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The Arab League’s lack of relevance

and effectiveness to students and how

can this be changed? By William Chapman……. Pages 3-4

Was the Israeli airstrike a

reaction to an increasingly

stronger Arab League? By Paula Stoleru……. Page 6

ACHIEVING FREEDOM IS

MORE THAN DEPOSING

AUTOCRATS

Cultural or religious norms, often

masquerading under the guise of

“tradition”, present the image of a

formidable autocrat dictating in

all aspects of life. Patriarchy is a

fact of the region; this curtails the

rights of women on paper, and in

practice through social customs,

institutions and norms.

Director of Freedom House,

David Kramer writes, “The

unequal status of women

presents a formidable

obstacle to the overall demo-

cratic advancement of the

Middle East and North Afri-

ca”.

FULL ARTICLE PAGES 4-5

TUNISIA – WHERE DOES THE CATALYST OF THE ARAB UPRISINGS HEAD TO? By Andreea Gavrila

Tunisia was the first among the Arab countries to shout out for democracy. Its

desperate cry and imperious urge for freedom were not left unheard, but have set

an example for other nations facing similar unsatisfactory situations.

The spark that ignited the revolution turned into a dead straight flame, bringing

about the so longed swift in the Tunisian rule. As far as political analysts and

statistics show it, the change turned out to be not only highly beneficial, but one

truly sustainable, rendering a successfully transitional Tunisia. However bright

prospects the future might have held, there have already appeared several clouds

to shadow the efforts deposited so far.

FULL ARTICLE PAGES 5-6-7

Picture: Majed Hamdan/AP

Soundcloud.com/UoBMALive

By Benjamin Stone

While the revolts of the Arab Spring have demonstrated a popular demand for freedom, for many women in the countries of the Middle East and North

Africa the most pernicious threat to freedom comes from within.

UoBMALeVE UNIVERSITY OF BIRMINGHAM MODEL ARAB LEAGUE

@UoBMALive

Facebook.com/UoBMAL

Uobmalive.tumblr.com

ISSUE N°1

Published at:

University of Birmingham

Free

["Good News, Bad News;" copyright Khalil Bendib]

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LETTER FROM

THE SECRETARY-

GENERAL : ROXANA RAILEANU

Dear Participants,

With utmost honour and pleasure, I welcome

you all to the first and longest running European Model

Arab League Conference held by the United Nations

Society at University of Birmingham (UoBMAL), that

will be gravitating around the theme of 'Establishing

the Legitimacy & Credibility of the Arab League in the

International Arena’. It is my joy and excitement that I

will be sharing with you this year, in my capacity as

Secretary General during another UoBMAL session.

Our organizing team has been hard at work in order to

provide you with an excellent experience which will

hopefully play a vital role in developing your diplomat-

ic career.

I have been in the so-called MUN business for

almost 6 years now. Not to worry - I do have a life out-

side MUN, even though my credentials might tell you

the opposite. I have started just like every other dele-

gate not really knowing what was expected of me

which is why during my first committee session, when

I was asked to put forward my country’s stance on ju-

venile justice I was only able to mutter “I agree.”, thus

The Press Team

Camille Dupont - Head of Press

Paula Stoleru - Assistant Head of Press

William Chapman - Writer

Benjamin Stone - Writer

Andreea Gavrila - Social Media Reporter

like every other delegate cursed with an overdose of ambi-

tion I eventually, in a few years’ time, received a couple of

Outstanding Delegate Awards in international confer-

ences, have chaired twice, for SOCHUM and Political Af-

fairs and have been Deputy Secretary General once and

Secretary General for both a Model United Nations and a

Model Arab League. As of this year I am MUN Coordina-

tor within the UN Society in Birmingham.

During the debates I found out that this kind of a

diplomatic career implies unconditional devotion to the

truth no matter how harsh it may be and how uncompromis-

ingly you should serve justice, which is why we came up

this year, with a theme that questions the core of the Arab

League, especially after its reconstruction after the Arab

Spring.

UoBMAL ‘13 tries to distinguish itself in terms of

the structure of the conference. Unlike last year’s edition,

which comprised of the three Arab League traditional Com-

mittees: the Council on Palestinian Affairs, Joint Defence

Council and the Special Council on Arab league Reform,

this year’s MAL will be more keen on setting the scene for

a Crisis Cabinet, which will spark up and heat the debate.

On behalf of all those on the organising commit-

tee, we are thrilled to invite you to our conference, and

thoroughly look forward to seeing you at UoBMAL’13.

Best wishes,

Roxana Raileanu

Secretary General of UoBMAL’13

United Nations Society

University of Birmingham

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LETHARGY &

PANDEMONIUM

THE ARAB LEAGUE’S LACK OF RELE-

VANCE AND EFFECTIVENESS TO STU-

DENTS AND HOW CAN THIS BE

CHANGED?

‘Why should I know or care?’ is

the usual student banter when the topic

of the Arab League crops up on the

news. This was certainly the case in our

house when the league was mentioned.

Being of the minority that is interested

in such matters I can only wonder why

they say such things. The Arab League’s

22 members (or 21 since Syria’s suspen-

sion in November 2011) include some

of the richest and poorest, most contro-

versial and most politically challenged

nations on earth. It is a veritable treasure

trove of political decisions, debate and

argument. So why the lethargy? Why

aren’t students more conscious of the

Arab League? It is the league’s lack of

de-facto power that weakens it. If this could be

changed, as it could be with greater interest for the

league then it could be a major power in the geo-

political world and not a side note of the news but a

main headlining feature.

WHY THE LETHARGY?

Is it simply a question of ignorance, or una-

wareness, when we think students don’t know about

the league, is this all a massive miscalculation are

students secretly switched on? When asking a selec-

tion of students the results were depressingly predict-

able, those with courses that came into direct contact

with the Arab League knew of it and those without an

educational requirement to know did not. Typical was

Dan, a first year Business Management student who

was aware of the UN but not of the Arab League; In

answer to the direct question, ‘Do you know what the

Arab League is?’ he laughed and answered in the neg-

ative but followed by guessing correctly that it was, in

his estimation, ‘A collection of Arab states that worked

together to improve the co-ordination of nations’. His

definition was similar to Jack’s, a second year History

and Political Science student, who, choosing his words

carefully defined it as, ‘a group of Middle-Eastern na-

tions working together. But it’s more of a conversation

forum, they just discuss Arab based issues.’ It is, as he

put it, ‘as effective as the UN’.

THE GRIM-REALISM

And there it is; the reason why. Students don’t

care about the Arab League partly as it doesn’t affect

their day-to-day lives and partly as the Arab League

takes too little action to be of relevance. ‘It won’t be

effective until it has a military force…and the chances

of the cohesion of that are low, possible but low’ was

Jack’s thinking. Backing of peace talks in Syria (6th

February 2013) and accepting new governments such as

in Libya (25th August 2011) are serious steps in the

right direction, but the Arab League still retains a hang-

over of the ineffective autocrats club it once was. Whilst

the hope of the Arab Spring has somewhat curtailed into

the summer of the military junta and winter of discon-

tent, the league as progressed enormously when compar-

ing the stagnation of three years ago and the forward-

thinking of now.

WHAT CAN BE DONE?

This model league is a prime example of how to

change these attitudes. More interest of the Arab League

gives it more influence and that in turn helps it develop

more power. The universities’ pro-active position on

this means that we can give students a better understand-

ing of what is currently an obscure topic. So let’s all get

By William Chapman

Twitter : @wxc198

References : See page 10

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ACHIEVING

FREEDOM IS MORE

THAN DEPOSING

AUTOCRATS

While the revolts of the Arab Spring have

demonstrated a popular demand for freedom, for

many women in the countries of the Middle East

and North Africa the most pernicious threat to

freedom comes from within. Cultural or religious

norms, often masquerading under the guise of

“tradition” present the image of a formidable au-

tocrat dictating in all aspects of life. Patriarchy

is a fact of the region; this curtails the rights of

women on paper, and in practice through social

customs, institutions and norms. Director of

Freedom House, David Kramer writes, “The

unequal status of women presents a formidable

obstacle to the overall democratic advancement

of the Middle East and North Africa”.

A NEED FOR ROBUST LEGISLATION

Within the majority of the Arab League

member states, spousal rape is not recognised

in law. Low levels of female literacy combined

with financial dependence leaves women open

to abuse with no formal protection. A recent

study done by the Palestinian Women’s Infor-

mation and Media Centre found that 71% of Pal-

estinian women reported being subject to psy-

chological abuse within their marriage, 67% re-

debating and disputing, because a world without dis-

pute is a boring one, and, without realising it, we might

create a more cohesive Arab world; which is, im-

portantly, relevant to all students. Let this lethargy be-

come pandemonium.

By Benjamin Stone

Twitter : @BenjaminStone13

References : See page 10

ported verbal abuse, 51% reported physical violence

and 14% reported sexual violence. However even

the aid of legislation may not suffice. In cases of non

-marital sexual assault, despite relevant laws being

in place women very rarely report incidents to au-

thorities due to social stigma and “victim blaming”.

There is a particularly moving case of the Palestini-

an 17 year old, Rofayda Qaoud, killed by her mother

for bringing shame upon her family after being

raped and impregnated by her two brothers. Between

2007 and 2012 there were 54 reported honour kill-

ings in Palestine, with the real number likely to be

significantly larger.

Traditional practices such as Female Genital

Mutilation (FGM) and arranged marriages contrib-

ute substantially to maintaining the unequal status of

women in this region. FGM is the practice of remov-

ing the prepubescent girl’s clitoral hood, and usually

clitoris. The World Health Organisation estimates

that 140 million females worldwide are living with

the consequences of this procedure – which can in-

clude severe bleeding, urinary problems, cysts, in-

fections, infertility and increased risk of new-born

death.

FAMILY VALUES

Arranged marriage as well as issues sur-

rounding minimum age of marriage can also be ex-

tremely harmful to women. In 1999 the Yemeni

government abolished legislation which prevented

children (below the age of 15) getting married, as it

stands there is no minimum age. Although the Saudi

Arabian government vowed to introduce a minimum

marriage age in 2010 after the case of an eleven year

old girl winning a divorce from her eighty year old

husband, as yet the statute books remain closed.

Whilst in most Arab states forced marriage is for-

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mally prohibited, in practice these states offer no pro-

tection to young girls pushed into arranged marriages

by their families.

The role of tradition in arranged marriages

and the neglect of girls’ education cannot be over-

emphasised, and contributes substantially to main-

taining the unequal status of women in this region.

The nuclear family is a pervasive ideal, and whilst it

too is rooted in tradition, it does not do as much harm

as the normative gender roles within that unit. The

model domestication of the female is viciously self-

perpetuating. The ability to be financially independ-

ent relies on a good basic education – which is often

neglected on the basis of traditional family values.

Since previous generations have seen female virtue in

domestic prowess, domestic education is emphasised

and sometimes exclusive thus leaving the new gener-

ation little option but to marry and in turn take on this

role.

In the wake of the Arab Spring the on-going

Tunisia – Where

does the catalyst of

the Arab uprisings

head to?

Tunisia was the first among the Arab

countries to shout out for democracy. Its desperate

cry and imperious urge for freedom were not left

unheard, but have set an example for other nations

facing similar unsatisfactory situations. The spark

that ignited the revolution turned into a dead

straight flame, bringing about the so longed swift

in the Tunisian rule. As far as political analysts

and statistics show it, the change turned out to be

not only highly beneficial, but one truly sustaina-

ble, rendering a successfully transitional Tunisia.

However bright prospects the future might have

held, there have already appeared several clouds

By Andreea Gavrila

Twitter : @amgavrila

References : See page 11

to shadow the efforts deposited so far. What truly

shook Tunisia during the past weeks was the assas-

sination of one of the most prominent supporters of

the opposition. This also brought to light people’s

discontent with regard not only to the current gov-

ernment, but to matters of other nature, particularly

economic. Where do Tunisians situate themselves

at the moment?

WHAT MADE IT ALL POSSIBLE?

The revolution in Tunisia had a rather unu-

sual trigger point. Brian Whitaker[1] compares it to

the fall of the communist regime in Romania. After

having exerted their leadership for approximately

the same number of years, both Nicolae

Ceausescu’s and Zine El Abidine Ben Ali’s man-

dates came to abrupt halts due to an apparently in-

significant incident. The harassment of a Hungarian

priest and the forced cessation of a worker’s activity

respectively were the true motives behind the two

revolutions. Quite rapidly, the latter man’s shocking

gesture of setting himself on fire became a symbol

of the uprising, putting forward ardent issues that

have been troubling the Tunisians for years. Despite

their tremendous act of courage, not all the odds

were in their favour.

Although Tunisia has stopped being under

struggle to protect the rights of women must not

be forgotten. In February, Egyptian protesters

took to Tahrir Square again to demand an end to

sexual violence after reports of mob attacks on

women within the Square and its surrounding

area. Those who have seen the Arab Spring

blossom must be self-conscious and not treat the

revolts as ends in themselves. While deposing

autocratic governments is a start, often deeply

rooted cultural norms act as the enemy of equali-

ty and freedom.

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French ruling ever since 1956, it was surpris-

ingly France that wanted to have a say in the

whole revolutionary process. Sami Brahen[2]

depicts the story of the French intervention,

condemning actions of the former Foreign

Minister in the Sarkozy government, as well as

their continuity in the actual cabinet of Fran-

cois Hollande. France has overtly opposed the

revolutionary movement in 2010, and the cur-

rent administration has openly supported the

secular movement. With Algeria[3] also seem-

ing to want to interfere, Tunisia might seem

pressured by different actors in the internation-

al milieu to act according to their will. Never-

theless, Tunisians’ problems are deeply rooted

in their own society.

AN INSIGHT FROM THE INSIDE

What you get is what you see, or so it

was that Tunisia functioned for 23 years. Now,

in the aftermath of the uprising, Tunisians

seem a little uncertain of how to handle their

newly won freedom. One of the main causes of

their clumsiness is the fact that because politi-

cal matters were masterfully hidden and the

press was harshly censored, the Tunisian reali-

ty did not seem so problematic. “While culture

wars have often dominated the media coverage

of Tunisia’s transition, opinion polls have

shown that the economy remains Tunisians’

major preoccupation[8]”, one of the reasons be-

hind the revolution in the first place. Although

the transitional period has been generally rec-

ognized as one of the most successful, it is the

economic sector that needs urgent improve-

ment, fact that causes people to put more pres-

sure on the current government. While it has

attracted foreign investment, notably from Qatar, Tuni-

sia’s financial needs are far from being met and the im-

minent danger of debt is a major issue. What further hin-

dered the process of stabilization of the country were the

turbulent occurrences in its nearest proximity, such as

the conflicts in Lybia[9]. Evidently as it may be that the

former regime was dictatorial, it proffered people with

the false impression of security due to its excessive con-

trol over the country. The change, although much want-

ed and needed, also brought about a diffused air of con-

fusion, which still lingers in the Tunisian society.

THE QUESTIONS RAISED BY THE ENNAHDA

PARTY

Zine El Abidine Ben Ali’s regime was no longer

to be tolerated. But what changes did it actually bring

about? In one of Al Jazeera’s transmissions regarding the

recent tragedy of Belaid’s assassination, Sayyed Ferjani[4]

dismissed commentaries according to which the Ennahda

party would like to follow in the former administration’s

steps. He stated that even if they had been more widely

voted during the last election, they would still have not

desired to rule by themselves, but in a state of recognition

and cooperation. In response to this, Youssef Cherif[5]

argued that while the coalition government was strongly

supported at the beginning, it now finds itself in a deli-

cate position. He is of the opinion that if the Ennahda par-

ty is genuinely interested in turning around Tunisia’s

faith, it should not proceed as Zine El Abidine Ben Ali’s

administration and be in the lead for too long if its actions

are ineffective. When it comes to pointing fingers, mat-

ters fall again into a blurry category, although there are

numerous voices blaming the Ennahda party. It was

Belaid himself[6] who presented his view on this issue, the

night before he died. Youssef Cherif, for instance, said he

does not wish to directly accuse Ennahda of the crime,

but he does believe that the party’s lenient attitude creat-

ed the perfect décor for this incident. His opinions are

shared by the Economist[7], which gives an account of the

exposes of violence that the government did not properly

deal with.

BEHOLD THE FUTURE

Tunisia has obviously come a long way in such a

short period of time. The question posed is whether it will

manage to advance even further, or it will descend ab-

ruptly. There are more and more tensions building up

across the country, as extremists seem uncontrollable.

How will the Ennahda party deal with everything? Is it

["Good News, Bad News;" copyright Khalil Bendib]

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By Paula Stoleru

Twitter : @PaulaStoleru

References : See page 11

possible that the same spark that ignited the revolution (Mohamed Bouazizi’s martyr) will represent its

doom (in the form of Belaid’s death)?

Was the Israeli

airstrike a reaction to

an increasingly stronger

Arab League?

It seems that we are moving away from the bipolar

world of the Cold War era towards a more com-

plex, multipolar international arena. However, are

these newly emerging regional organisations strong

enough to change the power dynamics of the inter-

national relations? It just might be the case, espe-

cially when it comes to the Arab League and its

recent development. Whether you’re a supporter of

the Arab League or you tend to analyse it with a

more critical eye, we all have to admit that the Ar-

ab Spring has gained a lot of momentum and has

put the Arab League into the limelight.

PRE-EMPTIVE ATTACK OR A VIOLATION

OF INTERNATIONAL LAWS?

The commotion stirred by reports of an Israeli air-

strike in Syria, near Damascus, on the 30th of Jan-

uary on what allegedly was a site for developing

chemical weapons might be evidence towards the

claim that the Arab League is becoming increas-

ingly powerful. Whilst Israeli officials have kept

silent about the attack (Greenberg, 2013), there is

little doubt they weren’t behind it, since the site

was seen as a security threat to Israel. Only a few

days earlier, Prime Minister Benjamin Netanyahu

raised his concern that the instability in Syria could

enable the Islamist militants or the Iranian-backed

Hezbollah militant group from Lebanon to take

possession of these advanced weapons

(Greenberg, 2013). One could argue that this

represented an imminent threat to Israel’s se-

curity, but does that make it legitimate? As

PhD Doctoral Researcher Olivia Whitworth

from University of Birmingham tells us, it is

not necessarily a question of authority or legit-

imacy as when ‘Israel in particular feels

threatened, with its legacy and its history, it

tends to act, it does not necessarily tend to

think’. Historically, Israel has been known to

act less diplomatically at times, focusing more

on asserting its power in order to gain status in

the international arena rather than maintaining

relations with the neighbouring countries. In

the case of Israel and Syria, their very tumul-

tuous history, especially because of the Golan

Heights as Olivia Whitworth highlights, might

have influenced Israel’s action.

DIPLOMATIC RELATIONS

(..OR LACK OF)

However, Israel’s recent strike has less to do

with their common past and may be viewed as

a consequence of present events, with Israel

labelling Syria as a national threat because of

its political turmoil and acting accordingly.

Although there is little risk of military retalia-

tion from Syria at the moment, this event

might mark the beginning of further complica-

tions in that region. As Olivia Whitworth men-

tions, it is these ‘spiralling conflicts and per-

ceptions, that make the Middle East as compli-

cated as it is’. Since Syria is considered by

most academics a failing state in the midst of

civil war, possession or development of ad-

vanced chemical weapons would probably not

be a good idea, but whether this action was

legitimate or not, is a question of further aca-

demic debate.

Irrespective of the legitimacy of Israel’s ac-

tion, this can be interpreted as a reaction to the

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emergence of a more powerful and unified Ar-

ab League. Whilst Israel is not isolated interna-

tionally, maintaining a very strong relationship

with the US which was aware of the strike

(Sherwood, 2013), it is isolated regionally. As

Olivia Whitworth observes, they are surrounded

a league which is ‘cooperating and intentionally

excluding Israel for historical or socially con-

structed reasons’. As long as Israel will be sur-

rounded by what it is now perceived as a strong-

er and more unified league, there is a chance it

will act offensively in order to reassert itself as a

powerful state.

INCREASING CO-ORDINATION

WITHIN THE ARAB LEAGUE?

Albeit Syria has been suspended from the Arab

League since November 2011 (Batty and Shen-

ker, 2011), the strike against it prompted imme-

diate responses from other members of the Arab

League and support has been obvious. Egypt

has condemned Israel for its action and the lead-

er of Lebanese resistance movement Hezbollah

labelled the attack as ‘barbaric aggres-

sion’ (cited in Presstv, 2013). Whilst this may

be seen as the remains of historical alliances

with Syria, or more likely, against Israel, this

coordinated reaction is undoubtedly a sign that

cooperation has and is constantly increasing

within the Arab League.

In light of the recent events, it can be said that

the Arab League has stepped up its game and

has been trying to assert itself as a united inter-

national player. Technological advancements

have enabled the development of more efficient

Picture: Majed Hamdan/AP

channels of communication between the member

states and have played a crucial role in the in-

creasing cooperation within the Arab League.

Olivia Whitworth argues that ‘increasing coopera-

tion leads to interdependence and that makes them

a more powerful unit and that makes them more of

a threat to their enemies’ and Israel's strike might

be evidence of the growing power of the Arab

League. From a post-structuralist point of view, the

Arab League will continue to survive as long as

they maintain a shared agenda. Discourse is the

key element which unites the culturally diverse

members but whether or not it will prove to be

stronger than the internal conflicts almost every

state seems to struggle with, is still an open debate.

However, the fact that the Arab League has sur-

vived for this long despite the internal conflicts it

had to surpass and the increasing cooperation and

coordination in their responses might point to-

wards the idea that the Arab League is growing

stronger. If they continue in this manner they

might start changing the rules of the game and the

power dynamics of the international arena alto-

gether.

DON'T FORGET TO USE TWITTER.

#UoBMAL13

All the best tweets will be published here

NEW!NEW!

UoBMALUoBMAL

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SCHEDULE OF THE CONFERENCE

8th March 2013

15.30-15.45 Registration [Guild Council Chambers]

15.45-17.00 Opening Ceremony

17.00-18.30 Committee Session 1

20.00 – 23.00 Formal – Muirhead Tower – PostGrad Common Room

9th March 2013

10.00-12.00 Committee Session 2

12.00-13.00 Lunch

13.00-14.45 Committee Session 3

14.45-15.00 Coffee Break

15.00-17.00 Committee Session 4

10th March 2013

10.30-12.30 Committee Session 5

12.30-13.30 Lunch

13.30-15.30 Committee Session 6

15.30 - 15.45 Break

15.45-16:15 Crisis Round Up [Guild Council Chambers]

16:15 - 17:00 Closing Ceremony [Guild Council Chambers]

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Lethargy & Pandemonium

The Arab League’s lack of relevance and effectiveness to students

and how can this be changed?

-Interview with E. Hearne (2nd Year Chemistry, University of Birmingham).

-D. Batty & J. Shenker, Syria suspended from Arab League, http://www.guardian.co.uk/world/2011/

nov/12/syria-suspended-arab-league, Accessed 25/02/2013.

-Interview with D. Snowdon (1st Year Business Management, University of Birmingham).

Interview with J. Berry (2nd Year History and Political Science, University of Birmingham).

-Associated Press, Russia, Arab League offer to broker Syria peace talks; Syrian government, opposition

urged to sit down at negotiating table, http://www.cbc.ca/news/world/story/2013/02/20/syria-russia-arab-

league-peace-talks.html, Accessed 21/02/2013.

Achieving Freedom is more than Deposing Autocrats

-Ministry of Women's Affairs., 2011. National Strategy to Combat Violence Against Women. [online]

Ministry of Women's Affairs. Available at <http://www.unwomen.org/wp-content/uploads/2011/01/

Palestinian-Authority_National-Strategy-to-Combat-Violence-Against-Women-2011-2019-EN.pdf>

-World Health Organisation., 2013. Female Genital Mutilation. [online] World Health Organisation.

Available at <http://www.who.int/mediacentre/factsheets/fs241/en/>

-Graeme Reid., 2013. The trouble with tradition: When “values” Trample Over Rights. [online] Human

Rights Watch. Available at <www.hrw.org/world-report/2013/essays/trouble-tradition>

-The Telegraph (undisclosed author)., 2013. Saudi Arabia to introduce minimum marriage age after 11-

year-old wins divorce. [online] The Telegraph. Available at <http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/

worldnews/middleeast/saudiarabia/7616836/Saudi-Arabia-to-introduce-minimum-marriage-age-after-11-

year-old-wins-divorce.html>

-Your Middle East (undisclosed author)., 2013, Egyptian women raise their voices against sexual vio-

lence. [online] Your Middle East. Available at <http://www.yourmiddleeast.com/news/egyptian-women-

raise-their-voice-against-sexual-violence_12962>

-Frank Crimi., 2012. Palestinian “Honour Killings” Rising. [online] Frontpagemag. Available at <http://

frontpagemag.com/2012/frank-crimi/palestinian-honor-killings-rising/>

-Freedom House (undisclosed author)., 2011. As Reforms Sweep the Middle East, the Role of Women is

Crucial. [online] Freedom House. Available at <http://www.freedomhouse.org/article/reforms-sweep-

middle-east-role-women-crucial>

REFERENCES

11 UoBMALeve

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Tunisia – Where does the catalyst of the Arab uprisings head to? - Whitaker, Brian, 2010. “How a man setting fire to himself sparked an uprising in Tunisia”. [online] Available at: http://www.guardian.co.uk/commentisfree/2010/dec/28/tunisia-ben-ali [Accessed on 28 February 2013] - Brahem, Sami, 2013. “Let Tunisia build a democracy, free from French interference”. [online] Avail-able at: http://www.guardian.co.uk/commentisfree/2013/feb/17/tunisia-needs-time-democracy-free-french [Accessed on 28 February 2013] - Byrne, Eileen, 2013. “Tunisia's ruling Islamist party Ennahda names new prime minister”. [online] Available at: http://www.guardian.co.uk/world/2013/feb/22/tunisia-ennahda-prime-minister [Accessed on 28 February 2013] - AlJazeeraEnglish, 2013. Inside Story - Tunisia in turmoil. [video online] Available at: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=yVESZq4qEpM [Accessed on 28 February 2013] - Byrne, Eileen, 2013. “Tunisian opposition leader shot dead”. [online] Available at: http://www.guardian.co.uk/world/2013/feb/06/tunisian-politician-shot-dead [Accessed on 28 February 2013] - Anon, 2013. “A crisis in Tunisia - Murder most foul”. [online] Available at: http://www.economist.com/news/middle-east-and-africa/21571474-assassination-secular-opposition-leader-forcing-islamist-led [Accessed on 28 February 2013] - UNA-UK, WITAN Media 2013. Churchill, Erik, Playing by the rules. [online] Available at: http://

www.una.org.uk/content/arab-spring-prospects-arab-world-2013 [Accessed on 28 February 2013]

Was the Israeli airstrike a reaction to an increasingly stronger Arab

League?

- Aljazeera, 04/02/2013 ‘Turkish PM slams Israel over attack on Syria’. Available at: http://

www.aljazeera.com/news/middleeast/2013/02/20132317737493423.html

- Batty D, and Shenker, J. (2013) ‘Syria suspended from Arab League’ The Guardian, 12/11/2011. Avail-

able at: http://www.guardian.co.uk/world/2011/nov/12/syria-suspended-arab-league

- Greenberg, J. (2013) ‘Hezbollah, Russia condemn Israeli airstrike inside Syria’ The Washington Post,

30/01/2013. Available at: http://www.washingtonpost.com/world/middle_east/reports-israeli-aircraft-

fired-missile-along-lebanon-syria-border/2013/01/30/60fab2be-6adf-11e2-ada3-

d86a4806d5ee_story.html

- Olivia Whitworth, interviewed on 21/02/2013, University of Birmingham.

- PressTV, 04/02/2013, ‘Turkey slams Israeli airstrike near Syrian capital’. Available at: http://

www.presstv.ir/detail/2013/02/04/287160/turkey-condemns-israel-attack-in-syria/

- Sherwood, H., (2013) ‘Russia condemns Israeli air strike on Syria’ The Guardian, 31/01/2013. Availa-

ble at: http://www.guardian.co.uk/world/2013/jan/31/russia-condemns-israeli-strike-syria