and convenient access to higher-demand destinations and mass transit services; implement measures to calm automobile traffic;

• Universal access: Facilitate easier door-to-door trip-making by strengthening connections between travel modes (e.g., bicycle parking at transit stations);

• Promotion: Implement public campaigns that encourage bicycle use and raise its social status;

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• Managing travel demand: Provide disincentives for excessive car travel, such as congestion and parking pricing measures;

• Legal application: Enforcing laws governing urban transportation

Cycle-Ride Sundays

Thousands enjoy car-free streets as Mayor Marcelo Ebrard moves Mexico’s capital into a select group of cities taking bold action to improve the quality of public life.

On Sunday May 13th the Mexico City government, headed by Chief of Government Marcelo Ebrard, began the Ciclo-Paseos, or “Cycle-Rides” program in designated streets. The program encourages city inhabitants to walk, skate, or use bicycles to enjoy the city and promote non-polluting forms of transportation.

The streets chosen consist of a circuit of 14km along the well known Reforma Avenue and others close to the historic city center so that the public can enjoy some of the cultural sites and activities along the ride. Motor vehicles are not allowed on those streets between 7:00 AM and 2:00 PM on Sundays. Many cities in the world have similar programs. Perhaps the best known is Bogotá, Colombia, with its more than 120km of streets that undergo this transformation every Sunday.

The response in Mexico City to the first six Cycle-Ride events has been positive with no serious accidents to report and with an attendance of around 10,000 people. As many as 50,000 people participated when the ride was extended to other streets and had its name changed to “Cycle-thon”. ITDP Mexico has been involved in planning the Cycle-Ride concept and is currently supporting the city government in projects aimed at improving conditions for cyclists and pedestrians.

The challenge for the program now is to keep the good momentum going and to take other integrated actions to promote non-motorized transport as one of the priorities in Mexico City’s Sustainable Mobility Agenda.

Source: www.itdp.org

Tokyo, Japan – Barrier-free Pedestrian Facility Development Measures

In Tokyo Metropolitan Region, the number of elderly has been increasing year by year as well as the number of accidents involving them. Under this condition, the Metropolitan Government placed emphasis on transport safety for the elderly in the Transport Safety Promotion Plan of Tokyo Metropolitan Region of Fiscal Year 2006. In this Plan, they explained various barrier-free pedestrian facility development measures not only for the elderly, but also for the handicapped or mobility disadvantaged. Funding is from multiple authorities within the Tokyo Metropolitan Government and Regional Development Bureau of the Ministry of Land, Infrastructure, Transport and Tourism, Japan.

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One of the measures is development of barrier-free footpaths. For this measure, sidewalk widening alongside arterial roads (7.9km) and other main roads (7.8km) was proposed utilizing a budget of over US$10 billion in order to increase sidewalks which wheelchair users and elderly could proceed along comfortably. Depending on the availability of the road space, some parts of the sidewalks are planned to have sufficient width for two wheelchairs to go by each other. Also, they proposed budgets for development of pedestrian bridges, including installation of lifting devices or ramps for wheelchair users. Tactile colored surfacing for visually impaired pedestrians was added on sidewalks to the extent of 2.8km.

Source: Tokyo Metropolitan Police Dept

Figure 7 Acoustic Device on Pedestrian Signal

Another measure was improvement of pedestrian signals and installation of lighting. Although many pedestrian signals in Japan have an acoustic device (with a melody to alert visually impaired pedestrians of the green signal after they push a button), many are yet to be installed. In addition, many have not been developed to have a green signal extension to provide more time for the elderly or handicapped to cross. Within the Fiscal Year 2006, an additional 100 acoustic devices and 25 green signal extension devices were proposed as well as 220 lighting improvements in the Tokyo Metropolitan Region.

The government has also focused on the promotion of barrier-free footpaths connecting underground or elevated railway stations/platforms to ground level footpaths so as to improve usability of public transport system for elderly and handicapped. In Tokyo Metropolitan Region, though 2nd level or underground pedestrian areas around many railway stations have been developed, not all of them have installed escalators and elevators. Within 2006, the government has funded elevator installations or improvements at 37 private railway stations and escalators at 7 stations, as well as installation of 40 elevators and 13 escalators at the stations of Tokyo Metropolitan Transport Authority.

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Source: Social Welfare

Corporation Minato Municipality Volunteer Centre

Figure 8 Double Handrail

In addition, they subsidized installation of additional tactile colored surfacing for visually impaired pedestrians, double handrails for both visually impaired pedestrians and wheelchair users, and larger public toilets for wheelchair users at the railway stations of not only public transport authorities, but also private railway companies.

Furthermore, the Metropolitan Government identified four municipalities as those to develop local universal design project models (of Fiscal Year 2006) and then funded them. Within the four municipalities, routes around major railway stations and those connecting institutions for the elderly or handicapped to stations were defined as priority routes. The development measures consisted of improvement of pedestrian signals, increase in pedestrian crossings, and installment of stop signs for pedestrian safety on the priority routes. The significant advantage of such local projects was to improve facilities considering local demanded networks and consistency with local traffic regulations in each area, under cooperation with each municipality.

Source: Transport Safety Promotion Plan of Tokyo Metropolitan Region of Fiscal Year 2006

Indian Case Studies

India – Rickshaw Modernization

Unlike many transport initiatives that aim only at improving the environment, ITDP’s Indian Cycle Rickshaw Modernization project also cleaned the air and increased employment and income among the poor.

In collaboration with local experts, ITDP developed a series of design innovations that made India’s traditional cycle rickshaw lighter, more comfortable, and easier to handle. ITDP’s modern rickshaw design reduced the weight of the vehicles by more than 30% and a multi-gear system made pedalling much easier.

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Surveys among rickshaw operators showed that incomes increased by 20% to 50% because operators were able to work longer, attract new passengers, and because customer satisfaction rose in response to the improved comfort and safety. The project also demonstrated that the modernized cycle rickshaw could attract 19% of its riders from highly polluting, motorized rickshaws, making its impact on greenhouse gas emission reduction quantifiable.

Today, over 300,000 modernized cycle rickshaws are operating in nine of India’s major cities, including Delhi, Agra, Bharatpur, Brindavan, Mathura, Jaipur and Chandigarh

Based on ITDP’s success in India, we’ve also worked with our partners in Yogyakarta to similarly revitalize the becak as a mode of transportation through improvements to its weight, manoeuvrability, and passenger and operator comfort. (The becak is a non-motorized, three-wheeled rickshaw, distinct from the Indian rickshaw because passengers sit in front of the driver.) The Yogyakarta Tourism Department directly ordered 50 of the modernized becaks to serve as special tourist vehicles.

During 2005, the modernized becak model was further refined and updated to address the suggestions of the drivers and passengers who used the 2004 model, the Bisma. ITDP provided modernized becaks to transport participants at the Better Air Quality conference held by the Clean Air Initiative for Asia in Yogyakarta in December, 2006. Efforts are currently focused on marketing the current model to reach a wider audience.

Source: www.itdp.org

Jaipur, India – Modern Rickshaw Credit Plan

ITDP recently unveiled a new revolving credit fund to support the purchase of modern cycle rickshaws in Jaipur, India. The fund will allow rickshaw operators to purchase modern vehicles at a very low interest rate. The first 20 vehicles sold under this program, which were co-financed by a local charity organization, were distributed during a public event in Jaipur.

� The modern cycle rickshaws were first produced two years ago, after local engineers teamed with ITDP to design a rickshaw that is 30 percent lighter, easier to steer and more comfortable for passengers and drivers. The modern vehicle costs about the same as a traditional rickshaw and lasts three times as long. Rickshaw operators report earning up to double their income because of increased customer satisfaction and improved efficiency.

� The modern vehicles have spread from Agra, to Delhi, Jaipur, Lucknow, Mathura and Vrindavan. In Vrindavan, modern rickshaws have completely replaced the traditional vehicles. The number of modern cycle rickshaws sold in India is now over 20,000.

� The vehicles distributed in May were the first modern rickshaws assembled in Jaipur, although two rickshaw producers in the city have been incorporating some improvements into their traditional vehicles. At the event, one local manufacturer

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committed to producing the completely modernized vehicle, which will be available to more local drivers through the payment plan

Source: www.itdp.org

Nanded, Maharashtra – Street Design Project

Nanded is a small sized town by Indian standards. It has a population of about half a million and an area of a little over 50 sq. km. The city has an important Gurudwara-a Sikh temple, and is one of the five most important holy places for Sikhs. Celebrations are planned in 2008 to mark 300 years of the setting up the Gurudwara and 2.5 million pilgrims from all over the world are expected to visit Nanded in the week around these dates.

The city of Nanded has been included in the JNNURM program and a major investment in upgrading the physical infrastructure is currently under way. The projects undertaken include:

� Riverfront development project; � A new sewerage system and sewage treatment plant; � Water supply network; � Upgrading existing airstrip into full-fledged airport; � Upgrading of the existing railway station and construction of a new additional

railway station for freight traffic; � Hospital/Trauma care centre; � A museum; � Campsite development (for the celebrations, to accommodate 1 million people)

A major initiative to improve the streets of the city is also underway. About 50 Km. of streets in Nanded are being redesigned and built. These include:

� The important roads in Nanded’s old, dense city-centre; � About half of the main roads in the northern part of Nanded (north of the railway); � A number of partly connected roads in the still undeveloped south of Nanded

(south of the river)

The roads range from Right of ways from 9 M. to 30M. with varying configurations. The details of the road widths are:

� metre wide proposed pedestrian road near the Gurudwara (Rd. 11) � 15 metre-wide roads, proposed for one way traffic (1x2 lanes) � 15 metre-wide roads, proposed for two-way traffic (2x1 lanes) � 18 metre-wide roads, proposed for one-way traffic (1x2 lanes) � 18 metre-wide roads, proposed for two-way traffic (2x1 lanes) � 22 metre-wide roads, two-way traffic (2x1 lanes) � 24 metre-wide roads, two-way traffic, two lanes per direction (2x2 lanes)

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� 30 metre-wide roads, two-way traffic, two lanes per direction with median (2x2)

Design Objective

The designs of roads have been prepared on the principle of equitable space allocation for all road users with a “focus on people rather than automobiles.

The Nanded Roads Project is an extraordinary project. Its scale in terms of the number of roads to be re-engineered and the commitment to provide appropriate facilities for cycling and walking on these roads are unique for India. The project, when properly executed, could become a model for hundreds of similar-sized Asian cities that aspire to develop a sustainable, safe and pleasant, people friendly street atmosphere.

The road cross sections are being designed keeping in mind the chaos and confusion that exist in a typical Indian street as of today. The main source of this chaos is the mixed traffic conditions prevailing in our streets with a range of vehicles such as bullock carts, cycles, cycle-rickshaws, auto-rickshaws, two wheelers in huge quantity, cars, buses and trucks. Detailed activity studies and traffic counts were carried out at important parts of the existing streets and these were translated into the plans. The design approach has been to find space for all the activities that exist.

Figure 1 Typical Activity Analysis- Activities on Necklace Road at 11.30 am.

The most important component of the design has been to segregate the Motor Vehicle traffic from the Non Motorised (Cycle rickshaws, hand pushed carts, vendor’s carts along with cycles). Adequate space has been provided for the pedestrians since they form the majority of the users. A separate ribbon has been provided on one or both sides of the road depending on the space available. We are calling it the Multi Utility Zone (MUZ). This zone has been detailed out to carry the following functions:

• Bus Stops • Street Lighting

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• Trees • Parking for cars, two wheelers and cycles

• Auto Rickshaw stands • Hawker platforms

• Public Toilets • Electrical and telecom distribution panels and package type transformers • Garbage bins

• Advertising structures • Signages etc.

Provision of designated areas for these areas should allow for better enforcement of traffic rules as these activities tend to spill onto the movement areas and become a bottleneck as well as a hazard. We anticipate that the traffic will flow better due to the design interventions.

The designs are completely accessible and traffic calming details are being incorporated to make the streets safer.

Provision of high quality cycle lanes is likely to result in encouragement of this sustainable and greener mode of transport in the city.

Figure: Typical Lane Segregation

Details of the key components of the streets are:

Foot Path:

The footpath widths have been allocated differently for different streets depending upon their usage. A minimum of 1.8m width to 3.5m width has been assigned to footpaths.

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NMV Lane:

Like all smaller Indian cities the roads in Nanded also caters to all modes of Non Motorized traffic in huge numbers. This includes hundreds of milkmen on cycles delivering their daily supplies to shops early in the morning, cycle rickshaws in the older part of the cities densest residential areas, bullock carts, hand push carts in commercial areas and so on. In order to segregate and formalize their movement, the NMV lane has been given in almost every one of the roads being undertaken leaving a few residential areas where the road right of way does not permit it.

The minimum lane width assigned for a one way lane is 2.0m

The minimum lane width assigned for a two way lane is 2.8m

Multi Utility Zone:

The multi utility zone (MUZ) as the name suggest is a very versatile space catering to such activities as - on road parking for both MV and NMV, Avenue trees for greening the city and also street lighting poles. A width of of 2.25m to 2.5m has been allocated for the MUZ.

Figure: Cars Parking in Multi Utility Zone

MV Lane:

The MV Lanes have been assigned their widths according to the function of the particular street and the volume it is expected to carry. Widths ranging from 3.15m to 3.5m per lane have been allocated.

The road designs are being developed by the New Delhi based design consultants Pradeep Sachdeva Design Consultants (PSDA) and IL&FS (Infrastructure Leasing and Financial Services Ltd) as the program managers.

To enable current international best practices into the designs, national and international experts have been brought on board for the project. The experts providing detailed inputs are:

1. Transport Research and Injury Prevention Program at IIT Delhi

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2. Interface for Cycling Expertise, (I-CE) the Netherlands who have deputed their transport planner Mr. Jeroen Buis to the offices of PSDA.

3. Dr. L R Kadiyali of LR Kadiyali and Associates, New Delhi. Dr. Kadiyali is a foremost transport expert and is on the panel of various IRC committees.

To get feedback as well as to generate awareness about the design approach, a workshop was conducted in Nanded for the following objectives:

1. Discussions on the specifics of traffic planning in the city 2. Understanding of different functions in different areas and arriving at required road

sections 3. Issues and inputs for design of proposed road sections 4. Arriving at a Vision and a mobility network for the city of Nanded

Figure: Proposed Bicycle Lane Segregation

Figure: Proposed Traffic Calming

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Chapter:08: Design Issues and Implementation

Service level Benchmarks for Urban Transport Introduction

The challenges of the urban sector in India are growing rapidly, and government agencies at various levels are taking steps to address the gaps in service delivery. One of the important steps towards this is introduction of appropriate systems for information management, performance monitoring, and benchmarking.

Benchmarking is now well recognized as an important mechanism for introducing accountability in service delivery. It can help Urban Local Bodies (ULBs) and other agencies in identifying performance gaps and effecting improvements through the sharing of information and best practices, ultimately resulting in better services to the people. It provides

� Common minimum framework for monitoring and reporting on service level benchmarks.

� Guidelines on how to operationalize this framework in a phased manner. Ministry of Urban Development (MoUD) wants to address institutional and operational aspects for ensuring long term sustainability of the benchmarking activity. Accordingly all JNNURM mission cities are advised to undertake the process of service level benchmarking. In addition, the initiative will facilitate development of Performance Improvement Plans using information generated by the benchmarking exercise. It will address both, performance monitoring for internal decision making and reporting to higher levels of government and external stakeholders.

Need

System for measuring performance of urban transport activities and taking further action on them has not been institutionalized in urban agencies. It is therefore important that the basic minimum standard set of performance benchmarks are commonly understood and used by all stakeholders. Depending on the specific needs of a city, performance parameters can be defined and used to improve the quality of urban transport.

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Objective and Approach The following areas need to be focused for the assessment of overall level of service:

� Quality and financial sustainability of public transport � Pedestrian / NMT safety and infrastructure facilities � ITS facilities in a city � Land use transport integration � Parking system and pollution levels in a city

To facilitate comparison between cities and changes in performance over time, it is important that the performance levels are monitored against set benchmarks. It is in this context, that the MoUD has initiated an exercise to define Service Level Benchmarks (SLBs). Benchmarking is a long term process which involves a number of successive steps as shown in the ‘benchmarking wheel’ below.

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MoUD constituted a .Core Group. comprising of experts from various institutions under chairmanship of Sh. S.K Lohia, the then Director (Urban Transport) and now OSD (MRTS) to arrive at the SLBs. Drawing on the experiences of various initiatives in measuring service level performance, the Core Group arrived at a set of performance benchmarks for urban transport. After much deliberation, the benchmarks, their definitions, means of measurement, frequency and reporting etc. were finalized.

The Handbook on Service Level Benchmarks is a ready reckoner of sorts to enable

ULBs and other city level parastatal agencies implement systems for measuring, reporting and monitoring the SLBs.

Performance Benchmarks for Urban Transport

Service level performance benchmarks have been identified for the following areas of intervention:

a. Public transport facilities

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b. Pedestrian infrastructure facilities c. Non Motorized Transport (NMT)facilities d. Level of usage of Intelligent Transport System (ITS) facilities e. Travel speed (Motorized and Mass Transit) along major corridors f. Availability of parking spaces g. Road safety h. Pollution levels i. Integrated land use transport system j. Financial sustainability of public transport

The parameters highlight the performance as would be monitored by the ‘Urban Local Bodies’ /’Development Authority’/ Parastatal Agency. These performance measurements will need to be carried out by the service delivery agencies themselves, reported to higher levels of management and also disseminated widely. Clear definitions and methodologies are expected to eliminate bias in measurement and reporting.

Typically, four levels of service (LoS) have been specified, viz. ’1’, ‘2’, ‘3’, and ‘4’ with ‘1’ being highest LoS and ’4’ being lowest to measure each identified performance benchmark . Therefore, the goal is to attain the service level 1.

Role of Stakeholders

The role of different stakeholders and the next steps they will need to pursue are briefly mentioned below.

a) Central Government: The Ministry of Urban Development, Government of India will take the lead for disseminating these service level performance benchmarks. Further SLBs will also be institutionalized through the Jawaharlal Nehru National Urban Renewal Mission (JNNURM) and other programmes of this Ministry through more ways than one, viz.

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• SLBs will be an integral part of City Development Planning processes including development of Comprehensive Mobility Plan, both for assessment of current situation, and for setting targets under their plans.

• Where ever appropriate, SLBs will be dovetailed with the commitment on reforms, and subsequent process of appraisal of reforms.

• The relevant SLBs should be part of Detailed Project Reports for related projects in urban transport. The DPR should indicate both the current situation and what change the project will bring about to increase the level of service (LoS). Subsequent process of monitoring the implementation of the project will examine this change in LoS.

• Under the JNNURM or scheme for urban transport planning, support may be extended to enable ULBs to establish systems in their respective institutions for periodic measurement, reporting and analysis of SLBs.

b) State Governments and its agencies: State Governments and its nodal agencies

in the urban sector have a critical role in driving performance of ULBs. State Government will need to periodically examine the SLBs as an input for its decisions related to policy, resource allocations, providing incentives and penalties, channelising technical and man power support SLBs will also be an important input to State Finance Commissions in the course of their work.

c) Urban Local Bodies / Parastatal agencies: ULBs / parastatal agencies are the most important stakeholders for institutionalization of SLBs. As service delivery institutions, ULBs will find it useful to institutionalize systems for performance management using SLBs. Benchmarking with other cities within the State or with similar cities would facilitate a healthy competitive environment for continuous improvement. The Directorate of Local Bodies / Department of Municipal Administration will need to play a key role in this process through constant inter-city comparisons.

Performance Management System

The process of performance measurement has to be taken further into performance management system. Performance management data using SLBs should be included in the set of information disseminated under mandatory public disclosure, as required by the reforms mandate under JNNURM. The next key steps for ULBs are to generate performance reports on SLBs periodically beginning FY 09-10. Data can be captured either through previous studies or through specific surveys carried out at defined intervals. In parallel, the ULBs will also need to institutionalize systems for the entire cycle of performance management, as depicted in Illustration A. This would imply the following:

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i. Systems for Capturing Data: Design and implement data collection systems for data to be captured. Such data will typically be from field level staff such as traffic engineers, planners, accounts clerks, etc. Simple data formats should be designed and provided to them to capture the data and report the same upwards within the organization for collation and determination of the service level performance.

ii. Systems for collation and analysis of performance benchmarks: Specific persons should be designated with the mandate to collate the data received from the field and generate the performance reports. Working directly under supervision and guidance from officers at the Head of Department level.

iii. Systems for assessment and evaluation of performance: In most cases, multiple indicators need to be examined to obtain a holistic picture of service levels in identified benchmarks. Performance benchmarks reported by department level should be closely examined at the management level of the ULB.

iv. Systems for decision making: All ULBs do have systems for decision making; however, many decisions end up being considered in the absence of quality data. To address such gaps, systems such as - periodically tabling the performance reports in the Council / to the Standing Committees should be instituted.

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v. Systems for operational decisions and plans: Decisions and plans will need to be periodically reviewed in light of the performance achieved. Additional capital inflow and revenue expenditure may be required. A process of annual review and follow-up of decisions will need to be instituted.

Limitations and Challenges

It is recognized that this initiative has a number of limitations. Performance management in ULBs is being triggered from the Central Government, however, the acceptance and capacity at the state and city levels is what will sustain this initiative. While this handbook has attempted to address issues of definition and methodology for the SLBs, it is anticipated that a number of complexities will arise in the course of actual implementation.

The possible challenges will include:

• Extensive surveys would be required for most of the SLBs

• Collection of secondary information from the various sources as the same may not be readily available or may not be in a usable format.

• Availability of staff with adequate technical knowledge to carry out the analysis.

• The entire loop of performance management will be sustainable only if - disclosure, reporting, monitoring and performance management feedback, incentives and disincentives are also brought into the cycle. Else the system of measurement and disclosure of SLBs may not sustain itself.

Standardization of Service Level Benchmark

With a view to the definition and computation methodology of the selected SLBs, the following details have been provided:

a. Title, Units and Definition: The specific name, the unit of measurement in which the performance is to be measured, and definition for the benchmarks is provided.

b. Data requirements: The specific surveys and area which need to be covered for each benchmark are given in the following table:

Service level Benchmark (SLB)

Area to be covered Primary Survey Required

Public Transport facilities

Key public transport corridors along the city

- Boarding Alighting at major bus stops of identified routes

- Passenger count inside the bus on identified routes

Pedestrian Infrastructure facilities

Arterial roads* / sub arterial roads / Key Public transport

- Collect phasing plan of a Signalized intersections in a

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corridors along the city city - Measurement of intensity of

street light by lux meter - Footpath length having

minimum width of 1.2m or more

Non Motorized Transport (NMT) facilities

Arterial roads / sub arterial roads / Key Public transport corridors along the city

- Dedicated NMV track having minimum width

- of 1.5m or more - Measurement of parking

area on dedicated Cycle track

- Signalized Intersection count

Level of Usage of Intelligent Transport System (ITS) facilities

City Municipal area / Planning boundary

- Count of Signalized intersections, bus stops, terminals, metro stations etc

Travel speed (motorized and mass transit)along major corridors

Arterial roads / sub arterial roads / Key Public transport corridors along the city

- Speed and delay - Journey time of bus at

identified bus route

Availability of Parking spaces

Arterial roads / Sub arterial roads/ Key Public transport corridors along the city

- Parking survey

Road Safety City Municipal area / Planning boundary

Nil

Pollution levels City Municipal area / Planning boundary

Nil

Integrated Land Use Transport System

City Municipal area / Planning boundary

- Land use observation survey along transit

- corridors - Total length of roads having

ROW 9m and - above - Total length of roads having

exclusive - BRT/Metro/LRT

Financial Sustainability of Public Transport by bus

ULB / Parastatal agency Nil

The survey locations and detail data analysis of each survey should be captured in

report so as to maintain consistency in measurement or survey locations over time.

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As per IRC: 86-1983: Geometric design standards for urban roads in Plains, the definition of arterial and sub arterial is as follows:

a) *Arterial roads: This system of streets serves as the principal network of through traffic flows. Significant intra urban travel such as between central business district and outlying takes place on this system. Arterials should be coordinated with existing and proposed through bypass roads to provide for distribution and collection of through traffic to and from sub arterial and collector street systems. A properly developed and designated arterial street system would help to identify the residential neighborhoods, industrial sites and commercial areas. These streets are generally spaced at less than 1.5 km in highly developed central business area and at 8 km or more in sparsely developed urban fringes. Parking, loading and unloading activities are usually restricted and regulated.

b) Sub Arterial roads: These streets are of somewhat lower level of travel mobility than the arterial streets. The emphasis on access to adjoining areas is more in case of these streets than in the case of arterial streets. Their spacing may vary from 0.5 km in the central business district to 3 - 5 km in the sub urban fringe.

c) Rationale for the benchmark: For each performance benchmark, the overall significance and rationale for assessing and monitoring has been provided. The benchmark value has been specified in all cases.

d) Reliability of measurement: The performance assessment can be scaled on reliability wherein casually collected information from secondary sources would result in lowest level of reliability (D) and information collected by conducting detailed survey on the field would qualify as being the highest / preferred level of reliability (A).

e) Frequency of measurement: For each benchmark, the minimum frequency at which the performance should be measured is .annually.. Frequency of reporting would also be ‘annually’.

f) Jurisdiction of measurement: This refers to the geographic jurisdiction for which performance should be measured. The Jurisdiction area for measurement is as follows:

i. Class 1 cities - Planning Boundary ii. Class 2 and 3 cities - Municipal area boundary

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Structure

Section 1: Service level Benchmarks:- This section provide details regarding each of selected SLBs such as Quality of available data, effort required in data collection and significance of the benchmark.

Section 2: Performance Report Card:- It provides the sample of performance reports of Service level benchmarks that each ULB / parastatal agencies / municipal development authority can use to set and track their performance improvement.

Section 1: Service Level Benchmarks

Public Transport Facilities

It indicates the city-wide level of services provided by public transport systems during peak hours (8 to 12 noon & 4 to 8 pm). Public Transport systems will only include rail, or organized bus based systems. Public Transport systems are characterized by - Fixed origins and destinations; Fixed routes and schedules; Fixed stoppage points; and Fixed fares. Public Transport therefore does not include Intermediate Public Transport (IPTs) such as shared RTVs, auto-rickshaws, three-wheelers, tempos, shared taxi or other such vehicles providing point-to-point services.

1. Presence of Organized Public Transport System in Urban Area: Within the first year, all JnNURM cities to establish Organized Public Transport System and by second year all 2 lakh plus population cities (as per 2001 census) to establish the same.

2. Extent of Supply / Availability of Public Transport : Within the first two years, all million plus cities but less than 4 million to increase public transit supply to service level 3 or above. All 4 million plus cities to increase supply to service level 2 or above.

3. Service Coverage of Public Transport in the city (Bus route network density): All million plus cities but less than 4 million to increase their public transit coverage at least supply to service level 3 or above. All 4 million plus cities to increase the service coverage to service level 2 or above.

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4. Average waiting time for Public Transport users: All million plus cities to maintain average waiting time for public transport users to be a maximum of 12 minutes or below within 2 years.

5. Level of Comfort in Public Transport (Crowding): In all million plus cities, with in 2 years, the level of service should be 3 or above.

6. Percentage Fleet as per Urban Bus Specifications: All million plus cities to have atleast 25% of their fleet as per urban bus specifications by the end of first year.

Regulatory Mechanism for Periodic Revision of Fares

There would be periodic revision of fares based on changes in the prices of indices. Such periodic revision is proposed to be carried out, every year. The formula to be used for such revision would be as follows:

Where,

FN : New Fare

FO. : Old Fare

FPO. : New Fuel Price

FPN. : Old Fuel Price

CPIN. : New Consumer Price Index

CPIO. : Old Consumer Price Index

AMCN. : AMC Rate/km

AMCO : Old AMC Rate/km

FN = 0.4 [FPN. FPO] + 0.3 [CPIN. CPIO] + 0.3 [AMCN. AMCO] + FO

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Indicators to calculate City-wide Level of Service (LoS) of Public Transport Facilities Level of Service

1. Presence of Organized Public Transport System in Urban Area (%)

2. Extent of Supply Availability of Public Transport

3. Service Coverage of Public Transport in the city

4. Average waiting time for Public Transport users

5. Level of Comfort in Public Transport

6. % of Fleet as per Urban Bus Specification

1 > = 60 > = 0.6 >= 1 < = 4 < = 1.5 75 – 100 2 40 - 60 0.4 - 0.6 0.7- 1 4 - 6 1.5 - 2.0 50 – 75 3 20 - 40 0.2 - 0.4 0.3 - 0.7 6 - 10 2.0 - 2.5 25 – 50 4 < 20 < 0.2 < 0.3 > 10 > 2.5 < = 25 Data Requirement to Calculate the Level of Service of Public Transport Facilities

Sl. No.

Data required for calculating the indicator

Unit Remarks

a) Calculate the total number of buses in the city

No. Total number of buses operating on road

b) Calculate the total number of buses under the ownership of STU/SPV or under concession agreement.

No. Organized Public Transport may be identified as that which is run by a company or SPV formulated specifically for the operation of public transport within the city or under concession agreement. The intercity bus services would not be included as part of urban public transport operations

c) Presence of Public Transport System in Urban Area (%)

% Calculate= [b / a]*100. Compute LoS as mentioned in indicator 1 i.e. Presence of Public Transport System in Urban Area (%)

1. Presence of Organized Public Transport System in Urban Area a) No of Buses/ train coaches available in a

city on any day No. Number of public transport vehicles

operating in the city, which may be lower than the number of vehicles owned by the utility or that authorized to ply. Daily average values over a time period of a month may be considered. (1 train coach is equivalent to 3 buses).

b) Total Population of the city No. Current population should be considered. Past census figures should be used as base, and annual growth rate should then be used to arrive at current population.

c) Availability of Public transport /1000 population.

Ratio Calculate= [a / b]. Compute LoS as mentioned in indicator 2 i.e. Availability of Public Transport

2. Availability of Public Transport a) Total length in road kms of the corridors

on which public transport systems ply in Road kms

Total length of the public transport corridor within the urban limits should be

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the city. considered. Corridors along which the service frequency is one hour or less should only be considered. Public transport systems may be road or rail or water based, and include public or private transport service providers.

b) Area of the urban limits of the city. Area in sq. kms

Area of the urban limits should be considered. This may corresponds the urban limits demarcated by the development authority / metropolitan area, or any other such urban planning agency which need to be covered by public transport. This need not be restricted to municipal boundaries.

c) Service Coverage road kms / sq. km

Calculate = [a / b]. Compute LoS as mentioned in indicator 3 i.e. Service coverage of public transport system in a city.

3. Service Coverage of Public Transport in the city a) Total length in road kms of the

corridors on which public transport systems ply in the city.

Road kms Total length of the public transport corridor within the urban limits should be considered. Corridors along which the service frequency is one hour or less should only be considered. Public transport systems may be road or rail or water based, and include public or private transport service providers.

b) Area of the urban limits of the city. Area in sq. kms

Area of the urban limits should be considered. This may corresponds the urban limits demarcated by the development authority / metropolitan area, or any other such urban planning agency which need to be covered by public transport. This need not be restricted to municipal boundaries.

c) Service Coverage road kms / sq. km

Calculate = [a / b]. Compute LoS as mentioned in indicator 3 i.e. Service coverage of public transport system in a city.

4. Average waiting time for Public Transport users a) Identify bus stops for

survey within the city No. With help of city map, plot all public

transport routes and bus stops (both direction) using GIS and GPS.

No. • Out of the total number of bus stops (N), a sample of (n) bus stops need to be collected for the purpose of survey,

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b)

Average headway of buses/route

as follows: - 4 million -10% - 4 million - 25% - <1 million- 50%

• To select the actual stops to be

surveyed, stratified random sampling is recommended as follows: - Select 1st bus stop between 1 to 5

randomly from the list identified above

- To select the next bus stop, skip N/nth bus stops from the list

• Repeat the exercise for all the bus stops

• Collect the data of route wise headway (in min) for buses at each of the identified bus stop during morning and evening peak hour.

• From the data collected, calculate the average headway for that particular route. Repeat the exercise for all selected routes

• Calculate the average waiting time of passenger for each route as half of the average headway for that particular route.

Make frequency distribution table for each of the LoS class interval (indicator 4). Find out the median of the frequency distribution which defines the average waiting time. Find out LoS corresponding to that median value for the table (indicator 4).

c) Average waiting time for Public Transport users

1 / 2 / 3 / 4

Compute LoS as mentioned in indicator 4 i.e. Average waiting time for Public Transport users

5. Level of Comfort in Public Transport a) Identification of key nodes / traffic

origin points No. With help of city maps, routes of all

public transport corridors should be plotted. Identify the key routes of public transport in the city (R1, R2, .. Rn) which covers the whole city.

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b) Passenger count on bus at key identified routes

No. Passenger count survey should be carried out on bus of each identified route during morning & evening peak hour in both directions. If there is more than one type of bus then count to be done for each bus type.

c) Seats available in the bus Count the number of seats available in a bus of each type on each identified route.

d) Passenger comfort- Load factor (passengers per seat)

1/2/3/4

Calculate= [b / c] for each route for each bus type and calculate the average load factor of all routes and compute LoS as mentioned in indicator 5 i.e. Level of Comfort in Public Transport

6. % of Fleet as per Urban Bus Specifications a) Total number of buses in the city No. Calculate the total number of buses in the

city b) Total number of buses as per

urban bus specifications in the city No. Calculate the total number of buses as per

urban bus specification (Urban bus specifications given on website :urbanindia.nic.in"

c) % of Fleet as per Urban Bus Specifications

% Calculate [b / a * 100]. Compute LoS as mentioned in indicator 6 i.e. % of Fleet as per Urban Bus Specifications

Overall Level of Service of Public Transport facilities City wide The calculated level of Service (LoS) of Public Transport facilities = (LoS1 + LoS2 +

LoS3 + LoS4 + LoS5 + LoS6) and identify overall LoS as mentioned below Overall

LoS Calculated

LoS Comments

1 < 12 The City has a good public transport system which is wide spread and easily available to the citizens. The system provided is comfortable.

2 12 - 16 The City has public transport system which may need considerable improvements in terms of supply of buses/ coaches and coverage as many parts of the city are not served by it. The frequency of the services available may need improvements. The system provided is comfortable.

3 17 - 20 The City has a public transport system which may need considerable improvements in terms of supply of buses / coaches and coverage as most parts of the city are not served by it. The frequency of the services available needs improvements. The system provided is not comfortable as there is considerable over loading.

Reliability of measurement Reliability Scale Description of method

Lowest level of Based on some information collated from secondary sources.

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reliability (D) Intermediate level (C ) Only information collected from city authorities / different agencies

without any checks. Intermediate level (B) Only surveys are undertaken Highest/preferred level of reliability (A)

All the data for above mentioned performance parameters is collected/measured as mentioned above. Field observers should be properly trained, data formats provided, and observations be properly tabulated. Actual surveys are undertaken which are either carried out by or verified by the independent agencies.

Pedestrian Infrastructure Facilities

It indicates the percentage of road length along the arterial and major road network or Public Transport corridors and at intersection that has adequate barrier free pedestrian facilities. The indicators to calculate the adequate pedestrian facilities are as follows:

1. Signalized intersection delay (%): All million plus cities to target level of service 2

2. Street Lighting (Lux): All million plus cities to target level of service 2

3. Percentage of City Covered with footpaths (wider than 1.2 mtrs): All million plus cities to target level of service 2.

Indicators to calculate City-wide Level of Service (LoS) of Pedestrian facility Level of Service 1) Signalized

intersection delay (%) 2) Street Lighting

(Lux) 3) % of City

Covered

1 < 25 > = 8 > =75 2 25 - 50 6 - 8 50 – 75 3 50 - 75 4 - 6 25 – 50 4 > = 75 < 4 < 25

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Data Requirement to Calculate the Level of Service of Pedestrian facility Sl. No. Data required for

calculating the indicator Unit Remarks

1) Signalized intersection delay a) Total number of Signalized

intersection No. Identify the total number of signalized

intersections in a city (n)

b) Average waiting time of pedestrian at intersection

Seconds � Collect intersection phasing plan for each intersection.

� Workout the amount of waiting time required for a pedestrian to cross each arm of road.

� Calculate the average total waiting time of passengers of all arms of signalized intersection and divide by 2 to get average waiting time. If there is any foot over/under bridge at any arm, then waiting time for that particular arm is zero

c) Signalized intersections Delay (%)

1/2/3/4 � Desired average waiting time for a pedestrian is not more than 45 seconds.

� Calculate total number of signalized intersections having more than average waiting time of 45 seconds for pedestrians and calculate percentage of total.

� Compute LoS as mentioned in indicator 1 i.e. Signalized intersections Delay (%)

2) Street Lighting (Lux) a) Total length of roads in kms Total length of road network in the city

i.e. arterial / sub arterial road network or Public Transport corridors on both sides.

b) Calculate lux level % Take 10 samples per km along the arterial / sub arterial road network or Public Transport corridors. Create a frequency distribution of all the lux levels observed for the LoS categories mentioned in indicator 3 i.e. Street Lighting (lux ) and calculate the

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cumulative frequency, where it crosses 50% mark, take that range as the LoS for indicator. Example: say the frequency distribution for the LUX is >=8 = 20%, 6-8 = 15%, 4-6 = 30% and <4= 35%. in this case the cumulative frequency crosses 50% mark at 4-6 range. Therefore the LoS for the indicator is 4-6, which is 3.

c) Street Lighting 1/2/3/4 Compute LoS as mentioned in indicator 2 i.e. Street Lighting (Lux)

3) % of City Covered a) Total length of road

network Km Calculate the total length of road

network and multiply by 2 b) Total length of footpath of a

city Km Calculate the total length of footpath

having minimum width of 1.2m width or more and multiply by 2 if available on both sides

c) Percentage of city covered 1/2/3/4 Availability = [b / a]*100. Compute LoS as mentioned in indicator 3 i.e. % of city covered.

Overall Level of Service of Pedestrian Infrastructure facilities City wide The calculated Level of service (LoS) for pedestrian infrastructure facilities = (LoS1 + LoS2 + LoS3) and identify overall LoS as mentioned below: Overall

LoS Calculated LoS Comments

1 3 - 5 The City has adequate barrier free pedestrian facilities at overall road network.

2 6 - 8 The City has pedestrian facilities which may need some improvements in terms of improvements in intersections, footpaths, and street lighting as some parts of the city are not served by it. The footpath available need improvements. The system provided is comfortable and sustainable

3 9-10 The City has pedestrian facilities which may need considerable improvements. The pedestrian facilities at intersection, availability of footpath etc needs improvements as many parts of the city are not served by it.

4 11 - 12 The city lacks adequate pedestrian facilities

Reliability of measurement Reliability Scale Description of method

Lowest level of reliability (D) Based on some information collated from secondary sources.

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Intermediate level ( C ) Only information collected from city authorities / different agencies without any checks.

Intermediate level (B) Only surveys are undertaken

Highest/preferred level of

reliability (A)

All the data for above mentioned performance parameters is collected /measured as mentioned above. Field observers should be properly trained, data formats provided, and observations be properly tabulated. Population data should be from Census records. Actual surveys are undertaken which are either carried out by or verified by the independent agencies.

Non Motorized Transport (NMT) Facilities

Indicates the percentage of dedicated cycle track / lane along the arterial & sub arterial road network or public transport corridors with a minimum of 2.5 m width. It is characterized by continuous length, encroachment on NMT lanes, and parking facilities. All JnNURM cities to have NMT tracks on all major roads within a year. The indicators to calculate the adequate NMT facilities are as follows:

1. NMT Coverage (% network covered): At least 25% network within a year. The width of pedestrian path and cycle track can be combined if the roads are too narrow

2. Encroachment on NMT roads by Vehicle parking (%): Target should be to have not more than 30% of NMV roads encroached i.e. LoS of 3 with in 1 year.

3. NMT parking facilities at Interchanges (%): Create NMT parking near all major bus stops, terminals and railway stations within a year.

Indicators to calculate City-wide Overall Level of Service (LoS) of NMT facilities LoS 1. % of network covered 2. Encroachment on

NMV roads by Vehicle Parking (%)

3. NMT Parking facilities at

Interchanges (%) 1 > =50 < =10 >=75 2 50 - 25 10 - 20 50 - 75 3 25- 15 20 - 30 25- 50

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4 < 15 > 30 < 25

Data Requirement to Calculate the Level of Service of NMT facilities Sl. No. Data required for

calculating the indicator

Unit Remarks

1. % network covered a) Total length of road

network Km Calculate the total length of road network

b) Total Length of NMT network

Km Calculate the total length of NMV network

c) % of city covered 1/2/3/4 Calculate = [b/a]*100. Compute LoS as mentioned in indicator 1 i.e. % of city covered

2. Encroachment on NMV roads by Vehicle Parking (%) a) Total length of the

Parking on Cycle Track Km Calculate Total road length where Parking on

Cycle Track is present b) Total length of NMT

network Km Calculate the total length of NMT network

c) % of on street parking on cycle track

1/2/3/4 Calculate = [ a / b]*100. Compute LoS as mentioned in indicator 2 i.e. Encroachment on NMV roads by Vehicle Parking (%)

3. NMT Parking facilities at Interchanges (%) a) Total no. of interchanges no. Calculate the total no. of interchanges i.e.

major bus stops, terminals and railway stations.

b) Total no. of interchanges having bicycle parking

no. Calculate the total number of interchanges having NMT parking facilities (within 250 m radius)

c) NMT Parking facilities at Interchanges

1/2/3/4 Calculate = [ b / c ]*100. Compute LoS as mentioned in indicator 3 i.e. NMT Parking facilities at Interchanges (%)

Overall Level of Service (LoS) of Non Motorized facilities (NMV) City-wide The calculated level of service (LoS) of Non Motorized facilities is = (LoS 1 + LoS 2 + LoS 3) and identify overall LoS as mentioned below Overall

LoS Calculated

LoS Comments

1 3 - 5 The city has adequate NMT facilities at overall road network.

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2 6 - 8 The city has NMT facilities which may need some improvements in terms of encroachments, parking facilities at interchanges etc as some parts of the city are not served by it. The system provided is comfortable and sustainable

3 9 - 10 The city has NMT facilities which may need considerable improvements as many parts of the city are not served by it.

4 11 - 12 The city lacks adequate NMT facilities Reliability of measurement

Reliability Scale Description of method Lowest level of reliability (D)

Based on some information collated from secondary sources.

Intermediate level (C) Only information collected from city authorities / different agencies without any checks.

Intermediate level (B) Only surveys are undertaken Highest/preferred level of reliability (A)

All the data for above mentioned performance parameters is collected /measured as mentioned above. Field observers should be properly trained, data formats provided, and observations be properly tabulated. Population data should be from Census records. Actual surveys are undertaken which are either carried out by or verified by the independent agencies.

Level of Usage of Intelligent Transport System (ITS) facilities

ITS refers to efforts to add information and communications technology to transport infrastructure and vehicles in an effort to manage factors that typically are at odds with each other, such as vehicles, loads, and routes to improve safety and reduce vehicle wear, transportation times and fuel consumption. GPS/GPRS systems are required so as to cover all the public transport and intermediate public transport vehicles on the “National public transport helpline” besides the use for operational efficiencies. The indicators to calculate the usage of ITS facilities in the city are as follows:

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1. Availability of Traffic Surveillance System: In all Million plus Cities, all rapid transit stations and all transit terminals will be equipped with CCTVs (Year-1) and all signalized intersections by year 2.

2. Passenger Information System (PIS): In all Million plus Cities, major bus stops, all rapid transit stations and all transit terminals will be equipped with PIS system (Year-1).

3. Usage of Global Positioning System: All new transit vehicles will be equipped with GPS systems (Year-1 for all JnNURM cities and year 2 for two lakh plus population cities). Older transit vehicles in these cities will be covered with GPS system in Year 2. Intermediate public transport systems will be covered with GPS in the years 2 to 3.

4. Signal Synchronization: In all million plus cities, in the first 2 years, all the junctions on major roads will be synchronized (50% in year1 and 50% in year 2).

5. Integrated Ticketing System: In all million plus cities, all public transit systems and subsystems will be covered Automatic Ticketing System in the next 3 years (in a phased manner). All cities with rapid transit systems (Metro/BRT) to introduce integrated ticketing system during the next 3 years (To include integration of ticketing between sub-systems and parking).

6. Signalized intersection: In all million plus cities, in the first 3 years, all the junctions on major roads will be signalized (50% in year1 and 50% in year 2).

Indicators to calculate City-wide Level of Service (LoS) of Intelligent Transport System (ITS) facilities

Level of Service

1. Availability of Traffic Surveillance (%)

2. Passenger Information System (PIS) (%)

3. Global Positioning System / GPRS (%)

4. Signal Synchronization (%)

5. Integrated Ticketing System (%)

1 > =75 > =75 > =75 > =75 > =75 2 50 - 75 50 - 75 50 - 75 50 - 75 50 - 75 3 25 - 50 25 - 50 25 - 50 25 - 50 25 - 50 4 < 25 < 25 < 25 < 25 < 25

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Data Requirement to Calculate the Level of Service of Intelligent Transport System facilities

Sl. No.

Data required for calculating the indicator

Unit Remarks

1. Availability of Traffic Surveillance Detection of movement of persons or vehicles for the purpose of security, incidence management and also to get real time information regarding pedestrian or vehicle flow.

a) Total no. of bus stations on BRTS, major bus stops, terminals, metro stations and signalized intersections having CCTVs

No. Calculate total no. of bus stops, terminals, metro stations and signalized intersections having CCTVs

b) Total no. of bus stations on major bus stops, BRTS, terminals, major bus stops, metro stations and signalized intersections

No. Calculate total no. of bus stops, terminals, metro stations and signalized intersections

c) Availability of Traffic Surveillance % Calculate [a / b]*100. Compute LoS as mentioned in indicator Availability of Traffic Surveillance

2. Passenger Information System (PIS) Passenger information systems are the key communication link between transportation operators and the travelling passengers. It provides accurate, current information on arrival and departure times and gates - information the traveler needs to keep moving efficiently. The information is provided in the form of digital displays as well as through loud speakers installed at appropriate locations.

a) Total no. of bus stops, terminals, metro stations having PIS

No. Calculate total no. of bus stops, terminals, metro stations having PIS

b) Total no. of bus stops, terminals, metro stations

No. Calculate total no. of bus stops, terminals, metro stations

c) Passenger Information System (PIS) % Calculate [a / b]*100. Compute LoS as mentioned in indicator 2: Passenger Information System.

3. Global Positioning System / GPRS The Global Positioning System (GPS) is a satellite-based navigation system that determines the user’s position and displays it on the unit’s electronic map. With the GPS installed in the vehicles, the operators can regulate bus movements, ensuring smoother running of services. In addition, information about when the bus will arrive is sent to some bus stops to alert passengers.

a) No. of Public Transport Vehicles and IPT with functional onboard GPS / GPRS and connected to common control center

No Calculate total No. of Public Transport Vehicles and IPT with onboard GPS / GPRS which are connected to common control center

b) Total no. of Public Transport Vehicles and IPT

No Calculate total no. of Public Transport Vehicles and IPT

c) Global Positioning System / GPRS % Calculate [a / b ] * 100. Compute LoS

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as mentioned in indicator 3: Global Positioning System

4. Signal Synchronization To improve the traffic flow along the road networks, the signals along the corridor are inter connected. The phasing of the signal at any specific intersection are in tune with the phasing of the intersection before and after it to provide a continuous green phase for the traffic stream. It helps in reducing congestion and stopping time at each intersection.

a) No. of signals which are synchronized

No Calculate total No. of signalized signals which are synchronized in the city

b) Total no. of signalized intersections No Calculate Total no. of signalized intersections in the city

c) Signal Synchronization % Calculate [a / b]* 100. Compute LoS as mentioned in indicator 4 : Signal Synchronization

5. Integrated Ticketing System Integrated ticketing may be understood as a single common ticket which can be used across all modes of public transport for a single trip. It helps in providing seamless interchange across the Public transport modes and also reduces the overall travel time as the users do not have to stand in queues each time they interchange to purchase the tickets. Aim is to have complete integration across all operators of same modes and across all modes and operators.

a) Total Number of modes and operators in the city (Buses, IPT, Metro etc) which have integrated ticketing system

no Calculate number of public transport modes and operators for each route in the city which are integrated

b) Total Number of modes and operators in the city (Buses, IPT, Metro etc)

no Calculate the total number of public transport modes and operators for each route in the city. Eg. If there are ten operators for buses and one operator for metro, one for monorail, the total number shall be twelve.

c) Integrated Ticketing System % Calculate [a / b] *100. Compute LoS as mentioned in indicator 5: Integrated Ticketing system

Overall Level of Service (LoS) of usage of Intelligent Transport System (ITS) City-wide The calculated Level of Service (LoS) of Intelligent Transport system = ( LoS1 + LoS2 + LoS3 + LoS4 + LoS5)and identify overall LoS as mentioned below

Overall LoS

Calculated LoS

Comments

1 5 - 7 The city has adequate ITS facilities 2 8 - 10 The City has ITS facilities which may need some improvements

in terms of integrated ticketing system, signal Synchronization, GPS/GPRS, PIS etc as some parts of the city are nor served by it.

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3 11 - 15 The City has ITS facilities which may need considerable improvements terms of integrated ticketing system, signal Synchronization, GPS/GPRS, PIS etc as many parts of the city are nor served by it.

4 16 - 20 The city lacks adequate ITS facilities Reliability of measurement

Reliability Scale Description of method Lowest level of reliability (D)

Based on some information collated from secondary sources

Intermediate level ( C ) Only information collected from city authorities without any checks Intermediate level (B) Only surveys are undertaken Highest/preferred level of reliability (A)

Field observers should be properly trained, data formats provided, and observations be properly tabulated.

Travel Speed (Motorized and Mass Transit) Along Major Corridors

CORRIDORS This level of service provides an indication of effective travel time or speed of Public

or private vehicles by taking into account indications of congestion or traffic density. This level of service is along corridors, and not indicative of overall level of service from origin to destination. Level of service (LoS) may be measured along key corridors and then aggregated for the city.

� Year 1 target is to arrest worsening of the situation in the initial period � Subsequently target to improve the service conditions to a reasonable level

Level of Service is defined in terms of average travel speed of all through vehicles on the key corridors. It is strongly influenced by the number of vehicles along the corridor, number of signals per kilometer and the average intersection delay. The speed of motorized vehicles can be improved by segregating public transport and non motorized vehicles through dedicated lanes or lane demarcation wherever possible.

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Indicators to calculate City-wide Level of Service (LoS) of Traffic Speed along Major corridors

Level of Service

1. Average Travel speed of Personal vehicles (Kmph)

2. Average Travel speed of PublicTransport (Kmph)

1 > =30 > =20 2 25 - 30 15 -20 3 15 - 25 10 - 15 4 < 15 < 10

Data Requirement to Calculate the Level of Service of Traffic Speed along Major corridors Sl. No.

Data required for calculating the indicator

Unit Remarks

1. Travel speed of Personal vehicles along key corridors a) Delineate the key corridors of

road traffic (personal vehicle) in the city.

No. Identify the key corridors using motorized transport in the city (C1, C2, .. Cn). These corridors may be within the city, or moving radially outwards.

b) Compute Average speed on the key corridors

Determine the average speed along the corridor by the equation:- Arterial Speed of corridor in kmph= (Length) / [total journey time in hours]. The speeds should be observed during peak hours on working days and an average of the peak hour speeds for each corridor should be used for determining the LoS.

c) Level of Service for personal vehicle along each corridor

1/2 /3/4 On the basis of characterization of LoS mentioned above, determine the LoS along each corridor. The LoS along the corridors may be denoted as say LoS1 for C1, LoS2 for C2, .... LoSn for Cn

d) Weights of each corridor based on volume of personal traffic

Ratio Weightages of each corridor should be determined on basis of length of the corridor as share of the total length (say W1 for C1, W2 for C2, W3 for C3, .. Wn for Cn)

e) City-wide Level of Service of motorized vehicles

1/2 /3/4 Computed as weighted aggregate of LoS density i.e. = [(W1*LoS1) + (W2*LoS2) + .... (Wn*LoSn)], rounded off to the next whole number

2. Travel speed of Public Transport along key corridors a) Delineate the key corridors of

public transport in the city. No. Identify the key corridors using public

transport in the city (C1, C2, .. Cn). These corridors may be within the city, or moving radially outwards.

b) Compute Average Speed on the Compute Arterial Speed of corridor in

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key corridors kmph= (Length) /[total journey time in hours] of each identified Public Transport corridor. The speeds should be observed during peak hours on working days and an average of the peak hour speeds for each corridor should be used for determining the LoS.

c) Level of Service for public transport along each corridor

1/2 /3/4 On the basis of characterization of LoS mentioned above, determine the LoS along each corridor. The LoS along the corridors may be denoted as:-say LoS1 for C1, LoS2 for C2, .... LoSn for Cn

d) Weights of each corridor based on volume of passengers

Ratio Weightage of each corridor should be determined on basis of length the corridor as share of the total length (say W1 for C1, W2 for C2, W3 for C3, .. Wn for Cn)

e) City-wide Level of Service of Public transport vehicles

1/2 /3/4 Computed as weighted aggregate of LoS density i.e. = [(W1*LoS1) + (W2*LoS2) + .... (Wn*LoSn)], rounded off to the next whole number

Overall Level of Service of Travel speed along major corridors City wide The calculated LoS of Travel speed along major corridors = (LoS1 + LoS2) and identify overall LoS as mentioned below

Overall LoS

Calculated LoS

Comments

1 2 Primarily free flow- operations at average travel speeds usually about 70% of the free flow speed for the key corridors

2 3 -4 Small increase in flow may cause substantial increases in approach delay and hence, decrease in arterial speed.

3 5 -6 Significant approach delays and average travel speed of 1/3 of free flow speed or lower. Such operations are caused by some combination or adverse progression, high signal density, extensive queuing at critical intersections and inappropriate signal timing.

4 7 -8 Key corridors at extremely low speeds below 1/3 to 1/4 of the free flow speed. Intersection congestion is likely at critical signalized locations, with high approach delays resulting. Adverse progression is frequently a contributor to this condition.

Reliability of measurement Reliability Scale Description of method Lowest level of reliability (D)

Assessments do not cover all important corridors in the city. Assessments also do not follow the suggested frequency of measurement.

Intermediate level ( C ) PCU units for corridors are not measured, and average of LoS along

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key corridors is considered as overall LoS. Intermediate level (B) Only surveys are undertaken Highest/preferred level of reliability (A)

Measurements as described above. Field observers should be properly trained, data formats provided, and observations be properly tabulated.

Availability Of Parking Spaces

It indicates the restriction on free parking spaces for all vehicles in a city. The indicators to calculate the parking facilities are as follows:

1. Availability of paid public parking spaces (%): To cover at least 50% of on street public parking spaces under .paid parking.

2. Difference in Maximum and Minimum Parking Fee in the City: To keep maximum and minimum parking fee difference to at least 2:1 (Parking rate to be computed two hourly).

Indicators to calculate City-wide Overall Level of Service (LoS)

LoS 1. Availability of on street paid public parking spaces (%)

2. Ratio of Maximum and Minimum Parking Fee in the City

1 > =75 > 4 2 50 - 75 2 - 4

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3 25 - 50 1 - 2 4 < 25 1

Data Requirement to Calculate the Level of Service of Performance Indicators

Sl. No.

Data required for calculating the

indicator

Unit Remarks

1. Availability of paid public parking spaces a) Total available on street

paid parking spaces in (Equivalent Car Spaces) ECS allotted for all vehicles

ECS Total available on street paid parking spaces= number of parking spaces for (cars x1 + two wheelers x 0.25). All the Arterial, sub arterial roads to be taken into account including service roads along these roads.

b) Total available on street parking spaces in (Equivalent Car Spaces) ECS allotted for all vehicles

ECS Total available on street Parking Spaces= number of parking spaces for (cars x1 + two wheelers x 0.25)

c) Availability of paid public parking spaces

% Calculate = [a / b] * 100. Compute LoS as mentioned in indicator 1 i.e. Availability of paid public parking spaces (%)

2. Ratio of Maximum and Minimum Parking Fee in the City In the CBD of the city, the land is generally available at a premium, which makes it difficult to provide for organized parking spaces in these areas. One of the management measures for reducing parking demand in the CBD is high parking charges, which discourages the use of private vehicles. The parking fee being charge by private parking operators may also be considered.

a) Maximum parking fee being charged per 2 hours in the city for public parking

Rs A very high premium is being charged for land in CBD

b) Minimum parking fee being charged per 2 hours in the city for public parking

Rs Free parking rates are not to be counted.

c) Ratio of Maximum to Minimum parking fee

Ratio Calcúlate = [a / b]. Compute LoS as mentioned in indicator 2 i.e. Ratio of Maximum and Minimum Parking Fee in the City.

Overall Level of Service (LoS) for Parking Space City-wide The calculated Level of Service (LoS) for parking space = (LoS1 + LoS2) and identify overall LoS as mentioned below.

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Overall LoS

Calculated LoS Comments

1 2 Paid parking spaces are available in the city and the demand is well managed by incorporating differential parking rates for the CBD.

2 3 - 4 Paid parking spaces are available in the city and the demand is well managed by incorporating differential parking rates for the CBD. However some improvements may be required

3 5 - 6 Paid parking spaces provided in the city need to be improved upon and to cater to the demand some differential parking rates for the CBD have been adopted. The city authorities need to initiative considerable improvements measures.

4 7 - 8 The city authorities need to initiate immediate actions with respect to providing paid parking spaces and demand management for parking. Reliability of measurement

Reliability Scale Description of method Lowest level of reliability (D)

The parking capacities have been estimated as per the information from secondary source

Intermediate level ( C ) Parking capacity is based on information from concerned offices only and no survey has been conducted for validation

Intermediate level (B) Parking capacity is measured from field surveys only and not verified from concerned offices

Highest/preferred level of reliability (A)

Parking capacity should be measured by proper field surveys, and marked on maps to scale. Latest data from concerned offices of RTO should be collected.

Road Safety

With increasing road traffic, many cities are witnessing rising level of accidents, leading to rising levels of injuries and fatalities. Level of fatality is an indication of road safety. Road design and available road infrastructure, traffic management and other such reasons significantly contribute to road safety. Therefore fatality rate should be monitored. The benchmark for the same is zero, as ideally fatalities and injuries out of accidents should be brought down to nil. Within the number of accidents, the vulnerable road users are pedestrians and persons with non-motorised vehicles. It is therefore, critical to monitor the extent to which such road users are impacted within the overall set of road users. The benchmark value for the same is also zero. The indicators to calculate the LoS of road safety is as follows:

1. Fatality rate per lakh population: To bring down fatality rates to 2 persons per lakh or below in all million plus cities within two years.

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2. Fatality rate for pedestrian and NMT (%): To bring down fatality rates for pedestrian and NMT such that the share comes down to less than 40% within two years.

Data Requirement to Calculate the Level of Service of Performance Indicators

Sl. No. Data required for calculating the indicator

Unit Remarks

1. Fatality rate per lakh population

a) Total number of fatalities recorded in road accidents within city limits in the given

calendar year

No. Record of fatalities from police records. Data should be considered pertaining to the urban limits or jurisdiction of police department for the urban areas

within that district.

b) Population of the urban agglomeration in that year

No. Population of the urban agglomeration as per the latest census should be projected to arrive at current population, taking into

account the projected growth rate.

c) c) Fatality rate per 100000 population

Ratio Calculate= [(a*1,00,000) / b]. Compute LoS as mentioned in indicator 1 i.e. Fatality rate per

lakh population

2. Fatality rate for pedestrian and NMT (%)

a) Total number of fatalities recorded of persons who were pedestrians or on nonmotorised transport vehicles, in road accidents within city

No. From the records from police, the number of persons of above, who were pedestrians or on non-motorised vehicles (such as

bicycles, cycle-carts / cycle

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limits in given year rickshaws, etc.)

b) Total number of fatalities recorded in road accidents within city limits in the given

calendar year

No. Record of fatalities from police records. Data should be considered pertaining to the urban limits or jurisdiction of police department for the urban areas

within that district.

c) Fatality rate for pedestrian and NMT

% Calculate = [(a / b)*100]. Compute LoS as mentioned in indicator 2 i.e. Fatality rate for pedestrian

and NMT (%)

Overall Level of Service (LoS) for Road Safety City-wide

The calculated level of service (loS) for Road Safety = (LoS1 + LoS2) and identify overall LoS as mentioned below

Overall LoS Calculated LoS Comments

1 2 Level of Fatality rate in a city is very low.

2 3 - 4 Need some improvements in Road design and available road infrastructure, traffic management and in other such reasons which significantly contribute to road safety.

3 5 - 6 Need considerable improvements in Road design and available road infrastructure, traffic management and in other such reasons which significantly contribute to road safety.

4 7 - 8 Level of Fatality rate in a city is very high.

Reliability of measurement Reliability Scale Description of method

Lowest level of reliability (D)

Estimations based on previous records

Intermediate level ( C ) Not Applicable

Intermediate level (B) Not Applicable

Highest/preferred level of reliability (A)

Records from police headquarters of the district, providing fatality and injury rate from road accidents. Data should pertain to urban areas within the district. Population data should be from Census records.

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Pollution Levels

This indicator indicates the Level of air Pollutants in the city i.e. average level of pollution in urban areas. The indicator to calculate the pollution levels is Annual Mean Concentration Range (µg/m3).

Indicators to calculate the Pollution level - Annual Mean Concentration Range (µg/m3)

Level of service*

1. SO2 2. Oxides

of Nitrogen

3. SPM 4. RSPM (Size less

than 10 microns)

1 (Low) 0 - 40 0 - 40 0 - 180 0 - 40 2 (Moderate)

40 - 80 40 - 80 180 - 360 40 – 80

3 (High) 80 - 120 80 - 120 360 - 540 80 – 120 4 (Critical) > 120 > 120 > 540 > 120 * As per CPCB guidelines: Annual Arithmetic Mean of minimum 104 measurements in a year taken twice a week 24-hourly at uniform interval (Data from CPCB)

Overall Level of Service (LoS) for Pollution levels The calculated Level of Service for Pollution level is LoS = (LoS1 + LoS2 + LoS3 + LoS4) and identify overall LoS as mentioned below Overall LoS

Calculated LoS Comments

1 <=5 Level of pollution in a city is very low. 2 6 - 9 Need some improvements in emission standards,

checking pollution etc. pollution etc.

3 10 - 13 Need considerable improvements in emission standards, checking pollution etc.

4 14 - 16 Level of pollution in a city is very high. Reliability of measurement

Reliability Scale Description of method Lowest level of reliability (D) Based on some information collated from secondary

sources Intermediate level ( C ) Only information collected from city authorities without

any checks Intermediate level (B) Only surveys are undertaken Highest/preferred level of reliability (A)

Field observers should be properly trained, data formats provided, and observations be properly tabulated.

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Integrated Landuse-Transport System

It Indicates the effectiveness of land use-transport arrangements and Identify the level of integrated land use transport system expected to result in overall trip reduction and mode shift in favor of public transit The indicators to calculate the Land use transport integration are as follows:

1. Population Density - Gross (Persons/Developed Area in hectare) 2. Mixed Landuse on Major Transit Corridors/Network (% non residential area) 3. Intensity of Development city wide - (Floor Space Index - Master Plan/DP) 4. Intensity of development along transit corridor- Ratio of FSI on Transit corridor to

city FSI (provision as per Master Plan / Development Plan/ Any other policy) 5. Clear pattern and Complete network 6. Area under roads (%) 7. Proportion of network having exclusive ROW for Transit

Indicators to calculate (LoS) of Integrated land use Transport System Level

of Service

Population

Density - Gross

(Persons/D

eveloped area in

Mixed Land-use

on Major Transit

Corridors / Network

(%

Intensity of

Develop ment -

City wide (FSI)

Intensity of

developmen t along transit

corridor (FSI

transit

Clear Pattern

and Completeness of the network

% of area

under Roads

%age network having

exclusive ROW

for Transit network

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hact.) area under non

residential use)

corridor/ FSI)

1 >=175 >=30 > =2 >=3 Clear pattern (ring-radial or grid-iron) and complete network

> = 15 > = 30

2 150-175 15-30 1.5-2.0 2-3 Somewhat clear pattern (ringradial or gridiron) but somewhat incomplete network

12 - 15 20-30

3 125-150 5-15 1.0 - 1.5 1.5-2 somewhat unclear pattern and incomplete network

10 -12 10-20

4 < 125 <5 <1 <1.5 no clear pattern incomplete / sparse network

< 10 <10

Data Requirement to Calculate the Level of Service of Performance Indicator Sl. No. Data required for calculating the

indicator Unit Remarks

1. Population Density a) From remote sensing/satellite image

or from Google compute developed area (Hectare)

Ha. Total developed area

b) Population of current year or the year for which data is available.

No. Population of 1991 and 2001 may be taken to estimate current population

c) Population density No. Calculate population density = [b/a]. Compute LoS as mentioned in indicator 1: Population Density – Gross (Persons/Developed area in hectare)

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2. Mixed Land-use Zoning (Proportion of non residential area) a) Inventory of landuse along major

transit corridors (500 meters approx) based Master Plan/Development Plan

Ha. As per approved Master Plan/DP

b) Mixed land use Zoning (% of area under non residential use)

% Calculate % of non residential area out of total area along transit corridor and Compute LoS as mentioned in indicator 2.

3. Intensity of Development. Citywide a) Floor space Index (applicable to most

part of the city as per Master Plan/DP. No. As per Master plan/Development plan as

applicable to developed/developable area and Compute LoS as mentioned in indicator 3 i.e. Intensity of Development - City (F.S.I (Floor Space Index - Master Plan/DP)

4. Intensity of Development along Transit Corridors a) Floor space Index (applicable to most

part of the city as per Master Plan/DP. No. As per Master plan/Development plan as

applicable to developed/developable area b) FSI along transit corridors no. As per Master plan/Development plan as

applicable to areas along transit corridors. c) Intensity of Development along

Transit Corridors

Ratio Calculate Ratio = [b / a]. Compute LoS as mentioned in indicator 4 i.e. Intensity of development- Ratio of FSI on Transit corridor to city FSI

5. Road network Pattern and Completeness a) Based on existing & proposed network

recognize/identify major roads and pattern

No of Rings & radials /grid networ

k

Both existing and proposed

b) Extent of clarity and completion qualitative (high to low) c) Road network Pattern and

Completeness 1/2/3/4 Compute LoS as mentioned in indicator 5

i.e. Pattern and Completeness of the network 6. % of Area under Roads

a) Measure overall developed area km. sq Measure developed area of a city b) Measure overall area under road

network. km. sq Total area under roads

c) Percentage of area under road network

sq.kms Calculate [b / a]*100. Compute LoS as mentioned in indicator 6 i.e. % of area under road Network.

7. % Network with Exclusive ROW for transit (for > 1 million population as per 2001 census) a) Total urban road and rail network Kms Total length of roads (arterial and Sub

arterial) having ROW 9m and above plus total length of urban rail network

b) Total network with exclusive ROW Kms Total length of road having exclusive

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BRT/Metro/LRT/Mono rail c) % Network with Exclusive ROW

for transit % Calculate [b / a] * 100. Compute LoS as

mentioned in indicator 7 i.e. %age network having exclusive ROW for Transit network

Overall Level of Service (LoS) for Land Use Transport Integration City-wide For > =1 million population = The city wide calculated LoS is derived by adding the LoS = LoS1 + LoS2 + LoS3 + LoS4 +LoS5 + LoS6 + LoS7 and identify overall LoS as mentioned below. For < 1 million population = The city wide calculated LoS is derived by adding the LoS = LoS1 + LoS2 + LoS3 + LoS4 + LoS5+ LoS6 and identify overall LoS as mentioned below Overall

LoS Calculated LoS Comments

> = 1 million population

< 1 million population

1 <=8 < =9 City Structure is appropriately planned in a manner which patronizes public transport.

2 9 -15 10 -14 City structure is somewhat coherence with the public transport system

3 16 - 22 15 - 20 Faint coherence between city structure and public transport system

4 23- 28 21 - 24 Inconsistency in the city structure and public transport system leading to lesser ridership and high dependence on personalized motor vehicles

Reliability of measurement Reliability Scale Description of method Lowest level of reliability (D)

Based on some information collated from secondary sources.

Intermediate level (C) Only information collected from city authorities / different agencies without any checks.

Intermediate level (B) Only surveys are undertaken Highest/preferred level of reliability (A)

All the data for above mentioned performance parameters is collected / measured as mentioned above. Field observers should be properly trained, data formats provided, and observations be properly tabulated. Population data should be from Census records. Actual surveys are undertaken which are either carried out by or verified by the independent agencies.

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1.10 Financial Sustainability Of Public Transport By Bus

The indicators to calculate the financial sustainability of public transport by bus is as follows:

1. Extent of Non-fare Revenue (%): All city transit system operators to achieve a minimum of 20% and above share.

2. Staff /bus ratio: To keep at a level as defined in LoS 2 or above.

3. Operating Ratio: To take the operating ratio to atleast 1.

Indicators to calculate City-wide Overall Level of Service (LoS) Level

of Service

1. Extent of Non fare Revenue (%)

2. Staff /bus ratio

3. Operating Ratio

1 > 40 < = 5.5 < 0.7 2 40 - 20 5.5 - 8 0.7 - 1.0 3 20- 10 8 - 10 1.0 - 1.5 4 < =10 >10 > =1.5

Data Requirement o Calculate the Level of Service of Performance Indicators Sl. No. Data required for

calculating the indicator Unit Remarks

1. Extent of Non Fare Revenue Percentage of non-fare revenue is an important indicator since it reflects on the financial sustainability of the public transport system. Non-fare revenue comprises revenue from advertising on buses / coaches, at bus stations and other spaces, rental spaces at terminals, etc. If the share of non-fare revenue is higher, it implies significant cross-subsidization of basic fares. Therefore, even if there are changes in the cost of operations (due to increase in fuel costs, etc.), the impact can be partly shielded by other revenue streams, thereby making the system more financially sustainable. It is therefore important to monitor this indicator. Assuming that the transport utility does not receive substantial subsidies, higher level of non-fare revenue will also imply lower fares.

a) Revenue collections per annum from non-fare related sources (i.e. sources

Rs. This should be the aggregate of non-fare related sources from all service providers engaged in public transport services, as

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excluding tariff box collections)

defined above. This will include both government and private service providers.

b) Total revenue per annum from all sources

Rs. This should be the aggregate of revenue sources from all service providers engaged in public transport services, as defined above. This will include both government and private service providers.

c) Extent of non-fare revenue % Calculate = [ a / b ]*100. Compute LoS as mentioned in indicator 1 i.e. Extent of Non fare Revenue (%)

2. Staff per bus ratio a) Calculate the total staff of bus

operation and maintenance No. Total staff includes number of drivers,

conductors and supporting staff / officials for operations and maintenance.

b) Calculate the total number of buses

No. Calculate the total number of buses in a city (only public operator)

c) Staff per bus ratio Ratio Calculate= [ a / b]. Compute LoS as mentioned in indicator 2 i.e. Staff /bus ratio

3. Operating Ratio a) Calculate cost / bus Rs Cost includes Depreciation cost,

Operation & Maintenance Cost, Manpower cost etc.

b) Calculate earning /bus Rs Total revenue generated from all sources such as Fare revenue and non fare revenue.

c) Operating Ratio Ratio Calculate= [ a / b ] and compute LoS as mentioned in indicator 3 i.e. Operating Ratio

The Overall LoS for Financial Sustainability of Public Transport city wide The calculated Level of Service LoS = (LoS1 + LoS2 + LoS3) and identify overall LoS as mentioned below Overall LoS

Calculated LoS

Comments

1 < = 4 The public transport of a city is financial sustainable. 2 5 - 7 The public transport of a city is financial sustainable but needs

some improvements 3 8- 9 The public transport of a city is financial sustainable but needs

considerable improvements 4 10 - 12 The public transport of a city is not financial sustainable.

Reliability of measurement Reliability Scale Description of method Lowest level of reliability (D)

Based on some information collated from secondary sources.

Intermediate level ( C ) Only information collected from city authorities / different agencies without any checks.

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Intermediate level (B) Only surveys are undertaken Highest/preferred level of reliability (A)

All the data for above mentioned performance parameters is collected / measured as mentioned above. Field observers should be properly trained, data formats provided, and observations be properly tabulated. Population data should be from Census records. Actual surveys are undertaken which are either carried out by or verified by the independent agencies.

Section 2: Performance Report Card

Performance Report Card

The minimum frequency of computation of the performance indicators is annually and the geographic jurisdiction for which it should be measured is municipal limits or planning boundary. On the basis of the above framework, ULBs should prepare Performance Report Cards, which would form the basis for reporting and monitoring performance. The Report Cards should necessarily contain the following information:

� Municipal Areas / Development Authority � The time period for which performance is being reported � Current baseline and actual accomplishment of performance as time passes � Targeted performance levels for subsequent time periods (annually). � The Measure of reliability of the systems, on the basis of which the indicator has

been measured (viz. either A or B or C or D) � Brief plan of action for achieving the targeted performance level for each of the

forthcoming time periods.

Illustrative Performance Report Card Submitted to State / Central Govt.

Demographic details

� Population: � Population density:

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Modal Share

� Public Transport � Intermediate Public Transport (IPT) � Private vehicles

Total area in sq km:

Reporting Frequency: Annual

Time Period: FYI 09-10

Reporting Jurisdiction: Limits of Municipal Boundar y / Planning Boundary

Sl. No.

Service level Benchmark LoS Actually achieved

LoS Targeted for next year

Action Plan to achieve the target

1 Public Transport facilities 2 Pedestrian Infrastructure facilities 3 Non Motorized Transport

(NMT)facilities

4 Level of usage of Integrated Transport System (ITS) facilities

5 Travel speed (Motorized and Mass Transit) along major corridors

6 Road Safety 7 Pollution levels 8 Availability of Parking Spaces 9 Integrated Land Use Transport System 10 Financial Sustainability of Public

Transport

Basic Road Geometry http://www.nbmcw.com/articles/roads/18261-the-geometric-design-of-

roads-and-highways.html

Introduction

Basic design controls serve as the foundation for establishing the physical form, safety, and functionality of the transportation facility. Some design controls are inherent characteristics of the facility (e.g., its physical context and the existing transportation demands placed upon it). Other basic design controls are selected or determined by the designer, working with communities and users to address a project’s purpose and need.

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Selecting appropriate values or characteristics for these basic design controls is essential to achieve a safe, effective, and context sensitive design. Road having following element and their influence on the physical characteristics of a roadway or other transportation facility are:

a. Roadway Context b. Roadway Users c. Transportation Demand d. Measures of Effectiveness e. Speed f. Sight Distance

Roadway Context

The context of a roadway is a critical factor to consider in developing a project’s purpose and need, making fundamental design decisions such as cross-section determination, and selecting detailed design elements such as street light fixtures or other construction materials. Development of a roadway design that is sensitive to, and respectful of the surrounding context is important for project success. Historically, the highway design process has focused on a project’s transportation element, particularly those associated with motor vehicle travel. A context-sensitive design should begin with analysis of the contextual elements, such as environmental and community resources, of the area through which a roadway passes. The concept of area types has been developed to help the designer understand the users, constraints, and opportunities that may be encountered in different settings. Once the designer has an understanding of the area surrounding the road and the road’s users, the designer should consider the transportation elements of the roadway, its function within the regional transportation system, and the appropriate level of access control. Thus, three main elements of context considered in design are:

a) Area Type – The surrounding built and natural environment b) Roadway Type – The role the roadway plays in terms of providing regional

connectivity and local access c) Access Control – The degree of connection or separation between the roadway and

the surrounding land use.

Area Types The context of a roadway begins with its environmental context, which includes nearby natural resources, terrain, and the manmade environment (development patterns, historic, cultural, and recreational assets). The environmental context can be a determinant of the desired type of accommodation for different users. This context often establishes the physical constraints of the roadway alignment and cross-section, and influences the selection of motor vehicle design speed. A roadway frequently traverses a variety of changing environs. Additionally, the volume and character of pedestrian, bicycle, public transit, and motor vehicle activity can change considerably along its route. Land use is the fundamental

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determinant in the function of a road; as land use changes along a road, the road's functions also change. Roadway must be designed in a manner that serves the existing land use while supporting the community's future land use goals.

Roadway Types The transportation network is composed of several types of roadways that provide different functions, traditionally referred to as an its functional class. The primary of some roads is to facilitate movement of vehicles (bicycles, cars, trucks, buses and light rail) between cities and towns. The primary purpose of other roads is to provide access to the adjoining land. Most roads provide a combination of these purposes. The roadway type should be selected to reflect the actual role that the roadway plays in the transportation system, as defined through the project development process. A typical trip will often entail travelling along a variety of roadway types, each of which provides a different degree of local access and a different degree of regional connectivity.

Access Control Access control is a term used to define how access to adjacent properties is regulated and designed along a roadway. Access control is among the most useful tools available to maintain safe and efficient roadway operations for all users. Judicious use of medium treatments, driveway permits, and safe driveway geometry can improve roadway safety and enhance the operation of the road without undue burden on accessing boarding property. The degree of access control is influenced by the roadway type and area type. For example, access controls are usually more stringent on arterials than on collectors and local roads, reflecting the mobility and land access functions of these roadways. Likewise, access controls are often given more consideration in developing areas where there is flexibility for future land use to conform to an access management plan than in developed areas where the pattern of land use has been established. However, the designer should consider existing access points along a roadway and the possibility for changes that are consistent with the project’s purpose and need. For example, it may be possible to relocate, redesign, or consolidate driveway along an existing roadway. A thorough understanding of access control will help the designer select an appropriate design speed, planning parameters, and desired level-of-service for the facility’s users. Access control is exercised by statute, zoning, right-of-way purchases, driveway controls, turning and parking regulations, geometric design (e.g., raised medians, grade separations, and frontage roads), and right-of-way, permitting frequently administered by PWD.

Roadway Users

A fundamental expectation in roadway design is that all users will be accommodated safely. Virtually all roadways serve a variety of users including pedestrians, cyclists, motor vehicle drivers and passengers. In a few cases, such as expressways, roadways serve almost extensively motor vehicle traffic. Early in the process, the designer needs to determine the

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composition of users anticipated for the facility. Appropriately accounting for all user characteristics is essential to obtain a safe and efficient roadway. Experience demonstrates that when human and vehicular factors are properly accommodated, the safety and effectiveness of the highway or road system is greatly enhanced. Consideration of roadway users’ characteristic and selection of appropriate accommodation can also influence the roadway’s effectiveness for businesses and residential users, the economic health of the region, the physical health of the population, and the quality of the built and natural environment. The characteristics of these varied roadway users are important controls that influences the physical design of a roadway, as described in the following sections.

The Cyclist

Safe, convenient and well-designed facilities are essential to encourage use of bicycle. Roads designed to accommodate cyclists with moderate skills will meet the needs of most riders. Young children are primarily the cyclists who may require special consideration, particularly on neighborhood streets, in recreational areas, and close to schools. When bicycles are used on public streets and roads, cyclists are subject to the same traffic rules as motor vehicle operation.

Transportation Demand

Transportation demands – volume, composition, and patterns – are important design controls. The greater the demand for a facility, the more important are its operation and safety characteristics. The designer must have a good understanding of existing and anticipated demands by pedestrians, cyclists, and drivers. Community planning goals, the selected design year, and performance measures for a project are key determinants of how the design achieves the project’s purpose and need.

Design Year

Projects are designed to accommodate travel demands likely to occur within the life of the facility under reasonable maintenance. This involves projecting future conditions for a selected planning horizon year. Projections of future demand for major transportation investments are usually made for the 20 to 30 year range. For large projects, the designer should usually select 20 years from the expected facility completion date as the design year. This is a reasonable compromise between a facility's useful life, the uncertainties of long-range projections, and the consequences of inaccurate projections. For smaller, less capital intensive projects, a 5 to 10 year planning horizon is generally used. Forecasts of future activity levels should reflect community and regional plans, community setting, and the project’s purpose and need. Based on these considerations, a future conditions forecast represents a technical analysis and policy consensus on the type and developed intensity of land use, future regional economic activity, presence of transit service, the needs of pedestrian and cyclists, and many other factor. Forecasts of future activity levels should include estimates of pedestrian and bicycles activities. Particular care must be takien when forecasting pedestrian and bicycles volumes. Most of the times, there is latent demand above

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observed pedestrian and bicycle volumes because pedestrian and bicycle facilities do not yet exist in the project area, are substandard, or do not provide complete connectivity to attractions. It is important to evaluate future land development, including any potential attractors such as transit stops, schools, parks and retail uses that may be located near moderate and high-density residential development. Planners and designers need to determine the appropriate estimates of activity level design. For the typical project undertaken within a community, such as an intersection improvement or a corridor access management project, the forecast is based on existing conditions. First, traffic counts (including pedestrian and bicycle trips) are conducted to determine when the peak hour(s) of traffic occurs. Second, seasonal adjustment is made, if necessary, to ensure the count data are representative of at least average annual conditions. Lastly, future conditions are estimated by adding or subtracting from the existing traffic volumes to account for known development and transportation projects, and an annualized factor is generally applied to account for potential area wide growth or decline. Regional travel demand models are often used in planning larger transportation projects. Although the typical process for forecasting traffic volumes assumes that traffic will increase over time, there are situations where traffic volumes may decline or remain relatively constant over time. It is important that traffic forecasts for a roadway design project reflect likely conditions over the project's life and are not selected arbitrarily.

Volume and Composition of Demand

The composition of transportation demand is an important element in the design of roadways. The designer should develop a realistic design scenario including the volume and mix of activity for all modes as described below.

Pedestrian Demands

Pedestrian counts should be completed to determine pedestrian flows and patterns. The pedestrian counts should include sidewalk demands, crossing demands, and storage demands at corners, traffic islands, and median (total number of pedestrians waiting to cross the street). In addition to relying on counts of pedestrians, the designer should also evaluate the project area to determine if there is latent demand for pedestrian accommodation due to an uncomfortable existing walking environment, missing links in the pedestrian network, or expected changes in development patterns. The likelihood of latent demand can be assessed by looking at surrounding land uses and their propensity to generate pedestrian activity. One can also look for conditions like pathways worn along the roadside to determine if pedestrian connectivity is underserved. It may be important to complete pedestrian counts for other times of the day (beyond the typical morning and evening peak hours) and/or on weekends, depending on the project area. For example, if a project area is heavily influenced by a school, it is important to observe pedestrian flows during morning and mid-afternoon periods. Public assembly facilities and transit stops or stations also merit special consideration because they can produce high volumes of pedestrians over short durations. To determine the appropriate locations for pedestrian counts (including project area intersections), it is

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important to review current pedestrian routes between activity centers. Informal paths or crossing locations may warrant supplemental pedestrian observations during project planning.

Bicycle Demands

Bicycle demands should be counted during peak hour's concurrent with vehicle turning movement counts. As the pedestrian activity, the designer should also evaluate the project area to determine if there is potential latent demand for bicycles accommodation. Additional consideration of bicycle demands during other periods of the day and/or on weekdays may warrant supplemental counts.

Motor Vehicle Traffic Volumes

Daily, peak hour, and patterns of motor vehicle traffic are needed as input to the planning and design of roadway facilities. Some key definitions of traffic volume measures are listed here:

� Average Annual Daily Traffic (AADT): The total yearly volume of automobiles and trucks divided by the number of days in a year.

� Average Daily Traffic (ADT): The calculation of average traffic volumes in a time period greater than one day and less than one year. (ADT is often incorrectly used interchangeably with AADT.)

� Peak-Hour Traffic (PH): The highest number of vehicles passing over a section of highway during 60 consecutive minutes. T (PH) is the PH for truck traffic only.

� Peak-Hour Factor (PHF): A ratio of the total volume occurring during the peak hour to the maximum rate of flow during a given time period within the peak hour (typically is 15 minutes).

� Design Hourly Volume (DHV): the one-hour volume in the design year selected for determining the highway design. (In Many cases, designers look at the typical worst case weekday morning or evening peak or the 30th highest hour of the year to assess the geometric requirements of their design.)

Manual turning movement counts (TMCs), including heavy vehicle movements, at intersections, and automobile traffic recorder/vehicle classification counts (ATRs) along roadway are generally needed for planning and design of transportation projects and can be used to provide estimates of the values listed above. These counts should also include pedestrian and bicycle activity, where present. Pedestrian and bicycle counts should be performed in fair weather.

Design Volumes and Traffic Composition

The design hourly (DHV), or daily peak hours, will affect many design elements including the desired number of travel lanes, lane and shoulder width, and intersection layout. The design volume may also influence the level of service provided and the accommodation

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appropriate for pedestrians and cyclists. Daily traffic estimates are also useful in making design decisions related to the total user benefit of a proposed improvement. For example, the benefit of highway safety roadside improvements is directly related to the crash exposure (expressed in ADT) on the road. Sometimes selection of the design hour entails judgement regarding the conversion of daily traffic to peak hour traffic volumes. Other times, when data from continuous traffic count stations are used, the design hourly volume is based on the peaking characteristics of the facility over an entire year. For rural areas, the DHV is typically based on the 30th or 50th highest hour. In urban areas, the DHV typically represents the 100th highest hour. In some circumstances, a lesser design hour is appropriate. These design hour volumes are usually selected since they capture operating conditions expected to occur on a regular basis and have been shown to have dependable statistical relationship to measured ADT on a roadway. The choice of the design hour volume has a significant impact on the characteristics of a project. Designers should ensure that the design volume is selected such as the facility is well-matched to the traffic volumes it will carry on a regular basis and is not “over-designed”. For example, accommodating a high volume expected to occur infrequently will result in a project that is costly and has significant adverse impacts. Likewise, accommodating a lower design volume that is frequently exceeded may result in significant congestion and not meet the level-of-service expectations for various users. Large or heavy vehicles, such as trucks and buses, have different operating characteristics from passenger cars and bicycles and can affect traffic operations. Therefore, the number of trucks and buses expected to use a facility needs to be estimated for both the daily and peak hour conditions, in planning and design. For highway capacity purposes, “heavy vehicle’ are typically defined as all buses, single-unit trucks, and truck combinations other than light delivery trucks. (Light delivery trucks two axles with four tires). In addition, the impact of transit operations (such as buses making stops along a roadway) must be considered in operational analysis of the roadway.

Measures of Effectiveness

Through the project development process and with public input, the designer should evaluate the project (and its alternatives, if applicable) using several measures of effectiveness. Suggested measures of effectiveness and analysis techniques for consideration during project planning and design are described below. Many of these measures of effectiveness are included in the transportation evaluation criteria used by transportation agencies for project evaluation and prioritization. The following sections discuss transportation or contextual of effectiveness.

Condition of Facilities

National or state transportation policy places an emphasis on improving the condition of existing facilities. Projects on existing facilities should return a facility to a state of good repair by addressing existing structural, pavement surface, or other deficiencies. Techniques such as pavement testing and bridge inspections can be used to identify existing deficiencies.

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Safety

The safety of transportation facilities is a primary concern in planning and design. Some projects are specifically proposed to address known safety problems; however, all projects should result in a facility that safely accommodates its users. Corridor safety audits and analysis of crash records can be useful for identifying existing safety hazards. Project design elements should be selected based on their historic safety performance and expected operating characteristics.

Mode Choice

Many projects result in improved accommodation for particular modes. The effectiveness of these projects can be measured by the degree to which they allow users to choose the mode best-suited to their trip purpose and personal values within the broader framework of the community, the region, and the environment.

Speed

Speed is an important factor considered by travellers in selecting a transportation mode or route. Speed can also influence the physical characteristics of the transportation infrastructure. Many design elements such as horizontal and vertical curvature and super elevation are directly related to speed. Other features, such as lane and shoulder width, and the width of the roadside recovery clear zones for errant vehicles, can vary with, but are not a direct function of the design speed. The objective in the planning and design of a roadway is to determine a speed that is appropriate for the context results in a safe facility for all users, is consistent with the community’s goals and objectives for the facility, and meets user’s expectations. Once an appropriate speed is selected, the designer needs to tailor design elements to that speed. Speed is defined as the distance travelled by an object in a certain period of time. Speed is commonly expressed in km/h in the context of transportation planning and design. Several measures and characteristics of speed are important to understand when designing a roadway, as described in the following sections. These measures are most often used to describe motor vehicle operations, although they are also applicable to pedestrian and bicycle movement.

Motor Vehicle Operating Speed

Operating speed is the measured speed at which drivers are observed operating their vehicles in fair weather during off-peak hours. Operating speed is measured at discrete points along a roadway. Operating speeds are usually reported using percentile speeds with the 50th percentile (average) and 85th percentile (the speed at which 85 percent of vehicles are travelling at or below) speeds are often used to characterize the operating speed on a roadway. The roadway’s features such as curves and topography, width, access to adjacent properties, presence of pedestrians and cyclists, parking, traffic control devices, lighting, etc., affect the operating speed. During peak periods, when traffic congestion or intersection operations are controlling movement along a corridor, observed operating speeds may be substantially lower

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than the operating speed measured during off-peak conditions when the roadway’s design and context are controlling speed. Numerous studies have indicated that drivers will not significantly alter what they consider to be a safe operating speed, regardless of the posted speed limit unless there is constant heavy enforcement.

Target Speed for Motor Vehicles

The target speed is the desired operating speed along a roadway. The appropriate target speed is determined early in the project development process, and should consider:

a. The context of the roadway including area type, roadway type, and access control; b. The volume, mix, and safety of facility users; and c. The anticipated driver characteristics and familiarity with the route.

The designer should balance the benefits of high speed for long distance, regional motor vehicle travel with environmental, impact community, right of way, and cost constraints. When high speeds are selected, the designer should also include design elements to maintain the safety of pedestrians and cyclists.

Selecting Motor Vehicles Design Speed

Design speed is the selected speed used to determine various geometric features of the roadway. The design speed should be a logical one with respect to the target speed and existing operating speed. When selecting a design speed, understanding the existing operating speed and target speed addresses: (1) the need to meet the expectations of drivers based on the roadway environment, and (2) the ways in which the setting influences the desired speed. It is important to understand the inter-relationship between speed and roadway geometry. Selection of a design speed influences the physical geometrics of the roadway. Similarly, the physical geometrics of the roadway are important determinates of the operating speed that will result on the facility. The relatively wide range of design speed recognizes the range of roadway types, context, and topography. The provision of a range in design speeds combined with general guidance on selection of a design speed represents perhaps the greatest flexibility afforded by the designer. Designers should exercise judgement in the selection of an appropriate design speed for particular circumstances and conditions. In general, an appropriate design speed should be within approximately 5km/h of travel speed. When determining the appropriate design speed the designer should also consider the volumes and composition of the expected non-vehicular and vehicular traffic, the anticipated driver characteristics, and driver familiarity with the route. The designer should also consider expected operations throughout the day, including both peak and non-peak hours. Indeed, no-peak traffic flow will generally control the selection of a reasonable design speed. The design speed may vary from any given route as it traverses rural, suburban, and urban areas. Once these factors have been evaluated and an appropriate design speed is determined, the geometric elements should be designed consistently to the level. The designer should document the factors leading to the selection of an appropriate design speed. This documentation is important for selected design speed below the existing posted speed limit,

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below the “reasonable and proper” speed for the type of roadway and area or below the measured operating speed. Where it is not possible to meet the selected design speed for one location or design element along a corridor, a design exception and appropriate warning signage may be justified. Higher design speeds impose greater challenges and constraints on designers. Designers faced with difficult or constrained conditions may consider selecting a lower design speed for an element or portion of the highway. This practice can cause problems such as a large number of drivers may not “behave” as the designer desires or intends them to. Designs based on artificially low speed can result in inappropriate geometric features that violate driver expectations and degrade the safety of the highway. The emphasis should be on the consistency of design so as not to surprise the motorist with unexpected features. Therefore, the design speed should only be based on the speed limit if the speed limit is consistent with existing operating speed or physical constraints of the built environment. Designers should not propose an alternative design speed for a highway or segment of a project as design exception. A serious fundamental problem with accepting or allowing a design exception for design speed is based on its important relative to all features of the highway. A reduction in the design may be unlikely to affect overall operating speed. It will potentially result in the unnecessary reduction of all the speed-related design criteria rather than just the one or two features that led to the need for the exception. The acceptable alternative approach to a design speed exception is to evaluate each geometric feature individually, addressing exceptions for each feature within the context of the appropriate design speed. Occasionally, projects retain geometric elements, such as tight curves, super elevation, or restricted sight distances that are designed for a speed lower than the design speed for the corridor. This may be due to adjacent land use, or to environmental or historic constraints. In these cases, the designer should recommend a posted speed consistent. In these cases, the designer should recommend a posted speed consistent with the geometric features. Where it is desirable to maintain a higher consistent speed throughout a corridor, the designer should install appropriate cautionary signing at locations with design elements that do not meet the criteria for the posted speed.

Design Speed and Traffic Calming `The term traffic-calming refers to a variety of physical measures to reduce vehicular speed primarily in residential neighborhoods. The lowering of operating speed is often the appropriate solution to addressing safety problems. Such problems typically involve vehicle conflicts with pedestrians, cyclists, and school children. Research has shown that measurable reductions in operating speed are possible through traffic-calming. A local road or street, and in some instances other roadways that function as a local road or street, may have an existing operating speed far in excess of the speed limit or the target speed. In these cases it may be acceptable, and consistent with good engineering practice, to develop a design that will lower the operating speed.

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Generally, the design speed selected for traffic calming elements should be consistent

with the target speed for the corridor as a whole. The traffic calming elements should not result in operating speed substantially lower than the target speed at certain points along the corridor and higher speed elsewhere. Selection of a reasonable design speed for traffic calming elements, selection of type of elements, and the spacing of traffic calming elements can help achieve the desired uniform reduction in operating speed along a roadway. Great care must be taken to ensure that the proposed design will actually reduce the operating speed to levels consistent with the design. The burden is on the individual designer of a traffic-calming feature to document a reasonable expectation that the proposed measures will reduce the operating speed. Once traffic calming has been implemented, monitoring of the performance of the project should be undertaken to assure that speed has indeed been reduced, and to provide valuable lessons for future traffic-calming.

Sight Distance

Sight distance is the length of roadway ahead that is visible to the roadway user. In most cases, specific sight distance measures apply to motor vehicles and cyclists. The following aspects are commonly discussed for motor vehicle sight distance:

a. Stopping sight distance b. Passing sight distance and c. Decision sight distance

Stopping Sight Distance

The provision of adequate stopping sight distance (SSD) is a critical sight distance consideration for design and is described in the more detail below.

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Motor Vehicle Stopping Sight Distance

Stopping sight distance is the distance necessary for a vehicle travelling at the design speed to stop before reaching a stationary object in its path. The sight distance at every point along a roadway should be at least the stopping sight distance. The motor vehicle stopping sight distance is given in Table 1.

Passing Sight Distance

For two-lane highways, passing manoeuvers in which faster vehicles move ahead of slower vehicle must be accomplished on lanes regularly used by opposing traffic. If passing is to be accomplished safely, passing sight distance is necessary to allow the passing driver to see a sufficient distance ahead, clear of traffic, to complete the passing manoeuvers without cutting off the passed vehicle and before meeting an opposing vehicle that appears during the manoeuver.

Decision Sight Distance

Decision sight distance adds a dimension of time to stopping sight distance to allow a driver to detect and react to an unexpected condition along a roadway. Decision sight distance is suggested when there is evidence that it would be prudent to provide longer sight distance, such as when complex decisions are needed or when information is difficult to perceive. It is the distance needed for a driver to detect an unexpected or otherwise difficult-to-perceive information source or condition in a roadway environment that may be visually cluttered, recognize the condition or its potential threat, select an appropriate speed and path, and initiate and complete and manoeuvre safely and efficiently.

Conclusion

In geometric design of roads and highways the basic design controls serve as the foundation for estab- lishing the physical form, safety, and functionality of the transportation facility. Some design controls are inherent characteristics of the facility. Other basic design controls are selected or determined by the designer, working with communities and users to address a project’s purpose and need. Selecting appropriate values or characteristics for these basic design controls is essential to achieve, safe, efficient, cost effect, sustainable and context sensitive design.

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Public Private Partnerships (PPP) in Urban Transport

This Section describes the basic understanding of public-private partnerships (PPP) in infrastructure with a focus on:

� The characteristics that make PPPs different from conventional public sector projects;

� Models in public-private partnerships; and � The basic structure of a PPP model.

The Characteristics That Make PPPs Different

What is public-private partnership in Urban Transport projects?

Governments in most developing countries face the challenge to meet the growing demand for new and better urban transport and infrastructure services. As available funding from the traditional sources and capacity in the public sector to implement many projects at one time remain limited, governments have found that partnership with the private sector is an attractive alternative to increase and improve the supply of infrastructure services.

The partners in a PPP, usually through a legally binding contract or some other mechanism, agree to share responsibilities related to implementation and/or operation and management of a urban transport project. This collaboration or partnership is built on the expertise of each partner that meets clearly defined public needs through the appropriate allocation of:

� Resources � Risks � Responsibilities, and � Rewards

It is important to emphasize here that a PPP is not a solution option to a urban transport & infrastructure service problem but it is a viable project implementation mechanism for a preferred solution option.

What advantages PPPs may provide?

Governments worldwide have increasingly turned to the private sector to provide infrastructure services in transport, energy and power, communication and water sectors that were once delivered by the public sector. There are several reasons for the growing collaboration with the private sector in developing and providing infrastructure services, which include:

� Increased efficiency in project delivery, and operation and management � Availability of additional resources to meet the growing needs of investment in the

sector and

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� Access to advanced technology (both hardware and software).

Properly executed planning and development of a project also allows better screening of options, and helps in deciding appropriate project structure and choice of technology considering cost over the whole life cycle of the project.

Should lack of government budget be the main factor in considering a PPP?

Often, lack of government funding has been the main reason for considering a PPP option for a project. However, lack of government funding may not be the main reason for deciding a PPP option for the implementation of a urban transport project. There are additional costs for PPP projects – usually the cost of borrowing money is higher for the private sector than for the public sector and there are administrative costs for the management of PPP contractual regimes. Transaction costs of PPP projects can also be substantial. PPP projects may also impose many explicit and implicit liabilities on the government.

An urban transport project may not be considered for being implemented as a PPP project unless efficiency gains from improved project delivery, operation and management, and access to advanced technology can offset the above-mentioned additional costs. In fact, many countries have established value for money as the main criterion in judging the merits of a PPP option for a project.

PPPs have become attractive to governments as an off-budget mechanism for infrastructure development as:

� They can enhance the supply of much-needed urban transport infrastructure services. � They may not require any immediate cash spending. � They provide relief from the burden of the costs of design and construction. � They allow transfer of many project risks to the private sector. � They promise better project design, choice of technology, construction, operation and

service delivery.

How a PPP project is different from a conventional project?

There are significant differences between a conventional construction procurement project and a PPP project that need to be clearly understood. The main differences include:

� PPP projects are different from conventional construction projects in terms of project development, implementation, and management. The administrative and approval processes in the case of PPP projects are also different.

� A PPP project is viable essentially when a robust business model can be developed.

� The focus of a PPP project should not be on delivering a particular class/type of assets but on delivering specified services at defined quantity and levels.

� The risk allocation between the partners is at the heart of any PPP contract design and is more complex than that of a conventional construction project. Both partners should

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clearly understand the various risks involved and agree to an allocation of risks between them.

� A PPP contract generally has a much longer tenure than a construction contract. Managing the relationship between the private company and the implementing agency over the contract tenure is vital for the success of a PPP project.

Are there any limitations of PPPs?

There are many important economic, social, political, legal, and administrative aspects, which need to be carefully assessed before approvals of PPPs are considered by the government. PPPs have various limitations which should also be taken into account while they are being considered. The major limitations include:

� Not all projects are feasible (for various reasons: political, legal, commercial viability, etc.).

� The private sector may not take interest in a project due to perceived high risks or may lack technical, financial or managerial capacity to implement the project.

� A PPP project may be more costly unless additional costs (due to higher transaction and financing costs) can be off-set through efficiency gains.

� Change in operation and management control of an infrastructure asset through a PPP may not be sufficient to improve its economic performance unless other necessary conditions are met. These conditions may include appropriate sector and market reform, and change in operational and management practices of infrastructure operation.

� Often, the success of PPPs depends on regulatory efficiency.

Important Characteristics of PPP Projects

� Promise of better project structure and design.

� Allows better screening of projects. A bad project is a bad project no matter whether it is implemented by the public or the private sector.

� Better choice of technology based on life-cycle costing.

� Better service delivery, especially if performance based payment is considered.

� Better chances of completion on time and within the budget.

Risk of default. Project risks can easily turn into government risks.

Various liabilities on government (direct and indirect). A long-term contract management system needs to be in place.

An administrative mechanism and special skills in the government are required to develop and implement PPP projects.

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There can be underlying fiscal costs and contingent liabilities of PPPs on the government that may arise in the medium- and -long-term. These underlying fiscal costs and contingent liabilities on the government should be given due consideration when a PPP project is considered.

Models of PPP

A wide spectrum of PPP models has emerged. These models vary mainly by:

� Ownership of capital assets; � Responsibility for investment; � Assumption of risks; and � Duration of contract.

The PPP models can be classified into five broad categories in order of generally (but not always) increased involvement and assumption of risks by the private sector. The five broad categories are:

� Supply and management contracts � Turnkey contracts � Afterimage/Lease � Concessions � Private Finance Initiative (PFI) and Private ownership.

The basic features of these five categories of PPP models are shown in below Figure

Each of these five categories has many variants. A categorization of the PPP/PSP models together with their main characteristics is shown in below Table. While the spectrum

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of models shown in the table are possible as individual options, combinations are also possible such as, a lease or (partial) privatization contract for existing facilities which incorporates provisions for expansion through Build-Operate Transfer. In fact, many PPP projects of recent times are of combination type.

Broad

Category

Main Variants

Ownership of Capital

Assets

Responsibility of Investment

Assumption of Risks

Duration of Contracts (Years)

Supply & Management

Contract

Outsourcing Public Public

Public 1-3

Maintenance Management

Public

Public/ Private

Public/ Private

3-5

Operational Management

Public

Public

Public 3-5

Turnkey

Public

Public

Private/Public 1-3

Affermage / Lease

Affermage

Public

Public

Private/Public 5-20

Lease*

Public Public Private/Public 5-20

Concessions

Affermage

Public / Private

Public / Private

Public / Private

3-10

BOT**

Public / Private

Public / Private

Public / Private

15-33

Private ownership of

assets and PFI type

BOO/DBFO

Private

Private

Private

Indefinite

PFI***

Private / Public

Private

Private / Public

10-20

Divestiture Private

Private Private

Indefinite

* Build-Lease-Transfer (BLT) is a variant.

** Build-Operate-Transfer (BOT) has many other variants such as Build-Transfer-Operate (BTO), Build-OwnOperate-Transfer (BOOT) and Build-Rehabilitate-Operate-Transfer (BROT).

*** The Private Finance Initiative (PFI) model has many other names. In some cases, asset ownership may be transferred to, or retained by the public sector.

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PPP Models supported by Government of India

User-Fee Based BOT models - Medium to large scale PPPs have been awarded mainly in the energy and transport sub-sectors (roads, ports and airports). Although there are variations in approaches, over the years the PPP model has been veering towards competitively bid concessions where costs are recovered mainly through user charges (in some cases partly through VGF from the government).

Annuity Based BOT models – In sectors/projects not amenable for sizeable cost recovery through user charges, owing to socio-political-affordability considerations, such as in rural, urban, health and education sectors, the government harnesses private sector efficiencies through contracts based on availability/performance payments. Implementing “annuity model” will require necessary framework conditions, such as payment guarantee mechanism by means of making available multi-year budgetary support, a dedicated fund, letter of credit etc. Government may consider setting-up a separate window of assistance for encouraging annuity-based PPP projects. A variant of this approach could be to make a larger upfront payment (say 40% of project cost) during the construction period.

Performance Based Management/ Maintenance contracts – In an environment of constrained economic resources, PPP that improves efficiency will be all the more relevant. PPP models such as performance based management/maintenance contracts are encouraged. Sectors amenable for such models include water supply, sanitation, solid waste management, road maintenance etc.

Modified Design-Build (Turnkey) Contracts: In traditional Design-Build (DB) contract, private contractor is engaged for a fixed-fee payment on completion. The primary benefits of DB contracts include time and cost savings, efficient risk-sharing and improved quality. Government may consider a “Turnkey DB” approach with the payments linked to achievement of tangible intermediate construction milestones (instead of lump-sum payment on completion) and short period maintenance / repair responsibilities. Penalties/incentives for delays/early completion and performance guarantee (warranty) from private partner may also be incorporated. Subsequently, as the market sentiment turns around these projects could be offered to private sector through operation-maintenance- tolling concessions. The main features of each of the broad categories of the PPP models are discussed next.

Supply and management contracts

A management contract is a contractual arrangement for the management of a part or whole of a public enterprise (for example, a specialized Bus Rapid Transit Services in a City) by the private sector. Management contracts allow private sector skills to be brought into service design and delivery, operational control, labour management and equipment procurement. However, the public sector retains the ownership of facility and equipment. The private sector is assigned specified responsibilities concerning a service and is generally not asked to assume commercial risk.

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The private contractor is paid a fee to manage and operate services. Normally, the payment of such fees is performance-based. Usually, the contract period is short, typically three to five years. But the period may be longer for large and complex operational facilities such as a port or an airport.

The main pros and cons of this model include the following:

Pros:

� Can be implemented in a short time. � Least complex of all PPP models. � In some countries, politically and socially more acceptable for certain projects (such

as water projects and strategic projects like ports and airports).

Cons:

� Efficiency gains may be limited and little incentive for the private sector to invest. � Almost all risks are borne by the public sector. � Applicable mainly to existing infrastructure assets.

Turnkey

Turnkey is a traditional public sector procurement model for urban transport and infrastructure facilities. Generally, a private contractor is selected through a bidding process. The private contractor designs and builds a facility for a fixed fee, rate or total cost, which is one of the key criteria in selecting the winning bid. The contractor assumes risks involved in the design and construction phases. The scale of investment by the private sector is generally low and for a short-term. Typically, in this type of arrangement, there is no strong incentive for early completion of the project. This type of private sector participation is also known as Design-Build.

The main pros and cons of this model include the following:

Pros:

Well understood traditional model.

Contract agreement is not complex. Generally, contract enforcement is not a major issue.

Cons:

The private sector has no strong incentive for early completion. All risks except those in the construction and installation phases are borne by the

public sector. Low private investment for a limited period. Only limited innovation may be possible.

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Affermage/Lease

In this category of arrangement, the operator (the leaseholder) is responsible for operating and maintaining the infrastructure facility (that already exists) and services, but generally the operator is not required to make any large investment. However, often this model is applied in combination with other models such as build-rehabilitate-operate-transfer. In such a case, the contract period is generally much longer and the private sector is required to make significant investment.

The arrangements in an affermage and a lease are very similar. The difference between them is technical. Under a lease, the operator retains revenue collected from customers/users of the facility and makes a specified lease fee payment to the contracting authority. Under an affermage, the operator and the contracting authority share revenue from customers/users.

In the affermage/lease types of arrangements, the operator takes lease of both infrastructure and equipment from the government for an agreed period of time. Generally, the government undertakes the responsibility for investment and thus bears investment risks. The operational risks are transferred to the operator.

However, as part of the lease, some assets also may be transferred on a permanent basis for a period which extends over the economic life of assets. Fixed facilities and land are leased out for a longer period than for mobile assets. Land to be developed by the leaseholder is usually transferred for a period of 15-33 years.

The main pros and cons of this model include the following:

Pros:

Can be implemented in a short time. Significant private investment possible under longer term agreements.

In some countries, legally and politically more acceptable for strategic projects like

ports and airports.

Cons:

Has little incentive for the private sector to invest, particularly if the lease period is short.

Almost all risks are borne by the public sector. Generally used for existing infrastructure assets.

Considerable regulatory oversight may be required.

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Concessions

In this form of PPP, the government defines and grants specific rights to an entity (usually a private company) to build and operate a facility for a fixed period of time. The government may retain the ultimate ownership of the facility and/or right to supply the services. In concessions, payments can take place both ways: concessionaire pays to government for the concession rights and the government may pay the concessionaire, which it provides under the agreement to meet certain specific conditions. Usually, such payments by the government may be necessary to make projects commercially viable and/or reduce the level of commercial risk taken by the private sector, particularly in a developing or untested PPP market. Typical concession periods range between 5 to 33 years.

The main pros and cons of this model include the following:

Pros:

Private sector bears a significant share of the risks. High level of private investment.

Potential for efficiency gains in all phases of project development and implementation and technological innovation is high.

Cons:

Highly complex to implement and administer. Difficult to implement in an untested PPP market.

May have underlying fiscal costs to the government. Negotiation between parties and finally making a project deal may require long time.

May require close regulatory oversight. Contingent liabilities on government in the medium and long term.

In a Build-Operate-Transfer or BOT type of concession (and its other variants namely, Build-Transfer-Operate (BTO), Build-Rehabilitate-Operate-Transfer (BROT), Build-Lease-Transfer (BLT) type of arrangement), the concessionaire makes investments and operates the facility for a fixed period of time after which the ownership reverts back to the public sector. In a BOT modal, operational and investment risks can be substantially transferred to the concessionaire.

In a BOT model, the government has, however, explicit and implicit contingent liabilities that may arise due to loan guarantees and sub-ordinate loans provided, and default of a sub-sovereign government and public or private entity on nonguaranteed loans. By retaining ultimate ownership, the government controls the policy and can allocate risks to parties that are best suited to assume or remove them. BOT projects may also require direct government support to make them commercially viable.

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The concessionaire’s revenue in a BOT project comes from managing and marketing of the user facilities (for example, toll revenue in a toll road project) and renting of commercial space where possible. Concessions for BOT projects can be structured on either maximum revenue share for a fixed concession period or minimum concession period for a fixed revenue share, a combination of both, or only minimum concession period.

Private Finance Initiative (PFI)

In the private finance initiative model, the private sector remains responsible for the design, construction and operation of an infrastructure facility. In some cases, the public sector may relinquish the right of ownership of assets to the private sector. In this model, the public sector purchases infrastructure services from the private sector through a long-term agreement. PFI projects, therefore, bear direct financial obligations to the government in any event. In addition, explicit and implicit contingent liabilities may also arise due to loan guarantees provided to the lenders and default of a public or private entity on non-guaranteed loans.

A PFI project can be structured on minimum payment by the government over a fixed contract tenure, or minimum contract tenure for a fixed annual payment, or a combination of both payment and tenure.

In the PFI model, asset ownership at the end of the contract period is generally transferred to the public sector. Setting up of a Special Purpose Vehicle (SPV) may not be always necessary (see discussion on SPV in the following section). A PFI contract may be awarded to an existing company. For the purpose of financing, the lenders may, however, require the establishment of an SPV. The PFI model also has many variants.

In a PFI project, as the same entity builds and operates the services, and is paid for the successful supply of services at a pre-defined standard, the SPV /private company has no incentive to reduce the quality or quantity of services. This form of contractual agreement reduces the risks of cost overruns during the design and construction phases or of choosing an inefficient technology, since the operator’s future earnings depend on controlling the costs. The public sector’s main advantages lie in the relief from bearing the costs of design and construction, the transfer of certain risks to the private sector and the promise of better project design, construction and operation. The main pros and cons of this model are summarized below:

Pros:

Private sector may bear a significant share of the risks.

High level of private investment. Potential for efficiency gains and innovation is high.

Attractive to private investors in an untested or developing PPP market.

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Most suitable for social sector infrastructure projects (schools, dormitories, hospitals, community facilities, etc.).

Cons:

Complex to implement and manage the contractual regimes. Government has direct financial liability.

Negotiation between parties may require long time. Regulatory efficiency is very important.

Contingent liabilities on the government in the medium and long term.

Which model to select?

The answer to this question needs careful assessment of many things. Each model has its own pros and cons and can be suitable for achieving the major objectives of private-private partnership to a varying degree. Special characteristics of some sectors and their technological development, legal and regulatory regimes, and public and political perception about the services in a sector can also be important factors in deciding the suitability of a particular model of PPP.

There is no single PPP model that can satisfy all conditions concerning a project’s locational setting and its technical and financial features. The most suitable model should be selected taking into account the country’s political, legal and socio-cultural circumstances, maturity of the country’s PPP market and the financial and technical features of the projects and sectors concerned.

As an example, for a new project, a BOT type of model may be quite suitable in a matured PPP market while a PFI or BOO type of models may be more appropriate in a developing/untested market.

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Chapter: 09: Traffic Management and Technology

Traffic Management

The implementation of busways, which reserves part of the carriageway for buses only, inevitably has some impact on the free movement or available capacity of the remaining carriageway for other modes. However, at policy level, this may be considered to be the reason for the busway: to make bus operations more attractive than other modes. Whilst the total passenger throughput can be maintained or even increased through improved bus operations and there will be some benefit to mixed traffic from the removal of buses from the mixed traffic lanes, the system much depends on achieving modal diversion away from private vehicles and designing appropriate traffic management measures to ameliorate impacts.

The implementation of a busway will impact upon the transport network in terms of junction and link capacity. It is important to note that in urban and semi-urban conditions, the capacity constraints of intersections are most likely to have the greatest constraining effect. Therefore, the planning of HCBRT should include consideration of the impact on other traffic and appropriate traffic management, particularly for the design of intersections.

Impact of Busways on Carriageway Capacity

It is fundamentally important to assess whether traffic flow can operate within link capacity, so that subsequently implementing traffic management methods at intersections is a worthwhile and viable action. Ideally, the basic questions in the box below should be answered when considering impact of BRT on link capacity, though a quantified assessment can only be made through detailed network modeling. Cities, such as Bogota, Colombia, have shown that such modeling in combination with passenger forecasts can later be a crucial element in not only designing system capacity, but also attracting the private sector to absorb demand risk and make appropriate investments in the proposed system.

Questions for Assessing Impact of BRT Facilities on Other Modes

• What is the existing flow/capacity on the roads proposed for busway implementation?

• What is the loss in capacity of the carriageway remaining for non-BRT modes following busway implementation?

• Is the remaining carriageway still capable of handling existing and future private traffic?

• Is the entire corridor (all modes including BRT) capable of handling the overall trip-making demand (throughput)?

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The final question is particularly important as it relates to transport system capacity and whether or not appropriate policy-making can contribute to an efficient network, i.e. even if private trip-making is compromised, there is still the means to make the desired trip.

Carriageway capacity can be improved by applying basic traffic management techniques including parking regulations and enforcement, improving the capacity of parallel roads, regulations on vendor activity, and reducing the width of medians.

Traffic Management at Intersections

Intersections may be designed to provide priority for BRT vehicles at any cost to other traffic or to ameliorate the impact of mixed use. Proving a dedicated turning late for BRT vehicles maintains the buses within the segregated network, which may be an important consideration for the image of the system, but physical space to accommodate an additional turning lane is necessary. Providing a queue jumping facility to give buses a head start at intersections will cause delay to private modes.

In order to assess the impact of busways on intersections, an analysis of each junction within the BRT route would typically be required. Some constraint to private vehicle flow is likely to be imposed due to priority of buses at junctions. However, a BRT scheme should also aim to improve overall traffic management through the organization and rationalisation of all traffic modes. While there could be a small reduction in intersection capacity for non-bus traffic, this should be offset by improved traffic management for all traffic including methods such as improved traffic signal phasing to minimise conflicts and optimise clearance times, and physical junction channelization islands to steer vehicles into clear and direct paths through junctions.

Specifically, the impact of BRT on other vehicles at intersections can be directly ameliorated by traffic management measures, such as those listed below.

� Redistribution of other modes to routes away from bus priority routes

� Maximising capacity of carriageway near the intersection by removal of bus stops from the kerbside, closing of U-turns and rationalisation of side access roads

� Improved traffic signal phasing to minimise conflicts and rationalise clearance times

� Management of right turning traffic by various options:

o Simultaneous non-hooking right turn signal phases

o Designing P or G turns whereby right turning traffic turns left either before or after the junction, loops round and crosses the junction with traffic on the opposing phase (relies on the density of the secondary road network)

o Banning some turning movements such as right turns at the intersection

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o Allowing the BRT vehicle to turn at a smaller junction prior to the main intersection and use the secondary road network

o Physical junction channelisation islands to steer vehicles into clear and direct paths through junctions and bringing stop lines forward to reduce clearance times

o Grade separation (flyovers and underpasses that may be either dedicated to the use of BRT buses or for other traffic thereby decongesting the intersection)

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Chapter:10: Public Information Systems and Awareness Issues

Public Intelligent Transport System

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Chapter:11: Sustainability in Urban Transport

Achieving sustainable urban transport has become a primary objective with the adoption of National Urban Transport Policy (NUTP) by the Government of India (GoI). Efforts to reduce or contain environmental risks form an important component of this objective. To foster a long-term partnership between GoI and state/local governments in the implementation of a greener environment under the ambit of the NUTP, GoI has initiated the Sustainable Urban Transport Project with the support of the Global Environment Facility (GEF). The total GEF grant proposed for the project is US$ 25 million, which will be complemented with a grant of US$ 170 million from GOI, State Governments, and Implementing Agencies (IA) along with US$ 105 million co-financing from the World Bank. The project is to be implemented over a four-year period starting from 2010. Primary Stakeholders in this program are Ministry of Urban Development (MoUD), Ministry of Environment and Forest (MoEF), UNDP and World Bank. MoUD is the nodal agency for this program implementation.

The basic definition of sustainability has been expanded to include three major points (often referred as the three Es):

a) Social Equity. Relates to conditions favoring a distribution of resources among the current generation based upon comparative levels of productivity. This implies that individuals or institutions are free to pursue the ventures of their choice and reaps the rewards for the risk they take and the efforts they make. Social equity should not be confused with welfare programs (socialism) where the productive segment of the population agrees or is coerced to support a non productive segment; this is not equity but redistribution. Thus, central planning and socialism are much at odd with the concept of social equity.

b) Economic Efficiency. Concerns conditions permitting higher levels of economic efficiency in terms of resource and labor usage. It focuses on capabilities, competitiveness, flexibility in production and providing goods and services that supply a market demand. Under such circumstances, factors of production should be freely allocated and markets open to trade.

c) Environmental Responsibility. Involves a "footprint" which is lesser than the capacity of the environment to accommodate. This includes the supply of resources (food, water, energy, etc.), but also the safe disposal of numerous forms of wastes. Its core tenets include the conservation and reuse of resources.

Environmental Related Issues

Transportation activities support increasing mobility demands for passengers and freight, notably in urban areas. But transport activities have resulted in growing levels of motorization and congestion. As a result, the transportation sector is becoming increasingly

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linked to environmental problems. The most important impacts of transport on the environment relate to climate change, air quality, noise, water quality, soil quality, biodiversity and land take:

a) Climate change. The activities of the transport industry release several million tons of gases each year into the atmosphere. These include lead (Pb), carbon monoxide (CO), carbon dioxide (CO2; not a pollutant), methane (CH4), nitrogen oxides (NOx), nitrous oxide (N2O), chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), perfluorocarbons (PFCs), silicon tetraflouride (SF6), benzene and volatile components (BTX), heavy metals (zinc, chrome, copper and cadmium) and particulate matters (ash, dust). There is an ongoing debate to what extent these emissions are linked to climate change and the role of anthropogenic factors. Some of these gases, particularly nitrous oxide, also participate in depleting the stratospheric ozone (O3) layer which naturally screens the earth’s surface from ultraviolet radiation. It is also relevant to underline that climate change also has a significant impact on transportation systems, particularly infrastructure.

b) Air quality . Highway vehicles, marine engines, locomotives and aircraft are the sources of pollution in the form of gas and particulate matters emissions that affects air quality causing damage to human health. Toxic air pollutants are associated with cancer, cardiovascular, respiratory and neurological diseases. Carbon monoxide (CO) when inhale affects bloodstream, reduces the availability of oxygen and can be extremely harmful to public health. An emission of nitrogen dioxide (NO2) from transportation sources reduces lung function, affects the respiratory immune defense system and increases the risk of respiratory problems. The emissions of sulphur dioxide (SO2) and nitrogen oxides (NOx) in the atmosphere form various acidic compounds that when mixed in cloud water creates acid rain. Acid precipitation has detrimental effects on the built environment, reduces agricultural crop yields and causes forest decline. The reduction of natural visibility by smog has a number of adverse impacts on the quality of life and the attractiveness of tourist sites. Particulate emissions in the form of dust emanating from vehicle exhaust as well as from non-exhaust sources such as vehicle and road abrasion have an impact on air quality. The physical and chemical properties of particulates are associated with health risks such as respiratory problems, skin irritations, eyes inflammations, blood clotting and various types of allergies.

c) Noise. Noise represents the general effect of irregular and chaotic sounds. It is traumatizing for the hearing organ and that may affect the quality of life by its unpleasant and disturbing character. Long term exposure to noise levels above 75dB seriously hampers hearing and affects human physical and psychological wellbeing. Transport noise emanating from the movement of transport vehicles and the operations of ports, airports and railyards affects human health, through an increase in the risk of cardiovascular diseases. Increasing noise levels have a negative impact

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on the urban environment reflected in falling land values and loss of productive land uses.

d) Water quality . Transport activities have an impact on hydrological conditions. Fuel, chemical and other hazardous particulates discarded from aircraft, cars, trucks and trains or from port and airport terminal operations, such as de-icing, can contaminate rivers, lakes, wetlands and oceans. Because demand for shipping services is increasing, marine transport emissions represent the most important segment of water quality inventory of the transportation sector. The main effects of marine transport operations on water quality predominantly arise from dredging, waste, ballast waters and oil spills. Dredging is the process of deepening harbor channels by removing sediments from the bed of a body of water. Dredging is essential to create and maintain sufficient water depth for shipping operations and port accessibility. Dredging activities have a two-fold negative impact on the marine environment. They modify the hydrology by creating turbidity that can affect the marine biological diversity. The contaminated sediments and water raised by dredging require spoil disposal sites and decontamination techniques. Waste generated by the operations of vessels at sea or at ports cause serious environmental problems, since they can contain a very high level of bacteria that can be hazardous for public health as well as marine ecosystems when discharged in waters. Besides, various types of garbage containing metals and plastic are not easily biodegradable. They can persist on the sea surface for long periods of time and can be a serious impediment for maritime navigation in inland waterways and at sea and affecting as well berthing operations. Ballast waters are required to control ship’s stability and draught and to modify their center of gravity in relation to cargo carried and the variance in weight distribution. Ballast waters acquired in a region may contain invasive aquatic species that, when discharged in another region may thrive in a new marine environment and disrupt the natural marine ecosystem. There are about 100 non-indigenous species recorded in the Baltic Sea. Invasive species have resulted in major changes in nearshore ecosystems, especially in coastal lagoons and inlets. Major oil spills from oil cargo vessel accidents are one of the most serious problems of pollution from maritime transport activities.

e) Soil quality. The environmental impact of transportation on soil consists of soil erosion and soil contamination. Coastal transport facilities have significant impacts on soil erosion. Shipping activities are modifying the scale and scope of wave actions leading to serious damage in confined channels such as river banks. The removal of earth’s surface for highway construction or lessening surface grades for port and airport developments have led to important loss of fertile and productive soils. Soil contamination can occur through the use of toxic materials by the transport industry. Fuel and oil spills from motor vehicles are washed on road sides and enter the soil. Chemicals used for the preservation of railroad ties may enter into

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the soil. Hazardous materials and heavy metals have been found in areas contiguous to railroads, ports and airports.

f) Biodiversity. Transportation also influences natural vegetation. The need for construction materials and the development of land-based transportation has led to deforestation. Many transport routes have required draining land, thus reducing wetland areas and driving-out water plant species. The need to maintain road and rail right-of-way or to stabilize slope along transport facilities has resulted in restricting growth of certain plants or has produced changes in plants with the introduction of new species different from those which originally grew in the areas. Many animal species are becoming extinct as a result of changes in their natural habitats and reduction of ranges.

g) Land take. Transportation facilities have an impact on the urban landscape. The development of port and airport infrastructure is significant features of the urban and peri-urban built environment. Social and economic cohesion can be severed when new transport facilities such as elevated train and highway structures cut across an existing urban community. Arteries or transport terminals can define urban borders and produce segregation. Major transport facilities can affect the quality of urban life by creating physical barriers, increasing noise levels, generating odors, reducing urban aesthetic and affecting the built heritage.

Environmental Impact Assessment

EIA is the process of identifying and evaluating the potential impacts of the proposed projects on the environment prior to decision making. In India, it is mandatory to carry out an EIA study as an essential part of the ‚prior environmental clearance‛ process for scheduled development projects under Environmental Protection Act, 1986; as per the EIA Notification of 2006 (last amended in 2009). However, the Notification does not bring urban transport projects within its purview. There is a growing need to address this gap and mainstream environmental analysis into the process of planning and development of urban transport infrastructure by mandating EIA of large scale urban transport projects.

How to conduct EIA of urban transport projects?

Step 1: Screening and scoping

In step 1, all new as well as upgradation projects are assessed to check if they qualify for a detailed environmental impact assessment exercise. As per the EIA Notification, category A projects need a mandatory EIA study and no screening is applicable to them whereas category B projects are categorised as B1 if they require an EIA study and consequently public hearing else they are categorised as B2.

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Once the need for a detailed EIA is established, the broad scope of the study is determined by the concerned authorities in form of the Terms of Reference addressing relevant environmental concerns and issues.

Step 2: Establishing the baseline

Step 2 entails identification of the study area and the key environmental parameters to be assessed. Typically, environmental components that can be considered in EIA of urban transport projects are: Land Environment, Water Environment, Air Environment (air quality, meteorology and noise), Biological Environment, Socio-economic, Cultural and Public health environment. At the same time, data needs and sources are also identified for detailed analysis of the existing situation. Once information needs are identified, baseline environmental information may be assembled through the collection of existing data, by carrying out specific field studies, and/or input from consultations.

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Step 3: Impact Assessment

In step 3, the impacts of an urban transport project during construction and operation stages are assessed. This typically involves 1) identifying and assessing positive and negative impacts of the project on the environment, 2) an analysis of various alternative scenarios, and 3) any detailed additional studies that need to be carried out.

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Step 4: Strategies to avoid/reduce impacts

As per the EIA Notification, 2006 (as amended in 2009), any EIA exercise is followed by an Environmental Management Action Plan (EMAP) to mitigate the impacts of the project. The EMAP has to suggest an action plan which includes steps to be taken in the a) Pre-construction b) Construction and c) Operational stages of the project to prevent/minimize the adverse environmental impacts; and also propose a mechanism for monitoring the significant environmental impacts. Some generic mitigation measures to typical impacts of urban transport projects/ activities have been presented in the toolkit.

Step 5: Monitoring and Evaluation

The project proponent has to prepare an environmental monitoring plan as part of the EMAP report. This will involve identifying critical parameters to be monitored at different stages of project implementation and operation and also a program/ schedule for monitoring and follow up assessment.

Appraisal process

Once the Draft EIA report has been prepared by the project proponent, it is to be submitted to SPCB or the UTPCC in case of Union Territories, who are the nodal agencies for organizing the public consultations for the EIA studies. The project proponent has to make necessary/ required changes in the EIA report and also recommend appropriate changes in the project DPR, if any, as per the feedback received in the consultation. The Final EIA report is then submitted by the project proponent to the EAC/ SEAC.

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Greening of Urban roads –Medians, Intersections, Roadside plantation etc

(Source: http://depts.washington.edu/hhwb/Thm_SafeStreets.html)

Safe Streets

City streets are not just thoroughfares for motor vehicles; they serve as public spaces where people walk, shop, meet, and participate in activities that make urban living enjoyable. Conventional guidelines for transportation safety regard trees as roadside fixed-objects that constitute driving hazards but urban foresters, designers, and planners encourage tree planting to enhance the liveability of urban streets. This article surveys the research on roadside vegetation benefits, and the scientific evidence concerning city trees, and transportation safety.

Fast Facts

� The public judges communities having vegetation-bordered roads more positively, with ratings of visual quality for an adjoining city or town increasing as the amount of roadside vegetation increases.

� Commuting by car is a stressful experience of urban life. Drivers seeing natural roadside views show lower levels of stress and frustration compared to those viewing all-built settings.

� Transportation safety guidelines for roadsides are generally derived from studies of high speed rural roads, while recommendations for urban streets have been less rigorously derived.

� Far less than 1% of U.S. annual vehicle crashes involve a tree on an urban street. Crash prevention efforts should address high-risk conditions, such as reducing plantings at curves, rather than generalized tree removal.

� The most recent research suggests that trees may improve driving safety. One study found a 46% decrease in crash rates across urban arterial and highway sites after landscape improvements were installed. Another study found that placing trees and planters in urban arterial roadsides reduced mid-block crashes by 5% to 20%.

Quality urban forest creates a positive community

character

Trees contribute to higher public ratings of visual

quality in cities

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Green Streets in Cities

Many communities seek to better integrate the needs of pedestrians, bicyclists, mass transit, and local development objectives into the design of their local streets. Context Sensitive Solutions is a national U.S. policy intended to better incorporate local community values into transportation planning processes and products. High-quality trees and attractive landscaping are important elements in community improvement.

Community-based roadside design is about more than aesthetics! Scientific studies across more than three decades confirm the environmental, social and economic benefits of having plants and quality landscape in urban communities. Facts and findings on the favorable aspects of landscape elements in the driving environment are in the next section. Transportation officials may argue that safety is the reason for excluding vegetation in city street rights-of-way; a second section presents the latest research on the relationship between roadside vegetation and accidents.

• Quality landscape can reduce

stress due to city driving

• High speed roads with dense right-of-way vegetation are visually preferred by drivers

Roadside vegetation may

contribute to traffic calming

Roadside Vegetation and Driver Response

A number of studies have specifically tested the relationship of roadside vegetation to driver experience and assessments of community quality.

Drivers may reduce speeds as they react to the more

enclosed street edge

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Quality Communities

Early research on nature in urban environments found that trees are highly valued elements in residential areas, and that unkempt vegetation is preferred less than well maintained vegetation. Such assessments extend to perceptions of motorways. In studies drivers: 1) have more favourable perceptions of communities with green roads, 2) respond more positively as the amount of vegetation increases, 3) prefer plants that are taller, more dense, and that screen views of adjacent commercial land uses, and 4) judge forested urban highways to have higher visual quality (Figure 1). Drivers also indicate that design for ecological functions is more suitable use of the roadside than signage and other commercial communications.

Figure 1: Examples of roadside scenes and their visual quality ratings (1=low to 5=high).

Trees provide value in other road contexts. A series of studies surveyed how shoppers respond to a business district streetscape that includes a quality urban forest. Across small, medium, and large cities in the U.S. visitors to forested central business districts claim they will spend 9 to 12 percent more for products and services. In addition, based on the cues of care provided by well-maintained trees, people judge merchants in forested districts to be more responsive and knowledgeable.

Another study tested for these effects in urban strip mall settings. While noting that roadside trees can block views of shops, drivers indicated that they would be willing travel a greater distance to a mall having a quality landscape and spend up to 8.8% more for goods when there.

Large trees in medians decrease frequency of head-on

and broadside collisions

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Route Choice

Urban roadside character also affects route choice. In one example two parallel roads provided access to a nearby shopping center: one a scenic parkway and the other, a faster but no scenic expressway. Despite the parkway route taking more time and requiring more stops, study participants (local residents familiar with both routes) chose the scenic route more than half the time. Drivers reported feelings of relaxation and enjoyed the views of nature on the parkway route. The study demonstrates the positive perceptual and economic effects of naturalistic roadways and suggests one strategy for route design in transportation planning.

Stress Reduction

Providing green routes may also address some negative influences of commuting on the health of urban travellers. Commuting can be one of the most pervasive stressful experiences of urban life, and stress indicators - such as increased blood pressure - are associated with longer or more difficult commutes. Other affects have also been associated with commuting – lowered job satisfaction, higher illness and absenteeism rates, and lower performance on various cognitive tasks. Stress effects carry over as people experience negative moods at home following evening commutes.

Incorporating vegetation in roadside landscaping is one way to ease driving stress. Multiple studies confirm the restorative effects of simply viewing nature in urban settings. Exposure to vegetation produces beneficial mood changes and tension relief, and even brief amounts of time in urban parks boost feelings of calmness and energy.

Drivers viewing natural roadsides exhibit lower levels of stress and frustration compared to those viewing built settings. In one lab study, drivers were presented with a stress-causing stimulus and their reactions measured in the course of recovery. Those viewing built-up, strip-mall-style roadside environments in a simulated drive after the stressful experience showed a slower and physiologically incomplete recovery, and reported more negative feelings. Study participants seeing more natural roadside scenes (forests or golf courses) returned to normal baseline measures faster. An “immunization effect” was also detected, as initial exposure to a natural roadside setting decreased the magnitude of response to a subsequent stressful task.

The anger and frustration often associated with stressful experiences may, in turn, trigger unsafe or aggressive driving; a more pleasing landscape may offset these reactions. One study tested the relationship of green roadsides and emotional responses while driving. After being exposed to a mild stressor, college age drivers viewed one of three videotapes of highway drives that varied in the proportion of vegetation to man-made content in roadside views. Pre- and post- exposure levels of anger and frustration tolerance were obtained. After exposure to scenes depicting more vegetation, no significant effect on anger emerged, but the results showed higher frustration tolerance levels. Parkway design and roadside vegetation

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appear to have restorative effects in reducing frustration. While not tested directly, green roadsides may be a preventive factor in road rage behaviours.

Transportation officials acknowledge that city trees lend beauty to a streetscape, but some do not consider their presence along urban streets to be appropriate. Few appear to be aware of health and well-being influences; benefits research is not yet generally acknowledged within the transportation industry. Yet roadside public lands may have greater impact on public well-being than parks or open spaces, due to the frequency and duration of time spent driving.

Trees and Road Design Policy

Tree crash statistics are often weighed against purported anecdotal reports of tree benefits in transportation decision-making. Roadside trees are largely characterized as aesthetic luxuries that do not justify tree retention or planting when weighed against long-held safety objectives.

The AASHTO Green Book is the universal reference for road design in the U.S. It is often interpreted by transportation engineers as a set of standards, yet are actually general guidelines. In its opening chapters, the Green Book calls for flexibility and roadway designers are encouraged to mitigate the effects of environmental impacts using “thoughtful design processes.”

A prevailing principle in roadside design is the “clear zone,” intended to provide a “ forgiving” roadside. Green Book engineering practices allow space for a driver and vehicle leaving the roadway to safely recover control before encountering a fixed object (such as utility pole, building, or tree).

Road design guidelines set a 20 to 30 foot clear zone on the sides of major roads from which fixed objects, such as mature trees with trunks greater than 4 inches at about 4 1/2 feet above ground, are restricted.

Yet urban streets rarely offer this much clearance. Designers are urged to remove trees or install protective devices to reduce crash risk. Research has been inconclusive about whether such strategies do significantly increase driver safety.

The Green Book also acknowledges that recommendations have been “less rigorously derived” for urban settings versus high-speed roadways. The crash effects of nearby trees along high-speed, rural roadways are indisputable. County and township roads that generally have restrictive geometric designs and narrow off-road recovery areas account for a large percentage of the annual tree-related fatal crashes, followed by state and U.S. numbered highways having curved alignments.

Because most design criteria apply to high-speed and rural roads, appropriateness of their use in urban areas is debatable. Nevertheless, design engineers tend to take a

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conservative design approach to maximize safety and capacity, appealing to tradition and liability concerns.

Trees and Safety Studies

What do we know about trees, crashes, and safety on urban streets? Only a few and recent studies have investigated the effects of trees in urban transportation settings. Clear zones and other forgiving design practices have a less-than-clear relationship to safety in urban environments. There is a slowly growing body of evidence suggesting that the inclusion of trees and other streetscape features in the roadside environment may actually reduce crashes and injuries on urban roadways. Here is an overview of recent research.

Nationwide Analysis

National accident data was analyzed in a typical year to better understand the circumstances of tree crashes and to explore the difference between urban and rural accident factors. The work was limited by the fact that little data about roadside vegetation is collected in national standardized crash reports (only 2 out of 91 report fields). This data gap is unfortunate as the national database is analyzed extensively by the transportation industry to inform national infrastructure policy and upgrade roadway design guidelines.

Traffic fatalities are currently the sixth leading cause of preventable death in the U.S. In 2006, a representative year; there were more than 38,600 fatal traffic crashes in the United States, resulting in the deaths of almost 43,000 people. Of these, 45% of all fatal accidents occurred in urban environments and 55% occurred on rural roads.

Trees are fixed objects, and crash outcomes involving them can be more severe, leading to serious injury and fatality. In 1999, 8% of all fatal crashes involved trees, and 23% of those occurred on urban streets. Fatal tree crashes were most prevalent on local rural roads, followed by major rural collectors.

Relative risk should be considered, across all U.S. miles traveled. There is, in fact, an inverse relationship between driving volume and accident trends. Most driver mileage is accumulated in urban settings while most accidents occur in rural settings. Drivers in the U.S. do 62% (about 1.6 trillion miles) of their driving in urban areas, but these driving accounts for only 37% of all accidents. Rural driving accounts for 38% of all miles driven but produces 63% of all accidents. Across approximately 233 billion vehicle trips taken in the United States in 2002, trees were involved in 1.9 percent of all crashes, and most of the crashes (61%) occurred in rural areas.

Table 1 presents information on the relative risk of a tree crash on urban streets. Far less than 1% of U.S. annual motorized vehicle crashes involve a tree on an urban street. Crash and fatality counts are important to recognize as any loss of life is tragic. Yet response strategies should address high-risk roadside conditions, rather than making sweeping

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generalizations. National safety recommendations indicate that rural two-lane roads should receive much of the focus in the development of programs to reduce tree-related driver fatalities.

Table 1: National crash statistics involving trees.

Driver choices and behaviour have great influence over 1) the vehicle leaving the road, and 2) the outcome of any crash that may occur. Drunken driving is a factor in up to half of all traffic fatalities. Many crashes occur on weekends and during late evening hours, and often involve excessive speeds. Drivers travelling in excess of posted speeds are involved in about 30% of all traffic fatalities. Meanwhile, seat belt use reduces a driver’s risk of death in a crash by 42%.

Local Sites and Studies

Analyzing national data provides a coarse grain overview of accident risks and trends. Several studies have analyzed crash outcomes based on specific street and road conditions.

A study in Florida compared accident rates on a section of road having landscaping and other liveability improvements with those on nearly identical roads that did not have streetscape enhancements. Crash reports were compared for 5 years in a matched comparison of street segments.

Conventional street safety guidelines maintain that increased numbers of objects in the roadside and constrained rights-of-way will increase accident rates. Yet, a road segment with landscape improvements appeared to be safer than a road segment having broader clear zones: for mid-block crashes (11% fewer), injuries (31% fewer), and fatalities (none versus 6). Pedestrian and bicyclist injuries were likewise fewer in the improved road sections. The investigator reported, “by any meaningful safety benchmark . . . . there can be little doubt that the livable section is the safer roadway.”

A related study focused on urban arterial roadways within small metropolitan areas.

Precise measurements for widths of the roadway lane, median, shoulder, and unpaved fixed-object offset were compared across 5 years of crash data. Having wider paved shoulders increased crash rates, while wider fixed-object offsets had a mixed safety effect. The presence

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of a liveable street treatment (a blend of paving’s, outdoor furniture, trees and traffic calming devices) was associated with 67% fewer roadside crashes, 40% fewer midblock crashes, and 28% fewer reported injuries.

Looking more closely at the study results, it was found that 83% of tree and utility-pole crashes and 65% of the total crashes were located at the back edge of driveways and intersections. The majority of urban tree- and pole-related roadside crashes occurred when a driver attempted to negotiate a turn from the arterial roadway onto an intersecting driveway or side street (Figure 2). The crashes appear to be attributable to a combination of two factors: an arterial roadway

designed to accommodate high operating speeds, and the presence of driveways and lower-speed side streets intersecting the arterial. Thus, tree crashes may not be due to random error, as currently assumed, but may be the consequence of designing roads for higher traffic speeds and situations that exceed some drivers’ capacity for vehicle control.

Traffic Calming?

Other field studies have demonstrated a variety of changed behaviours and positive impacts on traffic and community safety in response to landscape enhancements.

In Germany, nine streetscape installations were assessed for relative affects on driving safety. In one case, a landscaped centre strip with narrower traffic lanes was found to be effective in calming traffic and increasing traffic safety. After being built, overall accidents were reduced by 30%, the number of accidents with injuries was cut by about 60%, and accidents involving street-crossing pedestrians were reduced by about 80%. Streets having a landscaped centre strip or median planting may alter drivers’ perception of lane width and therefore reduce driving speeds by way of a psychological effect.

Another study supports the perceptual effects of street-side trees. Using driving simulators, study participants took drives along digitally created streets: two urban and two suburban. For both urban and suburban settings one simulation contained streetscape trees and one simulation contained none. Drivers were asked to rate the roads for safety.

Both city form (urban vs. suburban) and landscaping form (presence or absence of street trees) along the roadway affected the participants’ perceptions of safety. The presence of trees had the stronger affect on safety perceptions. Suburban streets with trees were perceived as the safest, followed by urban streets with trees and then suburban streets without trees, and urban streets without trees were judged to be the least safe. Driving speed was also recorded. A significant drop in cruising speed (an average decrease of about 3 miles per hour) was detected for most drivers when trees were present on the suburban street (adequate data

Figure 2: Crash locations: high speeds reduce turn control.

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collection was not possible for the urban setting). An “edge effect” created by the presence of trees contributed to a sense of safety.

While not the central question of the studies, trees do seem to be associated with traffic calming. The link between reduced speeds and reduced accident rates is well-established. When an accident happens, there is greater likelihood of injury or fatality with higher speed - particularly if vehicle speeds are too fast for prevailing conditions.

Trees Reduce Crashes?

Perceptual response may explain the findings of other studies that focused on crash incidence. Run-off-roadway crashes were examined to determine whether crash frequencies were associated with the characteristics of the roadside. Analysis along segments of a single arterial roadway in Washington State indicated that, in rural areas, trees and other roadside features were associated with an increase in the number of roadside crashes. Results in urban areas were radically different. Not only were trees not associated with crash increases, but the presence of trees was associated with a decrease in the probability that a run-off-roadway crash would occur. Generally, wide traffic lanes and wide shoulders were positively associated with a greater frequency of run-off-roadway accidents.

Another study compared accidents before and after placement of landscape improvements on five arterial roadways in downtown Toronto, Canada. Based on 3-year pre- and post-treatment analysis, features such as trees and planters in the urban roadside (and within the clear zone) resulted in reduced numbers of mid-block crashes on all test roads. The numbers of crashes decreased 5% to 20% on studied roads, while mid-block crashes generally increased throughout the city. Did trees “cause” the reductions? The study couldn’t confirm that interpretation, but the presence of a well-defined road edge may cause drivers to be more attentive and cautious.

A study of Texas urban roads compared accident records before and after planting over 3-to-5 year time spans. Analysis showed a 46% decrease in crash rates across the 10 urban arterial and highway sites after landscape improvements were installed. The number of collisions with trees was reduced by 71%. All types of roadside treatments - roadside landscaping, median landscaping, and sidewalk widening with tree planting - positively affected vehicle safety outcomes. A marked decrease in the number of pedestrian fatalities was also noted – from 18 to 2 after landscape improvements, though the number of pedestrian incidents increased overall near median plantings. There are limitations to an after-the-fact study, yet results suggest that landscape may be an integral part of the safety management of urban roads. The science team noted that “the landscape not only contributes to greater aesthetic compatibility between the urban environment and the highway but may contribute to a safer street.”

Not all studies demonstrate the positive effect of trees in urban street safety, but, at the very least, they indicate that a blanket policy of tree exclusion on city streets is not

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necessarily warranted. A California study examined safety outcomes in the presence of large trees in curbed medians of conventional highways that are also principal streets in developed urban and suburban areas. The study modelled collision frequency and severity with highway and traffic characteristics, with and without median trees (analyzing 14,283 collisions occurring on 58 miles of state highways over 6 years). It was found that large trees in medians are associated with more collisions and increased severity, but that some associations were statistically weak. There was also decreased frequency of head-on and broadside collisions. Lower speeds and larger side clearances were not found to mitigate the increased collision impacts associated with median trees.

Other Road Elements

Other urban road features have been studied. A safety study concluded that “boulevards cannot be shown to be less safe than comparable normal streets” within selected study cities in the U.S. and Europe. While considering traffic volumes, accident rates on major urban tree-lined boulevards were reduced by up to 61% when compared to similar urban control sections without trees. Nonetheless, a Washington D.C. boulevard was found to have an equal to greater accident rate compared to multi-lane streets. While data were not as complete for similar European cities, it was found that boulevard accident rates were comparable or lower than those of control streets, and that boulevards do not reduce the volume of through traffic (though Barcelona was one exception).

The role of intersection sight lines in accident rates has also been studied. Transportation manuals recommend designing for clear sight triangles at intersections, with vegetation removal hundreds of feet down each block. The purpose is to eliminate any object above sidewalk level that would interfere with a driver’s field of vision. This engineering policy has resulted in widely used limitations on street trees near intersections but little regulation of other possible obstructing elements.

One California study tested whether or not street trees near intersections are a safety problem. Computer modelling techniques were used to vary the locations of trees, parked cars, and newspaper racks, and four different video clips were tested in driving simulations. Participant reactions indicated when moving cars became visible, and the response data was analyzed. The researchers found that street trees—if properly selected, adequately spaced, and pruned for high branching—do not create a notable visibility problem. On-street parked cars, particularly large ones such as SUVs, create substantially more of a visibility problem, and newspaper racks near intersections diminish visibility, as they are at driver eye height. Street trees planted close to intersections, spaced as little as 25 feet apart, and pruned so that horizontal limbs and leafing start about 14 feet off the ground did not present a visibility safety hazard.

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Conclusions

Recent research adds new perspectives on roadside vegetation and traffic safety. Road design and engineering standards (more accurately regarded as guidelines) favour a design philosophy of “forgiving ” roadsides that provide wide shoulders and clear offsets. Most of the research basis for these prescriptions was done on rural roadways in past decades. Thus urban transportation design is largely premised on the operating assumptions and characteristics of rural roads and highways.

More recent urban driving studies use paired comparisons of the same roads, driving simulation response, pre- and post-treatment tests on corridor installations, and data review across collections of comparable road segments. Preliminary findings are that that there is a positive correlation between certain types of landscape treatments and reduction in crash rates. Trees and landscape in the roadside can have a positive effect on driver behaviour and perception, resulting in better safety performance.

Results suggest two important issues. The first is that trees in urban roadsides may be associated with reduced crash rates. Why? While not completely understood, the presence of street trees may provide an “ edge effect” or psychological cue to drive more slowly. Fewer crash incidents, and less severe injury outcomes, are associated with slower vehicle speeds. Secondly not all road segments are alike; there are differences in crash rates at intersections, on the outside of curves, along medians, and midblock. Planning and design for liveable cities should include roadside vegetation and trees that are placed appropriately, based on actual crash risk rather than generalized assumptions.

Use of Bio-fuel

Bio fuels could provide up to 27% of total transport fuel worldwide by 2050. The use of transport fuels from biomass, when produced sustainably, can help cut petroleum use and reduce CO2 emissions in the transport sector, especially in heavy transport. Sustainable bio fuel technologies, in particular advanced bio fuels, will play an important role in achieving this roadmap vision. The roadmap describes the steps necessary to realise this ambitious bio fuels target; identifies key actions by different stakeholders, and the role for government policy to adopt measures needed to ensure the sustainable expansion of both conventional and advanced bio fuel production. See more at: http://www.indiaenvironmentportal.org.in/reports-documents/technology-roadmap-biofuels-transport#sthash.uYhRJrFl.dpuf

Rationale for biofuels in India

Energy security, socio-economic and environmental benefits are often sited as the main reasons for the Government of India support for biofuels. India ranks sixth in the world in terms of energy demand accounting for 3.5% of world commercial energy demand in 2001. The domestic production of crude oil has stagnated, while the demand has been rising at a

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rapid rate, resulting in increased crude oil imports (Figure 1.1). During 2004-05, the country imported 95.86 million tonnes (MT) of crude oil valued at US$ 26 billion and the expected imports for 2005–06 of 98.26 MT valued at US $41 billion. The Indian economy is expected to grow at a rate of over 6% per annum and the petroleum imports are projected to rise to 166 MT by 2019 and 622 MT by 2047 [TERI, 2002]. There is a growing need for energy security as any disturbance in the supply of petroleum fuels or increase in petroleum prices can have negative impact on the growth of Indian economy. Indigenously produced biofuels are being considered as one of the options to partially substitute petroleum fuels and reduce dependence on imported oil.

In addition, the promotion of biofuels in India is supported by the benefits offered in terms of:

� Generation of new employment opportunities in raising, reaping and processing of biofuel crops [Mandal and Mitrha, 2004].

� Addition to the renewable energy options for decentralised distributed generation (DDG) of electricity and for motive power applications (water pumping, milling, etc.) in energy deficient rural India [MNES, 2004].

� Greening of wastelands and regeneration of degraded forest-lands, thereby helping in ecorestoration and preventing further land degradation [Mandal, 2004].

� Better environmental performance through reduction in vehicular pollution and Green House Gas emissions. It is well established that the use of biofuels in vehicles results

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in reduction of SO2, particulate matter, CO, etc. In addition, a sustainable biofuel system results in no net addition of CO2 into atmosphere [Subramanian, et.al, 2005].

Biofuels have generated considerable interest among the government, research community, industry and general public. The development of biofuels in the India can be tracked by the key milestones outlined in Box 1.1.

Box 1.1: Bio fuel Development in India - Important Milestones � Use of Bio fuels- Ethanol (“Power Alcohol”) in World War II

� Large number of committees and studies undertaken since 1975

� Trials on cars and other vehicle undertaken in 1979-80 by Indian Oil Corporation (IOC) & Indian Institute of Petroleum (IIP) with 10 & 20% ethanol blend

� Trials undertaken in Delhi in1990-92 on around 92 Cars

� Pilot Project involving trials in 3 Oil Depots (2 Maharashtra & 1 UP) to cover around 350 petrol stations in 2001- 2002

� Statement of Minister of Petroleum in Parliament in Dec 2001 for the rationale/benefits of Ethanol / Biofuels and intention to blend

� SJ Chopra’s Committee Report concluding that Ethanol was the best Oxygenate for blending with petrol - March 2002 placed in the Parliament

� Notification of September, 2002 for mandatory blending of 5% Ethanol in 9 States and 4 UTs from Jan 1, 2003 & history of its implementation

� Autofuel Policy’s (March 2003) reference to Biofuels

� Budget for 2002-03 Rs.0.75 per litre rebate on Petrol blended with ethanol that was brought down to Rs.0.30 per litre in a few months. This incentive was not renewed from FY 2004-05 onwards

� Report of the Committee on Development of Biofuel by Planning Commission –April 2003

� A National Mission on Bio-diesel (NMB) is proposed to be constituted with the Ministry of Rural Development as the nodal ministry. Under the proposed demonstration phase of the NMB, Government of India plans to raise jatropha plantations on 0.4 million ha. of wastelands. Important policy decisions with respect to the demonstration phase of NMB are expected soon-2003.

� Reference to Tariff Commission in 2003 by Minister Petroleum & Natural Gas (MOP&NG) to determine price of Ethanol.

� Announcement of Biodiesel Purchase Policy in October 2005.

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Currently, India’s biofuel programme is primarily based on Bio-ethanol derived from sugarcane molasses and biodiesel derived from non-edible oil seeds, e.g. Jatropha and Pongamia. Since 2002, the Government of India has taken two important policy initiatives for the promotion of biofuels. Ministry of Petroleum and Natural Gas has mandated 5% ethanol blending from January 2003 in nine states and five union territories1.

A National Mission on Biodiesel (NMB) is planned to be constituted with the Ministry of Rural Development as the nodal ministry. Under the proposed demonstration phase of the NMB, Government of India plans to raise Jatropha plantations on 0.4 million ha of wastelands [Planning Commission, 2003]. Important policy decisions with respect to the demonstration phase of NMB are expected soon.

Commonly Used Bio fuels in India for Transportation

The three bio fuel options currently being considered in the country are: straight vegetable oils (SVOs), biodiesel and bio-ethanol.

Straight vegetable oil (SVO)

SVOs, referred to as pure plant oils (PPO) in Europe, are derived from both edible and non edible oilseeds. Edible oils derived from rapeseed, sunflower and soybean, are being used as feedstock for producing biodiesel in USA and Europe. In India, as edible oils are in short supply, non-edible tree borne oilseeds (TBOs) of Pongamia pinnata, Jatropha curcas, Azadirachta Indica (Neem), are being considered as the source of SVO and biodiesel.

Research on the use of SVOs in diesel engines shows that there are problems associated with their high viscosity and high flash point. The high viscosity interferes with the fuel-injection process in the engine, leading to poor atomisation of fuel and inefficient combustion [Barnwal et. al, 2005]1. Heavy smoke emissions and carbon deposition in the combustion chamber have been reported.

In recent years, Sustainable Transformation of Rural Areas (SuTRA) and Samagra Vikas have operated small stationary diesel engines (5 to125 hp) on Pongamia oil for power generation and water pumping. The experience of engine performance was limited as the run hours did not exceed 1500 hours on single engine. Therefore, it is difficult to assess the feasibility of using SVOs as fuel in small stationary engines (refer Box 2.1).

Vehicle engines are more sophisticated than small stationary diesel engines and

vehicle manufacturers do not approve of the use of SVOs. However, one of the largest public transport service providers in the country – Karnataka State Road Transport Corporation (KSRTC) – is going ahead with trials on 10% SVO blend in buses (Box 2.2 for details). KSRTC has monitored the performance of two vehicles during the trial runs and encouraged by the results have plans to operate the entire fleet of Doddaballapur depot (82 buses) near Bangalore on this blend by the end of this year. It has plans to extend the use of blends to 10 more depots in near future.

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Box 2.1: Use of SVOs in engines: SuTRA

SuTRA was a Global Environment Facility (GEF) project with the objective of demonstrating the possibility of biofuel packages for meeting the energy needs of rural households and agriculture. One of the technology options selected was the direct use of pongamia, neem and cottonseed oil to generate power in DG sets (cumulative capacity 230 kVA) for drinking water and irrigation. The demonstration was carried out in ten villages and hamlets of Tumkur district (Karnataka) during 1998 to 2001.

Discussions on the performance of engines using pongamia SVO with the project staff and local people revealed that Operation and maintenance (O&M) costs with SVO were higher compared to diesel. But no scientific data was available to arrive at the exact O&M requirements.

Source: TERI report on evaluation of SuTRA, 2003

Box 2.2: SVO as transport fuel: KSRTC experience

KSRTC, with a fleet of 4000 buses, is a major public transport corporation under the Government of Karnataka. It started trials on the use of pongamia oil in its buses about 3 years ago. After initial testing on old buses, experimental trials on 10% oil blend in 2 new buses were taken up in 2004. The performance of these buses was compared with 2 new buses running on diesel on the same route. Initially, problems were faced in achieving proper mixing of pongamia oil with diesel, which was solved by adding an enzyme-based additive2 with simultaneous agitation at 200 rpm. The cost of the additive is INR 2200/litre and 1 litre of additive is added in 6000 litres of fuel.

According to KSRTC, an overall efficiency (mileage) improvement of 12.5% in comparison with diesel has been observed. Though maintenance costs are slightly higher as fuel filters are now replaced after every 8,000 km, compared to 10,000 km on diesel operation. In addition, the current market price of pongamia oil is INR 28/litre compared to price of diesel at INR 37/litre. Even with the additional cost of INR 3.67/litre for the enzyme-based additive, as well as costs for more frequent replacement of fuel filters, KSRTC has estimated an overall saving of INR 3/litre by using the blend over diesel.

Source: Discussions with KSRTC officials

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However, several engine and fuel experts, during their interactions with the study team, were of the opinion that KSRTC should carry out more detailed and rigorous investigation on engine performance and maintenance requirements to support their claims.

Biodiesel

The problems associated with SVOs can be overcome by converting them into alkyl esters of fatty acids (biodiesel) through a process known as trans-esterification. Biodiesel has properties very similar to those of diesel (Table 2.1).

Table 2.1: Properties of biodiesel from different feedstock and fossil diesel Fuel Kinematic

viscosity (mm2/s)

Cetane No.

Lower heating value (MJ/kg)

Cloud point (°C)

Pour point (°C)

Pour point (°C)

Density (Kg/l)

Soybean biodiesel

4.5 45 33.5 1 -7 178 0.885

Sunflower biodiesel

4.6 49 33.5 1 - 183 0.860

Diesel 3.06 50 43.8 - -16 76 0.855 Source: Barnwal et. al, 2005

Biodiesel is a relatively new fuel in the Indian context. At present its availability is

limited to small quantities being used for conducting pilot trials on vehicles and lab-scale experiments. Daimler Chrysler carried out trials with 100% Jatropha biodiesel on two Mercedes-Benz C220 CDI cars during 2004. An Indian research institute, Central Salt and Marine Chemicals Research Institute (CSMCRI), supplied 1,200 litres of Jatropha biodiesel for the trials. No major engine modifications were carried out and one of the vehicles successfully covered 6,000 km without any problems. The average mileage during the trip was 13.5 km/litre, which is comparable to that with fossil diesel [CSMCRI, 2004].

Another important trial was conducted by Indian railways on a diesel locomotive (16 cylinsder Alco DLW, rated at 3100 HP) using 5,000 litres of imported soybean biodiesel blends (B10, B20, B50, B100) during April-May 2004 [Saxena, 2004]. The state road transport corporations of Haryana, Gujarat, Andhra Pradesh and Indian vehicle manufacturers - Tata Motors, and Mahindra & Mahindra are also carrying out trials with biodiesel blends.

Bio-ethanol

Ethanol is produced by fermentation of carbohydrates present in biomass. In India, molasses – a by-product of sugar industry is the main feedstock for ethanol. Use of bio-ethanol in blends up to 20% with gasoline in vehicles is well established [Planning Commission, 2003]. As mentioned above, the Government of India made the blending of 5% ethanol with gasoline mandatory in selected states of the country with effect from 1st January 2003.