UNODC Topic BJuvenile Justice ReformASEAN Topic AThe War on Drugs

PacificMUN 2020Backgrounder

Dare to Speak

Letter from the Director Dear Delegates,

It is with great excitement that I welcome you to ASEAN at PacificMUN 2020! My name is Annalisa Mueller-Eberstein, and as a senior at the International Community School, I have the honor of serving as your Director. Joining me will be my Chair Ben Kang and my Assistant Director, Jasmine Lin. This conference will mark the beginning of the end as we march into 2020 and the start of ‘real life’ as we enter college (or maybe just another year of High School). As my first Canadian conference two years ago, and as the origin place of my first ‘Best Delegate’ award, PacificMUN holds a special place in my heart—and I will never forget lugging my bags through the snow or the invigorating debate in my committee.

Collaboration remains important as the key to a more peaceful and prosperous future in the real United Nations, and it is our responsibility to encourage this principle throughout our lives. The people and nations you represent will have differing stances on these topics among others, but ultimately overcome these differences and create invaluable change. Similarly, we hope this conference will inspire you will be inspired to seek ways to help in our communities and that you will gain valuable knowledge about the modern world.

In my time participating in Model United Nations, my experiences have been amazing, in large part due to the dais. Therefore, it is a tremendous honor to have the opportunity to lead this committee and contribute to the community that made me who I am. I sincerely wish to provide each of you with an experience as fulfilling as the ones I have had, so please feel free to contact us if you have any questions or concerns. We wish you all the best. See you in January!

Regards,

Annalisa Mueller-Eberstein Director of ASEAN PacificMUN 2020

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Committee Overview   On 8 August 1967, five leaders—the Foreign Ministers of Indonesia, Malaysia, the Philippines, Singapore and Thailand—came together in the main hall of the Department of Foreign Affairs building in Bangkok, Thailand to sign a document, thus creating the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN). Though initially meant to counter the growing threat of communism, its role has expanded with the end of the Cold War and the addition of a few new member states. Currently, the Association of Southeast Asian Nations is comprised of ten member states: Brunei, Cambodia, Indonesia, Laos, Malaysia, Myanmar, Philippines, Singapore, Thailand, and Vietnam. These nations work together to host diplomatic missions and facilitate international trade on a global stage where Asia is often dominated by Chinese interests. 1

As a body promoting intergovernmental cooperation and facilitating economic, political, military, educational and socio-cultural integration, ASEAN plays a vital role in the rise of Asia. After all, 'One Vision, One Identity, One Community,' that is the ASEAN way. Representing over 620 million people in a turbulent world, ASEAN’s main focuses are on facilitating peaceful summits and using cooperative bargaining on an international level. Though ASEAN has achieved much in the way of trade agreements and world-opening travel agreements, one of their self-proclaimed greatest achievements is the opening of Burma after a few rounds of constructive engagement and non-confrontation. 2

Currently, one of its largest challenges lie in the South China Sea where member nations could not agree on a joint statement or settle their conflicting claims which has led to criticisms of ASEAN’s alleged ‘inaction’ in the face of adversity. Another common criticism connected to non-interference brought up by some human rights watch organizations is that this attitude has reinforced authoritative governments in the region leading to an increase in human rights violations, the opposite of what ASEAN was created to accomplish.While ASEAN is able to pass joint statements, use sanctions, and decide on future legislative goals through their conferences, their reach remains limited. As the fourth largest economy and the third-largest workforce in the world, ASEAN has potential and power—the question is, will they be able to come together and wield it?

 1 www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-30015680. 2 www.nti.org/learn/treaties-and-regimes/association-southeastasian-nations-asean/.

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Topic A: The War on Drugs Introduction  A 'war on drugs' is characterized by a series of actions meant to aggressively end the illegal drug trade. Popularized by the U.S. government in the early 1970s, these campaigns involve foreign military aid and vast sums of money to end the import, manufacture, sale, and use of illegal drugs. In Southeast Asia, an area where methamphetamine seizures were up 400% from 2008 to 2013, governments have battled the rising tide of trade through a hardline stance complete with police raids, forced urine testing and, in 11 countries, drug detention centers. 3

While most of the world’s attention has been focused on the carnage of the Philippine Drug War, Duterte is far from the only example of a hardline approach to drug usage as part of Southeast Asia’s ‘War on Drugs'. Since Phillipine President Rodrigo Duterte took office in 2016, there have been an estimated 30,000 drug-war affiliated deaths (though the Philippine government claims that number is only 5,000). Jakarta-based non-profit LBH Masyarakat estimates that the number of extrajudicial killings in Indonesia jumped from 17 in 2016 to nearly 100 last year. In Cambodia, Prime Minister Hun Sen’s six-month narcotics crackdown has led to more than 8,000 arbitrary arrests in 2017. All these arrests and killings are having a negative impact on the community as tourism suffers, the streets get more violent, and human rights are left at the wayside. As Ruth Dreifuss, the Chair of the Global Commission on Drug Policy puts it, all these extrajudicial killings and arbitrary arrests are undermining “the law and the credibility of those who support it and enforce it and result in non-cohesive societies and weakened communities.” 4

Figure 1: A map of the ASEAN member states along with the statistics for one of the most common drugs in the area, methamphetamines. Graphic by Jarrod Fankhauser. 5

3thediplomat.com/2016/05/asias-war-on-drugs/. 4 newnaratif.com/journalism/the-war-on-drugs-in-southeast-asia/. 5 www.abc.net.au/news/2019-08-04/war-ondrugs-southeast-asia-has-it-failed/11349012.

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Timeline October 18, 1860 - China loses the Second Opium War, leading to the forced legalization and sale of opium within Asia. 6

February 26, 1909 - The Shanghai Opium Commission convenes to discuss the growing trafficking of opium as the first attempt at regulating drug trade in Asia. 7

1912 - China bans opium production, forcing production to shift to the Southeast Asian nations that now make up the Golden Triangle (Myanmar, Laos, Thailand).

Early 1950s - An informal alliance between the US and drug warlords in Asia form to ‘combat communism,’ an alliance that some believe led to the entrenchment of drug power in the region.

1975 - Malaysia first applies capital punishment for a drug-related offense, setting a very strict precedent that other ASEAN nations soon follow. 8

June 26, 1976 - Foreign Ministers of the then five ASEAN member states agree on the ‘ASEAN Declaration of Principles to Combat the Abuse of Narcotics Drugs’ and the establishment of the ASEAN Narcotic Desk. 9

1990s - China launches its ‘war on drugs’ and opens detention facilities to imprison drug users where they are "re-educated" through forced labor.

1993 - The Thai army, with the US Drug Enforcement Agency (DEA), destroys numerous poppy fields in the Golden Triangle in an effort to curb drug usage and production.

6 www.pbs.org/wgbh/pages/frontline/shows/heroin/etc/history.html. 7www.unodc.org/unodc/en/frontpage/this-day-in-history-the-shanghai-opium-commission-1909.html. 8www.scmp.com/news/asia/southeast-asia/article/3016471/malaysia-plans-decriminalise-small-time-drug-use-and-treat. 9cil.nus.edu.sg/wp-content/uploads/formidable/18/1976-ASEAN-Declaration-of-Principles-to-Combat-the-Abuse-of-Narcotic-Drugs.pdf.

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2003 - A controversial crackdown on drugs begins in Thailand, killing more than 2,000 suspects. This ultimately creates the largest prison population in ASEAN. 10

2015 - ASEAN establishes a joint declaration to work towards a ‘Drug Free ASEAN’ as a high-priority action item. However, that goal was not elaborated on further.

June 30, 2016 - Rodrigo Duterte takes office in the Philippines with a severe anti-drugs platform, bringing back capital punishment and extrajudicial killings. 11

2017 - Cambodia begins its minor drug war, leading to a 30% increase in the prison population.

2018 - Bangladesh launched a Philippine-style ‘war on drugs,’ resulting in more than 100 deaths and 12,000 drug arrests in its first 15 days. 12

10 www.bbc.com/news/world-asia15641745. 11 www.hrw.org/tag/philippines-war-drugs. 12 www.cnn.com/2018/06/08/asia/bangladesh-drug-war-intl/index.html.

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Historical Analysis 

Beginning in 1860 with China’s forced legalization of opium following its loss in the Second Opium War, Southeast Asia has been exploited by European powers and has become a notorious hotspot of drug trade, both legal and illegal. Despite their newfound independence, however, many nations are still dealing with the lingering after-effects of the colonial period. After China banned opium production in 1912, the drug issue compounded as the opiate production focus shifted to the Southeast Asian nations desperate for economic growth and independence. With the support of the US under the guise of anti-communist agendas, many drug warlords, like the prolific Khun Sa, became entrenched in the societies of the Golden Triiangle as their power grew. In fact, by 1974, 80% of the heroin in New York was from the Golden Triangle. In response to this sharp rise in drug trafficking, numerous international and local counter-measures were taken. On the macro-level, in 1976, numerous ASEAN nations came together to establish a united front and strategy against drug trafficking. On a more localized level, Malaysia became the pioneering nation to use capital punishment against drug-related offenders. 13

At the turn of the century, as the ASEAN nations became more established, joint efforts and crackdowns became more common after public demands for further action. The US-Thailand mission in the mid-1990s culminated in the capture of the Golden Triangle’s kingpin, who was allegedly responsible for about 70% of the exported drugs. This, however, ultimately proved relatively unsuccessful as smaller dealers and drug lords rose to fill the power vacuum. While opium production declined for a few months, it was back to its usual high within the same year. Thailand also shortly began government crackdowns on drug users and sellers. With more than 2,000 suspects killed in the first few months, the program quickly became controversial—despite the government blaming the majority of the killing on criminal gang activity. While the western community and human rights groups criticized the campaign, it was still widely popular as many Thai citizens applauded the tough actions, believing it was just retribution for the pain and suffering drugs have caused the community. This public support from Thailand ultimately lead to the initiation of many drug-wars across the region as populist candidates swept into offices of power in Southeast Asia. However, a few years after the initial campaign, nothing had changed; the prison population threatened to overwhelm the governments. Subsequently, exports of opiate products increased and Asia lost that battle. 14

Now, other nations have attempted their own ‘war on drugs’ with much political success, but that has resulted in a prison population too large to handle and allegedly the loss of thousands of innocent lives. In recent years, ASEAN has returned to the drawing table to establish a new declaration on the topic of drug trafficking. The committee has declared the opioid crisis a high-priority action item and increased joint operations across the region. Even still, much work beyond harsh ‘war on drugs’ actions still remains to be completed if ASEAN is to be a truly drug-free area.

13 www.pbs.org/wgbh/pages/frontline/shows/heroin/etc/history.html. 14 www.aljazeera.com/indepth/opinion/war-drugs-asia-succeeded-190218160811303.html.

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Current Situation 

Though many in the international community have fought back against the harsh criminalization of drugs, these types of programs have remained incredibly popular across Southeast Asia, as evidenced by the winners of recent elections and an increase in extrajudicial killings in the region. Despite numerous published studies conducted in Singapore, Indonesia and Malaysia verifying that retaining the death penalty for drug offences have little to no deterrent effect on trafficking and the enormous death toll, polls indicate roughly 75% of Filipinos continue to support Duterte’s drug war. Even after it was revealed that over half of the 2,500 killed in Thailand’s campaign in 2003 had no links to the drug trade, the populous still supported the same harsh policies. This is because in these societies, drugs and drug users are demonized and criminalized. The general populous has seen the negative effects of drug use and the cartels that traffic them and believe any efforts to punish for the damage caused to valid and viable. After all, Singapore’s strict approach arguable is a direct link to their current place as a prospering nation. 15

On the other hand, some nations have plans in place for a more rehabilitative path. Thai and Laotian authorities have been working together to identify and capture major drug traffickers in the region, focusing on, and criminalizing the sellers rather than the users. Meanwhile, both Singapore and Malaysia have shifted away from the mandatory death penalty for drug offences; Malaysia abolished it completely and Singaporepermitted the use of judges’ discretion in cases where a specific criteria is met. While these nations, in addition to Indonesia, Thailand, and Vietnam still allow for other physical punishments, this is a step in the right direction. Myanmar and Thailand have taken this even further and are developing programs that focus on rehabilitation and the increase of service and opportunity to underrepresented communities. For example, Myanmar recently replaced many drug user prison sentences with community service. This policy has helped reduce recidivism rates and the overall prison population, thus sparing resources for use elsewhere. As Jose Ramos-Horta, former Timor-Leste president and now a member of the Global Commission on Drug Policy writes, “staying the course would signal that governments accept that the numbers of people killed on the basis of mere suspicion, and with outright impunity, detained in the name of drug rehabilitation, and held in exceedingly overcrowded prisons will continue their inexorable rise”. 16

15 thediplomat.com/2019/06/the-real-failure-of-southeast-asias-drug-wars/. 16 Ibid.

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However, this is the case for just a few of the ASEAN nations, and such change is becoming increasingly difficult to implement as public opinion on drug users are sours; they are slandered and referred to as criminals. Instead, some nations are following the successes of China and Singapore and are doubling down on harsh punishments. From 2016 to 2019, there has been a re-initiation of the drug wars in Bangladesh, the Philippines, Indonesia, and Cambodia as their newly elected leaders promise to crack down. For example, in Indonesia, there is a proposed narcotics law that would give the national anti-narcotics agency wider powers, a larger budget,wiretapping capabilities, and access to more prison facilities for drug offenders. Meanwhile, ASEAN nations, with help from the international community have been working hard to focus on the main drug traffickers and producers in combination with the drug-users. This has led to numerous initiatives and operations as the Golden Triangle nations raze poppy fields and hotspots of trade (like Vietnam) ramp up security to confiscate illegal imports of methamphetamines and opiates. The UNODC recently extended the Regional Programme for Southeast Asia into 2019. However, these efforts to curb drug trafficking remain difficult as the region remains chaotic with many areas lacking proper organization and infrastructure to combat the drug threat. 17

Figure 2: A "die-in" organized by Philippine protestors to call attention to the rising number of extrajudicial killings related to the ongoing “War on Drugs.” In front of the Philippine National Police headquarters in suburban

Quezon. Originally published in the Associated Press. 18

17 thcasean.org/read/articles/349/Rethinking-the-Current-ASEANs-War-on-Drugs-Approach. 18www.thejakartapost.com/seasia/2016/10/18/southeast-asianpolice-happy-with-philippines-drug-war.html.

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United Nations Involvement Shortly following its initiation, ASEAN began working with the United Nations. In 2002, the first ASEAN-UN Summit was held to discuss peace, security, human resources development, and South-South cooperation. 2005 saw the second summit and a focus on broader cooperation between the two organizations following an increased involvement of specialized United Nations agencies in key development issues. In partnership with the UN Office on Drugs on Crime (UNODC), ASEAN has conducted some research into drug use and policy—usually to answer one question—“do brutal anti-drug campaigns reduce drug markets?”. They found that despite costly eradication efforts, illicit plant cultivation has persisted in most areas, and in some, increased. UN involvement has, at times, been more direct; it was the UN that helped spur Laos to begin its opium poppy eradication program in the 1990s. 19

In 2007, ASEAN and the United Nations signed a Memorandum of Understanding providing for regular consultation on matters of strategic importance. In 2011, as part of the fourth summit, the ‘Joint Declaration on Comprehensive Partnership Between ASEAN and the UN’ was adopted. This lead to an increased focus on joint planning and reporting to ensure a productive partnership. An example of this close partnership presents itself through the UNODC, an organization that has been working closely with ASEAN countries to help monitor drug trends and provide expert advice on detection, investigation, and public health responses. In 2016, the UNODC helped host 158 workshops, 61 training courses and 344 related activities that resulted in reaching more than 4000 from across 25 countries. 20

More recently on April 3, 2019, the Thai Government and the UNODC gathered high-level officials of the ASEAN region for two days of border security negotiations in Bangkok, with the topic of drug trafficking as a high-priority item. At the gathering, attendees reviewed the latest information on transnational organized crime, considered how effective ASEAN integration and infrastructure plans are, and debated potential solutions to insecure borders. ‘Synchronizing Trade and Security Plans in Support of ASEAN 2025’, also the title of the conference, has become a Thai and ASEAN priority, especially as cases of drug trafficking and cultivation continue to grow in the region. A few decades ago, the kingpins of the Golden Triangle reigned supreme. Now, not much has changed besides their name and an increase in US support. In such a climate, this summit is especially important. In November, the ASEAN Ministerial Meeting on Transnational Crime and the ASEAN Summit will occur, and Thailand will be able to present its border management strategy backed by the UN. 21

19 www.un.org/press/en/2003/socnar860.doc.htm. 20 www.unaprcm.org/asean-un-partnership. 21 www.unodc.org/southeastasiaandpacific/en/2019/04/high-level-asean-region-border-security/story.html.

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Possible Solutions 

Developing Punitive Policies to Combat the Drug Problem The most common approach in Southeast Asia is a punitive approach of arrest and imprisonment for minor crimes. This stands in stark contrast with the global community, which emphasizes the improvement of the public health system, decriminalization of drug use, and effective prevention. The cornerstones of these punitive policies lie in capital punishment and extrajudicial killings for drug affiliations, and while many in the West criticize these methods as barbaric, its supporters point to the successes of China and its popular support. After all, China has effectively relocated the drug problem southwards through their punitive policies. Since 2015, many drug trafficking groups previously centered in China have fled elsewhere with less regulation and tight law enforcement. 22

Focusing Efforts on Rehabilitation Than Retribution On the other hand, there is the example of Colombia, the poster-nation of the global ‘War on Drugs’. After repeatedly failed attempts of punitive action, President Juan Manuel Santos began to consider a more humane solution to tackle the main roots of the problem, rather than focusing on a prohibitionist method. While it is still in its early days, the success of this program (and others executed in Portugal, etc.) indicate that this may be a better route for decreasing drug use and dependence. The basis of the argument in favor of remediation and decriminalization lies in numerous studies proving that retaining the death penalty for drug offences has little to no deterrent effect on trafficking. According to statistics released by the Singaporean government, the number of drug abusers in the city-state nearly doubled from 2003 to 2016, despite some of the most stringent anti-drug laws. However, this path is often criticized for being too idealistic; to many, drug use is a severe criminal act and should be punished—not rewarded with help and comfort. 23

Developing Government-Funded Welfare Systems Perhaps a less controversial option relies on cutting the flow at the source by employing community-based policies of government subsidies, government-backed infrastructure, and welfare systems. For some, the drug trade and poppy cultivation is the only way to survive. Perhaps they were born into a disadvantaged community and the drug trade was the path with the highest reward to get them out. These methods have been becoming more popular in recent years with governments and NGOs helping transform poppy towns into tourist towns, rather than destroying a community’s livelihood by razing their main source of income. Despite their arguable success, growth of these programs remain limited as government struggle to set up and provide for complex systems of economic incentives and proper infrastructure.

22 www.brookings.edu/research/asiainternational-drug-trafficking-and-u-s-china-counternarcotics-cooperation/. 23 thcasean.org/read/articles/349/Rethinking-the-Current-ASEANs-War-on-Drugs-Approach.

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Bloc Positions

Strict Nations Nations that are part of this bloc use punitive measures to combat the drug problem. Often, these nations model themselves after China and the United States, frequently sentencing criminals with the death penalty or giving out long prison sentences. Governments from these nations are strict with drug-related crimes because they have a political agenda. For example, Cambodia took on a zero-tolerance policy towards drugs because it allowed for democratic and political repressions for the upcoming national election. Thus, it is important to note that actions taken by these governments–such as Brunei, Philippines, Cambodia, and Laos–are influenced by a large population that does not support the consumption or production of illicit drugs. Reformist Nations Despite the hard actions taken by nations such as the Philippines or Cambodia, some governments do not support the use of punitive measures. These nations have made reforms in their drug laws to prioritize rehabilitation rather than retribution. Some collective actions are a decrease in extrajudicial killings, the phasing out of the death penalty, reducing corporal punishment, and shortening prison sentences. Most of these nations within this bloc are often the heart of the drug trade in the South East Asian region. Despite their progressive efforts to emphasize rehabilitation, their laws often neglect to prevent the sale of drugs in their area. For example, Myanmar’s government redoubled its efforts to stop the drug trade at its source. However, this is proving rather ineffective in the lawless jungles on its eastern border. Meanwhile, on the home front, Myanmar is moving towards decriminalization and emphasizing a rehabilitation approach. Nations within this bloc–such as Vietnam, Myanmar, and Thailand–should urge the Strict countries to discontinue their war on drugs and should advise the committee to find a way to discourage drug trafficking in SouthEast Asia. Bi-partisan Nations The bipartisan actors within this committee are in favour of or has implemented both reformist and strict policies. Their crucial role within the committee would be to act as tie-breakers; no strict or reformist bloc will be able to pass a resolution without their support. This provides these states with the unique ability to bargain for policy amendments in return for their vote. This bargaining power is extended by the fact that many of these nations are economic powerhouses, and hold enough capital to house more prisoners, operate more drug rehabilitation programs, and to dispatch more anti-drug task forces. An example of a nation within this bloc would be Singapore. Known for its strict laws and staunch adoption of a zero-tolerance approach to drugs, Singapore continues to allow for capital punishment and the death penalty for most drug offenses. However, the death penalty is no longer mandatory. Instead, judges may evaluate each proceeding on a case-by-case basis and implement a suitable sentence. Singapore may use its bargaining ability to bolster its burgeoning tourism industry, for it will be in its best interest to urge ASEAN nations to focus on the safety of its citizens, and the improvement of infrastructure.

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Discussion Questions 1. What policies and actions have been successful in your nation?

2. How can economics and supply/demand factors influence possible policy ideas?

3. How much international support can you garner for various actions, and from where?

4. Who is most affected by the drug trade? Why?

5. What are the ripple effects of drug use and drug trafficking?

6. What is ASEAN’s role in this issue and in possible solutions?

7. How can ASEAN effectively balance security and human rights?

8. What makes your nation unique, and how might that impact your approach? Consider natural resources, geographical location, etc.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

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Further Reading For more information on the history and current state of the Southeast Asian War on Drugs. While most of the information is general to the region, there are a few specifics cited. The author is a freelance journalist who focuses on social and economic issues in developing countries. https://newnaratif.com/journalism/the-war-on-drugs-in-southeast-asia/ For a general overview of ASEAN, how it was founded, and its mission. While the article does not focus on drug-related policy, it is still helpful in understanding how and why ASEAN operates. https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-30015680 An analysis of the past decade of the War on Drugs with specific references to programs in individual nations along with suggestions for future actions in the region. https://www.aljazeera.com/indepth/opinion/war-drugs-asia-succeeded-190218160811303.html A very detailed look into the role ASEAN plays in the global community and its recent actions pertaining to a variety of topics. The source is a non-nuclear proliferation website and foundation. https://www.nti.org/learn/treaties-and-regimes/association-southeast-asian-nations-asean/ A deeper look into the War on Drugs in the Philippines, currently the one with the most global attention that has recently also served as a blueprint for other nations in the region seeking a punitive policy path. Comes complete with links to different aspects and campaigns of the overall ‘war.’ https://www.hrw.org/tag/philippines-war-drugs An examination into the extrajudicial killings in Bangladesh as part of their new hard-liner anti-drugs campaign. While including factual reports and statistics, the article also includes first hand accounts and stories of people losing their loved ones. https://www.cnn.com/2018/06/08/asia/bangladesh-drug-war-intl/index.html

A report by the UNODC on the drug crisis in Southeast Asia. Complete with recent statistics, helpful graphics, and case studies, this presentation is very helpful in learning about the topic at hand. https://www.unodc.org/documents/ungass2016/CND_Preparations/Brown_bag_lunch/Asia/2014.11.19_CND_preparation_for_UNGASS_2016_final.pdf

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NARCOTIC DRUGS.” Center for International Law, 26 June 1976, cil.nus.edu.sg/wp-content/uploads/formidable/18/1976-ASEAN-Declaration-of-Principles-to-Combat-the-Abuse-of-Narcotic-Drugs.pdf.

Amon, Joseph. “Laos' Murky War on Drugs.” Human Rights Watch, The Diplomat, 16 Sept. 2015, www.hrw.org/news/2011/10/12/laos-murky-war-drugs.

“ASEAN-UN Partnership.” Asia-Pacific Regional Coordination Mechanism, United Nations, 1 Apr. 2019, www.unaprcm.org/asean-un-partnership.

“Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN).” Nuclear Threat Initiative - Ten Years of Building a Safer World , CNS, 26 Mar. 2019, www.nti.org/learn/treaties-and-regimes/association-southeast-asian-nations-asean/.

Balasegaram, Mangai. “Asia's War on Drugs.” The Diplomat, The Diplomat, 12 May 2016, thediplomat.com/2016/05/asias-war-on-drugs/.

Coca, Nithin. “The War on Drugs in Southeast Asia.” New Naratif, 29 Jan. 2018, newnaratif.com/journalism/the-war-on-drugs-in-southeast-asia/.

Gupta, Swati, and Sugam Pokharel. “Bangladesh Defends War on Drugs as Body Count Mounts.” CNN , Cable News Network, 8 June 2018, www.cnn.com/2018/06/08/asia/bangladesh-drug-war-intl/index.html.

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Luong, Hai Thanh. “Vietnam and the Mekong's Synthetic Drug Epidemic.” The Diplomat, The Diplomat, 2 May 2019, thediplomat.com/2019/05/vietnam-and-the-mekongs-synthetic-drug-epidemic/.

“Malaysia Plans to Decriminalise Small-Time Drug Use to Battle Addiction.” South China Morning Post, Associated Press, 28 June 2019, www.scmp.com/news/asia/southeast-asia/article/3016471/malaysia-plans-decriminalise-small-time-drug-use-and-treat.

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Tanjong, Achong. “Brunei, Labuan in Joint War on Drugs.” Borneo Bulletin Online, Borneo Bulletin Online, 14 Apr. 2017, borneobulletin.com.bn/brunei-labuan-joint-war-drugs/.

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Umapornsakula, Akara. “United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime.” Record Levels of Synthetic Drugs Seized as Prices Drop across Southeast Asia, 11 Mar. 2019, www.unodc.org/southeastasiaandpacific/en/2019/03/synthetic-drugs-report-launch/story.html.

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“United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime.” Thailand and UNODC Hold High-Level ASEAN Region Border Security Talks, UNODC, 3 Apr. 2019,

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www.unodc.org/southeastasiaandpacific/en/2019/04/high-level-asean-region-border-security/story.html.

Unlisted. “Brunei Backs Philippines in War on Drugs.” PhilstarGlobal, The Philippine Star, 17 Oct. 2016, www.philstar.com/headlines/2016/10/18/1634465/brunei-backs-philippines-war-drugs.

Walden, Max. “'Just Shoot Them': South-East Asia Is Notorious for Its Tough-on-Drugs Approach. But Is It Working?” ABC News , ABC, 3 Aug. 2019, www.abc.net.au/news/2019-08-04/war-on-drugs-southeast-asia-has-it-failed/11349012.

“War on Drugs Law and Legal Definition.” War on Drugs Law and Legal Definition ,

USLegal, Inc., definitions.uslegal.com/w/war-on-drugs/.

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