Urban Sociology

URBAN SOCIOLOGYDefinition :Urban sociology is the sociological study of life and human interaction in metropolitan areas. It is a normative discipline of sociology seeking to study the structures, processes, changes and problems of an urban area and by doing so provide inputs for planning and policy making. In other words it is the sociological study of cities and their role in the development of society. Like most areas of sociology, urban sociologists use statistical analysis, observation, social theory, interviews, and other methods to study a range of topics, including migration and demographic trends, economics, poverty, race relations and economic trends.

RISE OF URBAN SOCIOLOGYBut as a more general contribution of human ecology and urban sociology, social area analysis was found to be lacking. It was a descriptive methodology, this time with a visual application, but it did not provide an analytical model that could explain why particular groupings of sociological variables (ethnicity, social class and family status) might be mapped in one area of the metropolitan region and not in another.

RISE OF URBAN SOCIOLOGY

Early sociologist were concerned with the

impact of urbanization on European society.

RISE OF URBAN SOCIOLOGY• FERDINANAD TOENNIS : Is an early German social philosopher who lived

from 1855 to 1936. He sketched out an evolutionary view of the development of human society. The great period of industrialization that transformed European societies beginning in the late 1700s signified a change from community to association. His ideas are often used to highlight differences between village life of the preindustrial period and urban life of the industrial period, and between small-town life and that of the large city more generally. Toennis saw that the transition from community (were individual families have long histories, individuals interact with one another on a personal basis because they often work together or a related to one another, and all jobs are interdependent on one another) to society (where individuals often interact with others whom they donot personally know and work at jobs that are seemingly unrelated to one another) resulted in a weakening of social ties and a share sense of belonging to a meaningful community.

RISE OF URBAN SOCIOLOGY• EMILE DURKHEIM: was appointed to the first chair of

sociology at the Sorbonne in Paris in 1883.He also wrote about the changes brought about by industrialization. In his work the Division of Labor in society. Durkheim discussed many of the same issues presented earlier by Toennies. This time under the labels of mechanical solidarity and organic solidarity. In the preindustrial village, individuals were held together by the mechanical bonds of kinship and social interdependence-mechanical because they were predetermined and could not be changed as long as the individual remained within the local village. In the industrial city, individuals were no longer bound by the mechanical bonds of kinship: instead they could work at new types of jobs and have greater opportunities for interaction with a wider range of people.

RISE OF URBAN SOCIOLOGY• FRIEDRICH ENGELS: a contrasting view to that of

Durkheim was the perspective of German sociologist Friedrich Engels who lived in England in the mid- 1800s. Engels wrote a classic study. The Condition of the working class in England, which devoted a chapter to what he called `The Great Towns`. According to Engels the evils of industrialization and capitalism were intensified by the space of the city.

RISE OF URBAN SOCIOLOGY• GEORGE SIMMEL: the most influential European in Us

urban sociology at the beginning was George Simmel. He viewed the city in cultural terms and was concerned with the way urban life transformed individual consciousness. Any good discussion of American urban sociology must begin with explaining an important distinction. There are two distinct organizing topics in the field: urbanization and urbanism. Urbanization refers to the city formation or building process. It studies the way social activities locate themselves in space and according to interdependent processes of societal development and change. Its analysis is often historical and comparative. Urbanization charts and tries to understand the rise and fall of great cities.

RISE OF URBAN SOCIOLOGYUrbanism, in contrast, takes the city formation process as given and seeks instead to understand the ways of life that transpire within this container. Urbanism deals with culture, with meanings, symbols, patterns of daily life, and processes of adjustment to the environment of the city, but also with conflicts, with forms of political organization at the street neighborhood and city levels. Simmel was concerned with modernity, or the transition from a traditional society characterized by social relation based on intimacy or kinship (known as primary relations), by a feudal economy based on barter to an industrial society situated within cities and dominated by impersonal, specializes social relations based on compartmentalized roles(known as secondary relations), and by a money economy based on rational calculation of profit and loss. For Simmel, the subtle aspects of modernity were displayed most clearly within the large city or metropolis and through consciously directed behaviors. Simmel gives us a social psychology of modernity that Robert Park took to be the sociology of urbanism, or `urban sociology`.

RISE OF URBAN SOCIOLOGYRobert Park: (1865-1944) may will be the most interesting figure not simply in the development of the Chicago School Of Urban Sociology but in the history of American sociology more generally. Born at the end of the Civil War, Park attended the University of Michigan and began his career as a newspaper reporter.

RISE OF URBAN SOCIOLOGYIn 1913, at age 49, Park joined the faculty of University of Chicago. Parks approach to the sociological study of the urban environment was clear: he urged his students to “get the seat of their pants dirty” by getting out into the neighborhoods of the city, studying the many different groups of people who had came there. While Park worked on his own study of the development of the immigrant press in the United States, he and Ernest Burgess conducted undergraduate classes and graduate seminars that required students to go into the community, collect data from business people, interview area residents and report back with there information.

RISE OF URBAN SOCIOLOGYRobert Park and his associates at the University of Chicago were less concerned than was Simmel with the city dwellers encounter with modernity and more involved in detailed study of the specific Chicago milieu. They were responsible for a number of important conceptual advances in the field of urban sociology. From the very first the Chicago school urbanists adopted a conceptual position that we call human ecology- the study of the process of human group adjustment to the environment. While European thinkers such as Weber, Marx and Simmel viewed the city as an environment were larger social forces of capitalism played themselves out in a human drama, Chicago School urbanists avoided the study of capitalism preferring instead a biological based way of conceptualizing urban life. For them urban analysis was a branch of human ecology. There ideas brought them closest to the work of the philosopher Herbert Spencer who also viewed society as dominated by biological rather than economic laws of development. Economic competition in this view, was a special case of the struggle for survival. All individuals in the city were caught up in this struggle and adjusted to it in various ways.

RISE OF URBAN SOCIOLOGYAccording to Robert Park, the social organization of the city resulted from the struggle for survival that then produced a distinct and highly complex division of labor, because people tried to do what they were best in order to complete. Urban life for Park was organized on two separate levels: the “biotic” and the “culture”. The biotic level refers to the forms of organization produced by species competition over scarce environmental resources. The cultural level refers to the symbolic and the psychological adjustment processes and to the organization of urban life according to shared sentiments much like the qualities Simmel also studied.

RISE OF URBAN SOCIOLOGYIn Park`s later work ,however the complex notion of urbanism as combining competition and cooperation or the biotic and the cultural levels was dropped in favor of an emphasis on the biotic level alone as the basic premise of urban ecology. This led to some of the early critiques of the ecological perspective faulting it for ignoring the role of culture in the city or what Simmel would call the important influence of modernity and for neglecting the basis of community which was social but not biological.

ERNEST BURGESS’S MODEL OF URBAN GROWTH

Ernest W Burgess developed a theory of city growth and differentiation based on the social Darwinist or biologically derived principles that were common in the work of Park and McKenzie. According to Burgess the city constantly grew because of population pressures. This in turn triggered a dual process of central agglomeration and commercial decentralization; that is spatial competition attracted new activities to the center of the city but also repelled other activities to the fringe area. As activities themselves located on the fringe, the fringe itself was pushed further out from the city and so on. Thus the city continually grew outward as activities that lost out in central city competition were relocated to peripheral areas.

ERNEST BURGESS`S MODEL OF URBAN GROWTH

The importance of Burgess`s model cannot be overemphasized. First he explained the pattern of homes, neighborhoods, and industrial and commercial location in terms of the ecological theory of competition over “position” or location. In short competition produced a certain space and a certain social organization in space. Both of this dimensions were pictured in the concentric zone model. Those who could afford it leaved near the center; those who could not arranged themselves in concentric zones around the city center. Such a model required among other things that the center have the most jobs and social activities and hence that it be the most desirable location. This view was challenged in the models of Hoyt and Harris and Ullman.


Second, Burgess’s model explained the shifting of population and activities within the space of the city according two distinct but related processes: centralization and decentralization. His theory explicitly related social processes to spatial patterns a most importantly link for all theorizing about the city that was to follow and a view that is quite compatible with the aims of the new urban sociology.


Finally Burgess revealed that the characteristics of the social organization of the urban population were spatially deployed. A gradient running from the center to the periphery characterized the attributes of the urban population. Individual traits such as mental illness, gang membership, criminal behavior and racial background were found to be clustered along the center gradient of the city. Cutting across the urban form from the Central Business District(known as the CBD) to the outskirts Chicago School researchers using census data, found that the incidents of social pathology decreased while homeownership and the number of nuclear families increased. The inner zones, therefore, were discovered to be the sites of crime, illness, gang warfare, broken homes and many other indicators of social disorganization or problems.

LOUIS WIRTH: URBANISM AS AWAY OF LIFELouis Wirth defined a different theory of urban space. He wanted to know what it was about the city itself that produced unique behaviors that might be called an “urban way of life”. Wirth returned to Simmel. However while Simmel (and Weber and Marx) attributed much of the city way of life to the influence of larger systemic forces especially capitalism and its money economy. Wirth aimed for a generalized theory that ignored forces having origins outside the city. He studied the characteristics of people in the city and how life there might produce a distinct “urban” culture. Hence, “urbanism” or an urban way of life became the dependent variable to be explained.

LOUIS WIRTH: URBANISM AS AWAY OF LIFE

Wirth settled on the isolation of three factors. Urbanism was produced in relatively large (population size) densely populated settlements containing heterogeneous people (different backgrounds); that is urbanism was a product of large population size, density, and heterogeneity. Wirth’s approach was an important advance because he provided a set of factors that could be analyzed statistically according to there effects. Hence it was a theory with true predictive power. Given a sample of cities the higher each one scored on the three factors of size, density, and heterogeneity, the more we could expect it to house a true urban culture.


In the years following Wirth’s work his theory has been exhaustively tested mainly because it was so clearly stated. Unfortunately the core assertion that size, density, and heterogeneity cause behaviors considered urban has not been borne out. However while the theory contains some truth we cannot say along with Wirth that the factors he chose produce such results. The large city merely concentrates the effects of social forces producing city culture. Surely we know that rural area are just as afflicted by crime as is the central city, although the types of crimes and there intensity may vary.


Finally, Louis Wirth held strongly to the view that the true effects of urbanism would occur as a matter of evolution as cities operated on immigrant groups to break down traditional way of interacting over time. In the main, Wirth can be remembered as showing us a style of doing urban research that differed from Chicago School field work. While other took to the streets to record the everyday life found in cities. Wirth inspired a subsequent generation to plow through census data and derive statistical regularities of urban living.

RISE OF URBAN SOCILOGYRoderick McKenzie and Metropolitan Community:Roderick Mckenzie a student of Park and Burgess ,sought to apply the principals of human ecology not just to the city but to the broader metropolitan region. McKenzie saw the development of the metropolitan region as a function of changes in transportation and communication that produced new forms of social organization . This stages of development were the pre-railway era (before 1850) the railway era (1850-1900) and the motor transportation area(1900 to present). McKenzie considered technological change as the key variable in producing spatial patterns in urban society.

RISE OF URBAN SOCIOLOGYMcKenzie’s ideas were recognized as a significant contribution to the field at the time. In some respects, his approach may be viewed as a precursor to the general concept of the multicentered metropolitan region emphasized by the sociospatial approach. But Mckenzie did not have a great influence on later sociologists. In the 1950s a new field of study , regional science , began investigating metropolitan regions from the perspective of economic geography , an approach with less appeal to urban sociologists. McKenzie’s focus on the metropolitan region conflicted with the more general tendency of urban sociologists.

RISE OF URBAN SOCIOLOGYFrom Human Ecology to Urban Ecology :In 1945 Walter Fircy published a study of land use in Boston titled “Sentiment and Symbolism as Ecological Variables”. He noted that large areas of land in downtown Boston were reserved for noneconomic uses. Parks and cemeteries as well as a 48 –acre area in the center of the city that had formed the original “commons” of the community had never been developed . In addition an upper-class residential neighborhood known as Boston Hill retained its privileged position as a home to wealthy and established Boston families despite its location near the downtown area . Each of these observations runs counter to the concentric zone model. Firey suggested that “sentiment” and “symbolism” are important ecological factors that influence spatial patterns of development in urban space. Firey presented in this important piece of research his work is often referred to as the “sociocultural school” of human ecology.

RISE OF URBAN SOCIOLOGYSocial Area Analysis:Social area analysis is associated with the work of Eshrev Shevky and Wendell Bell(1955). This method of urban analysis ranked areas with in a city or metropolitan area on the basis of the social characteristics of the population, including social status(education, occupation and income) and family status( number of children, weather the mother worked, and type of dwelling unit). Areas that scored high on social status and family status(typically suburban communities) could be compared with areas that scored low on the same measures. Social area analysis produced details maps showing the location of class and ethnic groups in the San Francisco Bay area.

RISE OF URBAN SOCIOLOGYFactorial ecology:The development of new computer technologies brought sweeping changes to the field of human ecology. Urban sociologists no longer had to limit their research to field studies of urban communities; now they could assemble data for the entire cities and look for associations among, for example the educational level, incomes and employments status of urban and suburban residence factorial ecology made use of this techniques and through the 1950s and the 1960s produced a large number of studies that greatly increased our knowledge of the structure of the cities not just in the United States but across the world.

POLITICAL ECONOMY AND THE CITYMarx, Weber and Engels: the classical sociologist Karl Marx, Weber turned to historical analysis to explore their ideas regarding the general laws of social development. Both understood that societies were organized around integrated system of economics, politics, and culture. Marx emphasized the dominance of economic considerations in analysis. While Weber sought to show how cultural and political factors also affected individual behavior and social history along with economic activity. The two approaches served to complement each other.While Marx wrote extensively about the new social classes (proletariat and bourgeoisie) created by industrial capitalism, he did not believe there were only two social

POLITICAL ECONOMY AND THE CITYClass groups as is commonly thought. In his analysis of the failure of the 1848 revolution in France. Marx identified seven social class groups and discussed why each group supported (or opposed) a new government. Industrial workers and small shopkeepers in the cities might support the revolution for example because their economic and political interests would benefit from a change in the government whereas farmers in the countryside and large merchants in the cities might oppose it because their economic and social interests were dependent on maintaining the current government. In this sense Marx’s view of social classes may be seen as a precursor to modern day thinking about interest groups competing within the political arena.

POLITICAL ECONOMY AND THE CITYMarx also recognized that the interests of capital and labor are not one and the same a radical departure from modern day economic theory the idea that “a rising tide lifts all boats”. Because profit results from the difference the costs of production(raw material, machinery and labor) and the price for which a commodity can be sold in the market capitalist producer will look for any way possible to reduce the costs of production. Marx’s analysis is as relevant for the monopoly capitalism of the present day as it was for the industrial capitalism of his time. In just the last several decades we have seen the displacement of workers by automation a dramatic increase in immigration and the movement of manufacturing to the Third World countries all of these the consequence of corporation seeking to lower there labor costs and all having a tremendous impact on the people and the built environment of urban and suburban settlement across the world.

POLITIAL ECOMOMY AND THE CITYMarx wrote a very little in his classic Capital while Weber included some passages about the nature of the city in a much larger text, Economy and Society. For Marx the early history of capitalism was a struggle between social relations located within urban areas and those situated in the countryside within feudal manors. For Weber the city developed because of its political powers in particular the independence of city residents and their local government from feudal relations of authority. In both cases Marx and Weber showed how models of social organization such as feudalism or capitalism work through a form of space the city and social relations situated within that spatial form. Perspective that informs the approach of political economy to settlement space.

POLITICAL ECONOMY AND THE CITYFor example Weber argued that during the feudal period in the European Middle Ages traders and craftspeople set up towns and bargained for protection from the king against the activities of local feudal lords. In these towns, capitalism began to thrive through trade in goods and eventually overtook the feudal economy. Thus as capitalism became a dominating force in Europe it also crated the modern city. The political economy perspective studies social processes within urban space and links them to processes occurring at the general level of society.

POLITICAL ECONOMY AND THE CITYWhile Marx and Weber had comparatively little to say about the industrial city of capitalism. Friedrich Engels devoted some time to the topic. His study of the working class situation in nineteenth-century. England and his field observations of the “great towns”. Manchester in particular. For Engels the large and industrial city was the best place to study the general aspects of capitalism as a social system.

FUNCTIONS OF URBAN LOCAL GOVERNMENT BODIES

Due to rapid urbanization the role and function of the urban local government institutions in Bangladesh has been gaining significance in the recent years. The Paurashavas and City Corporations has been set up under separate statuses passed by the Jatiya Sangsad. The Corporation function in the major metropolitan cities where civic problems acquires an enormous complexity while Paurashava exists in medium sized and small towns.

FUNCTION OF URBAN LOCAL GOVERNMENT BODIES

• Compulsory function Construction and maintenance of roads. Removal collection and disposal of refuse, wastes and

rubbish. Provision of maintenance of street lightening. Maintenance of public streets and provision for

watering them. Provision and regulation of water supply. Construction and maintenance of shopping centers. Plantation of trees on roadsides. Regulation of unsanitary builders.


Prevention of infectious diseases and epidemics. Registration of birth, death and marriage. Provision for maintaining slaughterhouses. Provision for maintenance of drainage. Control over erection and re-erection of

buildings. Provision for maintaining graveyards and

cremation grounds. Control over traffic and public vechile.


• Optional Function Checking adulteration of food and drinks. Control over private market and shopping centers. Maintenance of educational institution and

provision for stipends to meritorious students. Provision for flood and famine relief. Provision for maintaining parks, gardens and play

grounds. Establishment of welfare homes and orphanages

and prevention of beggary.


Establishment of public dispensaries, provision of public toilets.

Establishment of veterinary hospitals, registration of castle sales and improvement of livestock.

Celebration of public holiday. Reception of distinguished visitors/persons. Establishment of public libraries and reading rooms. Promotion of community development projects. Naming of roads and numbering of houses.

FUNCTION OF URBAN LOCAL GOVERNMENT

• Functions Actually Performed: The Paurashava /City Corporation is empowered to discharge a variety of municipal and civic functions as described above. In practice, however, they cannot perform all this functions due to acute paucity of funds, poor and irregular collection of taxes, non-realisation of taxes from government, semi government and autonomous offices for years together and in sufficient government grants. The Paurashava functions are many but its resources are extremely limited. Due to financial constraints the Paurashavas, in reality, perform the following functions only:

FUNCTION OF THE URBAN LOCAL GOVERNMENT

Construction and maintenance of roads, bridges, culverts, etc.

Removal, collection and disposal of refuse, wastes, rubbish, etc.

Provision and maintenance of street lighting. Provision of water supply. Construction and maintenance of community and

shopping centers. Provision and maintenance of graveyards and

cremation grounds.

FUNCTION OF THE URBAN LOCAL GOVERNMENT

Irradiation of mosquitoes. Registration of births, death and marriages. Maintenance of slaughterhouses. Control over private shopping centers. Provision and maintenance of parks and gardens. Naming of roads and numbering of houses. Provision of public toilet.


• Additional Functions Performed by Paurashava/ City Corporations: apart from the functions stated earlier the Paurashavas/ City Corporations discharge a few additional functions as well. Although they remain busy with their formal function they are nevertheless, required to provide some other services to the people. The function of this nature are mentioned bellow:


• Issuance of Certificates: the Paurashava/ City Corporation usually issues different kinds of certificates as and when required by town and city dwellers. These are characters certificate, nationality certificate, birth and death certificate, succession certificate, etc. The people used these certificates for various purposes. The character and nationality certificates are for necessary for jobs and admission to educational institution. Birth, death and succession certificates are used for mutation for land holdings. The succession certificate is issued to the legal heirs of the deceased.


• Judicial Jurisdictions: According to the Conciliation of Disputes( municipal areas) Act, 2004, the Paurashava has judicial functions as well. It discharges these through the formation of a Conciliation Board.

URBAN PROBLEMSEarly observers of the city life saw immigrants from the rural areas with stable family traditions turning to alcoholism, robbery, child abuse and prostitution. Something about living in the large city, it was suggested, created social disorganization – broken families and broken lives – and this in turn led to all sorts of urban problems. Several theories explaining the link between urban living and social disorganization have been proposed over the years, including the break down of primary groups relation, the compositional approach, and the subcultural theory. All these theories are derived from Luis Wirth`s essay “Urbanization as a way of life” and the subsequent interpretation of this classic work from Chicago School Of Urban Sociology.

Sociologists like Herbert Gans(1968) and Claude Fisher(1975) contributed in the field of crime.• Racism• Poverty• Crime• Drugs• Street gangs• Suburban crime

THE FISCAL CRISIS AND PUBLIC SERVICE PROBLEMSUrban problems are difficult to solve when insufficient money is available to local governments. A fiscal crisis starts when the revenues obtained by government fall short of the expenses of running a city.

FISCAL CRISISThe fiscal crisis of the cities has two components. During the 1970 many cities faced budgetary shortfalls because of rising cost coupled with decreasing revenues caused by the decline in manufacturing and the rapid deterioration of urban economies.

THE INFRASTRUCTURE PROBLEMOne outcome of the decline in government spending has been a progressive deterioration of the urban infrastructure, specially roads, water system, bridges, public buildings and streets.

HOUSINGIn the United States, family well-being depends to a great extent on where one`s home is located. Differences in wealth and the location of the family home determine the opportunities available to individuals. Where one lives determines the quality of the school one attends but it also determines the safety of the local streets and how much one`s property will increase by value.

URBANIZATION IN THE INDUTRIALIZED WORLD

Western Europe: The countries of Western Europe have been urbanized for centuries. They have a well developed urban hierarchy with city population ranging from over 5,000 to 100,000 to over 1 million. Recently this region has experienced a restructuring of population and economic activities similar to those occurring in the United States. Many central cities are declining and there is a marked increase in the development of the suburban settlement space. At the same time many new towns are experiencing rapid growth resulting in metropolitan regions similar to those found in the United States.

THIRD WORLD URBANIZATIONChanging Perspectives On Third World Urbanization: In approaching the issue of urbanization in developing countries, a number of misconception must be dispelled. First, such societies are commonly through to be primitively developed compared to the United States . In the fact however, countries such as Brazil, Mexico and Korea are highly industrialized with factory workers numbering in hundreds of thousands. Some of the largest cities in the world such as Sao Paulo and New Delhi are not only located in the developing countries but are also vibrant, dynamic urban centers. However these societies seem to share a pattern of uneven development that is even more extreme than that found in the older developed nations.

Urban Sociology

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Transcript of Urban Sociology