i

TITLE PAGE

ENVIRONMENTAL IMPLICATIONS OF SEWAGE DISPOSAL

METHODS IN ENUGU METROPOLIS, SOUTH-EASTERN

NIGERIA.

ii

CERTIFICATION

I declare that this dissertation represents my own work, except where

acknowledgement is made, and it has not been previously included in a thesis,

dissertation or report submitted to this university or to any other institution for a

degree, diploma or other qualification.

ILOABACHIE DAVID EMEKA

PG/M.SC/07/42488

JUNE 07 2010

iii

APPROVAL PAGE

I, ILOABACHIE, DAVID EMEKA a post-graduate student in the Department

of Geology have satisfactorily completed the requirements in research work for

degree of Master of Sciences (M.Sc) in Engineering Geology.

__________________________ ___________________________

Prof. C.O. Okogbue Dr A.W. Mode

Supervisor Head of Department

__________________________ ________________________

Dr. Ogbonnaya Igwe External Examiner

Supervisor

iv

DEDICATION

This work is dedicated to my mother, Mrs. Virginia O. Iloabachie.

v

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

This task would not have been possible without God’s direction and

inspiration; I therefore give all thanks to God almighty. Consequently, I am

heavily indebted to my supervisor, Prof C.O. Okogbue who nurtured me and

sacrificed valuable time and energy to go through this work and to ensure a

better production of this project. I wish to acknowledge the contributions of my

lecturers Dr. O. Igwe, Mr. O. S. Onwuka, the Head of Geology Department, Dr

A.W. Mode and the entire staff of Geology Department including late Prof. H.I.

Ezeigbo; may his gentle soul rest in peace.

I am sincerely grateful to all my family members and colleagues. I thank

them for their co-operation and support during the period of my study.

vi

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Title Page - - - - - - - - - i

Certification- - - - - - - - - ii

Approval Page - - - - - - - - iii

Dedication - - - - - - - - - iv

Acknowledgement - - - - - - - - v

Table of Contents - - - - - - - - vi

List of Figures -- - - - - - - - - vii

List of Tables - - - - - - - - - viii

Abstract- - - - - - - - - - ix

CHAPTER ONE INTRODUCTION

1.1. Background of Study - - - - - - 1

1.2. Aims and Objectives - - - - - - 2

1.3. Location and Accessibility - - - - - 2

1.4 Physiography, Climate and Vegetation - - - - 4

1.5 Literature Review - - - - - - - 6

1.6 Geology of the Studied Area - - - - - - 8

1.7 Hydrogeology of the Area - - - - - 13

1.8 Sewage Disposal Methods in

Enugu Metropolis - ---- - - - -- 16

vii

CHAPTER TWO: METHOD OF STUDY

2.1. Sampling Techniques- - - - - - - 20

2.2. Statistical Sampling - - - - - - - 21

2.3. Laboratory Test - - - - - - - - 22

2.3.1. Physico-Chemical Test - - - - - - - 22

2.3.2. Bacteriological Test - - - - - - - 25

2.4 Ground Water Flow System - - -- - - - - 26

CHAPTER THREE: RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS OF TEST

RESULTS

3.1. Statistical Analyses - - - - - - - - 29

3.2. Laboratory Analyses - - - - - - - 35

3.2.1. Physico-Chemical Analyses - - - - - - 35

3.2.2. Bacteriological Analyses- - - - - - 50

CHAPTER FOUR: SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS

4.1. Summary and Conclusions - - - - - - 57

4.2. Recommendations - - - - - - - 58

References - - - - - - - - - 59

Appendix

viii

LIST OF FIGURES

Fig: 1 Accessibility Map of Enugu Metropolis - - - 3

Fig: 2 Topographic Map of Enugu Metropolis. - - - 5

Fig: 3 Satellite Image of Enugu Metropolis Showing Network of

Roads - - - - - - - - 6

Fig: 4 Geological Map of Southeastern Nigeria. - - - 11

Fig: 5 Model of Perched Aquifer Showing Water

Table varying with Surface Topography- - - 14

Fig: 6 Bar Chart Showing Annual Rainfall in the study area. - 15

Fig: 7 Drainage pattern of Enugu Metropolis- - - - 16

Fig: 8 A Typical Pit Toilet - - - - - - 18

Fig: 9 A Typical Water Closet with Soak-away Pit - - 19

Fig: 10 A Conceptual Model of the Groundwater

Flow Pattern in the Enugu Metropolis - - 28

Fig: 11 Bar Chart Showing Prevalence of Typhoid Fever on the

Respondents - - - - - - - 32

Fig: 12 Pie chart Showing Distance between Well

and Toilet of Respondents - - - - - 33

Fig: 13 Variation of Electrical Conductivity with Location - 38

Fig: 14 Variation of TDS with Location - - - - 40

Fig: 15 Variation of Chloride Concentration with Location - 46

ix

Fig: 16 Lateral Distance of 3 to 6m between hand dug

well and soak-away pit at location 13 - - - - 47

Fig: 17 Variation of Nitrate Concentration with Location - 49

Fig: 18 Variation of Coliform Count with Location - - - 52

Fig: 19 Hand-dug well at Location 20 with

Waste Disposal Site Located Close to it - - - 53

x

LIST OF TABLES

Table I: Summarized Stratigraphy of the Benue Trough and

Anambra State - - - - - - - 10

Table 2: Co-ordinates and Hydraulic Heads

Distribution Measurement in Enugu Metropolis - - 27

Table 3: Result of Statistical Interpretation - - - - - 30

Tables 4:Chi-Square Showing the Effects of Sewage

Contamination to the Respondents in Relation to the

Distance between Wells and Soak-away/Pit Toilets - - 34

Table 5 Results of Physio-Chemical Test - - - - - 36

Table 6 World Health Organization Recommended

Standard for Drinking Water - - - - - - 42

Table 7 Direction of Toilets and Wells in the Study Area - - - 43

Table 8 Results of Bacteriological Test - - - - - 51

Table 9 Lateral Distance from Soak-away / Pit Latrine to Wells and the

Concentration of Bacteriological Contamination - - 56

xi

ABSTRACT

A questionnaire and observational study were randomly conducted on 204 houses to acquire

information on different sewage disposal methods used in Enugu metropolis, and to

investigate the impact of the sewage disposal methods on available water supplies. The

results obtained show that 51% of the resident’s wells are located at a distance less than 9m

from the toilets. Samples from 21 different locations in the area were analyzed and studied in

order to assess the quality of the groundwater. The result of the physico-chemical analysis

shows presence of some sewage sensitive parameters such as Chlorides (CL-), Total

Dissolved Solids (TDS), Electrical Conductivity (EC), and Nitrates (No3-), although not in

significant quantity. The bacteriological analysis of the samples reveals that the

aquifer/groundwater has very high concentrations of coliform bacteria varying between 130

and 2400MPN/100ml of water. Further bacteriological investigation of the groundwater

quality shows significant concentrations of Escherichia coli which is an indication of faecal

contamination of the groundwater. Simple hydrogeological studies of the area such as

ascertaining depth to groundwater table and direction of groundwater flow prior to siting of

wells and toilets would minimize groundwater contamination. Relevant agencies should make

continuous effort to control, regulate and educate the populace on indiscriminate disposal of

sewage within the study area.

1

CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background of Study

Sewage can be defined as liquid waste containing some solids produced

by humans and typically consisting of washing water, faeces, urine, laundry

waste and other materials which go down drains and toilets from households

and industry. Sewage is a type of domestic wastewater and it is a major or

potential source of pollution especially in urban areas (Myer and Sylvester,

1997). Thus, inappropriate disposal of sewage constitutes a major challenge in

urban areas. Indiscriminate defecation, either in pit latrines, water closets (soak-

away pit) or vacant plots and open drains can often lead to several

environmental problems. Groundwater contaminations are major occurrences in

urban areas and these normally result to epidemic of water borne diseases such

as cholera, typhoid fever, gastro-intestinal disorder and so on. These diseases

have led to the death of millions of people globally.

In Enugu metropolis, sewage waste constitutes a major contaminant of

groundwater. The groundwater in the area is increasingly getting contaminated

essentially due to negligence of the aquifer. Toilets facilities in the area are not

designed to approved and recommended specifications in terms of width, depth

and other parameters. In the metropolis, studies are not carried out to ascertain

the nature of the soil (topography, porosity and permeability), direction of

2

groundwater flow and depth to water table before citing toilets facilities. Hand

dug wells are designed and located without proper site investigation to

determine nearness to source of pollution (pit latrines and soak-away pits). The

level of illiteracy among the inhabitants contributes to problems of portable

water provision. Most consumers do not know the consequences of using

contaminated water. There is a serious misconception, that groundwater; so long

as it is clear is safe for use.

1.2 Aims and Objectives

1. To acquire information on different sewage disposal methods used in the

study area.

2. To investigate the impact of the sewage disposal methods on available

water supplies.

1.3 Location and Accessibility

The study area lies between latitudes 60 23' N and 6

0 29' N and longitudes 7

0 29'

E and 70 32' E. (Fig 1). The area is easily accessible through the Onitsha-Enugu

express road. From the Garki road end of Enugu metropolis, the study area

ascends to the Uwani-Ogbete road and runs towards Asata area. The study area

is within the developed Enugu Urban and consists of streets that are connected

by a good network of tarred roads.

3

Fig 1: Accessibility Map of Enugu Metropolis.

6023’N

6029’N

N

6023’N

6029’N

ASATA FGC

ENUGU

GARIKI

UWANI

OGBETE

ENUGU

INDEPENDENCE

LAYOUT COAL CAMP

NEW HEAVEN

70 32’E 7

0 29’ E

70 29’E

FROM ONITSHA

7032’E

2km 0

4

1.4 Physiography, Climate and Vegetation

The Enugu Shale outcrops occur in the plains east of the North-South

trending escarpment (Ezeigbo and Ezeanyim, 1993). Most of the Enugu

metropolis is underlain by the Enugu Shale. Having been subject to weathering

and erosion for long periods, the characteristics landscape of this area is

extensive level plains interrupted by steep valleys and low hills. These features

form a major landscape of the metropolis.

The topography in Enugu metropolis ranges from 15 to 75 m (Uma and

Ezeigbo,1999). The general relief comprises gently undulating plain with low

hills and steep valleys (Fig. 2). The topography within the city is much gentle

when compared to the Western part which shows high relief with undulating

hills. Much of the population of the area is located within the city.

The climate is humid tropical and characterized by day time temperature

of 27 -320c

and night time temperature of 17-280c. The area has two distinct

seasons namely, wet (April-October) and dry (November-March) seasons. The

annual rainfall ranges from about 1500-1830mm. (Okagbue and Ifedigbo, 1995)

The natural vegetation which is tropical rainforest is reduced to Guinea

Savanna type as a result of human activities except along river/stream channels

where remnants of original vegetation can still be observed (see fig. 3).

5

Fig. 2: Topographic Map of Enugu Metropolis.

650 600

700

850

750

650 700

600

550

70 29’ E 70 30’ E 70 31’ E 70 32’ E

70 29’ E 70 32’ E

60 29’ N

27’ N

25’ N

60 23’ N

60 29’ N

BARRACKS

CRH

ENUGU

MKT

OGBETE

N

E W

S

0 2Km

6

Fig 3: Satellite Image of Enugu Metropolis Showing Network of Roads.

(Source : Google Map, 2009)

1.5 Literature Review

The different methods of sewage disposal have generated a lot of

controversy and discussions among engineering geologists, environmental

KEY

Vegetation

70 27’ E 7

0 36’E

6032’N

6

032’N

6023’N

6023’N

7027’E 7

0 36’E

Road

N

7

experts and other researchers. Dapo (1990) stated that people in developing

countries do not have adequate sanitation system. He pointed out that most of

their soak-away pits are not properly designed and sometimes are located close

to sources of water supply, which eventually become contaminated. Cook

(1998) mentioned that urbanization contributes to the problem of groundwater

contamination.

Todd (1980) has observed that leakage of sewage into the ground is always a

common occurrence especially from old sewers and thus, can affect

groundwater quality. Onwuka, et al (2004) have observed that lateritic aquifer

of Enugu, Southeastern Nigeria, which is an important source of water supply to

the inhabitants, is contaminated through sewage from soak-away/ absorption

tanks. Uma (2003) suggested that the hydrogeologic environment of shallow

water table and high permeability of the host laterite have rendered the perched

aquifer vulnerable to pollution especially from domestic sewage buried in septic

tanks and soak-away pits.

Sharma, et al (1987) on their work in the area distribution of infiltration

parameters and some soil physical properties in lateritic catchment concluded

that lateritic soils have very high infiltration rates. Okogbue and Ezeigbo,

(1990) mentioned that the provision of potable water has remained an unsolved

problem in developing nations.

8

North Carolina University (1997) noted that the presence of certain

bacteria can provide clues about the origin of contamination. According to

them, E-coli and enterococci inhabit the intestinal tract of worm-blooded

animals and their presence in water is a direct indication of faecal

contamination. Ofoma et al (2005) stipulate that high population of coliform

bacteria indicate poor sanitary condition, arising from poor handling of

domestic waste (sewage).

Wilhelm and Maluk (1998) on their work on National water quality

Assessment programme (NAWQA) pointed out that high levels of faecal

indicator bacteria such as faecal coliforms, and Escherichia coli (E-coli) in

groundwater are used as indicators of sanitary water quality and are present in

high numbers in sewage material. These coliforms and E-coli have been shown

to be associated with water borne diseases such as typhoid / paratyphoid fevers

and gastro intestinal disorders. Uma and Oteze, (1999), Uma, (2003) Howard

(1985) and Foster et al (1998) noted that chlorides and nitrates are well known

sewage sensitive indicators.

1.6 Regional Geology

Reyment (1965) described the stratigraphy of the different depositional basins

in the country including the Anambra Basin of the study area and delineated

9

several lithostratigraphic units.The earliest documented marine transgression in

the Anambra Basin occurred during the mid-Albian.

Albian deposits outcrop in several locations within the basin and also within the

Benue Trough (Kogbe,1989). which has been described as a failed arm of a rift

system associated with the break up of the Gondwanaland (Nwajide and Reijers

1996). The Trough which streches NE-SW is a complex pull-apart basin formed

by transcurrent movement (Benkhelil et al, 1989). The stratigraphic successions

of sedimentary deposits within the trough are represented by three main marine

depositional cycles, the Albian-Cenomanian, Turonian-Santonian and

Campano-Maastrichtian (see Table 1) Reyment (1965); Ofoegbu, (1985); Tijani

et al, (1996); Ojoh, (1992). Figure 4 shows the geologic map of southeastern

Nigeria.

The Albian sediments constitute the Asu River Group and consist of

poorly bedded sandy shales including the Abakaliki Shales (Reyment, 1665;

Nwachukwu, 1972). The Cenomanian was a regressive period, during which the

sediments of the Odukpani Formation were deposited unconformably on the

Precambrian Basement rocks (Reyment, 1965).

10

Table 1: Summarized Stratigraphy of the Benue Trough and Anambra Basin

(after Reyment, 1965 and Ojoh, 1992)

PRECAMBRIAN BASEMENT COMPLEX

PRE

ALBIAN

-

ALBIAN

ALBIAN

M

U

EKEGBELIGWE

NGBO

CENOMANIAN

IBRI AND AGILA SANDSTONES

UN-NAMED UNITS

ASU RIVER

GROUP

ODUKPANI

L

UEZILLO

M

TURONIAN

L

M

U

NARA SHALES

AGU OJO/AMASERI/AGALA

SANDSTONES

EZE- AKU SHALE

GROUP

NKALAGU FORMATION/ AWGU SHALE

CONIACIANAGBANI SSN

SANTONIAN

AWGU SHALE

GROUP

FOLDING

CAMPANAINNKPORO GROUP:

OWELLI SANDSTONE/ NKPORO SHALE/ENUGU SHALE

MAMU

AJALI

NSUKKA

IMO, AMEKI, OGWASHI- ASABA ETC.TERTIARY-RECENT

MAAASTRICHTIAN

CRETACEOUS

100

97

90.4

88.5

86.6

83.0

74

65

MA

TIME STRATIGRAPHY

11

Fig 4: Geological Map of Southeastern Nigeria.

12

This was succeeded by the Turonian which featured extensive marine

transgression. Turonian deposits belong to the Ezeaku Group (1200m thick).

The transgression continued during the Coniacian with the deposition of Awgu

Group (900m thick). The Asu River Group and Awgu Group have been

described extensively by Reyment, (1965) Murat, (1972) and Kogbe, (1989).

The Santonian was a regressive period during which crustal movement

accompanied by magmatism resulted in the folding and uplifting of the

Abakiliki area to form the Abakaliki Anticlinorium as well as Anambra Basin

and Afikpo Syncline. Murat, (1972) and Hoque, (1981) have found numerous

mafic to intermediate rocks, cal-alkaline lavas, and pyroclastic tufts, including

lead zinc mineralization in deformed sediments of the Abakaliki Anticlinorium.

The Campano-Maastrichtian began with a short marine transgression

followed by a regression and this gave rise to the Nkporo Group (100m thick).

The Nkporo Shale and its lateral equivalents the Enugu Shale and Owelli

Sandstone constitute the basal beds of the Campanian. Outcrops of the Nkporo

Formation are scarce but borehole cores show that Enugu Shale is light to dark

grey and contains bands of clay ironstone. The topmost part of the Enugu Shale

is weathered to a dirty brown lateritic regolith which is porous and varies in

thickness up to a maximum of 20m, depending on the topography of the area.

The terminal Cretaceous marine cycle deposited the basal part of the coal

sequence known as the Mamu Formation. The Mamu Formation is overlain by

13

the Ajali Formation which was previously known as the False Bedded

Sandstone and consists of thick friable, poorly sorted sandstone typically white

in colour but sometime iron-stained. The Nsukka Formation lies conformably

on the Ajali Sandstone. The formation was first described as the “Upper Coal

Measure.” and is similar to the Mamu Formation.

Detailed descriptions on the Ajali and Nsukka Formations are found in the works of

Nwachukwu (1972) and Kogbe (1989).

1.7 Hydrogeology of the Area

Enugu metropolis is underlain by the Enugu Shale. Thus, its geological location

is such in which depth to water table is controlled by the seasons of the year.

The Enugu Shale essentially constitutes an aquiclude. The Shales are fractured

and weathered to a lateritic regolith which is highly porous and permeable that

suggests localized saturated conditions. The permeable laterite rests on the

impermeable shalely bedrock and thus a perched aquifer is developed

constituting the only known aquifer directly beneath the metropolis.

The perched aquifer of the Enugu Shale is thin and most times becomes

reduced in thickness especially during dry season. The aquifer is regionally

discontinuous and sometimes intersects the surface bedrock to form springs as

shown in the model below (Fig. 5).

14

Fig. 5: A Model of Perched Aquifer, Showing Water Table varying with

Surface Topography.

The Enugu Shale perched aquifer unit which supports local flow pattern are

reasonably thick and extensive and have potentials to store large volumes of

water especially if secondary porosity / permeability (planar, fracture or fissure

type) are present (Awalla,1998).

The aquifer is recharged by rainwater. Filtration is estimated to be about

31.1% of atmospheric precipitation, representing 9.76% 107m

3/yr (Nfor,

2006). Precipitation in the study area is highest during the month of September

and is about 280mm (Fig 6). At the peak of the rainy season when the water

table is high and the discharge volume increases, springs do frequently occur.

15

Months of the year

Fig. 6: Bar Chart Showing Annual Rainfall in the Study Area.

(Source: Metrological Station Enugu, 1988)

The study area is well drained by different rivers. The rivers which rise from

near the base of the escarpment and flow eastward into the Cross River Basin

consist of Ekulu, Iva, Njaba, Asata, Mmiri Ani and Ogbete rivers (Fig. 7).

Some of the rivers appear fracture- controlled in their flow path thereby

resulting into dendritic drainage pattern (Egboka, 1985).

300-

250-

200-

150-

100-

50-

0

Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sept Oct Nov Dec

mm

16

Fig. 7: Drainage Pattern of Enugu Metropolis

EKULU RIVER

CRH

ENUGU

7029’E

6029’N

7030’E 7031’E 7032’E

6023’N

7032’E 7029’E

6023’N

6029’N

ASATA

RIVER

MKT

OGBETE

HOSPIT

AL

BARRACK

S

AG

BA

NI

RD

MMIRI ANI RIVER

MKT

SCH

0 2Km

N

E W

S

Roads

KEY

Rivers

Ogbete River

Njaba River

17

1.8 Sewage Disposal Methods in Enugu Metropolis

The problem of urbanization in Enugu metropolis has resulted to a

number of environmental problems such as sewage generation, its collection,

treatment and disposal. The collection and disposal of sewage effluents by the

inhabitants are executed using various methods as discussed below:

Pit Latrine

The principle in pit latrine is that it is designed for the onsite disposal (but not

treatment) of human excreta with little or no water usage. Pit latrine consists of

squatting plate (Fig. 8), or riser type which is placed over an earthen pit. The

duration of pit latrine varies, depending on the number of users (they can last for

several years). Outhouses types are generally used in Enugu metropolis with a

roof for shelter provided.The diameter of pit latrine is usually between 1-1.5m.

Its depth is usually more than 3m. Pit latrine is not suitable in crowded area and

in areas where groundwater level is high. Pit latrines are crude toilets. Most pit

latrines in the metropolis are located without considering the population of the

area involved and the groundwater level.

18

Fig. 8: A Typical Pit Toilet

Water Closets (W. Cs) and Soak-away Pit

Water closets are the most accepted sanitary system of sewage disposal. They

constitute a toilet system that disposes human waste by using water to flush it

through a drain pipe into a soak-away pit / septic tank.

A proper septic tank usually has two chambers that are separated by a

dividing wall with openings located at the midway. Wastewater enters the first

chamber, allowing solids to settle and scum to float. The settled solids are

anaerobically digested while the scum component flows into the second

chamber for further settlement. The excess liquid drains into a seepage field

which is often constructed with a stone filled trench. When constructing a septic

19

tank, the porosity of the soil, size of the drainage field, depth of the toilet, depth

to water table, location and distance between wells and septic tanks should

always be considered.

Fig. 9: A typical water closet with soak-away pit

Open Defecation

This is a system of sewage disposal method practiced during the ancient

times. People without toilets normally resort to open defecation method. Faeces

are indiscriminately defecated either in vacant plots, open drains or streams. It is

generally believed that the attenuation systems are capable of eliminating the

pathogens that may eventually contaminate groundwater.

20

CHAPTER TWO

METHOD OF STUDY

2.1 Sampling Techniques

Several methods of field investigation were carried out in the field in the

course of this study. Two hundred and four (204) questionnaires were randomly

distributed to two hundred and four (204) houses. These houses were randomly

selected to cover the entire Enugu metropolis. The area sampled include Ogui

New layout, Abakpa Nike, Obiagu, Uwani, Achara layout, Garki, Agbani and

Awkunanaw.

Water sampling was carried out from twenty (20) hand-dug wells and a stream.

Precautious measures were taken while sampling to ensure that the samples

were true representative of the particular wells to be assessed.

Samples were collected with sterilized standard one-liter white plastic

bottles. The plastic bottles were systematically labeled with the house numbers

or stream where the sample was collected. The bottles were properly rinsed

with water from the wells before collecting samples for laboratory analysis.

Samples were preserved in buckets of iced containers during conveyance to the

laboratory. The analysis was carried out within twelve (12) hours after

sampling. Where samples were not subjected to immediate analysis, they were

carefully preserved in refrigerators in the laboratory.

21

Depths to water table were taken using weighted rope and tape. For

quality control measures, duplicate samples were taken and such samples were

later sent to a different laboratory.

The Geographic Positioning System (GPS) 12 channel X L garmin model

was used in the field for determination of the latitude, longitude and elevation,

while compass was used to ascertain the location of the wells and toilets during

this study. The hydraulic heads distribution was also generated using depth to

water table and altitude values from the field

2.2 Statistical Sampling

A total of 204 questionnaires, one for each house, were distributed

systematically within the metropolis. The questionnaire contains 13 questions

(See Appendix i-iii) aimed at ascertaining depth to water table, uses of the

wells, lateral distances between wells and soak-away pits. There were also

questions requesting information on people who suffer typhoid fever /

paratyphoid fever or gastro intestinal disorder, the extent of the sickness and the

number of persons affected by the sickness. At the end of the sampling, the

results generated were taken to a statistician for interpretation.

22

2.3 Laboratory Test

2.3.1 Physico-Chemical Test

PH

PH

was measured by electrometric method using a standardized pye

unican 290mk PH meter. The standardization was done using a known buffer

solution, after which PH electrode was later dipped into the solution while

readings were subsequently taken.

Electrical Conductivity (EC)

The Electrical conductivity of the samples was measured using a

Wissenchaftlich Technische Werkstaetior, (WTW) LF91 Electrical conductivity

meter. The meter probe was dipped into the sample while readings were

recorded in micro siemens.

Total Dissolved Solids (TDS)

Total Dissolved Solids measurement was taken using TDS meter. The

meter probe was dipped into the sample while readings were recorded in

milligram per liter (mg/l)

Sodium and Potassium (Na+ & K

+)

Sodium and potassium ions were determined using Gallenkamp Flame

analyzer model FGA 330c, as described by APHA et al. (1971). A Known

volume of sodium and potassium standard were prepared in the range of 1-

23

10mg/l and aspirated or sucked into the Gallenkamp Flame instrument. The

postassium ion was atomized by the flame of the analyzer while readings of the

different concentrations of the standard solution were taken. A calibration curve

of Na/K concentration against the instruments reading was plotted. From the

curve, the concentrations of sodium and potassium ions were calculated.

Sulphate (So42-

)

Sulphate concentration was determined by the turbidimetric method as

described by the APHA (American Public Health Association) and WPCF

(Water Pollution Control Federation, 1971). An aliquot diluted to 100ml was

placed into a conical flask; 5ml condition reagent was added and stirred using a

magnetic stirrer. A spatula full of barium chloride crystal was added to the

sample. The absorbance resulting from the turbidity due to the presence of

sulphate in the sample was indicated using a spectrophotometer set at a

wavelength of 420µm and from the indicated samples the sulphate calibration

curve was plotted. The sulphate concentration was later determined from the

curve

Chloride (CL-)

Chloride content was measured using the agentometric method. A known

volume of sample was titrated with 0.014 of silver nitrate solution with

24

potassium chromate indicator added. The chloride concentration was calculated

using the results of the titration.

Nitrate (N03-)

Nitrate concentration was determined by phenol disulphuric acid method using

the spectrophotometer. About 30mls of the sample was placed in a posolin dish

and evaporated in an oven. It was later allowed to cool. 2mls of phenol

disulphuric acid was added to the content of the posolin dish. Thereafter, 20mls

of distil water and 7mls of concentrated ammonia was subsequently added and

thoroughly mixed with the content of the posolin dish. A yellow colour was

later developed which is relative to the concentration of the nitrate present. The

intensity of the colour was measured with a spectrophotometer set at a

wavelength of 410µm. A nitrate calibration curve was later plotted from the

instrument reading, and using a known nitrate calibration standard, the nitrate

concentration was determined.

Bicarbonates 3HCO

Bicarbonates were determined by titrimetric method. About 100mls of the

bicarbonate solution was placed in a conical flask with phenophtalin and methyl

25

orange indicator added. Thereafter, the mixture was titrated with 0.02 normal

sulphuric acid. At end point value, the bicarbonate was calculated.

2.3.2 Bacteriological Test

Coliforms

Coliform content was determined using Macconkey Broth media. The

samples were inoculated into fermentation tubes containing sterilized

Macconkey Broth media. Thereafter, the tubes were incubated in a water bath at

350c

for 48 hours. Tubes showing gas formation after 48 hours incubation

indicate positive coliform presence. The number of coliform present was

recorded using coliform counts most probable number table.

Escherichia Coli (E-Coli)

E-coli were determined using Eosin Methylin Blue algae (EMB). Positive

coliform tubes from the coliform test were inoculated into sterilized petri-dishes

containing sterilized Eosin Metylin Blue algae. Thereafter, the plates were

incubated at 35oc for 24 hours. Plates showing metallic sheen rose pink or

nucleated colonies show positive test for E-coli.

26

2.4 Groundwater Flow System

In Enugu metropolis, the general flow of water towards the stream channels

from ground water effluent is common. Awalla, (1998) noted that the direction

of groundwater flow in the Enugu metropolis can be observed along the Enugu-

Ninth Mile road cut at the Milikin hill, especially during the dry season. Table 2

shows the hydraulic head observed in the Enugu metropolis as recorded in the

field. Nwankwor et al, (1988) made some comparisons on the water table

elevation data and available regional topographical maps and indicated that

areas with the highest water table are the main topographical upland. He pointed

out that hydraulic head decreases with increasing depth and based on the above

statement, it is inferred that groundwater flow system could be determined by

the topographical and structural framework, water level data from wells,

hydraulic conductivity data and observation of groundwater seepages. Hubert,

(1940) had demonstrated that fluids flow from regions of high potential to

regions of low potential and based on these facts a conceptual model of the

ground water flow pattern in Enugu metropolis was produced, (Fig.10, diagram

A,), and it is inferred that ground water flow direction in the metropolis is

eastward. Egboka and Onyebueke, (1990) produced a conceptual model of the

ground water flow pattern in Enugu metropolis using hydraulic head data and

the water table/topography relationships It can therefore be concluded on the

27

basis of the hydraulic head data and the water table/topography relationships

generated from the field that groundwater in the study area flow eastward.

(Fig.10, Diagram B).

Table 2: Coordinates and Hydraulic Heads Distribution as measured in

Enugu Metropolis No Location Latitude (N) Longitude (E) Altitude

(M)

Depth To Water

Table (M)

Hydraulic

Head (M)

1 91 Ogui Rd 060 26

’ 832

’’ 007

0 29

; 931

’’ 183.1 3.8 179.3

2 9 Umuaga St. Abakpa

Nike

060 28

’ 748

’’ 007

0 31

’ 062

’’ 171.7 6.0 165.7

3 30 Onyiuke St.

Obiagu

060 26

’ 060

’’ 007

0 30

’ 076

’’ 201.3 6.7 194.6

4 4c Denton St. Asata 060 26

’ 505

’’ 007

0 29

’ 814

’’ 193.5 1.9 191.6

5 7 Akpugo St. Abakpa

Nike

060 28

1 734 007

0 30

1 843

’’ 170.4 7.0 163.4

6 19 Neni St. Obiagu 060 26

1 003

’’ 007

0 30

1 064

’’ 203.9 8.0 195.9

7 32 Ogidi St. Ogui N/L 060 26

1 404

’’ 007

0 29

1 828

’’ 188.7 6.8 181.9

8 19 Abakpa Nike Rd 060 28

’ 705

’’ 007

0 31

’ 023’’ 170.6 5.7 164.9

9 44 Carter St. Ogui

N/L

060 25’ 430

’’ 007

0 29

’ 562

’’ 203.2 6.0 197.2

10 56 Boardman St.

Uwani

060 25

’ 064

’’ 007

0 29

’ 949

’’ 201.1 10.2 190.9

11 22 Oraifite St, Ogui

N/L

060 26

’ 477

’’ 007

0 29

0 829

’’ 3.9 7.6 196.3

12 6 Ufuma St Achara

Layout

060 24

’ 896

’’ 007

0 29

’ 756

’’ 184.2 10.8 173.4

13 3 Mbaeze Rd, Garki 060 23

’ 189

’’ 007

0 29

’ 783

’’ 212.7 11.0 201.7

14 Mili Ani Stream Garki 060 23

’ 743

’’ 007

0 29

’ 710

’’

15 51 Obioma St, Achara 060 25

’ 021

’’ 007

0 29

’ 775

’’ 195.4 10.5 184.9

16 3 Anusiem Lane

Awkunanaw

060 24

’ 504

’’ 007

0 29

’ 778

’’ 172.0 10.0 162

17 2A Owerri Rd Asata 060 26

’ 511

’’ 007

0 29

’ 837

’’ 187.2 3.2 184

18 53 Onwudiwe St,

Uwani

060 25

’ 460’’ 007

0 29

’ 534

’’ 212.8 7.8 205

19 17 Isuochi St, Uwani 060 25

’ 147

’’ 007

0 29

’ 630

’’ 202.0 11.0 191

20 16 Old Market Rd

Garki

060 23

’ 379

’’ 007

0 29

’ 694

’’ 193.2 12.0 181.2

21 Union Secondary

School Awkunanaw

060 24

’ 269

’’ 007

0 29

’ 846

’’ 190.2 10.5 179.7

28

Fig. 10: Conceptual Model of the Groundwater Flow Pattern in the Enugu

Metropolis.

650 600

700

850 750

650 700

600

550

70 29’ E 70 30’ E 70 31’ E 70 32’ E

70 29’ E 70 32’ E

60 29’ N

27’ N

25’ N

60 23’ N

60 29’ N

BARRACKS

CRH

ENUGU

MKT

OGBET

E

N

E W

S

0 2Km

Diagram B Diagram A

29

CHAPTER THREE

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION OF TEST RESULTS

3.1 Statistical Analyses

The results of statistical sampling were analyzed using descriptive statistics.

From the results of the statistical interpretation carried out (Table 3), 98% of the

households visited have hand-dug wells while only 2% do not have wells. The

results show that 61% of the households have wells with depth between 5-10m,

34% of the households have wells with depth above 10m, while 3% of the

compounds have wells with depths ranging between 1-5m. This implies that

shallow wells are common in the area. Incidentally, the depth to water table in

the study area which is about (1 - 10m) falls within the same level (1 -10m) with

depth to soak away pit.

According to the respondents, majority of the residents living in the area agreed

that they use the well water for domestic purposes such as cooking, washing of

cooking utensils, bathing and laundry. Only about 1% of the resident agreed that

they drink the well water.

30

Table 3: Results of Statistical Interpretation

Questions Frequencies Respondent View (%)

Compounds with Wells 200 98%

Compounds without Wells 4 2%

Depth of wells

1-5m 6 2.9%

5-10m 124 60.8%

Depth above 10m 70 34.3%

Age of wells

1-5years 12 5.9

5-10 years 124 60.8

Above 10 years 64 31.4

Uses of well water

Drinking 2 1.0

Cooking 74 36.3

Laundry 167 81.9

washing of kitchen utensils 184 90.2

Bathing 162 79.4

Rate of G.T and Typhoid fever

Often 12 5.9

Not frequently 94 46.1

Rarely 84 41.2

Not at all 10 4.9

Extent of sickness

Very serious 50 24.5

Serious 66 32.4

31

Mild 72 35.3

No idea 12 5.9

No of people affected by the sickness.

One 72 35.3

Two 84 41.2

Three 40 19.6

More than three 4 2.0

Closeness of waste dump around the wells

Yes and close 2 1.0

Yes but not close 4 2.0

No presence of waste dump 194 95.0

Compound with toilet 200 98.0

Types of toilet

WC 120 58.8

Pit latrine 78 38.2

Bucket latrine 2 1.0

Distance of toilet to wells.

1-3m 4 2.0

3-6m 54 26.5

6-9m 46 22.5

> 9m 96 47.0

32

The results show that about 5% of the residents were free from typhoid /

paratyphoid fever and gastro-intestinal disorder (Fig. 11), while the other 93%

of the residents have symptoms of the infections mentioned above.

Fig. 11: Bar Chart Showing Prevalence of Typhoid Fever on the

Respondents.

Two percent (2%) of the residents have waste dumpsites close to their

residential areas but at a very far distance (about 15m) from their wells. Only

1% of the residents have waste dumpsites very close (1 – 6) to their wells, while

95% of the residents do not have any waste disposal site in their residential area.

From these responses, groundwater contamination in the Enugu metropolis must

33

be traced beyond the effect of solid waste disposal dumps, since only 1% of the

residents have waste dumpsites close to their wells.

Two percent (2%) of the residents’ wells are located about 1-3m close to

their soak-away pit, 26.5% of the residents’ wells are located about 3-6m close

to their soak-away pits, 22.5% of the resident wells are located about 6-9m close

their soak away pit, while 47% of residents wells are located at a distance

greater than 9m from soak-away pits (see fig 12).

Fig. 12: Pie Chart Showing Distance Between Well and Toilet of

Respondents

96

34

According to the crosstabulation in Table 4, respondents whose wells are

1-3m close to the toilet facilities experience typhoid fever and gastro-intestinal

disorder more often than those whose wells are at far distance from the toilets.

The above implies that incidence of typhoid fever and gastro-intestinal disorder

is traceable more to closeness of wells to soak-away pits and pit toilets than to

dump sites. Overall, the results of the analysis show that the distance between

wells and soak-away pits in the metropolis falls below the safe standard distance

of 15m recommended by Institute of Rural Research and Development

(Haryana, 2008).

Table 4: Chi-Square Showing the Effects of Sewage Contamination on the

Respondents in Relation to the Distance Between Wells and Soak-away/Pit

Toilets.

Note

Item 7: How often do you suffer from typhoid fever etc?.

Item 13: Distance between toilet and well.

35

3.2 Laboratory Analyses

3.2.1 Physico-Chemical Analyses

PH TEST

PH

refers to the degree of acidity or alkalinity of a medium. The PH

of sampled

water ranges between 3.0 and 6.6, only two samples (samples 13 and 14) met

the WHO drinking water standard (Table 6). More than 70% of the sampled

waters were acidic due to the ammonification and nitrification processes of

nitrogenous materials from sewage sources. The H+ is a P

H contributor, which

increases acidity of the water (equation 1 and 2)

CH20 (NH3) + 02 34 HCONH - - - (1)

Ammonification

24 20NH 020 23 HHN - - - (2)

Other causes of groundwater acidity include oxidation of sulfide minerals

exposed during mining operations, combustion in the form of industrial gas

emissions, bush burning etc. However, most of these causes are not common

within the Enugu metropolis, and the coal mines in Enugu area are located at a

reasonable distance away from the metropolis.

41

S/N Location Source

type

Date of

analysis

Well depth

(m)

PH EC

us/cm

NA+

mg/I

K+

mg/I SO

2

4 m

g/I

TDS

mg/I NO

3

mg/I

CL-

mg/I HCO

3

mg/I

Distr b/w

well and

toilet (m)

1 91 Ogui Road Hand Dug

well

11/03/09 3.8 4.8 3.0 50.83 3.48 1.25 30 0.5 9.0 10.0 3-6

2 9 Umuaga Street

Abakpa Nike

Hand

Dugwell

11/03/09 6.0 3.6 45 111.65 18.05 1.56 450 0.9 250 6.0 1-3

3 30 Onyiuke Street

Obiagu

Hand

Dugwell

11/03/09 6.7 4.3 14 238.7 5.08 1.73 140 0.9 58.0 10.0 3-6

4 4c Denton Street

Asata

Hand

Dugwell

11/03/09 1.9 4.5 6.0 37.45 15.25 1.64 60 0.2 28.0 13.0 6-9

5 7 Akpugo Street

Abakpa Nike

Hand

Dugwell

11/03/09 7.0 3.0 42 215.6 15.52 1.04 420 1.0 189.9 10.0 1-3

6 19 Neni Street

Obiagu

Hand

Dugwell

11/03/09 8.0 4.4 2.0 26.75 3.75 1.76 20 0.2 9.0 8.0 > 9

7 32 Ogidi Street, Ogui

N/L

Hand

Dugwell

11/03/09 6.8 4.0 9.0 18.73 21.40 1.66 90 0.7 36.0 4.0 > 9

8 19 Abakpa Nike Hand

Dugwell

11/03/09 5.7 3.5 25 231.0 9.64 2.08 250 0.9 155.0 4.0 3-6

9 44 Carter Street,

Ogui

Hand

Dugwell

11/03/09 6.0 4.4 - 40.13 39.86 1.94 - - - - 6-9

10 56 Boardman Street

Uwani

Hand

Dugwell

20/03/09 10.2 5.0 15 6.52 3.74 1.61 150 1.6 68.0 8.0 3-6

11 22 Oraiffite Street

Ogui N/W Loyal

Hand

Dugwell

20/03/09 7.6 4.4 13 6.13 2.89 2.46 130 2.2 38.0 6.0 1-3

12 6 Ufuma Street

Achara Layout

Hand

Dugwell

20/04/09 10.8 6.3 31 1.84 10.46 6.49 310 0.5 138.0 50.0 3-6

13 3 Mbaeze Road Garki Hand

Dugwell

20/04/09 11 6.6 32 3.52 2.13 11.92 320 0.6 8.0 100 3-6

14 Mili Ani Stream

Garki

Stream 20/04/09 - 6.5 4 4.9 0.94 0.67 40 0.2 63.0 30.0 -----

15 51 Obioma Street

Achara Layout

Hand

Dugwell

20/04/09 10.5 4.0 21 3.67 4.25 0.17 210 2.4 83.0 10 > 9

TABLE 5: Results of Physico-Chemical Test 36

42

16 3 Anusiem Lane

Awkunanaw

Hand

Dugwell

20/04/09 10 5.5 34 4.29 6.12 1.66 340 2.5 138.0 26.0 3-6

17 2A Owerri Road

Asata

Hand

Dugwell

20/04/09 3.2 5.9 33 4.29 5.61 4.98 330 1.0 103.0 124.0 1-3

18 53 Onwudiwe street

Uwani

Hand

Dugwell

20/04/09 7.8 5.3 12 1.23 2.98 1.61 120 0.1 48.0 20.0 >9

19 17 Isuochi Street

Uwani

Hand

Dugwell

20/04/09 11.0 4.9 28 4.9 10.97 3.49 280 2.3 115.0 10.0 6-9

20 16 Old Market Road

Garki

Hand

Dugwell

20/04/09 12.0 3.4 25 1.84 1.19 1.52 250 2.2 84.0 10.0 6-9

21 Union Secondary

School Awkunanaw

Hand

Dugwell

20/04/09 10.5 4.2 16 2.45 2.38 0.52 160 2.0 75.0 6.0 >9

37

42

Electrical Conductivity (EC)

Electrical conductivity is a sensitive parameter used for the study of

sewage contamination (Chettri and Smith 1995; Uma and Oteze, 1999). It is

regarded as Total Dissolved Solids (TDS) indicator since conductivity increases

with increase in ion concentration. The electrical conductivity of the water

samples ranges from 1.5 to 45 us/cm. Generally, Abakpa area has the highest

average concentration of electrical conductivity of 37.3s/cm, while Achara,

Awkunanaw, Garki and Asata followed simultaneously with average

concentrations of 26, 25, 20.3 and 19.5s/cm respectively (fig. 13).

Legend

38

Aver

age

Con

cen

tra

tion

of

Ele

ctri

cal

Con

du

ctiv

ity (μs/cm

)

Fig. 13 Variation of Electrical Conductivity with Location

Abakpa

Achara

Awkunanaw

Garki

Asata

Uwani

Ogui

Obiagu

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

Note: Blue bars represent standard measurement at intervals of 5μs/cm

Red bars represent average concentration of electrical conductivity in each

location

43

Electrical conductivity of water is a useful and easy indicator of its salinity or

total salt content. There are a number of sources of pollutants, which may be

signaled by increased EC, wastewater from septic systems and wastewater from

sewage treatment plants are some of the sources (Michaud, 1991). According to

Uma (2003), the EC of rainfall water averages about 13s/cm, and any value

above this value shows that foreign material could possibly be the source of

contamination.

Total Dissolved Solids (TDS)

Analyses conducted for Total Dissolved Solids recorded values between

20 and 450 mg/l (Table 5). TDS in the area are still within acceptable limit

(Table 6). Abakpa area shows average value of 373.3mg/l, in comparison to

other locations such as Achara, Awkunanaw, Garki, Asata, Uwani, Ogui and

Obiagu which average values are 260, 250, 203.3,195,183.3 83.3 and 80mg/l

respectively (fig. 14). TDS is directly related to the purity and quality of water.

Typically, wastewater effluents often contain high amounts of dissolved salts

from domestic sewage (Akan et al, 2008). UN Department of Technical Co-

operation for Development (1985) gave constituents concentrations of TDS in

domestic wastewater as follows 850mg/l as strong concentration, 500mg/l as

medium concentration and 250mg/l as weak concentration.

39

44

The introduction of TDS into the water sample is due to the presence of ion

concentration which may arise from domestic waste (sewage). Generally the

water samples that recorded high values of TDS are those wells located close to

toilet facilities, except for locations 1, 15,18,19,20 and 21 which distances are 3-

6, > 9, >9, 6 – 9,6 – 9 and >9m respectively. The reasons for the abnormal TDS

have been given in Table 7. For example, the abnormal high contaminants in

location 19 and 20 have been traced to the location of the wells. In location 19,

the toilet is observed to be at the west side of the well and since groundwater

flow direction is eastward, sewage probably flows into the well, while the dirty

Locations

Fig. 14 Variation of TDS with location

Av

era

ge

Co

nce

ntr

ati

on

of

TD

S

mg

/L

Abakpa

Achara

Awkunanaw

Garki

Asata

Uwani

Ogui

Obiagu

Legend

40

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

Note: Blue bars represent standard measurement at intervals of 50mg/L

Red bars represent average concentration of TDS in each location

45

environment around location 20 could possibly contribute to the abnormal high

TDS.

Sodium and Potassium ( )( KandNa

The values of sodium sampled in this study ranges from 1.23 to

238.7mg/l, while that of potassium ranges from 0.94 to 39.86mg/l. The levels of

the sodium and potassium ions in the study area are within the acceptable limits

(WHO, 1993). Abakpa and Obiagu areas have average values of sodium (186.1

and 132.73mg/l respectively) compared to Ogui, Asata and Garki (29.0, 20.87

and 10.26mg/l respectively). The average values of potassium are higher in

Ogui and Abakpa areas (16.91 and 14.4mg/l respectively) compared to Asata,

Achara, Uwani, Obiagu, Awkunanaw and Garki areas (10.43, 7.36, 5.9, 4.42,

4.25, and 1.42mg/l respectively). Potassium is a dietary requirement for nearly

any organism organisms. It plays a central role in plants growth and organism

growth. Consequently, it is readily taken up by plants and organisms. Sodium

content in the study area can be traced from human activities, such as human

excretion (sewage) and use of washing products. High concentrations of sodium

usually have adverse effects on human health because sodium in drinking water

causes increase in blood pressure. America Heart Association (AHA)

recommended 20mg/l of sodium in drinking water.

41

41

Table 6: WHO Recommended Standard for Drinking Water (1993)

Characteristics Desirable Permissible

Limit mg/l

Undesirable Effects at

Higher Levels

Physical

Platinum cobalt 5-50 hazen unit Stains

Odour Unobjectionable Odour

Taste Unobjectionable Taste

Turbidity 5-25 units -

pH 6.5 - 8.5 Taste and corrosion

Chemical

TDS 500 Taste and Corrosion

Total hardness 100 – 500 Scale deposit

Iron 0.1 – 10 Stain, taste

Calcium 75 – 200 Scale deposit

Magnesium 150 Scale, taste

Sulphate 250 Cathartic action

Nitrate 5 – 15 -

Chloride 250 Taste and corrosion

Zinc 200 – 500 Bitter taste, gastro – intestinal

problem

Bi-carbonate 500 -

Manganese 0.05 – 0.5 -

Copper 0.05 – 15 Taste and Liver damage

Oil and Grease 0.01 – 0.3 Taste and Potential danger to

aquatic life

Detergents 0.2 – 1.0 Gastro–intestinal problems

Fluoride 0.6 – 1.7 Fluorosis

Mercury 0.001 Lack of Muscle Control,

Kidney damage

Micro-Organism

Coliform Zero mpn/100ml/l -

42 42

42

Table 7 Direction of Toilets and Wells in the Study Area

S/N Location Distance B/w

Well and Toilet

Toilet Well Remark

1 91 Ogui Road 3-6 East West -

2 9 Umuaga Street

Abakpa Nike

1-3 West East +

3 30 Onyiuke Street

Obiagu

3-6 West East +

4 4c Denton Street Asata 6-9 East West -

5 7 Akpugo Street

Abakpa Nike

1-3 West East +

6 19 Neni Street Obiagu >9 West East +

7 32 Ogidi Street, Ogui >9 East West -

8 19 Abakpa Nike 3-6 West East +

9 44 Carter Street Ogui 6-9 South North -

10 56 Boardman Street

Uwani

3-6 West East +

11 22 Oraifite Street Ogui 1-3 North South ×

12 6 Ufuma Street

AcharaLayout

3-6 West East +

13 3 Mbaeze Road Garki 3-6 North South ×

14 Mili Ani Garki - - -

15 51 Obioma Street

Achara layout

>9 North South ×

16 3 Anusiem Lane

Awkunanaw

3-6 West East +

17 2A Owerri Road Asata 1-3 West East +

18 53 Onwudiwe Street

Uwani

>9 South North 0

19 17 Isuochi Street

Uwani

6-9 West East +

20 16 Old Market Road

Garki

6-9 East West _

21 Union Secondary

school Awkunanaw

>9 East West 0

+

-

×

0

Toilet flows into Well

Toilet Flows away

from well

Toilet may likely flow

away or into well

Not certain

43

44

Sulphate (SO2-

4)

Water samples analyzed in the Enugu metropolis show that sulphate is

within the WHO drinking water standard of 250mg/l (Table 6). It ranges from

0.17 to 11.92mg/l. According to the results obtained, Sulphate is still fairly

above the detection limits of 0.2mg/l. The average concentration of sulphate in

Garki and Achara areas (4.70 and 3.33mg/l respectively) are higher compared to

Asata, Uwani, Ogui, Obiagu, Abakpa and Awkunanaw (3.31, 2.24, 1.83, 1.75,

1.56 and 1.09mg/l respectively). Sulphates in the metropolis are principally

derived from hydrogen sulphide (H2S). Hydrogen sulphide H2S are produced

under anaerobic conditions in sewage. The presence of harmless sulphate

reducing bacteria could reduce sulphate biologically to sulfide which in turn

combines with hydrogen to from hydrogen sulfide (H2S) (equation 3 and 4). The

harmless sulfur bacteria chemically changes hydrogen sulfide to sulphate

(ASCE 1989).

Organic matter + 2

4SO S2 -

+ H20 + C02 - - (3)

S2 -

+ 2H+ H2S - - - - (4)

45

Chlorides

The value of chloride in the studied area is between 8.0 and 250mg/l

(Table 5). Although, chloride is still within WHO (1993) drinking water

standard, yet some of the locations are observed to contain chloride

concentration equivalent to that of domestic wastewater (sewage). UN

Department of Technical Co-operation for Development, (1985) gave

constituent concentration of chloride in domestic wastewater as follows 100mg/l

as strong concentration, 50mg/l as medium concentration 30mg/l as weak

concentration. Abakpa, Achara and Awkunanaw areas were found to have

average concentrations of 198.3, 110.5 and 106.5mg/l respectively compared to

other areas (Fig. 15). Overall, all the locations with high chloride concentration

in Abakpa area are observed to be very close to toilet facilities (Table 4). There

are also instances where wells at a close distance to toilet facilities have low

chloride concentration (location 1 and 13).

46

Legend

The reasons for the abnormal low chloride concentration have been given in

Table 7. Location 1 which is 3-6m from toilet facility has a low chloride

concentration of 9.0mg/l. The well is observed to be located at the west side and

the toilet at the east side, and since ground water flow direction is east ward,

sewage flows away from the well. Furthermore, considering the position of

location 13 (Fig. 16) which toilet is located north ward and well south ward,

sewage might possibly flow away from the well. The source of chlorides in the

area could be from sodium chloride (Nacl) in sewage and it has been shown that

Aver

age

Con

cen

tra

tion

of

Ch

lori

des

(m

g/L

)

Location

Fig. 15 Variation of Chloride Concentration with location

Abakpa

Achara

Awkunanaw

Uwani

Asata

Garki

Obiagu

Ogui

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

Note: Blue bars represent standard measurement at intervals of 20mg/L

Red bars represent average concentration of chloride in each location

47

human excreta for example contain about 6g of chlorides per person per day

(Metcalf and Eddy, 2003).

Fig. 16: A lateral distance of 3 to 6m between Hand-dug well and Soak-

away Pit at Location 13.

Nitrates

Nitrates in the water sample are generally low. It ranges from 0.2 to

2.5mg/l (Table 5). Although, it is within acceptable limits of World Health

Organisation standard (WHO, 1993), yet, it is above South Africa guideline of

0.25mg/l for nitrate in wastewater (DAWF and WRC, 1995). Awkunanaw areas

have higher average nitrate concentration of 2.25mg/l compared to other areas

48

(Fig. 17). Overall, the low nitrate concentration in the metropolis may be traced

to several factors. Firstly, the acidic nature of the groundwater may affect and

thwart the nitrification process of sewage materials in groundwater, thereby

giving rise to low nitrate concentration. Metcalf and Eddy, (2003) stated that

adequate alkalinity is needed to achieve complete nitrification. Secondly,

bacteria such as blue green algae which might have acquired its significant

growth from potassium dietary in the water might also thwart the nitrogen cycle

by converting nitrate to free molecular nitrogen (N2) thereby reducing the

concentration of nitrate in the groundwater. Nitrate in water is often regarded as

a probable indicator of sewage contamination. (Hounslow, 1995; Mueller and

Helsel, 1996).

49

Bicarbonates

Bicarbonates values recorded in this study is between 4 and 124 mg/l

(Table 5) and it is within the tolerable level of 500mg/l WHO, (1993).

According to UN Department of Technical Co operation for Development

(1985), constituent concentration of bicarbonates in domestic wastewater

(sewage) is as follows 200mg/l as strong concentration, 100mg/l as medium

concentration and 500mg/l as a weak concentration. Garki, Achara and Asata

areas are higher in bicarbonates concentrations (46.67, 30.0 and 21.5mg/l

respectively) than Awkuanaw, Uwani, Obiagu, Abakpa and Ogui which average

Aver

age

Nit

rate

Con

cen

trati

on

mg/L

0

0.5

1

1.5

2

2.5

3

3.5

4

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

Locations

Series1

Series2

Awkunanaw

Achara

Uwani

Ogui

Garki

Abakpa

Asata

Obiagu

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

Legend

Aver

age

Nit

rate

con

cen

trati

on

mg/L

Fig 17: Variation of Nitrate with Location

Location

Note: Blue bars represent standard measurement at intervals of 0.5mg/L

Red bars represent average concentration of nitrate in each location

50

concentrations are 16.0, 12.67, 9.0, 6.67 and 6.67mg/l respectively.

Bicarbonates can be considered as one of the indirect sensitive indicators of

sewage contamination since it is appears as a bi-product during the

ammonification and nitrification process of nitrogenous material (equation 5)

from sewage sources which occurs as organic compounds (Hounslow , 1995)

CH20 (NH3) + 02 NH4+ + HCO3…………………….. (5)

3.2.2 Bacteriological Analysis

Coliforms

According to test results obtained from the study locations, the coliform

concentration is significant in the studied area (Table 8). Coliform concentration

ranges from 130 to 2400 mpn/100ml, far above WHO, (1993) standard. Fecal

coliform are associated with human or animal intestinal tract and its presence in

water strongly indicates recent sewage contamination. Samples collected from

11 of the 21 locations had faecal coliform concentrations above

1000mpn/100ml. Abakpa area has average coliorrm count of 1933.3mpn/100ml

compared to other areas (Fig. 18).

Generally, bacteria thrive in an environment which contains compound

associated with sewage and until recently faecal coliforms have been used to

help identify sources of sewage pollution (Dufour, 1976).

49

S/N Location Source type Date of analysis Well depth (m) Coli form

mpn/100mI

E-Coil

1 91 Ogui Road Hand Dug well 11/03/09 3.8 550 11

2 9 Umuaga Street Abakpa Nike Hand Dugwell 11/03/09 6.0 2400 22

3 30 Onyiuke Street Obiagu Hand Dugwell 11/03/09 6.7 1100 3

4 4c Denton Street Asata Hand Dugwell 11/03/09 1.9 460 3

5 7 Akpugo Street Abakpa Nike Hand Dugwell 11/03/09 7.0 1800 13

6 19 Neni Street Obiagu Hand Dugwell 11/03/09 8.0 130 8

7 32 Ogidi Street, Ogui N/L Hand Dugwell 11/03/09 6.8 380 3

8 19 Abakpa Nike Hand Dugwell 11/03/09 5.7 1600 35

9 44 Carter Street, Ogui Hand Dugwell 11/03/09 6.0 485 3

10 56 Boardman Street Uwani Hand Dugwell 20/03/09 10.2 2,400 3

11 22 Oraiffite Street Ogui N/W Loyal Hand Dugwell 20/03/09 7.6 2,400 20

12 6 Ufuma Street Achara Layout Hand Dugwell 20/04/09 10.8 1,100 3

13 3 Mbaeze Road Garki Hand Dugwell 20/04/09 11 460 3

14 Mili Ani Stream Garki Stream 20/04/09 210 3

15 51 Obioma Street Achara Layout Hand Dugwell 20/04/09 10.5 140 3

16 3 Anusiem Lane Awkunanaw Hand Dugwell 20/04/09 10 1800 22

17 2A Owerri Road Asata Hand Dugwell 20/04/09 3.2 2400 9

18 53 Onwudiwe street Uwani Hand Dugwell 20/04/09 7.8 130 8

19 17 Isuochi Street Uwani Hand Dugwell 20/04/09 11.0 1600 3

20 16 Old Market Road Garki Hand Dugwell 20/04/09 12.0 1400 01

21 Union Secondary School Awkunanaw Hand Dugwell 20/04/09 10.5 160 3

Table 8: Result of Bacteriological Test

49 51

52

The existence of the coliform group as a whole and the confirmation of

escherichia coli are indicative of faecal contamination of the groundwater and

the possible presence of pathogenic bacteria like salmonella typhii, shigella sp.,

etc. (Chanlett, 1979; Lorch, 1981; Fish, 1992). Overall, all the samples close to

toilet facilities recorded high values of coliform counts except samples 1 and 13.

The reason for the low coliform count in these aforementioned locations has

been given in Table 7. Locations 19 and 20 which recorded a high coliform

Fig. 18 Variation of Coliform count with Location

Aver

age

Con

cen

tra

tion

Coli

form

cou

nt

(mp

n/1

00m

l

Abakpa

Uwani

Awkunanaw

Ogui

Garki

Achara

Obiagu

Asata

Legend

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

Note: Blue bars represent standard measurement at intervals of 200mpn/100ml

Red bars represent average concentration of coliform count in each location

53

counts were also observed to be at a far distance from the toilet facilities. The

reason for this abnormal increase in coliform count has also been explained in

Table 7. At location 19, the toilet is observed to be at the west side of the well,

and since ground water flow direction is east ward, sewage flows into the well

water. Moreover, considering the dirty environment of well in location 20 (Fig.

19), this might possibly affect the coliform concentration in the well.

Fig 19: Hand-dug well at location 20 with waste disposal site located close

to it

54

Escherichia Coli (E-Coli)

E-coli concentration is generally less than 35 in the studied area. Its

source can be attributed to sewage contamination and is therefore used as

indicator of sewage contaminated water. E-coli bacteria may carry a dangerous

strain referred to as the 0157:H7 strain with it and the strain have been shown to

be associated with some waterborne disease-causing organisms. The bacteria

are found in human intestine and are excreted in large numbers with faeces.

The densely populated areas of Abakpa had samples with the highest

average e-coil concentration of 21.67. E-coli infection in this area is evident

from cases of severe abdominal cramping, the bacteria brings with it pathogens

that suck most of the fluid from the human waste and therefore the stool finds it

difficult to flow smoothly out of the body, a condition known as constipation.

Severe infections such as kidney damage and high blood pressure may also

result from high E-coli concentration in water used for domestic purpose.

This suggests that the complaints of typhoid / paratyphoid fever and gastro

intestinal disorder by the inhabitant are probably true since most individuals use

the well water for domestic purposes.

Overall, most residents of Enugu metropolis whose wells are 1-3m and 3-

6m close to the toilet facilities are likely to experience gastro intestinal disorder

and typhoid fever more often than those whose wells are far away from the

55

toilets. The result of the statistical sampling also corroborates the result of the

water analysis (Table 9).

The results obtained from this research work while correlating both the

statistical and laboratory data show that the degree of nearness of any

groundwater source to toilet facility determines to a large extent the level of

contamination of the groundwater source.

51

Table 9: Lateral Distance from Soak-away/ Pit Latrine to Wells and the Concentration of Bacteriological

Contamination Sample No 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12

Lateral

distance (m)

3-6 1-3 3-6 6-9 1-3 >9 >9 3-6 6-9 3-6 1-3 3-6

Coliform /E-

coli count in

water sample

550/11 2400/2

2

1100/3 460/3 1800/13 130/8 380/3 1600/35 485/3 2400/3 2400/20 1100/3

Complaints on

typhoid and

GIT disorder

Not

frequentl

y &

serious

Often

&

serious

Often

& very

serious

Often &

very

serious

Not

frequently

& serious

Rarely

& mild

Not at

all

Not

frequentl

y & very

serious

Rarely

&

serious

Often

&

serious

Often &

serious

Not

frequentl

y &

serious

Sample No.

13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21

Lateral

distance (m)

3-6 >9 3-6 1-3 >9 6-9 6-9 >9

Coliform/ E-

Coil count in

water sample

460/3 210/3 140/01 1800/22 2400/9 130/8 1600/3 1400/3 160/3

Complaints on

typhoid and

GIT disorder

Not

frequentl

y & very

serious

Rarely

& mild

Not

frequen

tly &

mild

Often &

serious

Not

frequently

& very

serious

Rarely

&

serious

Often

& mild

Often &

very

serious

Rarely

and no

idea

55 56

57

CHAPTER FOUR

SUMMARY, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION

4.1 SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS

Many households in Enugu metropolis use pit latrine, soak-away pit

and occasionally open defecation methods for disposing human waste (sewage).

Incidentally, the average depth of pit toilets and soak-away pit in the area (1-

10m) fall within the same level (1-10m) with depth to water table, and it has

been observed that adequate space between toilet facilities and wells were not

considered during construction.

This research has proved that the aquifer is contaminated through

anthropogenic source which is sewage from pit toilet and soak-away pit

leakages. According to the respondents, many households use the well water for

domestic purpose. Thus, the prevalence of water borne diseases such as Typhoid

/ Para-typhoid fever and gastro-intestinal disorder in the area suggests that the

aquifer is contaminated. It has been observed that the nearer the toilet facilities

to the sources of water, the higher the level of contamination, although, there

are few exceptions where locations at far distance away from toilet facilities

witnessed contamination levels higher than those at closer locations. These are

shown in location 19 and 20 (table 5). Further studies on the hydrogeological

nature of such locations show that direction of groundwater flow play a great

role in groundwater contamination.

56

57

58

4.2 RECOMMENDATIONS

i) The aquifer should be protected from sewage contamination by Enugu State

Waste Management Authority (ENSWAMA) who should investigate sites for

hand-dug wells and toilets and give relevant approvals.

ii) Hydrogeological studies should be carried out to ascertain the nature of the

soil (topography, porosity and permeability), direction of groundwater flow and

depth of the groundwater table before locating a toilet facility.

iii) Wells should be located upstream of a toilet facility and not down stream.

iv) Where the water table is high, soak-away pits and pit toilets should be

avoided, and if already in existence they should be shut down.

v) Government should enact a legislation that will enforce the abolition of pit

toilet since it is an old method, crude and poses a great danger to the

environment.

vi) Water from contaminated aquifer must be treated (boiled) before usage.

vii) Urban and town planning authority should be given legal backing to

decongest Enugu metropolis, since its high population density affects available

space for wells and toilets facilities.

viii) A central sewage system should be constructed for proper sewage

treatment and disposal.

59

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64

APPENDIX I

QUESTIONNAIRE

ENVIRONMENTAL IMPLICATIONS OF SEWAGE DISPOSAL

METHODS IN ENUGU METROPLIS SOUTH-EASTERN NIGERIA.

Department of Geology,

Faculty of Physical Sciences,

University of Nigeria

Nsukka

Dear Respondent,

I am a postgraduate student in the above named department. I am

presently carrying out a research work on sewage disposal methods in your

area.

Kindly assist me with the information needed, information given will

be strictly and confidentially used for the research purpose.

Thanks for your co-operation.

Yours faithfully,

Iloabachie, David Emeka.

65

APPENDIX II

66

APPENDIX III

x

67

APPENDIX IV

Do you have a well in your compound?

How deep is the well?

Do you have a well in your Compound?

How old is the well?

68

APPENDIX V

How old is the well?

Do you drink the well water?

Other uses of the well water

69

APPENDIX VI

How often do you suffer from typhoid etc?

Extent of sickness

How many people were affected by sickness?

Any waste dump around your well?

Do you have toilet in your compound?

70

APPENDIX VII

What type of toilet do you have?

Distance of toilet to well

71

APPENDIX VIII

72

APPENDIX IX

73

APPENDIX X

96

74

APPENDIX XI

75

APPENDIX XII

76

APPENDIX XIII