Unmanned aerial vehicleFrom Wikipedia, the free encyclopediaJump to: navigation , search "UAV" redirects here. For other uses, see UAV (disambiguation).

A group photo of aerial demonstrators at the United States Navalunmanned aerial vehicle air demonstration (2005)

Camclone T21 unmanned autonomous vehicle fitted with CSIRO

guidance system used to inspect power lines (2009)An *unmanned aerial vehicle* (*UAV*), commonly known as a *drone* andalso referred to as an *unpiloted aerial vehicle* and a *remotelypiloted aircraft* (*RPA*) by the International Civil AviationOrganization (ICAO),is an aircraft without a human pilot aboard. ICAO classify unmannedaircraft into two types under Circular 328 AN/190.^[1] * Autonomous aircraftAutonomous aircraft are considered to be not suitable forregulation due to legal and liability issues* Remotely piloted aircraftRemotely piloted aircraft are subject to civil regulation underICAO and under the relevant National aviation authority

There are many different names for these aircraft. They are called UAS(unpiloted air system), UAV (unpiloted aerial vehicle), RPAS (remotepiloted aircraft systems) and model aircraft. It has also become popularto refer to them as drones. Their flight is controlled eitherautonomously by onboard computers or by the remote control of a pilot on the groundor in another vehicle. The typical launch and recovery method of anunmanned aircraft is by the function of an automatic system or anexternal operator on the ground.^[2] Historically,UAVs were simple remotely piloted aircraft , butautonomous control is increasingly being employed.^[3] ^[/not in citation given/]They are usually deployed for military and special operation applications, but also used in a small butgrowing number of civil applications, such as policing and firefighting,and nonmilitary security work, such as inspection of power or pipelines.

UAVs are often preferred for missions that are too "dull, dirty ordangerous"^[4] for manned aircraft.Contents[hide ]* 1 History * 2 Legal regulation in the United States

* 3 Classification o 3.1 Classifications by the United States military

+ 3.1.1 U.S. Air Force tiers + 3.1.2 U.S. Marine Corps tiers + 3.1.3 U.S. Army tiers + 3.1.4 Future Combat Systems (FCS) (U.S. Army) classes

+ 3.1.5 Unmanned aircraft system * 4 Uses o 4.1 Remote sensing o 4.2 Commercial aerial surveillance o 4.3 Commercial and motion picture filmmaking

o 4.4 Sports o 4.5 Domestic policing o 4.6 Oil, gas and mineral exploration and production

o 4.7 Disaster relief o 4.8 Scientific research o 4.9 Armed attacks o 4.10 Civilian casualties o 4.11 Aerial target practice in training of human pilots

o 4.12 Search and rescue o 4.13 Conservation o 4.14 Animal rights o 4.15 Maritime patrol o 4.16 Forest fire detection o 4.17 Archaeology o 4.18 Future potential * 5 Design and development considerations

o 5.1 Certification aspects o 5.2 Degree of autonomy o 5.3 Endurance o 5.4 Detect and avoid o 5.5 Hardening of the control stations

o 5.6 Buddy attacks * 6 Existing UAV systems * 7 Historical events involving UAVs * 8 Domestic aerial surveillance and other incidents

o 8.1 Australia + 8.1.1 Sydney Harbour Bridge collision

+ 8.1.2 Endure Batavia drone incident

*********

o 8.2 Belgium o 8.3 Brazil o 8.4 Canada + 8.4.1 Vancouver International Airport incidents

o 8.5 Democratic Republic of Congo o 8.6 France + 8.6.1 Nuclear power plant overflights

o 8.7 Germany o 8.8 India o 8.9 Japan o 8.10 Nepal o 8.11 Republic of Ireland + 8.11.1 Prison drug smuggling incident

+ 8.11.2 Legal status o 8.12 USSR o 8.13 South Africa o 8.14 United Kingdom o 8.15 United States + 8.15.1 Surveillance and policing o 8.16 Countermeasures + 8.16.1 Non-police uses + 8.16.2 JFK International incident + 8.16.3 Virginia Bull Run crash + 8.16.4 Manhattan drone crash + 8.16.5 New York drone conference + 8.16.6 Georgia prison tobacco smuggling incident

+ 8.16.7 Tallahassee airliner near-collision

+ 8.16.8 St Louis building collision

+ 8.16.9 Staples Center incident + 8.16.10 George Washington bridge incident

+ 8.16.11 Anti-UAV legislation o 8.17 Venezuela o 8.18 Vietnam 9 UAV operations 10 UAVs in popular culture 11 Public opinion in the US (military use)

12 Lobbying in the US 13 Morality (military use) o 13.1 Civilian death o 13.2 Technology 14 Legality (military use) 15 See also 16 References 17 External links History[edit]

Main article: History of unmanned aerial vehicles

Ryan Firebee was a series of target drones/unpiloted aerial vehicles.The idea of a pilotless aircraft is not a new concept. The concept ofdrones dates back to the mid-1800s, when Austrians sent off unmanned,bomb-filled balloons as a way to attack Venice. The drone seen todaystarted innovation in the early 1900s, and was originally used fortarget practice to train military personnel. It continued to bedeveloped during World War I, when the Dayton-Wright Airplane Companycame up with the a pilotless aerial torpedo that would drop and explodeat a particular, preset time.^[5] The earliest attempt ata powered unmanned aerial vehicle was A. M. Low 's"Aerial Target" of 1916.^[6] Nikola Tesla described a fleet of unmanned aerial combatvehicles in 1915.^[7] A number ofremote-controlled airplane advances followed during and after World WarI, including the Hewitt-Sperry Automatic Airplane. The first scale RPV (RemotePiloted Vehicle) was developed by the film star and model airplane enthusiast Reginald Denny in 1935.^[6] More were made in the technology rushduring World War II; these were used both to train antiaircraft gunnersand to fly attack missions. Nazi Germany alsoproduced and used various UAV aircraft during the course of WWII. Jetengines were applied after World War II in such typesas the Teledyne Ryan Firebee I of 1951, while companies like Beechcraft also got in the game with their Model 1001 for the UnitedStates Navy in 1955.^[6] Nevertheless, they were little more thanremote-controlled airplanes until the Vietnam Era .The birth of U.S. UAVs (called RPVs at the time) began in 1959 whenUnited States Air Force (USAF) officers,concerned about losing pilots over hostile territory,began planning for the use of piloted flights.^[8] This plan became intensified when FrancisGary Powers and his "secret" U-2 were shot down over the Soviet Union in 1960. Within days, the highly classified UAV program was launched under the codename of "Red Wagon".^[9] The 2 and 4 August 1964, clashin the Tonkin Gulf between naval units ofthe U.S. and North Vietnamese Navy initiated America's highly classifiedUAVs into their first combat missions of the Vietnam War.^[10] When the "Red Chinese"^[11] showed photographs of downed U.S. UAVs via /Wide WorldPhotos/,^[12] the official U.S. response was "no comment."There are two prominent UAV programs within the United States: that ofthe military and that of the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA). The militarys UAV program isovert, meaning that the public recognizes which government operates itand, therefore, it only operates where US troops are stationed. TheCIAs program is clandestine. Missions performed by the CIAs UAVprogram do not always occur where US troops are stationed.^[13]

The Israeli Tadiran Mastiff , which first flew in1973, is seen as the first modern battlefield UAV, due to its data-linksystem, endurance-loitering, and live video streaming.^[14] The CIAs UAV program was commissioned as a result of the 11 Septemberterrorist attacks and the increasingemphasis on operations for intelligence gathering in 2004.^[15] This clandestine program is primarily being used inAfghanistan, Pakistan, Yemen, and Somalia.^[/citation needed/] UAVs collect intelligence in thesecountries by loitering around their target. The CIAs first UAV programis called the Eagle Program. It was led by Duane Clarridge, the director of the Counterterrorism Center. This program constructed the CIAsfirst using off the shelf technology, which included items such asgarage door openers and model airplanes.^[/citation needed/]Only on 26 February 1973, during testimony before the United StatesHouse Committee on Appropriations, the U.S.military officially confirmed that they had been utilizing UAVs inSoutheast Asia (Vietnam).^[16] Over 5,000 U.S. airmenhad been killed and over 1,000 more were either missing in action (MIA) or captured (prisoners of war/POW). The USAF 100th Strategic Reconnaissance Wing had flown approximately3,435 UAV missions during the war^[17] at a cost ofabout 554 UAVs lost to all causes. In the words of USAF General George S. Brown , Commander, AirForce Systems Command , in 1972, "Theonly reason we need (UAVs) is that we don t want to needlessly expendthe man in the cockpit."^[18] Later thatsame year, General John C. Meyer , Commander inChief, Strategic Air Command , stated, "welet the drone do the high-risk flying ... the loss rate is high, but weare willing to risk more of them ... /they save lives!"^[18] /During the 1973 Yom Kippur War , Soviet-suppliedsurface-to-air missile batteries in Egypt and Syria caused heavy damageto Israeli fighter jets . As a result, Israeldeveloped the first UAV with real-time surveillance.^[19] ^[20] ^[21] The imagesand radar decoying provided by these UAVs helped Israel to completelyneutralize the Syrian air defenses at the start of the 1982 Lebanon War, resulting in no pilots downed.^[22] The first time UAVs were used asproof-of-concept of super-agility post-stall controlled flight in combatflight simulations was with tailless, stealth technology-based,three-dimensional thrust vectoring flight control, jet steering UAVs inIsrael in 1987.^[23] With the maturing and miniaturization of applicable technologies as seenin the 1980s and 1990s, interest in UAVs grew within the higher echelonsof the U.S. military. In the 1990s, the U.S. Department of Defense gave

a contract to U.S. corporation AAI Corporation of Maryland along with Israeli company Mazlat. The U.S. Navy bought theAAI Pioneer UAV that was jointly developed by American AAI Corporationand Israeli Mazlat, and this type of UAV is still in use. Many of thesePioneer and newly developed U.S. UAVs were used in the 1991 Gulf War.UAVs were seen to offer the possibility of cheaper, more capablefighting machines that could be used without risk to aircrews. Initialgenerations were primarily surveillance aircraft, but some were armed, such as the GeneralAtomics MQ-1 Predator , whichutilized AGM-114 Hellfire air-to-groundmissiles . An armed UAV is known as anunmanned combat air vehicle (UCAV).As a tool for search and rescue , UAVs can helpfind humans lost in the wilderness, trapped in collapsed buildings, oradrift at sea.In February 2013, it was reported that UAVs were used by at least 50countries, several of which made their own: for example, Iran, Israeland China.^[24] As of 2012, the United States Air Force employed 7,494 UAVs, and thatmeans that almost 1 out of 3 US Air Force aircraft are UAVs.^[25] ^[26] Unlike other UAVs, thePredator was armed with Hellfire missiles sothat it can terminate the target that it locates (Carafano & Gudgel,2007). This was done after Predators sighted Osama Bin Laden multiple times but could not do anything aboutit other than send back images. In addition, the Predator is capable oforchestrating attacks by pointing lasers at the targets (Singer, 2009b).This is important, as it puts a robot in a position to set off anattack. Their overall success is apparent because from June 2005 to June2006 alone, Predators carried out 2,073 missions and participated in 242separate raids (Singer, 2009a).In contrast to the Predator, which is remotely piloted via satellites bypilots located 7,500 miles away, the Global Hawk operates virtually autonomously.^[26] The usermerely hits the button for take off and for land, while the UAV getsdirections via GPS and reports back with a live feed. Global Hawks havethe capability to fly from San Francisco and map out the entire state ofMaine before having to return.^[26] In addition,some UAVs have become so small that they can be launched from ones handand maneuvered through the street.^[26] TheseUAVs, known as Ravens , are especially useful inurban areas, such as Iraq, in order to discover insurgents and potentialambushes the next block up (Carafano & Gudgel, 2007). UAVs areespecially useful because they can fly for days at a time. According toCarafano & Gudgel, insurgents are loathe to stay in the open for morethan a few minutes at a time for fear of UAVs locating them (2007)Legal regulation in the United States[edit]The US Federal Aviation Administration has adopted the name /unmannedaircraft/ (UA) to describe aircraft systems without a flight crew onboard.^[27] More common names include /UAV/,

/drone/, /remotely piloted vehicle/ (/RPV/), /remotely piloted aircraft/(/RPA/), and /remotely operated aircraft/ (/ROA/). These "limited-size"(as defined by the /Fdration Aronautique Internationale/) unmannedaircraft flown in the USA s National Airspace System, flown solely for recreation and sportpurposes, such as models, are generally^[/citation needed/] flown under the voluntary safetystandards of the Academy of Model Aeronautics,^[28] the UnitedStates national aeromodeling organization. To operate a UA fornon-recreational purposes in the United States, according to the FAAusers must obtain a /Certificate of Authorization/ (COA) to operate innational airspace.^[29] Atthe moment, COAs require a public entity as a sponsor. For example, whenBP needed to observe oil spills, they operated the Aeryon Scout UAVs under a COA granted to the University ofAlaska Fairbanks.^[30] COAs havebeen granted for both land and shipborne operations.^[31]

The FAA Modernization and Reform Act of 2012^[32] sets a deadline of 30 September 2015, for the agency toestablish regulations to allow the use of commercial drones. In themeantime, the agency claims it is illegal to operate commercial unmannedaerial vehicles, but approves non-commercial flights under 400 feet ifthey follow Advisory Circular 91-57, Model Aircraft Operating Standards,published in 1981.^[27] However, the FAA sattempt to fine a commercial drone operator for a 2011 flight werethrown out on 6 March 2014 by NTSB judge Patrick Geraghty, who foundthat the FAA had not followed the proper rulemaking procedures andtherefore had no UAV regulations.^[33] The FAA willappeal the judgement.^[34] Texas EquuSearch, whichperforms volunteer search and rescue operations, was also challengingFAA rules in 2014.^[35] As of August 2013, commercial unmanned aerial system^[36] (UAS) licenses were granted on a case-by-case basis,subject to approval by the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA). Theagency expects that five years after it unveils a regulatory frameworkfor UASs weighing 55 pounds or less, there will be 7,500 such devices inthe air.^[37] In December 2013, the FAAannounced six operators it was authorizing to conduct research on dronetechnology, to inform its pending regulations and future developments.These were the University of Alaska (including locations in Hawaii and Oregon), the state of Nevada, Griffiss International Airport in New York State, the NorthDakota Department of Commerce,Texas A&M UniversityCorpus Christi, and Virginia Tech.^[38] In May 2014, a group of major news media companies filed an /amicus/ brief in a case before the U.S. s National

Transportation Safety Board, asserting that the FAA s "overly broad" administrativelimitations against private UAS operations cause an "impermissiblechilling effect on the First Amendment newsgatheringrights of journalists", the brief being filed three months before ascheduled rollout of FAA commercial operator regulations.^[39]

The term *unmanned aircraft system* (*UAS*) emphasizes the importance ofother elements beyond an aircraft itself. A typical UAS consists of thefollowing:* unmanned aircraft (UA);* control system, such as ground control station (GCS);* control link, a specialized datalink ; and* other related support equipment.For example, the RQ-7 Shadow UAS consists of fourUAs, two GCSs, one portable GCS, one Launcher, two Ground Data Terminals(GDTs), one portable GDT, and one Remote Video Terminal. Certainmilitary units are also fielded with a maintenance support vehicle.Because of this systemic approach, unmanned aircraft systems have notbeen included in the United States Munitions List Category VIII Aircraft and Associated Equipment. Vice versa, the Unmanned AerialVehicle Systems are clearly mentioned at paragraph 121-16 MissileTechnology Control Regime Annex of the United States Munitions List.More precisely, the Missile Technology Control Regime Annex levelsrocket and unmanned aerial vehicle systems together.^[/citation needed/]The term UAS was since adopted by the United States Department ofDefense (DOD) and theBritish Civil Aviation Authority (CAA).The term used previously for unmanned aircraft system wasunmanned-aircraft vehicle system (UAVS).Classification[edit]Question book-new.svg This section *does not cite anyreferences or sources *. Please helpimprove this section by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may bechallenged and removed. /(February 2013)/

Although most UAVs are fixed-wing aircraft ,rotorcraft designs (i.e., RUAVs) such as this MQ-8BFire Scout are also used.

UAVs typically fall into one of six functional categories (althoughmulti-role airframe platforms are becoming more prevalent):* Target and decoy providing ground and aerial gunnery a target thatsimulates an enemy aircraft or missile* Reconnaissance providing battlefield intelligence* Combat providing attack capability for high-risk missions (seeUnmanned combat air vehicle )* Logistics UAVs specifically designed for cargo and logistics operation* Research and development used to further develop UAV technologiesto be integrated into field deployed UAV aircraft* Civil and Commercial UAVs UAVs specifically designed for civil andcommercial applications

Schiebel S-100 fitted with aLightweight Multirole MissileThey can also be categorised in terms of range/altitude and thefollowing has been advanced as relevant at such industry events asParcAberporth Unmanned Systems forum:* Hand-held 2,000 ft (600 m) altitude, about 2 km range* Close 5,000 ft (1,500 m) altitude, up to 10 km range* NATO type 10,000 ft (3,000 m) altitude, up to 50 km range* Tactical 18,000 ft (5,500 m) altitude, about 160 km range* MALE (medium altitude, long endurance) up to30,000 ft (9,000 m) and range over 200 km* HALE (high altitude, long endurance) over 30,000 ft (9,100 m) andindefinite range* HYPERSONIC high-speed, supersonic (Mach 15) or hypersonic (Mach 5+)50,000 ft (15,200 m) or suborbital altitude, range over 200 km* ORBITAL low earth orbit (Mach 25+)* CIS Lunar Earth-Moon transfer* CACGS Computer Assisted Carrier Guidance System for UAVsThe United States military employs a tier system for categorizing its UAVs.Classifications by the United States military[edit]The modern concept of U.S. military UAVs is to have the various aircraftsystems work together in support of personnel on the ground. Theintegration scheme is described in terms of a "Tier" system and is usedby military planners to designate the various individual aircraftelements in an overall usage plan for integrated operations. The Tiersdo not refer to specific models of aircraft but rather roles for whichvarious models and their manufacturers competed. The U.S. Air Force and the U.S. Marine Corps each has its own tier system, and the twosystems are themselves not integrated.U.S. Air Force tiers[edit]

An MQ-9 Reaper , a hunter-killer surveillance UAV* Tier N/A: Small/Micro UAV. Role filled by BATMAV (Wasp Block III).^[40] * Tier I: Low altitude, long endurance. Role filled by the Gnat 750.^[41] * Tier II: Medium altitude, long endurance (MALE). Role currentlyfilled by the Predator and MQ-9 Reaper.* Tier II+: High altitude, long endurance conventional UAV (or HALEUAV). Altitude: 60,000 to 65,000 feet (19,800 m), less than 300knots (560 km/h) airspeed, 3,000-nautical-mile (6,000 km) radius, 24hour time-on-station capability. Complementary to the Tier IIIaircraft. Role currently filled by the RQ-4 Global Hawk.* Tier III-: High altitude, long endurance low-observable UAV. Sameparameters as, and complementary to, the Tier II+ aircraft. The RQ-3DarkStar was originallyintended to fulfill this role before it was "terminated".^[42] ^[43] Role now filled by RQ-170Sentinel .U.S. Marine Corps tiers[edit]* Tier N/A: Micro UAV. Wasp III fillsthis role, driven largely by the desire for commonality with theUSAF BATMAV.^[44] * Tier I: Role currently filled by the Dragon Eye but all ongoing and future procurement for the Dragon Eye program isgoing now to the RQ-11B Raven B .* Tier II: Role currently filled by the ScanEagle .* Tier III: For two decades, the role of medium range tactical UAV wasfilled by the Pioneer UAV. In July 2007, the Marine Corps announcedits intention to retire the aging Pioneer fleet and transition tothe RQ-7 Shadow tactical unmanned aircraftsystem by AAI Corporation . The first MarineShadow systems have already been delivered, and training for theirrespective Marine Corps units is underway.^[45] ^[46] U.S. Army tiers[edit]* Tier I: Small UAV. Role filled by the RQ-11B Raven.* Tier II: Short Range Tactical UAV. Role filled by the RQ-7B Shadow200 .* Tier III: Medium Range Tactical UAV. Role currently filled by theMQ-5A/B Hunter and IGNAT/IGNAT-ER, buttransitioning to the Extended Range Multi-Purpose (ERMP) MQ-1C GrayEagle .

Future Combat Systems (FCS) (U.S. Army) classes[edit]* Class I: For small units. Role to be filled by all new UAV with somesimilarity to micro air vehicle .* Class II: For companies (cancelled).^[47] * Class III: For battalions (cancelled).^[47] * Class IV: For brigades. Role to be filled by the RQ-8A/B / MQ-8BFire Scout .Unmanned aircraft system[edit]An unmanned aircraft system (UAS) includes ground stations and otherelements besides the actual aircraft. The term was first officially usedby the FAA in early 2005 and subsequently adopted by DoD that same yearin their Unmanned Aircraft System Roadmap 20052030.^[48] The official acronym /UAS/ is also used by theInternational Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) and othergovernment aviation regulatory organizations.

Predator launching a Hellfire missileThe military role of unmanned aircraft systems is growing atunprecedented rates. In 2005, tactical- and theater-level unmannedaircraft alone had flown over 100,000 flight hours in support ofOperation Enduring Freedom andOperation Iraqi Freedom , in which theyare organized under Task Force Liberty inAfghanistan and Task Force ODIN in Iraq. Rapidadvances in technology are enabling more and more capability to beplaced on smaller airframes, which is spurring a large increase in thenumber of Small Unmanned Aircraft Systems (SUAS) being deployed on thebattlefield. The use of SUAS in combat is so new that no formal DoD widereporting procedures have been established to track SUAS flight hours.As the capabilities grow for all types of UAS, nations continue tosubsidize their research and development, leading to further advancesand enabling them to perform a multitude of missions. UAS no longer onlyperform intelligence, surveillance, and reconnaissance missions,although this still remains their predominant type. Their roles haveexpanded to areas including electronic attack ,strike missions, suppression or destruction of enemy air defense, network node or communicationsrelay, combat search and rescue , andderivations of these themes. These UAS range in cost from a few thousanddollars to tens of millions of dollars, with aircraft ranging from lessthan one pound to over 40,000 pounds.^[/citation needed/]When the Obama administration announced in December 2009, the deploymentof 30,000 new troops in Afghanistan, there was already an increase ofattacks by unmanned Predator UAVs against Taliban and al-Qaeda militantsin Afghanistan and Pakistan s tribal areas, of which one probablykilled a key member of al-Qaeda. However, neither Osama bin Laden

nor Ayman al-Zawahiri was the likely target, according to reports. According to a report ofthe New America Foundation , armed UAVstrikes had dramatically increased under President Obama even beforehis deployment decision. There were 43 such attacks between January andOctober 2009. The report draws on what it deems to be /"credible"/ localand national media stories about the attacks. This can be compared to atotal of 34 in all of 2008, which was President Bush s last full year inoffice. Between 2006 and 2009, UAV-launched missiles allegedly hadkilled between 750 and 1,000 people in Pakistan, according to thereport. Of these, about 20 people were said to be leaders of al-Qaeda,Taliban, and associated groups. Overall, 66% to 68% of the people killedwere militants, and 31% to 33% were civilians. U.S. officials disputedthe percentage for civilians.^[49] The U.S. Air Forcehas recently begun referring at least to larger UAS like Predator,Reaper, and Global Hawk as Remotely Piloted Aircraft (RPA) to highlightthe fact that these systems are always controlled by a human operator atsome location.However, artificial intelligence is advancing to the point where theaircraft are easily capable of taking off, landing, and flyingthemselves. Then they simply have to be instructed as to their mission.The military distinguishes between "man /in/ the loop"(piloted) and "man/on/ the loop" (supervised) systems, with "fully autonomous" (issuedorders) growing organically from the second into a third category. A.I.systems have been capable of making decisions and planning sequences ofactions for decades; as of 2013, few fully autonomous systems have beenconstructed, but this is more a matter of convenience and technicalimplementation than of any fundamental barrier.^[/citation needed/]To distinguish UAVs from /missiles/, a UAV is defined as a "powered,aerial vehicle that does not carry a human operator, uses aerodynamicforces to provide vehicle lift, can fly autonomously or be pilotedremotely, can be expendable or recoverable, and can carry a lethal ornonlethal payload".^[50] Therefore, cruise missiles are not considered UAVs because, like many otherguided missiles, the vehicle itself is a weapon that is not reused, eventhough it is also unmanned and in some cases remotely guided.As of January 2014, the U.S. military operates a large number ofunmanned aerial systems: 7,362 RQ-11 Ravens ; 990AeroVironment Wasp IIIs ; 1,137AeroVironment RQ-20 Pumas ; and 306RQ-16 T-Hawk small UAS systems and 246 Predatorsand MQ-1C Grey Eagles ; 126 MQ-9 Reapers; 491 RQ-7 Shadows ; and 33 RQ-4Global Hawk large systems.^[51] Uses[edit]

Aeryon Scout in flight

InView Unmanned Aircraft System for use in scientific, commercial and state applications.

The RQ-7 Shadow is capable of delivering a 20 lb(9.1 kg) "Quick-MEDS" canister to front-line troops.

Aerovision Fulmar , developed by Aerovision forcivilian applications

IAI Heron , an unmanned aerial vehicle developed by theMalat (UAV) division of Israel Aerospace Industries

A UAV detecting an underground facility

A Hydra Technologies Ehcatl taking-off for a surveillance mission

Hermes 450 reconnaissance UAV of the Brazilian AirForce .Beyond the military applications of UAVs with which "drones" became mostassociated, numerous civil aviation uses have been developed, includingaerial surveying of crops,^[37] acrobatic aerial footage in filmmaking,^[37] search and rescue operations,^[37] inspecting power lines andpipelines,^[52] counting wildlife,^[52] delivering medical supplies to remoteor otherwise inaccessible regions,^[53] withsome manufacturers rebranding the technology as"unmanned aerial systems" (UASs) in preference over themilitary-connotative term "drones."^[37] Further uses include reconnaissanceoperations,^[54] border patrolmissions,^[54] forest fire detection,^[54] surveillance,^[54] search & rescue missions,^[54] detection of illegal hunting,^[55] land surveying,^[56] fire and large-accident investigation,^[56] landslide measurement,^[56] illegal landfill detection,^[56] and crowd monitoring.^[56]

Remote sensing[edit]UAV remote sensing functions include electromagnetic spectrum sensors, gamma ray sensors, biologicalsensors, and chemical sensors. A UAV s electromagnetic sensors

typically include visual spectrum , infrared, or near infrared cameras as well

as radar systems. Other electromagnetic wave detectors such as microwaveand ultraviolet spectrum sensors may also be used but are uncommon.Biological sensors are sensors capable of detecting the airbornepresence of various microorganisms and other biological factors.Chemical sensors use laser spectroscopy to analyze theconcentrations of each element in the air.Commercial aerial surveillance[edit]Aerial surveillance of large areas is made possible with low cost UAVsystems. Surveillance applications include livestock monitoring,wildfire mapping, pipeline security, home security, road patrol, andanti-piracy. The trend for the use of UAV technology in commercialaerial surveillance is expanding rapidly with increased development ofautomated object detection approaches.^[57] Commercial and motion picture filmmaking[edit]In both Europe and the United States, UAV videography is a legal grayarea. The Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) and their Europeanequivalents have not issued formal regulations and guidelinessurrounding drones in the private sector. UAV technology has advancedtoo quickly for bureaucrats to handle.The FAA is debating offering guidelines for drone operators in theprivate sector by 2015, and European regulators are meeting on 9February to iron out rules for UAVs in EU airspace. Domestically,lobbyists are petitioning the agency to give wide leeway to the use ofunmanned aircraft for commercial photography, videography, andsurveillance purposes. At the same time, lobbyists for occupations thatstand to lose business to drones such as commercial pilots arepetitioning the FAA to restrict drone use as well.FAA regulations generally permit hobbyist drone use when they are flownbelow 400 feet, and within the UAV operators line of sight. Forcommercial drone camerawork inside the United States, industry sourcesstate that usage is largely at the de facto consent or benign neglect of local law enforcement. Use of UAVs for filmmaking is generallyeasier on large private lots or in rural and exurban areas with fewerspace concerns. In certain localities such as Los Angeles and New York,authorities have actively interceded to shut down drone filmmakingefforts due to concerns driven by safety or terrorism.^[58] ^[59] ^[60] On 2 June 2014, the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) said it had received apetition from the Motion Picture Association of America seeking approval for theuse of drones in video and filmmaking. Seven companies behind thepetition argued that low-cost drones could be used for shots that wouldotherwise require a helicopter or a manned aircraft, which would reducecosts. Drones are already used by movie makers and media in other partsof the world. The FAA is required by Congress to come up with rules for commercial useof drones by 2015.^[61]

Sports[edit]Drones are starting to be used in sports photography and cinematography.For example, they were used in the 2014 Winter Olympics in Sochi forfilming skiing and snowboarding events. Some advantages of usingunmanned aerial vehicles in sports are that they allow video to getcloser to the athletes, they are more flexible than cable-suspendedcamera systems.^[62] Domestic policing[edit]UAVs are increasingly used for domestic police work in Canada and theUnited States:^[58] ^[59] adozen US police forces had applied for UAV permits by March 2013.^[24] Texas politician and commentator Jim Hightower has warned about potential privacy abuses fromaerial surveillance.^[63] ^[64] In February 2013, Seattle Mayor Michael McGinn responded to protests byscrapping the Seattle Police Departments plan to deploy UAVs.^[65]

First drone-assisted arrest of an AmericanOn 28 January 2014, a North Dakota cattle rancher was sentenced to threeyears in prison, with all but six months suspended, for terrorizingpolice officers who were trying to arrest him at his property in 2011.The case garnered national attention because it was the first time alaw-enforcement agency had used an unmanned aerial vehicle to assist incarrying out an arrest. The Predator drone was from the Department ofHomeland Security s Customs and Border Patrol.^[66] Oil, gas and mineral exploration and production[edit]UAVs can be used to perform geophysical surveys, in particulargeomagnetic surveys^[67] where the processedmeasurements of the Earth s differential magnetic field strength areused to calculate the nature of the underlying magnetic rock structure.A knowledge of the underlying rock structure helps trained geophysiciststo predict the location of mineral deposits. The production side of oiland gas exploration and production entails the monitoring of theintegrity of oil and gas pipelines and related installations. Forabove-ground pipelines, this monitoring activity could be performedusing digital cameras mounted on one or more UAVs.^[68] The InView UAV is an example ofa UAV developed for use in oil, gas, and mineral exploration andproduction activities.Disaster relief[edit]UAVs transport medicines and vaccines, and retrieve medical samples,into and out of remote or otherwise inaccessible regions.^[53]

Drones can help in disaster relief bygathering information from across an affected area. Drones can also helpby building a picture of the situation and giving recommendations forhow people should direct their resources to mitigate damage and savelives.^[69] Scientific research[edit]Unmanned aircraft are especially useful in penetrating areas that may betoo dangerous for manned aircraft. The National Oceanic and AtmosphericAdministration (NOAA) began utilizing the Aerosonde unmannedaircraft system in 2006 as a hurricane hunter. AAICorporation subsidiary Aerosonde Pty Ltd . ofVictoria , Australia, designs andmanufactures the 35-pound system, which can fly into a hurricane andcommunicate near-real-time data directly to the National HurricaneCenter in Florida .Beyond the standard barometric pressure and temperature data typicallyculled from manned hurricane hunters, the Aerosonde system providesmeasurements far closer to the waters surface than previously captured.NASA later began using the Northrop Grumman RQ-4 Global Hawk for extended hurricanemeasurements.Further applications for unmanned aircraft can be explored oncesolutions have been developed for their accommodation within nationalairspace, an issue currently under discussion by the Federal AviationAdministration . UAVSI, the UKmanufacturer, also produces a variant of their Vigilant light UAS(20 kg) designed specifically for scientific research in severeclimates, such as the Antarctic.^[/citation needed/]There have also been experiments with using UAVs as a construction andartwork tool^[70] at locations such as the ETHZurich.^[71] Armed attacks[edit]See also: Targeted killing , Unmanned combataerial vehicle and Drone attacksin Pakistan MQ-1 Predator UAVs armed with Hellfire missiles are increasingly used by the U.S. as platformsfor hitting ground targets. Armed Predators were first used in late 2001from bases in Pakistan and Uzbekistan, mostly aimed at assassinating high profileindividuals (terrorist leaders, etc.) inside Afghanistan. Since then,there have been many reported cases of such attacks taking place inAfghanistan, Pakistan, Yemen, and Somalia.^[72] The advantage of using anunmanned vehicle rather than a manned aircraft in such cases is to avoida diplomatic embarrassment should the aircraft be shot down and thepilots captured, since the bombings take place in countries deemed

friendly and without the official permission of those countries.^[73] ^[74] ^[75] ^[76]

A Predator based in a neighboring Arab country was used to killsuspected al-Qaeda terrorists in Yemen on3 November 2002. This marked the first use of an armed Predator as anattack aircraft outside of a theater of war such as Afghanistan.^[77]

The U.S. has claimed that the Predator strikes killed at least ninesenior al-Qaeda leaders and dozens of lower-ranking operatives,depleting its operational tier in what U.S. officials described as themost serious disruption of al-Qaeda since 2001.^[78] It was claimed that the Predator strikes tooksuch a toll on al-Qaeda that militants began turning violently on oneanother out of confusion and distrust.^[78] Asenior U.S. counter-terrorism official said: "They have started huntingdown people who they think are responsible" for security breaches."People are showing up dead, or disappearing."^[78]

By October 2009, the CIA claimed to have killed more than half of the 20most wanted al-Qaeda terrorist suspects in targeted killings usingUAVs.^[79] By May 2010, counter-terrorismofficials said that UAV strikes in the Pakistani tribal areas had killedmore than 500 militants since 2008 and no more than 30 (5%) nearbycivilians mainly family members who lived and traveled with thetargets.^[80] ^[81] UAVs linger overhead after a strike, in some cases for hours, to enablethe CIA to count the bodies and attempt to determine which, if any, arecivilians.^[81] A Pakistani intelligenceofficer gave a higher estimate of civilian casualties, saying 20% oftotal deaths were civilians or non-combatants.^[81]

In February 2013, U.S. Senator Lindsey Graham stated that 4,756 peoplehave been killed by U.S. UAVs.^[82] CIA officials became concerned in 2008, that targets inPakistan were being tipped off to pending U.S. UAV strikes by Pakistaniintelligence, when the U.S. requested Pakistani permission prior tolaunching UAV-based attacks.^[78] The Bushadministration therefore decided in August 2008 to abandon the practiceof obtaining Pakistani government permission before launching missilesfrom UAVs, and in the next six months the CIA carried out at least 38Predator strikes in northwest Pakistan, comparedwith 10 in 2006 and 2007 combined.^[78] In 2012, the USAF trained more UAV pilots than ordinary jetfighter pilots for the first time.^[83] One issue with using armed drones to attack human targets is the size ofthe bombs being used and the relative lack of discrimination of the100 lb (45 kg) Hellfire , which was designed toeliminate tanks and attack bunkers.^[84] Smaller weaponssuch as the Raytheon Griffin and Small Tactical Munition are beingdeveloped as a less indiscriminate alternative,^[85] anddevelopment is underway on the still smaller US Navy

-developed Spike missile .^[86] The payload-limited Predator A canalso be armed with six Griffin missiles, as opposed to only two of themuch-heavier Hellfires.The United States armed forces currently have no defense against lowlevel drone attack, but the Joint Integrated Air and Missile DefenseOrganization is workingto repurpose existing systems to defend American forces.^[87]

Civilian casualties[edit]Questions have been raised about the accuracy of UAV-based missilestrikes. In March 2009, /The Guardian / reportedallegations that Israeli UAVs armed with missiles killed48 Palestinian civilians in the Gaza Strip, including two small children in a field and a groupof women and girls in an otherwise empty street.^[88] InJune, Human Rights Watch investigated six UAVattacks that were reported to have resulted in civilian casualties andalleged that Israeli forces either failed to take all feasibleprecautions to verify that the targets were combatants or failed todistinguish between combatants and civilians.^[89] ^[90] ^[91] In July 2009, BrookingsInstitution released a report stating thatin the United States-led drone attacks in Pakistan,ten civilians died for every militant killed.^[92] ^[93] S. Azmat Hassan , a formerambassador of Pakistan, said in July 2009 that American UAV attacks wereturning Pakistani opinion against the United States and that 35 or 40such attacks only killed 8 or 9 top al-Qaeda operatives.^[94]

Although it may never be known how many civilians have died as a resultof U.S. UAV strikes in Pakistan, there are estimates of hundreds orthousands of innocent bystanders who have perished in such attacks.^[95] Pakistani authorities released statistics indicatingthat between 1 January 2009 and 31 December 2009, U.S. RQ-1 Predator and RQ-9 Reaper UAV strikeshave killed over 700 innocent civilians. The websitePakistanBodyCount.Org (by Zeeshan-ul-hassan Usmani, a Fulbright Scholar at the Florida Institute of Technology) shows 1,065 civilian deathsbetween June 2004 and 30 January 2010 and tallies 103 UAV strikescarried out by the United States.^[96] With the increase of UAV strikes, January 2010 proved to be a deadlymonth in Pakistan with 123 innocent civilians killed, according to astory in The International News. In addition, it has been reported that160 children have died from UAV-launched attacks in Pakistan.^[97] Further, over 1,000 civilians have been injured.^[98] This evidence runs counter to the Obama administration sclaim that "nearly for the past year there hasn t been a singlecollateral death" due to UAV-based attacks.^[99]

According to the 24 February 2010 policy analysis "The Year of theDrone", released by the New America Foundation, the civilian fatality rate since 2004 isapproximately 32%. The study reports that 114 reported UAV-based missilestrikes in northwest Pakistan from 2004 to present killed between 830and 1,210 individuals, around 550 to 850 of whom were militants.^[100]

After more than 30 UAV-based strikes hit civilian homes in Afghanistanin 2012, President Hamid Karzai demanded that suchattacks end, but the practice continues in areas of Pakistan, Yemen, andSomalia that are not in war zones. Former U.S. President Jimmy Carter has criticized such use of UAVs: "We don t know howmany hundreds of innocent civilians have been killed in theseattacks...This would have been unthinkable in previous times."^[101]

In October 2013, the Pakistani government revealed that since 2008,civilian casualties made up only 3 percent of deaths from drone strikes.Since 2008, there have been 317 drone strikes that killed 2,160 Islamicmilitants and 67 civilians. This is far less than previous governmentand independent organization calculations of collateral damage fromthese attacks.^[102] An attack by the US in December 2013, in a wedding procession in Yemen,killed 12 men and wounded at least 15 other people, including the bride.US and Yemeni officials said the dead were members of the armed groupAl-Qaeda in the Arabian Peninsula (AQAP), but witnesses and relativestold Human Rights Watch the casualties were civilians. Witnesses andrelatives told Human Rights Watch that no members of AQAP were in theprocession and provided names and other information about those killedand wounded. They said the dead included the grooms adult son and thebride received superficial face wounds. The local governor and militarycommander called the casualties a mistake and gave money and assaultrifles to the families of those killed and wounded a traditionalgesture of apology in Yemen. A few days after the incident, Yemeni MPsvoted for a ban against the use of drones in Yemen, though it is unclearwhat effect this will have on drone usage.^[103] ^[104]

Aerial target practice in training of human pilots[edit]Since 1997, the U.S. military has used more than 80 F-4 Phantoms converted into robotic planesfor use as aerial targets for combat training of human pilots.^[105] The F-4s were supplemented in September2013 with F-16s as morerealistically maneuverable targets.^[105] Search and rescue[edit]UAVs will likely play an increased role in search and rescue in theUnited States. This was demonstrated by the use of UAVs during the 2008hurricanes that struck Louisiana and Texas. Micro UAVs, such as theAeryon Scout , have been used to perform Search and

Rescue activities on a smaller scale, such as the search for missingpersons.^[106] For example,Predators, operating between 18,00029,000 feet above sea level,performed search and rescue and damage assessment. Payloads carried werean optical sensor, which is a daytime and infrared camera in particular, and a synthetic aperture radar (SAR). The Predator s SAR is asophisticated all-weather sensor capable of providing photographic-likeimages through clouds, rain or fog, and in daytime or nighttimeconditions, all in real-time. A concept of coherent change detection inSAR images allows for exceptional search and rescue ability: photostaken before and after the storm hits are compared, and a computerhighlights areas of damage.^[107] ^[108] UAVs have been tested as airborne lifeguards, locating distressedswimmers using thermal cameras and dropping life preservers to plural swimmers.^[109] Conservation[edit]See also: International Anti-Poaching Foundation

In June 2012, WWF announced it willbegin using UAVs in Nepal to aid conservation efforts following a successful trial oftwo aircraft in Chitwan National Park ,with ambitions to expand to other countries, such as Tanzania andMalaysia. The global wildlife organization plans to train ten personnelto use the UAVs, with operational use beginning in the fall.^[110] ^[111] In August 2012, UAVs were usedby members of the Sea Shepherd Conservation Society in Namibia to document theannual seal cull.^[112] In December 2013, the FalconUAV was selected by the Namibian Govt and WWF to help combat rhinopoaching.^[113] The drones will be monitoring rhinopopulations in Etosha National Park and will use RFID sensors.^[114]

Animal rights[edit]In Pennsylvania, Showing Animals Respect and Kindness (SHARK) useddrones to monitor people shooting at pigeons for sport.^[115] One of their Octocopter drones was shotdown by hunters.^[116] In March 2013, the Times published a controversial story that UAVconservation nonprofit ShadowView ,founded by former members of Sea Shepherd Conservation Society, had been working for severalmonths with anti-hunting charity The League Against Cruel Sports to expose illegal fox hunting in the UK .^[117] Huntsupporters have argued that using UAVs to film hunting is an invasion ofprivacy.^[118]

In April 2013, People for the Ethical Treatment of Animals announced itsintention to use drones to monitor hunters, as well as possiblyindustrial farms, fishing areas, and "other venues where animalsroutinely suffer and die". Some gun owners responded by suggestingthey d shoot down these drones.^[119] In 2014, Will Potter proposed using drones tomonitor conditions on factory farms . The idea isto circumvent ag-gag prohibitions by keeping the droneson public property but equipping them with cameras sensitive enough tomonitor activities on the farms.^[120] Potter raised nearly $23,000 in 2 days for this project on Kickstarter.^[120] Maritime patrol[edit]Japan is studying how to deal with the UAVs the PRC is starting to useto enforce their claims on unmanned islands.^[121] Forest fire detection[edit]/See: Forestry unmanned aerial vehicles/Another application of UAVs is the prevention and early detection offorest fires. The possibility of constant flight, both day and night,makes the methods used until now (helicopters, watchtowers, etc.) becomeobsolete.^[/citation needed /] Camerasand sensors that provide real-time emergency services, includinginformation about the location of the outbreak of fire as well as manyfactors (wind speed, temperature, humidity, etc.) that are helpful forfire crews to conduct fire suppression.Archaeology[edit]In Peru archaeologists use drones to speed up survey work and protectsites from squatters, builders and miners. Small drones helpedresearchers produce three-dimensional models of Peruvian sites insteadof the usual flat maps and in days and weeks instead of months andyears.^[122] Drones have replaced expensive and clumsy small planes, kites and heliumballoons. Drones costing as little as 650 have proven useful. In 2013drones flew over at least six Peruvian archaeological sites, includingthe colonial Andean town Machu Llacta 4,000 metres (13,000 ft) above sealevel. The drones continue to have altitude problems in the Andes,leading to plans to make a drone blimp , employing opensource software.^[122] Jeffrey Quilter, an archaeologist with Harvard University said, "You cango up three metres and photograph a room, 300 metres and photograph asite, or you can go up 3,000 metres and photograph the entirevalley."^[122]

In September 2014 drones weighing about .5 kg were used for 3D mappingof the above-ground ruins of the Greek city of Aphrodisias.^[123] Future potential[edit]

In December 2013, the DHL parcel service subsidiaryof Deutsche Post AG tested a "microdrones md4-1000" for delivery ofmedicine.In the military sector, Predators and Reapers are tailor-made forcounterterrorism operations and in war zones in which the enemy lackssufficient firepower to shoot them down, but are not designed towithstand antiaircraft defenses or air-to-air combat; in September 2013the chief of the Air Combat Command statedthat current UAVs were "useless in a contested environment unlessmanned aircraft were put there to protect them.^[124] A 2012 Congressional Research Service (CRS) report indicated that inthe future, UAVs may be able to perform a variety of tasks beyond theirpresent roles in intelligence, surveillance, reconnaissance and strikes;the CRS report listed resupply, combat search and rescue, aerialrefueling, and air to air combat ("a more difficult future task") aspossible future undertakings.^[125] The U.S. Departmentof Defense s /Unmanned Systems Integrated Roadmap FY2013-2038/ foreseesUAVs having a more important place in combat, recognizing that the nearfuture will involve making sure the technology works at all, beforeexploiting their potential in the following decade.^[126] Beyond solving technical issues,issues to be resolved include human-UAV interaction, managing expectedincreases in amounts of information generated by UAV fleets,transitioning from direct human control to UAVs automatic adaptation tochanging conditions, and developing UAV-specific munitions.^[126]

In the private sector, initial attempts at commercial use of UAVs, suchas the Tacocopter company for the food delivery, were blocked by FAAregulation.^[127] Amazon.com founderJeff Bezos December 2013 announcement that Amazon isplanning rapid delivery of lightweight commercial products using UAVswas met with skepticism, with perceived obstacles including federal andstate regulatory approval, public safety, reliability, individualprivacy, operator training and certification, security (hacking),payload thievery, and logistical challenges.^[128] In July 2014 it was revealed Amazonwas working on its 8th and 9th drone prototypes, some that could fly 50miles per hour and carry 5-pound packages, and had applied to the FAA totest them.^[129] In December 2013, in a research project of Deutsche Post AG subsidiaryDHL , a sub-kilogram quantity of medicine wasdelivered via a prototype Microdrones parcelcopter, raisingspeculation that disaster relief may be thefirst place the company will use the technology.^[130] ^[131]

In February 2014, the prime minister and cabinet affairs minister of theUnited Arab Emirates (UAE) announced thatthe UAE planned to launch a fleet of UAVs for civilian purposes.^[132] Plans were for the UAVs to use fingerprint andeye-recognition systems to deliver official documents such as passports,ID cards and licenses, and supply emergency services at accidents. Abattery-powered prototype four rotor UAV about half a metre across wasdisplayed in Dubai .^[133] In 2014, Fendi started making plans to use drones to showits catwalk fashions.^[134]

Solar-powered atmospheric satellites ("atmosats") designed for operating at altitudes exceeding 20 km (12miles, or 60,000 feet) for as long as five years can perform duties moreeconomically and with more versatility than low earth orbit satellites.^[135] Likely applications include weathermonitoring, disaster recovery, earth imaging, and communications.^[135]

In 2014, a company called Sensepost demonstrated at a securityconference in Singapore a quadricopter UAV with software which couldsteal data from smartphones in the vicinity - such as identities,passwords and banking data. The software attacked smartphones with WIFIswitched on by impersonating a previously used network ^[136]

Google revealed in August 2014 it had beentesting unmanned aerial vehicles in Australia for twoyears. The Google X program known as "project wing"aims to produce drones that can deliver not only products sold viae-commerce, but larger delivery items^[137] The European Union sees benefits and challengesfor civilian drones, and in 2014 proposes a set of regulations tocontrol the effects of drones on peoples safety, security and privacy.Drone market share could be up to 10% of aviation in 10 years, and theEU suggests streamlining R&D efforts.^[138] Design and development considerations[edit]UAV design and production is a global activity with manufacturers allacross the world. The United States and Israel wereinitial pioneers in this technology, and U.S. manufacturers had a marketshare of over 60% in 2006, with U.S. market share due to increase by510% through 2016.^[139] NorthropGrumman and General Atomics are the dominant manufacturers in this industryon the strength of the Global Hawk and Predator/Mariner systems.^[139] According to the StockholmInternational Peace Research Institute, Israelicompanies were behind 41% of all UAVs exported in 2001-2011.^[140] The European market share represented 4% of global

revenue in 2006.^[139] In December 2013, the Federal Aviation Administration announced itsselections six states that will host test sites emphasizing respectiveresearch goals: Alaska (sites with a wide variety of climates), Nevada(formulating standards for air traffic control and UAV operators), NewYork (integrating UAVs into congested airspace), North Dakota (humanimpact; use in temperate climates), Texas (safety requirements andairworthiness testing), and Virginia (assessing operational andtechnical risk).^[141] Some universities offer UAS research and training programs or academicdegrees.^[52] Development costs for American military UAVs, as with most militaryprograms, have tended to overrun their initial estimates. This is mostlydue to changes in requirements during development and a failure toleverage UAV development programs over multiple armed services. This hascaused United States Navy UAV programs toincrease in cost from 0% to 5%, while United States Air Force UAV programs have increased from 60% to284%.^[142] On October 12, 2014, the Linux Foundation and leading technologycompanies launched the open source Dronecode Project. The DronecodeProject goal is to help meet the needs of the growing UAV community witha neutral governance structure and coordination of funding for resourcesand tools which the community needs.^[143]

Certification aspects[edit]One of the main barriers to rapid full-scale growth of commercialunmanned aircraft is the concern for safety. As a myriad ofcertification agencies scramble to keep up with the unique demands ofthis fast-growing industry, one thing is clear where applicable,pertinent certification standards for manned aircraft are starting toapply. For the complex electronics that provide communication andcontrol of these systems, this means a swift move towards compliancewith DO-178C and DO-254 for software andhardware development.^[144] In most cases,the unmanned aircraft can only be operated as part of a system, hencethe term unmanned aircraft system or UAS. The UAS consists of anunmanned aircraft (UA), a remote pilot station and the command, controland communications links that join them; as such, safety considerationsaddress all of these elements.^[145] In 2011,^[145] the International CivilAviation Organization of the United Nations published Circular 328 this document states aUAS should demonstrate equivalent levels of safety as manned aircraftand thus meet relevant government rules for flight and flight equipment.Within the United States, the Congress passed a bill in 2012 thatmandated the FAA create a plan for allowing UAS into commercialairspace. Subsequently, the FAA issued the Integration of CivilUnmanned Aircraft Systems (UAS) in the National Airspace System (NAS)Roadmap.^[144]

As of 2014^[update]

, obtaining an experimental airworthiness certificate fora particular UAS is the only way /civil operators/ of unmanned aircraftare accessing the National Airspace System of the United States.^[146] FAA Order 8130.34 ,/Airworthiness Certification of Unmanned Aircraft Systems/, establishesprocedures for issuing this certification, and as such establishesguidance standards for certification aspects of development andoperation, which may be addressed by adoption of such standards asARP4754A , and DO-178C .^[147]

The FAA roadmap is, in essence, maturation of the acceptance of UAVsfrom this experimental aircraft certification to requiring the samestandard airworthiness type certification ofmanufacturing design as is now required of conventional mannedaircraft.^[144] Degree of autonomy[edit]

UAV monitoring and control at CBP

HiMAT remote cockpitsynthetic vision display (Photo: NASA 1984)Early UAVs used during the Vietnam War captured video that was recordedto film or tape on the aircraft. These aircraft often flew either in astraight line or in preset circles collecting video until they ran outof fuel and landed. After landing, the film was recovered for analysis.Because of the simple, repetitive nature of these operations, theaircraft were often called "drones". As new radio control systems becameavailable, UAVs were often remote controlled, and the term "remotelypiloted vehicle" came into vogue. Today s UAVs often combine remotecontrol and computerized automation. More sophisticated versions mayhave built-in control or guidance systems to perform low-level humanpilot duties, such as speed and flight-path stabilization, and simplescripted navigation functions, such as waypoint following. In news andother discussions, the term "drone" is still often mistakenly used torefer to these more sophisticated aircraft.^[/citation needed/]Most early UAVs were not autonomous at all. The field of air-vehicleautonomy is a recently emerging field, largely driven by the military todevelop battle-ready technology.^[148] Compared to the manufacturing of UAV flight hardware, the market forautonomy technology is fairly immature and undeveloped.^[/citationneeded /]Autonomy technology that is important to UAV development falls under thefollowing categories:* Sensor fusion : Combining information from

***

***

different sensors for use on board the vehicle including theautomatic interpretation of ground imagery ^[149] ^[150]

Communications: Handling communication and coordination betweenmultiple agents in the presence of incomplete and imperfect informationPath planning: Determining an optimal path for vehicle to followwhile meeting certain objectives and mission constraints, such asobstacles or fuel requirementsTrajectory Generation (sometimes called Motion planning): Determining an optimal control maneuver totake in order to follow a given path or to go from one location toanotherTrajectory Regulation: The specific control strategies required toconstrain a vehicle within some tolerance to a trajectoryTask Allocation and Scheduling: Determining the optimal distributionof tasks amongst a group of agents within time and equipment constraintsCooperative Tactics: Formulating an optimal sequence and spatialdistribution of activities between agents in order to maximize thechance of success in any given mission scenario

Autonomy is commonly defined as the ability to make decisions withouthuman intervention. To that end, the goal of autonomy is to teachmachines to be "smart" and act more like humans. The keen observer mayassociate this with the developments in the field of artificialintelligence made popular in the 1980sand 1990s, such as expert systems , neural networks, machine learning ,natural language processing , andvision. However, the mode of technological development in the field ofautonomy has mostly followed a bottom-up approach, such as hierarchicalcontrol systems ,^[151] and recent advances have been largely driven by thepractitioners in the field of control science ,not computer science.^[/citation needed/] Similarly, autonomy has been andprobably will continue to be considered an extension of the controls field.To some extent, the ultimate goal in the development of autonomytechnology is to replace the human pilot. It remains to be seen whetherfuture developments of autonomy technology, the perception of thetechnology, and, most importantly, the political climate surrounding theuse of such technology will limit the development and utility ofautonomy for UAV applications. Also as a result of this, syntheticvision for piloting has not caught on in theUAV arena as it did with manned aircraft. NASA utilized synthetic visionfor test pilots on the HiMAT program in the early 1980s(see photo), but the advent of more autonomous UAV autopilots greatlyreduced the need for this technology.^[/citation needed/]Interoperable UAV technologies became essential as systems proved theirmettle in military operations, taking on tasks too challenging ordangerous for troops. NATO addressed the need for commonality throughSTANAG (Standardization Agreement) 4586. According to a NATO pressrelease, the agreement began the ratification process in 1992. Its goalwas to allow allied nations to easily share information obtained fromunmanned aircraft through common ground control station technology.Aircraft that adhere to the STANAG 4586 protocol areequipped to translate information into standardized message formats;

likewise, information received from other compliant aircraft can betransferred into vehicle-specific messaging formats for seamlessinteroperability. Amendments have since been made to the originalagreement based on expert feedback from the field and an industry panelknown as the Custodian Support Team. Edition Two of STANAG 4586 iscurrently under review. There are many systems available today that aredeveloped in accordance with STANAG 4586, including products by industryleaders such as AAI Corporation, CDL Systems, and Raytheon,all three of which are members of the Custodian Support Team for thisprotocol.^[/citation needed /]Military analysts, policy makers, and academics debate the benefits andrisks of *lethal autonomous robots* (LARs), which would be able toselect targets and fire without approval of a human. Some contend thatLAR drones would be more precise, less likely to kill civilians, andless prone to being hacked.^[152] HeatherRoff replies that LARs may not be appropriate for complex conflicts, andtargeted populations would likely react angrily against them.^[152] Will McCants argues thatthe public would be more outraged by machine failures than human error,making LARs politically implausible.^[152] According to Mark Gubrud, claims that drones can be hacked are overblownand misleading, and moreover, drones are /more/ likely to be hacked ifthey re autonomous, because otherwise the human operator would takecontrol: "Giving weapon systems autonomous capabilities is a good way tolose control of them, either due to a programming error, unanticipatedcircumstances, malfunction, or hack, and then not be able to regaincontrol short of blowing them up, hopefully before they ve blown up toomany other things and people."^[153] Endurance[edit]Because UAVs are not burdened with the physiological limitations ofhuman pilots, they can be designed for maximized on-station times. Themaximum flight duration of unmanned aerial vehicles varies widely.Internal combustion engine aircraft endurance depends strongly on thepercentage of fuel burned as a fraction of total weight (the Breguet endurance equation) and so is largelyindependent of aircraft size.^[/citation needed/]

UEL UAV-741 Wankel engine for UAV operationsBecause of the small size, weight, very low vibration and high power toweight ratio, Wankel rotary engines areincreasingly being used in UAV aircraft.^[154] Theengine is approximately one third of the size and weight of a pistonengine of equivalent power output, which offers significant advantagesfor UAV aircraft.^[155] Additionally: the engine rotorscannot seize, since rotor casings expand more than rotors; the engine isnot susceptible to shock-cooling during descent; it does not require anenriched mixture for cooling at high power and having no reciprocatingparts, there is less vulnerability to damage when the engines revolveshigher than the designed maximum running operation. The attributes ofthe Wankel engine transpire into less fuel usage in UAVs giving greater

range or a higher payload.^[156] Solar-electric UAVs hold potential for unlimited flight, a conceptoriginally championed by the AstroFlight Sunrise in 1974^[157] ^[158] ^[159] ^[160] and the much later Aerovironment HeliosPrototype , which was destroyed in a 2003 crash.Electric UAVs kept aloft indefinitely by laser power-beaming^[161] technology represent anotherproposed solution to the endurance challenge. This approach is advocatedby Jordin Kare and Thomas Nugent.One of the major problems with UAVs is the lack of inflight refuelingcapability. In 2012, the US Air Force was promoting research that shouldend in an inflight UAV refueling capability.^[162] A UAV-UAV simulated refuelling flight usingtwo Global Hawks was achievedin 2012.^[163] One of the uses for a high endurance UAV would be to "stare" at thebattlefield for a long period of time to produce a record of events thatcould then be played backwards to track where improvised explosivedevices (IEDs ) came from. Air ForceChief of Staff John P. Jumper started a programto create these persistent UAVs, but this was stopped once he wasreplaced.^[164] In 2007, the Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA) revealed a program to develop technology for a UAV withan endurance capability of over 5 years. The program, entitled VULTURE(Very-high altitude, Ultra-endurance, Loitering Theater UnmannedReconnaissance Element^[165] ), entered Phase II on 14September 2010, with a contract signed with Boeing for development ofthe SolarEagle flight demonstrator.^[166]

Notable high endurance flights UAVFlight timeDateNotesQinetiQ Zephyr Solar Electric336 hours 22minutes923 July 2010 ^[167] QinetiQ Zephyr Solar Electric82 hours 37minutes2831 July 2008^[168] Boeing Condor 58 hours 11 minutes1989aircraft is currently in the Hiller Aviation Museum, CA.

The

^[169] Penguin B UAV Factory 54 hours 27 minutes57 July 2012 ^[170]

RQ-4 Global Hawk 33.1 hours22 March 2008Set an endurance record for a full-scale, operational unmannedaircraft.^[171] Fotros 30 hours17 November 2013Flightendurance depends on number of ASM andflight path.^[172] QinetiQ Zephyr Solar Electric54 hoursSeptember 2007 ^[173] ^[174]

IAI Heron 52 hours?^[175] ^[176] Israel Aerospace Industries Eitan 70+ hours?^[177] AC Propulsion Solar Electric48 hours 11 minutes3 June 2005^[178]

MQ-1 Predator 40 hours 5 minutes?^[179]

GNAT-750 40 hours1992^[180] ^[181] TAM-5 38 hours 52 minutes11 August2003Smallest UAV to cross the Atlantic^[182] ^[183] Aerosonde 38 hours 48 minutes3 May 2006^[184] Shahed 129 24 hours2012^[185] TAI Anka 24 hours30 December 2010^[186]

Bayraktar Tactical UAS 24 Hours 34Minutes6 August 2014 Flight demonstrated at Kesan Airport ofTurkey.^[187] Detect and avoid[edit]The U.K. s Civil Aviation Authority (CAA) has stated that it willrequire non-military drones larger than 20 kg to be able toautomatically sense other aircraft and steer to avoid them, a technologystill missing in civilian UAVs as of 2012.^[188]

Hardening of the control stations[edit]Given the increasing military use of cyber attacks against Microsoft software, the United States Armed Forces have moved towards Linux ground control software.^[189] ^[190]

Buddy attacks[edit]The USAF said in 2012, that it will focus development of UAVs to becollaboratively networked with manned aircraft in "buddy attacks," whilecontinuing to be able to fly as standalone systems.^[191] Existing UAV systems[edit]Ambox current red.svg This section is *outdated*. Please update this article to reflectrecent events or newly available information. /(September 2013)/

UAVs have been developed and deployed by many countries around theworld. For a list of models by country, see: /List of unmanned aerialvehicles /. The use of unmannedaerial systems, however, is not limited to state powers: non-stateactors can also build, buy and operate these combat vehicles.^[26]

The export of UAVs or technology capable of carrying a 500 kg payload atleast 300 km is restricted in many countries by the Missile TechnologyControl Regime . At the centerof the American military s continued UAV research is the MQ-X, whichbuilds upon the capabilities of the Reaper and Predator UAVs. Ascurrently conceived, the MQ-X would be a stealthier and fasterfighter-plane sized UAV capable of any number of missions:high-performance surveillance; attack options, including retractablecannons and bomb or missile payloads; and cargo capacity.^[192]

China has exhibited some UAV designs, but its ability to operate them islimited by the lack of high endurance domestic engines, satelliteinfrastructure, and operational experience.^[193] Historical events involving UAVs[edit]* In 1981, the Israeli IAI Scout drone, is operatedin combat missions by the South African Defence Force against Angola during OperationProtea .^[194] * In 1982, UAVs operated by the Israeli Air Force are instrumental during Operation MoleCricket 19 , where both IAI Scout and Tadiran Mastiff areused to identity SAM sites, while Samson decoy UAVs are used toactivate and confuse Syrian radar.^[194] ^[195] * During the Persian Gulf War , Iraqi Army forces surrendered to the UAVs of the USS/Wisconsin/ .^[196] ^[197] * In October 2002, a few days before the U.S. Senate vote on the Authorization for Use ofMilitary Force Against Iraq Resolution, about 75 senatorswere told in closed session that SaddamHussein had the means of deliveringbiological and chemical weapons of mass destruction by UAVs that could belaunched from ships off the Atlantic coast to attack U.S. easternseaboard cities . ColinPowell suggested in his presentation to theUnited Nations that they had been transported out of Iraq and couldbe launched against the U.S.^[198] It was laterrevealed that Iraq s UAV fleet consisted of only a few outdatedCzech training drones.^[199] At the time, there wasa vigorous dispute within the intelligence community as to whetherCIA s conclusions about Iraqi UAVs were accurate. The U.S. Air Force, the agency most familiar with UAVs, deniedoutright that Iraq possessed any offensive UAV capability.^[200]

* The first US targeted UAV killing outside the conventionalbattlefield took place on 3 November 2002, in the Marib district ofYemen. Six alleged terrorists were killed in their SUV by aUAV-fired missile.^[201] The command centre was inTampa, Florida, USA.* In December 2002, the first ever dogfight involvinga UAV occurred when an Iraqi MiG-25 and a U.S. RQ-1Predator fired missiles at each other. The MiG smissile destroyed the Predator.^[202] * The U.S. deployed UAVs in Yemen to search for and killAnwar al-Awlaki ,^[203] anAmerican and Yemen imam, firing at and failing to kill him at leastonce^[204] before he was killed in a UAV-launchedmissile attack in Yemen on 30 September 2011. The targeted killingof an American citizen was unprecedented. However, nearly nine yearsearlier in 2002, U.S. citizen Kemal Darwish was one of six menkilled by the first UAV strike outside a war zone, in Yemen.^[205]

* In December 2011, Iran captured a United States RQ-170 unmannedaerial vehicle that flewover Iran and rejected President Barack Obama srequest to return it to the US.^[206] ^[207] Iranian officials claim to have recovered data fromthe U.S. surveillance aircraft. However, it is not clear how Iranbrought it down.^[208] There have also been claimsthat Iran spoofed the GPS signal used by the UAV^[24] and hijacked it into landing on an Iranianrunway.* In December 2013, The U.S. Navy has successfully launched anUnmanned Aerial System (UAS) from a submerged submarine, the firststep to providing mission intelligence, surveillance andreconnaissance (ISR) capabilities to the U.S. Navys submarineforce.^[209] Domestic aerial surveillance and other incidents[edit]The topic of this article *may not meet Wikipedia s general notabilityguideline *. Please help to establishnotability by adding reliable, secondary sources about the topic. Ifnotability cannot be established, the article is likely to be merged, redirected , ordeleted ./Find sources:/ "Unmanned aerial vehicle"

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/(November 2013)/Although UAVs are today most commonly associated with military actions,UAVs are increasingly used by civilian government agencies, businesses,and private individuals. In the United States, for example, governmentagencies use UAVs such as the RQ-9 Reaper to patrolthe nation s borders, scout property, and locate fugitives.^[210] One of the first authorized for domestic usage was theShadowHawk UAV in service in Montgomery County, Texas, and is being usedby their SWAT and emergency management offices.^[211] Australia[edit]Sydney Harbour Bridge collision[edit]On 2 October 2013, a UAV collided with Sydney Harbour Bridge.^[212] The craft, which carried a camera, was found about 10pm near a southernpylon of the bridge on a rail line.^[212] ^[213] Although it was found the daybefore the International Navy Fleet Review, police believed there was noconnection with the event.^[212] TheCivil Aviation Safety Authority started an investigation and anti-terrorism officers were alerted,though police said they didn t believe it was suspicious and was forrecreational use.^[212] A CASAspokesman said that they had been contacted by the New South WalesPolice Force .^[212] He added that those operatingremotely piloted aircraft should keep them at least 30m away fromstructures, buildings and people, to check with the local council wherethey could be used and that the airspace around the bridge wasrestricted for all aircraft, including small ones.^[212]

The craft turned out to belong to Edward Prescott, who had lost controlof it while testing it and thought it was lost in the harbour.^[213] He said that he never intendedit to fly into the bridge and later discovered that his craft had beenin the news.^[213] He said thathe contacted the aviation authorities and Sydney police as soon as heheard of the news.^[213] TheNew South Wales police stated that the matter had been investigated anddeemed not suspicious and that the police team managing theInternational Fleet Review had been notified, but that police transportcommand had handled the matter.^[213] The police returned the craftto Mr Prescott.^[213] The CivilAviation Safety Authority hascompleted a review of the incident but as of late November 2013 has notdecided what action, if any, to take.^[213] Mr Prescott was in Sydney aspart of the support crew for the Australian tour of Rihanna

.^[213] Endure Batavia drone incident[edit]In April 2014, triathlete Raija Ogden was injured inan incident in Geraldton , Western Australia.^[214] She claimedthat she was injured when the drone collided with her during therace.^[214] Warren Abrahams, the owner of the UAV denied that it had collided withher and that she had been injured when she was frightened by the fallingUAV and tripped.^[214] Raija Ogdendisputed these claims saying that "I have lacerations on my head fromthe drone and the ambulance crew took a piece of propeller from myhead".^[214] CivilAviation Safety Authority spokesman Peter Gibson said that evidencewarranted an investigation.^[214]

Warren Abrahams claimed that video footage of the event supported hisclaims.^[214] In a radiointerview he suggested that his drone had been hacked by someone who hadtaken control of it, but when contacted by Guardian Australia, he seemedto withdraw the statement.^[214]

In July 2014, CASA referred the operators of the UAV to the CommonwealthDirector of Public Prosecutions, which may lead to aprosecution if the latter decides there is enough evidence for a courtcase.^[215] Timing equipment caused interference with the operation of the UAV whileit was close to people on the ground.^[215] CASA regulations requirethat UAVs be at least 30m from people and shouldn t be operated in a waythat creates a hazard.^[215] The operator may not have the licence required to operate amulticopter.^[215] In November 2014 the Commonwealth Director of Public Prosecutionsdecided not to procees with a charge of reckless operation againstWarren Abrahams, though CASA said its lawyers would take a number ofweeks to determine whether to fine him.^[216]

Warren Abrahams commented on his social media page: "Just got the callfrom CASA (Civil Aviation Safety Authority) no charges against us forincident in April" and "Just letting everyone know as investigation hastaken this long. Sorry to all those who thought they could charge me haha you idiots!!!"^[216]

Simon Teakle, president of the triathlon club, called the comments harshand insensitive to Raija Ogden, something Warren Abrahams denied.^[216]

Belgium[edit]In 2013, The Flemish Research Institute for Nature and Forest and the Flanders MarineInstitute planned to use a UAV with acamera and a detection system that automatically recognizes differenttypes of vegetation, trees and individual plants in order to makeregular assessments of the biodiversity of the Flemish terrain. Theirprevious system of using 25 civil servants to map the country wasunsatisfactory and time-consuming.^[217] Brazil[edit]Didier Deschamps claimed that a UAV flew overthe French teams training camp in Ribeiro Preto before their 2014 World Cup match with Honduras.^[218] Deschamps wasn t as amused assome of his players were by the incident, though he was content to leavethe investigation to FIFA .^[218]

Canada[edit]Vancouver International Airport incidents[edit]In April 2014, video of a UAV flying close to an airliner as it landedat Vancouver International Airport attracted criticism from severalquarters as well as an investigation.^[219]

The video showed footage of the airliner on final approach taken from acamera on board the UAV.^[219]

Transport Canada spokesman Rod Nelson said hisdepartment was investigating with the Royal Canadian Mounted Police to identify the operator.^[219]

Model Aeronautics Association of Canada board of directorsmember Steve Hughes said that pilots like the one in question weredamaging the hobby of flying model aircraft.^[219]

In March 2014, a remote-controlled helicopter was reported by the crew

of a Boeing 777 flying 30 miles from their craft atthe same airport, though nothing connects the two incidents.^[219]

Democratic Republic of Congo[edit]

A UAV in Goma as part of MONUSCO peacekeeping missionIn August 2013, the Italian defence company Selex ES provided an unarmed surveillance drone to be deployed in the DemocraticRepublic of Congo to monitormovements of armed groups in the region and to protect the civilianpopulation more effectively.^[220] France[edit]In October 2014 an Israeli tourist was arrested in front of Notre Damede Paris and spent the night in jail.^[221] The following morning he was fined400 Euro foroperating an aircraft non-compliant with safetylaws.^[221] He said he wasn t awarethat it was illegal to fly drones in Paris and that he d photographedNotre Dame, Htel-Dieu de Paris and apolice station as he wanted to photograph Parisian monuments for privatepurposes.^[221] Nuclear power plant overflights[edit]In October and November 2014 unidentified civilian UAVs were seen flyingnear 13 nuclear power plants, including Le Blayais and Gravelines.^[222] TheSecretariat-General for National Defence and Security

issued a statement that the flights were an "organizedprovocation".^[222] Initialsuspicion fell upon Greenpeace , who denied anyinvolvement.^[222] Theorganisation did however point out the power stations were vulnerable toaerial attack.^[222]

Overflights of nuclear power plants are illegal in France, with apunishment of a year in prison and a fine of 75,000 if an aircraft

comes within 5km horizontally or 1km vertically of a plant.^[222]

In November 2014 two men and a woman were arrested near the BellevilleNuclear Power Plant with twoUAVs.^[223] French mediareported that they didn t seem to have any connection with theunidentified flights.^[223] Germany[edit]The Deutsche Bahn (German national railways) saidin 2013 that it would test small surveillance UAVs with thermal cameras to prosecute vandals who spray graffiti on its property at night. Graffiti incidents cost theDeutsche Bahn $10 million per year to clean up.^[224] India[edit]On 11 May 2014 Francescos Pizza of Mumbai made a testdelivery from a branch in Lower Parel to the roof ofa building in Worli .^[225] Police in Mumbaibegan an investigation on the grounds that security clearances had notbeen sought.^[226] Many police departments haveprocured drones for law and order and aerial surveillance even thoughthe DGCA has no guidelines on operation of drones.^[227] ^[228] ^[229] ^[230] ^[231] ^[232] Japan[edit]Japanese farmers have been using Yamaha sR-50 and RMAX unmanned helicopters to dust their crops since 1987.^[233] ^[234] T-Hawk ^[235] and GlobalHawk ^[236] drones were used to gather information about the damaged FukushimaNumber 1 nuclear plant anddisaster-stricken areas of the Thoku region after the March 2011 tsunami. Anti-whaling activists used an Osprey UAV (made by Kansas-basedHangar 18) in 2012 to monitor Japanese whaling ships in the Antarctic.^[237] Nepal[edit]In 2012, the World Wildlife Fund suppliedtwo FPV Raptor 1.6 UAVs^[238] to the Nepal NationalParks. These UAVs were used to monitor rhinos tigers and elephants and

deter poachers.^[239] The UAVs were equipped with timelapse cameras and could fly for 18 miles at 650 feet.^[240]

Republic of Ireland[edit]In 2012, Loitering Theatre group flew Parrot AR.Drones near ras an Uachtarin, the Magazine Fort, a prison facility and offices ofGoogle on Barrow Street and also Facebook.^[241] Footage filmed by thegroup was shown at an exhibit run by the Dublin Science Gallery.^[241] The Irish AviationAuthority stated that this was prohibited as Dublin city is classed as arestricted area.^[242] A separate group, called Tomorrows Thoughts Today, who had attended thesame event were detained on their return to the UK at London SouthendAirport under the Terrorism Act.^[242] ^[243] They were releasedafter a couple of hours questioning.^[243]

In April 2014, Raymond Fogarty put a video of Cork City from a UAV that received publicity.^[244] ^[245] ^[246] He wascriticised for flying the UAV without a licence by Steve Slade of SkyTecIreland and by Paudie Barry of Baseline Surveys Ireland.^[247]

Mr. Barry described Mr. Fogartys as having acted recklessly andirresponsibly.^[247]

Mr Fogarty said he hadn t been contacted by the Irish AviationAuthority, but acknowledged that he had been naive in not looking up thelaws and that he had contacted the IAA to get a licence.^[247]

The IAA declined to comment on the case but stated that licences wererequired to operate UAVs.^[247]

Prison drug smuggling incident[edit]Around 11am on 24 June 2014. a quadcopter crashed into an exercise yardof Wheatfield Prison , Clondalkin, Dublin 22 .^[248]

^[249] ^[250]

The quadcopter collided withwires designed to prevent helicopters landing to aid escapes, causing itto crash.^[248]

^[249] ^[250] A package containing drugs hungfrom the quadcopter by a rope and was seized by a group of prisonersbefore prison staff could get to it.^[248]

^[249] ^[250] One prisoner swallowed thedrugs and was placed into solitary confinement along with severalothers.^[248]

^[250] The quadcopter was badlydamaged by the crash, though an unsuccessful attempt was made to fly itout of the prison.^[248]

^[249] ^[250] The quadcopter was handed overto an Garda Sochna and both they andthe prison service are holding their own investigations.^[248]

^[249] ^[250]

Legal status[edit]In May 2012, the Irish Aviation Authority published a document setting out safetyrequirements for any unmanned aerial system, regardless of mass.^[251] An appendixcontained an application form to apply to operate a UAS.^[252] The only previous legislation hadbeen the "Irish Aviation Authority (Rockets and Small Aircraft) Order,2000".^[251] ^[253] The IAA policy is that unmanned aerial systems may not be flown withoutthe operator receiving a specific permission from the IAA.^[251] Where such acraft is to be used for commercial work, the operator must apply for anaerial work permission from the IAA.^[251] Flying UASoutside the direct, unaided line of sight of the operator is not allowedfor safety reasons.^[251] It is notpermitted to use vision-enhancing systems, such as first-person view.^[251]

On 15 November 2012, the Irish Aviation Authority introduced arequirement that remotely piloted aircraft needed to be registered tocomply with Statutory Instrument 634 or 2005 "Nationality andRegistration of Aircraft" Order.^[254] ^[255]

On 12 July 2014, the Irish Times reported thatthe Irish Aviation Authority had issued permits to 22 operators to useUAVs in the Republic, as opposed to 14 the year before.^[256] The IAAsaid each permit issued by the IAA containted the stated reason theoperator was using the UAV but that it could not release details ofthose who were licenced because of data protection legislation.^[256]

USSR[edit]The Tu-141 "Swift" reusable Soviet operationaland tactical reconnaissance drone is intended for reconnaissance to adepth of several hundred kilometers from the front line at supersonicspeeds.^[257] The Tu-123 "Hawk"is a supersonic long-range reconnaissance drone (UAV) intended forconducting photographic and signals intelligence to a distance of3200 km; it was produced since 1964.^[258] The La-17P(UAV) is a reconnaissance UAV produced since 1963.^[259] Since 1945, the Soviet Union also produced"doodlebug".^[260] There are 43 known Soviet UAVmodels.^[261] South Africa[edit]In December 2012, the Kruger National Park started using a Seeker II UAV againstrhino poachers. The UAV was loaned to the South African National Parks authority by its manufacturer,Denel Dynamics of South Africa.^[262] ^[263] In June 2013, police officers apprehended a man who flew a multicopteroutside the hospital that Nelson Mandela wasin.^[264] The pilot of the craftwas questioned for several hours by police then released.^[265] His equipmentand footage were confiscated.^[265] The pilotapologised for his actions and said he did not intend to invade NelsonMandelas privacy.^[265]

In April 2014, the South African Civil Aviation Authority announced that it wouldclamp down on the illegal flying of UAVs in South Africanairspace.^[266] Theyalso stated that as they had not authorised any such flights, existingones were being done illegally.^[266] Agrowth in the use of UAVs had prompted the SACAA to integrate them intoSouth African airspace, but until regulations were in place peopleoperating them could be fined up to R50,000 and face up to 10 yearsprison.^[266]

United Kingdom[edit]In 2007, Merseyside Police was reported to beconducting tests with a UAV.^[267] ^[268] Merseyside Policecaught a car thief with a UAV in 2010, but about a week later had tostop UAV operations as the UAV was not licenced. Regulations introducedat the start of 2010 required any aerial surveillance by unmannedaircraft - no matter the size of the drone - to be licenced.^[269] ^[270] A licence wasgranted by the Civil Aviation Authority but the UAV was lost soon after during a training exercise in Aigburth, Liverpool , when it crashed in theRiver Mersey .^[271] and the police stated the UAVwould not be replaced due to operational limitations and the cost ofstaff training.^[271] In 2012, the Ulster Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals used aquadcopter UAV to deter badger baiters in Northern Ireland.^[272] InMarch 2013, the British League Against Cruel Sports announced they had carried out trialflights with UAVs and planned to use a fixed-wing OpenRanger and an"Octocopter" to gather evidence to make private prosecutions againstillegal hunting of foxes and other animals.^[262] The UAVs wer