UNIVERSITY OF LATVIA - bcci.bg€¦ · UNIVERSITY OF LATVIA Strategic management Project...
Transcript of UNIVERSITY OF LATVIA - bcci.bg€¦ · UNIVERSITY OF LATVIA Strategic management Project...
UNIVERSITY OF LATVIA
Strategic management
Project „Development and Approbation of Applied Courses Based on the Transfer of Teaching
Innovations in Finance and Management for Further Education of Entrepreneurs and Specialists in
Latvia, Lithuania and Bulgaria”, part of the Leonardo da Vinci programme
Gundars BērziĦs
5/8/2010
Strategic Management
Leonardo da Vinci Programme Project „Development and Approbation of Applied Courses Based on the Transfer of Teaching Innovations in Finance and Management for Further
Education of Entrepreneurs and Specialists in Latvia, Lithuania and Bulgaria
Gundars BērziĦs
Table of Contents
Introduction......................................................................................................................... 4
1. Characteristics of the operation of contemporary organizations ................................. 5
2. Volatility of organizational environment .................................................................. 16
2.1. Directly influenced external environment of an organization ............................ 20
2.2. Indirectly influenced external environment of an organization.......................... 24
3. Changes in the content of a manager’s wok ................................................................ 29
4. Stratēăiskā vadīšana un tās loma mūsdienu organizāciju vadīšanā .............................. 37
4.1. Stratēăiskās vadīšanas būtība un struktūra..............Error! Bookmark not defined.
4.2. Stratēăisko lēmumu pieĦemšana.............................Error! Bookmark not defined.
4.2.1. Stratēăijas izpratne ...........................................Error! Bookmark not defined.
4.2.2. Organizācijas stratēăiskās vadīšanas izpratne ..Error! Bookmark not defined.
4.2.3.Nepieciešamības pieeja......................................Error! Bookmark not defined.
4.2.4. Pretējo spēku modelis.......................................Error! Bookmark not defined.
Stratēăiskā vadīšanas procesa elementi ......................Error! Bookmark not defined.
4.2.5. Stratēăijas veidošanas komanda .......................Error! Bookmark not defined.
4.2.6. Stratēăiskās vadība sistēmas izveides elementiError! Bookmark not defined.
5.Stratēăiski operatīvais vadības modelis ......................Error! Bookmark not defined.
5.1. Problēmas / iespējas identifikācijas pieeja ..............Error! Bookmark not defined.
5.2. Lēmuma izmaksu aprēėins. ...............................Error! Bookmark not defined.
5.3. Lēmumu audits...................................................Error! Bookmark not defined.
5.4. Lēmuma rezultātu daudzpusība...............................Error! Bookmark not defined.
Strategic Management
Leonardo da Vinci Programme Project „Development and Approbation of Applied Courses Based on the Transfer of Teaching Innovations in Finance and Management for Further
Education of Entrepreneurs and Specialists in Latvia, Lithuania and Bulgaria
Gundars BērziĦs
6. Stratēăijas efektivitātes novērtēšana...........................Error! Bookmark not defined.
7. Stratēăiskā kontrole ....................................................Error! Bookmark not defined.
8. Ekselences iegūšana. ..................................................Error! Bookmark not defined.
Bibliogrāfija .......................................................................Error! Bookmark not defined.
Strategic Management
Leonardo da Vinci Programme Project „Development and Approbation of Applied Courses Based on the Transfer of Teaching Innovations in Finance and Management for Further
Education of Entrepreneurs and Specialists in Latvia, Lithuania and Bulgaria
Gundars BērziĦs
Introduction
Strategic management is one of the key tools available for managers of organizations
to establish the organizational management systems. This paper will look at the key elements
of strategic management to improve the students’ understanding of strategic management by
placing a major emphasis on strategic decision-making in a changing environment. The
volatile environment is the circumstance hindering the development of long-term plans and
forecasts, and complicating the planning and management processes by introducing a great
degree of uncertainty therein. Therefore, this teaching material is based, to a large extent, on
the strategic management process of an organization in a changing environment.
The learning approach is based on class activity and independent studies of strategic
management theory, allocating the major part of the seminars to the analysis of practical
examples of particular organizations.
The material is aimed at improving the students’ understanding of the idea and
principles of strategic management. The two key parts of strategic management are strategic
planning and strategy implementation process, jointly referred to as strategic management.
Strategic planning is a separate course of studies, which places the main emphasis on certain
planning methods, while the strategic management course is based on the issues of
implementation of plans, principles of adaptation of the internal and external environment,
and the understanding of methods. The beginning of each chapter contains questions for
discussion aimed at encouraging the students’ reflection of the issue discussed, as well as to
raise interest by demonstrating practical examples of the particular issue in an open
discussion. Next step in the learning process is the presentation of the theory of the issue, to
be learned by the students independently. In class, students discuss and look at the possible
practical applications of a theory at a particular organization of their choice. At the end of the
lesson, a summary of the essential theoretical and practical conclusions made during the
lesson, or of the information and knowledge everybody should have obtained from the lesson
is drawn up. While one of the students prepares the summary/conclusions, the rest of the
class test themselves by providing answers to the questions posed in the conclusion of the
Strategic Management
Leonardo da Vinci Programme Project „Development and Approbation of Applied Courses Based on the Transfer of Teaching Innovations in Finance and Management for Further
Education of Entrepreneurs and Specialists in Latvia, Lithuania and Bulgaria
Gundars BērziĦs
lesson. The main objective of the closing questions of the lesson is to repeat the key points of
the subject in order to improve the students’ understanding by asking them make theoretical
and practical conclusions. At the end of the chapter, the student should be able to present the
key theoretical and practical points of the subject.
1. Characteristics of the operation of contemporary organizations
Introductory questions:
1. Why is the understanding of the characteristics of the operation of organizations important
for the success of strategic management process?
2. How would you characterize the major changes in business environment in 21st century?
What trends can you identify?
3. Is it easier or harder to start a business in the 21st century? Please provide your
justification.
Organizational management is currently undergoing major changes in the way
organizations are being managed and the conditions surrounding it. As pointed out by a
number of authors, information and its increase in volume are the key reasons for the change,
which is also evident in the content of work. The main problem faced by organizations is the
constant change, a catalyst for instability and a hindrance for stable long-term development of
organizations. This is evident both in the global and Latvian economic crisis. As a result of
accumulated knowledge, the amount of information increases and the technologies for the
communication and exchange of information are developed. Along with the development of
humanity, economy develops into a knowledge-based economy. “Development of
knowledge-based economy means, increasingly, the ability of economy, politics and social
Strategic Management
Leonardo da Vinci Programme Project „Development and Approbation of Applied Courses Based on the Transfer of Teaching Innovations in Finance and Management for Further
Education of Entrepreneurs and Specialists in Latvia, Lithuania and Bulgaria
Gundars BērziĦs
life to support and manage the creation of innovation and group-based learning” (6, p. 1.).
“Although knowledge has always been central to economic development, there is compelling
evidence that production capacity and knowledge utilization is a better substantiated indicator
for the assessment of the level of welfare and progress of an economy” (2, p. 17) “A
knowledge-based economy is an economy which places a much higher strategic emphasis on
research and development and other formal methods of knowledge creation; uses education
and training for the development of human capital; manages information, knowledge and
experience through investments in coding and establishment of social networks; and
organizes the copyright market for knowledge” (3, p. 9). Organizations, being a part of
economy and indeed, a driving force thereof, cannot ignore the changes in the surrounding
environment, and to a large extent, are a source for development of a new economy
themselves. The idea that organizations are the basis of continuous innovation was proposed
by J. Schumpeter back in the 40ies of the last century. He introduced the concept of “Creative
destruction” whose main thesis is that there is no equilibrium in economy; as soon as a
system approaches its state of equilibrium, new inventions and ideas by organizations and
individuals create new opportunities which disrupt the status quo. The nature of changes in
economic processes is best seen in the current economic situation of Latvia and the world,
that is, the previous model of economic development, based on external supply of funds to
the economy, has proved its lack of viability, whereas the new policy adopted by Latvia and
other countries, namely, to spend what they earn, entails great social unrest; in addition, it is
still not clear what the real effects of this policy to organizations involved in both the private
and public sector will be. The currently proposed strategic management model places
maximum emphasis on the assessment of the real environment of the organization, enabling
the organizations develop under different conditions of national economy, tax environment
and aid policy. The rationale of such approach is evident globally, in the rapid changes in
national policy, redistribution of funding, and cost cutting measures, which are at times
unpredictable; therefore, present increasing levels of risk if used as a basis for organizational
strategies. However, since “the increase of the role of knowledge in economy and the changes
in the structure of employment have brought a change in organizations themselves, by
Strategic Management
Leonardo da Vinci Programme Project „Development and Approbation of Applied Courses Based on the Transfer of Teaching Innovations in Finance and Management for Further
Education of Entrepreneurs and Specialists in Latvia, Lithuania and Bulgaria
Gundars BērziĦs
shaping a new type of organization, namely, intellectual organizations which rely solely on
knowledge in their work” (4, p. 39), and, taking into account that “strategic management is
frequently being characterized as a discipline still under continuous development (Ketchen,
Boyd, & Bergh, 2008)” (5, p. 621), it can be argued that the theoretic framework for the
strategic management of knowledge-based organizations is not yet fully laid, and “the
analysis of the content on strategic management found, yet again, that there is great room for
improvement and for changes in the direction of research (e.g., Bergh& Holbein, 1997; Boyd,
Gove, & Hitt, 2005; Shook, Ketchen, Hult, & Kacmar, 2004) (6). Strategic management
research primarily focuses on the attainment of the objectives of strategic management of
traditional organizations, taking only partial account of the specific conditions for the
operation of intellectual organizations and their other features such as knowledge creation,
level of education of employees, management of knowledge exchange and the intellectual
property market in a rapidly changing organizational environment. The term “traditional
organizations” is used to denote organizations which focus on the management of tangible
resources and the use of external knowledge, whereas “intellectual organizations” means
those focused on the creation of new knowledge and the use of information in the creation of
service products. Latvian law does not offer a classification of organizations in traditional and
other types of organizations, but it does provide definitions for the assessment of intellectual
work, namely the Cabinet of Ministers Regulations No. 533, which contain such criteria for
its assessment as education, professional experience, complexity of work, mental effort,
cooperation, responsibility for the progress and results of the work, responsibility for
decisions, as well as define what qualifies as intellectual work. According to Cabinet of
Ministers Regulations No. 185 (currently not in effect), “Regulations on the fundamental
methodology for the assessment of intellectual work and qualification categories”:
“5. Intellectual work is any activity performed by way of a set of mental efforts (cerebral and
neural energy) in order to reach a certain goal. 6. Intellectual work includes the physical
effort necessary to perform it. 7. In the use of the term “intellectual work”, the mental nature
of the work is emphasised. 8. The highest form of intellectual work is creative work. Creative
work results in the creation of new, or the improvement of existing, progress-oriented,
Strategic Management
Leonardo da Vinci Programme Project „Development and Approbation of Applied Courses Based on the Transfer of Teaching Innovations in Finance and Management for Further
Education of Entrepreneurs and Specialists in Latvia, Lithuania and Bulgaria
Gundars BērziĦs
tangible or intangible value. Creative work combines intensive thinking with the pursuit of
new solutions and knowledge, and according actions.” (7) On the other hand, an explanation
of physical labour in Latvian law is given in Cabinet of Ministers Regulations No. 403
“Regulations on the fundamental methodology for the assessment of physical labour and the
establishment of qualification categories for the positions of employees of institutions
financed from the State budget”. “3. Physical labour is any activity performed by way of
physical strength (muscle effort) in order to create tangible and/or intangible value and to
provide services to satisfy the needs of society. Physical labour includes the mental effort
necessary to perform it.” (8)
A comparison of traditional and intellectual organizations shows the primary role of
knowledge over tangible resources which used to be the dominant criteria for the assessment
of organizations.
Criterion Traditional organizations Intellectual organizations
Establishment of
organizations
Since 18th century (Industrial
Revolution)
Since the second half of 20th
century (shift to knowledge
economy)
Typical industries Industrial manufacture,
construction, transportation
Science, research, professional
services and advice
Key assets Physical capital (land,
equipment, financial
resources)
Intellectual capital
Key raw materials,
resources
Physical raw materials Knowledge
Description of employees Mainly involved in manual
labour; however, the share of
intellectual workers also
increases (managers,
Intellectual workers (highly-
rated professionals in their
area) – scientists, advisers,
architects, lawyers, financial
Strategic Management
Leonardo da Vinci Programme Project „Development and Approbation of Applied Courses Based on the Transfer of Teaching Innovations in Finance and Management for Further
Education of Entrepreneurs and Specialists in Latvia, Lithuania and Bulgaria
Gundars BērziĦs
marketing, financial, human
resources management or law
specialists, etc.)
experts, doctors, software
programmers, advertising, PR
specialists and other
specialists.
Description Routine or monotonous.
Accurate execution of work
according to methods
developed by management
expected from employees
Employees are free to choose
the method for completion of
their work, creative or
innovative solutions expected
of employees
Result of work Goods produced or services
rendered according to
instructions
Creative and (or) innovative
solutions, new knowledge
Figure 1.1. Comparison of traditional and intellectual organizations (4, p. 41)
From the above-mentioned, the key factors for the management of intellectual
organizations can be inferred, namely, the management of information and organizational
knowledge. A particular feature of contemporary business and organizational environment is
that, since the middle of the previous century, the amount of information available for
organizations and individuals has increased considerably, and the tools used to process the
said information have seen substantial development. “The OECD economies are increasingly
based on knowledge and information. Knowledge is now recognised as the driver of
productivity and economic growth, leading to a new focus on the role of information,
technology and learning in economic performance. The term “knowledge-based economy”
stems from this fuller recognition of the place of knowledge and technology in modern
OECD economies.” (9) It can be said that the availability of information and knowledge has
greatly increased. Accordingly, the information asymmetry between economic operators has
decreased, at least in terms of the availability of information; however, the complexity of
information and differences in the ability to utilize it has increased the asymmetry between
organizations in terms of competitiveness. The fact is attested by the diverse success
indicators of organizations working in the same field. The wide availability of information is
Strategic Management
Leonardo da Vinci Programme Project „Development and Approbation of Applied Courses Based on the Transfer of Teaching Innovations in Finance and Management for Further
Education of Entrepreneurs and Specialists in Latvia, Lithuania and Bulgaria
Gundars BērziĦs
attested by the development of the Internet, which has enabled the creation of electronic data
bases, and the usage of the methods for the analysis of the varied automatically generated
electronic data in the creation of business models. As a leader in this area and an example of
the importance of information to the build-up of competitiveness, Google and its services can
be mentioned. The company, by providing free-of-charge search engines, e-mail, maps and
an Internet browser software, has created an automatically generated service business model
for advertisers, based on the profile of particular consumers. According to this model, any
Internet user, while performing a search in the Google search engine, automatically receives
indirect advertisement on services which might be relevant to the user, based on his or her
previously completed searches and indirect analysis of keywords of the sent e-mails. This
approach enables organizations to advertise their products and services to potential customers
whose profile best matches the profile of the product or the service being offered,
additionally taking into account the geographical location of both the customer and the
supplier. Organizations able to use information to create new added value for their
customers, gain a competitive advantage, whereas organizations which do not use
information to create new added value, are forced to respond to changes in the external
environment chaotically, that is, in a non-strategic way. It can be argued that the capacity to
use information is directly proportional to the knowledge and experience of the economic
operator. Only the skills which an organization is able to use to create added value for the
prospective customers of the organization can be regarded as organizational knowledge;
otherwise, this is merely information. Accumulated superfluous amounts of information in an
organization is in fact a waste of resources which increases total costs but does not produce a
result (added value) and thus reduces the efficiency of the organization. The contemporary
particularities of the work of an organization are characterized by the comparison of the new,
knowledge-based economy and the traditional economy.
Aspect of economy Industrial economy New knowledge-based economy
Market
Strategic Management
Leonardo da Vinci Programme Project „Development and Approbation of Applied Courses Based on the Transfer of Teaching Innovations in Finance and Management for Further
Education of Entrepreneurs and Specialists in Latvia, Lithuania and Bulgaria
Gundars BērziĦs
Economic development Stable and linear, predictable Unstable – very rapid changes, a large-scale onset
and unexpected decline, and chaotic – future
changes in the direction of the development of
economy are unclear
Market change Slow and linear Quick and unpredictable
Economy Supplier-oriented Customer-oriented
Lifetime of products and
technologies Long Short
Key drivers of economy Large industrial organizations Innovative, knowledge-based organizations and
business
Area of competition Local Global hyper-competition
Competition: name of the game Size: bigger eat the little ones Quickness: quicker eat the slower ones
Marketing: name of the game Mass marketing Differentiation
Organization
Pace of business Slow Considerably quicker, with ever-increasing
customer expectations
Emphasis on Stability Change management
Approach to business
development Strategic pyramid: vision, mission, objectives, action
plans Opportunity-oriented, dynamic strategy
Measure of success Profit Market capitalization (market value of the whole
organization)
Type of production Mass production Flexible and lean (resource-efficient) production
Key growth drivers Capital People, knowledge, skills
Key sources of innovation Research Research, systemic innovation, knowledge
management, integration, creation of new
businesses, risk management strategies, new
business models.
Key drivers of technology Automation and mechanization Information and communication technology, e-
business, computerised design and production.
Key sources of competitive
advantage Access to raw materials, cheap labour and change
capital; cost-cutting as a result of economies of scale. The advantage in skills: excellence of
organization, agility; human resources,
partnership with clients; differentiation strategies,
competition strategies.
Strategic Management
Leonardo da Vinci Programme Project „Development and Approbation of Applied Courses Based on the Transfer of Teaching Innovations in Finance and Management for Further
Education of Entrepreneurs and Specialists in Latvia, Lithuania and Bulgaria
Gundars BērziĦs
Resources at short supply Financial capital Human capital
Decision-making Vertical Shared
Innovation process Periodic, linear Continuous, systemic innovation
Focus of production Internal processes Comprehensive management of the organizational
processes and comprehensive chain of value
Strategic alliances with other
organizations Rare, “I am going on my own” thinking Establishment of cooperation teams in order to
complement the available resources
Organizational structures Hierarchic, bureaucratic, functional, pyramid-type
structures Inter-linked sub-systems, flexible, delegated,
delegation of powers to employees, flat or
network structures
Business model Traditional: command and control New: focused on people, knowledge and
coherence
Labour
Leadership Vertical Shared: delegation of powers to employees and
self-direction
Characteristics of workforce Predominantly male workforce, a large share of
partially educated or uneducated employees No gender restrictions; large share of university
graduates among employees
Skills A single skill, standardization Multiple skills, flexibility
Education requirements Skills or degree Continuous learning: the time necessary to acquire
new knowledge is more important than the actual
level of knowledge.
Relationship between
management and staff Confrontation Cooperation, teamwork
Relationships of employment Stable Considerable influence of market
opportunities/risks
Employees regarded as Cost factor Investment
Figure 1.2. Comparison of the new knowledge-based and the traditional economy (10)
As seen in Figure 1.2, there are significant differences in the internal and external
environment between the new and the traditional economy. The need to change the content of
work for organizational managers so as to ensure the viability and development of the
organization in the changing business environment stems from these differences.
Strategic Management
Leonardo da Vinci Programme Project „Development and Approbation of Applied Courses Based on the Transfer of Teaching Innovations in Finance and Management for Further
Education of Entrepreneurs and Specialists in Latvia, Lithuania and Bulgaria
Gundars BērziĦs
The features of the operation of contemporary organizations have also been considered
from the point of view of systems theory, which clearly demonstrates the mutual interaction
between the various objects. Peter Senge is one of the leading researchers in this area. The
systemic approach has helped draw a number of useful conclusions regarding strategic
management of an organization in a changing environment. First, „businesses and other
human endeavors are systems as well. They are bound by invisible fabrics of interrelated
actions, which often take years to fully play out their effect on each other. Since we ourselves
are a part of an interlinked system, it is unthinkably hard to see the model of changes as a
whole. Instead, we focus on snapshots of individual parts of the system and are left
wondering why our deepest problems are never solved. Systemic thinking is a conceptual
framework, a set of knowledge and a tool that developed over the previous 50 years, in order
to give a more clear view of the models and help us see the most efficient ways to change
them.” (11, p. 7) Secondly, „the compensating feedback: when the intervention in the system
made in good faith produce a response from the system that exceeds the benefits from the
intervention. We all know what it means to receive compensating feedback from the system –
the harder you push, the harder the system pushes back; the more effort you expend trying to
improve matters, the more effort seems to be required”. (11, p. 58) It should be noted that the
compensating feedback applies to all elements of a system, both the efforts of the
management to change the system, both the positive or negative intervention by groups of
employees or individual employees made in the organizational system as a whole or in the
individual elements of the system. This process could be described as a principle of
interaction between all parties concerned, and the organization as a system on the whole. It
should be understood that the compensating feedback works both ways: both towards a
positive intervention, both towards an intervention made with a negative purpose. Such
negative intervention made in a system or an element of a system will, over time, lead to a
compensating feedback response against the source of the negative intervention. Thirdly,
„systems thinking is a method for seeing the big picture.” (11, p. 68) „(...) organizations
break down, despite individual wisdom and innovative products, because they are unable to
link their highly varied functions and talents in a single, productive entirety.” (11, p. 69).
Strategic Management
Leonardo da Vinci Programme Project „Development and Approbation of Applied Courses Based on the Transfer of Teaching Innovations in Finance and Management for Further
Education of Entrepreneurs and Specialists in Latvia, Lithuania and Bulgaria
Gundars BērziĦs
Systems theory and systems thinking approach can serve as a means of justification of the
operation of an organization in an environment of dynamic change. Systems theory approach
is the binding element between an organization as a system and the influence the changing
environment exerts on it. However, even systems theory has its restrictions, similar to the
ones generally related to the strategic plans and business analysis tools, which do not give the
desired result, regardless of the application sophisticated analysis methods. The answer lies in
the fact that „they are established to work under a certain type of complexity, characterized
by the existence of multiple variables: detail complexity. However, there are two types of
complexity. The other type of complexity is dynamic complexity in particular situations,
when the causes and effects are subtle and the effects over time of interventions are not
obvious. Conventional forecasting, planning, and analysis methods are not equipped to deal
with dynamic complexity”. (11, p. 71) There are a number of features by which dynamic
complexity can be identified. Lack of understanding of the various mechanisms of
complexity is the source of the problems so common among organizations and even on a
national scale. „when the same action has dramatically different effects in the short-run and
in the long-run, there is dynamic complexity. When an action has one set of consequences
locally and a very different set of consequences in another part of the system, there is
dynamic complexity. When obvious interventions produce non-obvious consequences, there
is dynamic complexity. The real lever of action in many management situations lies in the
understanding of dynamic complexity, not detail complexity”. (11, p. 71-72) The
understanding of dynamic complexity is a frequent stumbling block for organizations,
understandably because the thinking of managers frequently involves the use of a
comparatively small number of variables in the decision-making process, such as profits, and
the expectation of direct and obvious consequences from their actions. Such approach helps
managers make decisions easier, because it simplifies the decision-making process as far as
possible. However, there are frequent cases when a decision by a manager or an employee
produces negative results for the organization, despite the decision being unanimously
supported and understandable for the major part of the employees. Mangers need to see the
attitude and receive the support of employees, which is another reason why dynamic
Strategic Management
Leonardo da Vinci Programme Project „Development and Approbation of Applied Courses Based on the Transfer of Teaching Innovations in Finance and Management for Further
Education of Entrepreneurs and Specialists in Latvia, Lithuania and Bulgaria
Gundars BērziĦs
complexity in the decision-making process lacks understanding and is underused. It is hard to
explain dynamic complexity to employees. A good manager „sees interrelationships instead
of linear cause-effect chains, and processes of change instead of snapshots of situations” (11
lpp. 73), whereas employees, due to their information and knowledge being incomplete, tend
to see processes as being linear and to focus on individual facts, disregarding the multiple
feedbacks in operation between the elements of a system, which may both amplify and
counteract the positive effects of previous actions. In order to perceive an organization as a
system, it is necessary to understand the concept of feedback, which has a wider meaning in
the systems thinking terminology. „It means a mutual flow of influence. It is a rule in systems
thinking that every influence is both a cause and an effect”. (11 p. 75) The issues discussed
above show the aspects of use of systems thinking in the work of an organization, and the
level of complexity for the organization in the context of organizational strategy and a
changing environment, making an additional mention of the various challenges of a manager
in the work with dynamic systems, which the organizations can be regarded as. Increasingly,
dynamic complexity enters the changing environment of organizations as a condition to be
reckoned with while shaping the strategic management system of the organization. Features
of contemporary organizations are also evident in the understanding of managers or
employees of what an organization actually is. Further, when describing organizations,
different understandings of the essence of organizations will be covered, expressed by way of
metaphors. „ (...) All organizations and management theories are based on linked images or
metaphors, which enable us to see and manage organizations differently, albeit in an
incomplete way. We use metaphors when we try to understand an element of experience in
terms of another element. An interesting aspect of metaphors is that a metaphor always
creates a one-sided understanding of a situation. It emphasizes certain interpretations and is
tended to force all others in the background”. (12 lpp. 4) Thus, metaphors in organizational
theory show our different understandings of the same issue, in each particular case
emphasizing an aspect dominant for the particular person or group of persons. Gareth
Morgan, one of the leading researchers in organizational theory, has divided ways of
understanding organizations according to metaphors used to describe them: organizations as
Strategic Management
Leonardo da Vinci Programme Project „Development and Approbation of Applied Courses Based on the Transfer of Teaching Innovations in Finance and Management for Further
Education of Entrepreneurs and Specialists in Latvia, Lithuania and Bulgaria
Gundars BērziĦs
systems of machines; organizations as organisms; organizations as brain (learning
organizations); organizations as cultures; organizations as political systems; organizations as
prisons for sociopaths; organizations as change and transformation; organizations as
instruments of dominance. Examples for each of these metaphors can be found in practice
and are in use in real life, including in Latvia. The understanding of the being of the
organization is set by its founders at the moment of its establishment, and later brought to life
through managers and employees, who, collectively, shape the operating processes and
cultural features of the organization.
Closing questions for discussion
1. What metaphor would you consider as best suitable for an organization?
2. Please describe strategy from the point of view of systems theory?
3. What factors are dominant in competitive environment in 21st century?
2. Volatility of organizational environment
Introductory questions:
1. Why are the changes in external environment so frequent and what are their causes?
2. How does uncertainty influence organizations?
3. Is the uncertainty of external and internal environment good or bad for organizations?
In the middle of difficulty, there’s opportunity – Albert Einstein
Strategic Management
Leonardo da Vinci Programme Project „Development and Approbation of Applied Courses Based on the Transfer of Teaching Innovations in Finance and Management for Further
Education of Entrepreneurs and Specialists in Latvia, Lithuania and Bulgaria
Gundars BērziĦs
Organizational environment is a much discussed concept; however, they do encounter
the problem how to ensure a continuous alignment of the organizational activities and plans
with the ever-changing information and events of the external environment. Organizations
ask: how to ensure the dynamics of a strategic plan regarding the volatility of the external
environment. Organizational environment may be categorized according to the pace of
change and the extent of the change, that is, how many industries it encompasses.
The change in the environment is caused by the businesses themselves. Such theory
was proposed by Joseph Schumpeter, introducing the contemporary popular term „creative
destruction”. „As a result of creative destruction, the existing products and production
methods are destroyed and replaced by new ones”. (14, p. 526) Such process can never lead
to permanent equilibrium in an economic system, since there will always be new
entrepreneurs who will disrupt the existing equilibrium. It also follows from this theory that
full competition is impossible because businesses are constantly willing to disrupt the
competitive environment and to enter a state of no competition. This theory explains the
mechanism and causes for innovation, namely, the wish to be in a situation where there are
no competitors, even if just for a moment. „When an economy, industry or an organization is
doing something differently, something beyond the existing practices, this is creative
response”. (15, p. 411) Creative response by business actors disrupts the equilibrium among
organizations and is the driver of economic progress and crises as well. The latter trend is
well evident from the global economic boom from 2000 onwards, followed by the economic
crisis in 2008, which was marked by the innovative business methods and products of the
banking sector and financial systems on the whole, such as hedge funds, transactions
involving derivatives, real estate speculations and trade.
For organizations, one of the key objectives is to ensure its growth and the clients’
necessity for it. The solution is to offer to clients a product which would significantly differ
from the one offered by their competitors, commonly referred to as „innovative product”. The
innovative product brings changes to the competitive environment and introduces an aspect
of uncertainty to it. For the competitors, the uncertainty lies in how long it will take to copy
the product/service, whereas for the innovative organization, the uncertainty means how long
Strategic Management
Leonardo da Vinci Programme Project „Development and Approbation of Applied Courses Based on the Transfer of Teaching Innovations in Finance and Management for Further
Education of Entrepreneurs and Specialists in Latvia, Lithuania and Bulgaria
Gundars BērziĦs
it will take for the competitors to copy the innovative product/service and how attractive the
innovative product/service would be to the clients. As we see, uncertainty is higher for the
innovator than for the competitor. This is one of the reasons why Latvian organizations are
reluctant to introduce innovations. However, the key motivation for the introduction of
innovations is the period of non-competition which is directly proportional to the degree of
novelty of the innovation. It is a period of time for which an organization obtains returns
from the state of uncertainty in the organization’s environment.
Figure 2.1. Period of non-competition of innovative products/services
Produkta/pakalpojuma inovācijas līmenis
Degree of novelty of the innovative product/service
Konkurences zona Area of competition Bezonkurences zona Area of non-competition Nedaudz diferencēti produkti Somewhat differentiated products Inovācijas robeža Margin of innovation Laiks Time
Strategic Management
Leonardo da Vinci Programme Project „Development and Approbation of Applied Courses Based on the Transfer of Teaching Innovations in Finance and Management for Further
Education of Entrepreneurs and Specialists in Latvia, Lithuania and Bulgaria
Gundars BērziĦs
Leăenda Legend Inovatīvs produkts Innovative product Diferencēts produkts Differentiated product
Another element characteristic of the organizational environment is the uncertainty
surrounding the organization itself. It is in human nature to be concerned by everything that
influences him/her, while he or she themselves lack information of the influencing factor, and
consequently, the ability to control it, thus reducing their freedom of action. One of the
motivations for organizational growth in size is the possibility to obtain control in the field
that the organization operates in, or in a part thereof. A high market share and availability of
sizeable funds give organizations the opportunity to obtain a greater degree of control over
the field of activity or industry the organization is engaged into. The desire of organizations
to control the elements of surrounding environment is directly related to the intention to
reduce risks to the results of the organization’s performance, and ensures the future
predictability of the organization’s actions. Managers of organizations are constantly dealing
with the desire to manage the external environment and the inability to control it. „The cause
of problems for organizations is that changes in the external environment cannot be managed.
They can, however, be predicted”. (16, p. 215) This quote, actually, sums up the very essence
of the problem, which poses problems for all organizations, namely, it is the uncertainty
about the processes occurring in the external environment and the inability to control them,
while feeling the necessity to do so. Although, in real life, we may see numerous attempts to
influence the elements of the external environment and to steer its processes directly, the
actual results are unpredictable. Management is defined as a “process, by which something is
being organized, guided in a certain direction, to a certain goal, taking responsibility over the
process being managed, its results and consequences” (17). The most typical tools aimed at
influencing the external environment are lobbying in legislative work, involvement of
entrepreneurs in state administration, NGOs, associations. In Latvia, a marked attempt to
manage elements of external environment was made in 2009, when social partners were
involved in the drawing up of the budget for 2010 and in the processes aimed at improving
the public service functions and processes. However, this initiative has produced few obvious
Strategic Management
Leonardo da Vinci Programme Project „Development and Approbation of Applied Courses Based on the Transfer of Teaching Innovations in Finance and Management for Further
Education of Entrepreneurs and Specialists in Latvia, Lithuania and Bulgaria
Gundars BērziĦs
results, which serves as another proof for the uncertainty as regards the possibilities for
organizations to influence, let alone manage, the processes of the external environment. An
exception to this assumption may be dictatorships or corrupt governments working in their
own interests or in the interests those of certain businesses; however, as proved by history,
such state is unsustainable and is usually only possible in a restricted area for a restricted
period.
Organizations take external influence very seriously and frequently regard it as the
crucial factor for success. This approach has been supported by such authors as M. Porter,
developing his model for industry competition and five forces model. However, we should
draw a line between the between the part of the external environment which is subject to
influence by organizations, and the part which is only subject to partial or limited influence
by large organizations or subject to no influence by medium-sized and small organizations.
Organizations may relatively easy influence the environment which they encounter in their
everyday activities. Thus, we may distinguish between directly and indirectly influenced
environments. There are also other types of environment categories in business management
literature, such as the comprehensive environment and competitive environment. This
distinction, as regards comprehensive environment, is similar, whereas the competitive
environment is based on the 5 forces model by M. Porter, which contains competitors,
bargaining power of purchasers, bargaining power of suppliers, substitute and new entrants.
Closing questions for discussion:
1. Why are organizations continuously involved in innovation? 2. What strategy should organizations adopt if it chooses not to adapt to the actual
environment of the organization?
2.1. Directly influenced external environment of an organization
Introductory questions:
1. Can an organization influence its environment; how?
2. Do you consider the practice by large corporations, whereby favourable decisions by
governments are achieved by exerting an influence on the governments, ethical?
Strategic Management
Leonardo da Vinci Programme Project „Development and Approbation of Applied Courses Based on the Transfer of Teaching Innovations in Finance and Management for Further
Education of Entrepreneurs and Specialists in Latvia, Lithuania and Bulgaria
Gundars BērziĦs
3. How can small organizations influence their environment?
For an organization, environment of direct influence is an environment external to the
organization, which is still subject to significant influence, and partially, control by the
organization. The environment is highly volatile; however, it is relatively easy to influence it,
by applying certain methods and using certain information. In this context, “management” of
the environment means the ability to see the causal link between certain actions and their
consequences. Key change drivers for this part of environment, are the changes in the
behaviour of competitors, suppliers, labour market and target audience. The basic tools for
managing such environment is advertising, public relations, long-term cooperation with the
most important partners, the so-called „partnering”, mergers, takeovers, joint ventures, pre-
emptive tactics as regards competitors, innovation. A successful innovation of a service or
product by an organization, for a while, until the competitors copy the offering, puts it in a
position safe from competition; as a result, the influence of volatility of the environment
decreases significantly, and the organization may fully focus on the influence and control of
its clients and target audience.
A chart of the management of environment of direct influence and the methods
applied for this purpose is shown in figure 2.2.
Strategic Management
Leonardo da Vinci Programme Project „Development and Approbation of Applied Courses Based on the Transfer of Teaching Innovations in Finance and Management for Further
Education of Entrepreneurs and Specialists in Latvia, Lithuania and Bulgaria
Gundars BērziĦs
Figure 2.2. Chart depicting the change management in a directly influenced environment.
Vides mainība Volatility of environment Konkurentu uzvedība Behaviour of competitors Mērėauditorijas uzvedība Behaviour of target audience Piegādātāju uzvedība Behaviour of suppliers Darba tirgus tendences Labour market trends Konkurentu vadība Management of competitors Apsteidzošā taktika Pre-emptive tactics Apvienošanās Mergers KopuzĦēmumi Joint ventures Pārpirkšana Takeovers Sadarbība Cooperation Inovācijas Innovation Sabiedriskās attiecības Public relations Pozitīvās par sevi Positive about the organization Negatīvās par citiem Negative about others
Strategic Management
Leonardo da Vinci Programme Project „Development and Approbation of Applied Courses Based on the Transfer of Teaching Innovations in Finance and Management for Further
Education of Entrepreneurs and Specialists in Latvia, Lithuania and Bulgaria
Gundars BērziĦs
Mērėauditorijas vadība Target audience management Inovācijas Innovation Produktu/pakalpojumu Product/services Servisa Service Mārketings Marketing Reklāma Advertising Publiskās attiecības Public relations Zīmolu vadība Brand management Piegādātāju vadība Supplier management Partnerings Partnering Sadarbības līgumi Cooperation agreement Stratēăiskās partnerības līgumi Strategic partnership agreement Šėērs Zīmološana Cross-branding Garās rokas stratēăija Long arm strategy Konkursi Tenders Partneru skaits Number of partners Darba tirgus vadība Labour market management Konkursi Vacancies Publiskās attiecības Public relations Apmācības skolas Training schools Rekrutēšanas sistēmas Recruitment systems
By using these methods, an organization can exert rather significant influence on
directly influenced environment, thus reducing the uncertainty around it. Such management
involves, in fact, continuous organizational measures, monitoring the critical factors of the
directly influenced external environment (target audience, competitors, labour market and
suppliers), ensuring a continuous stream of information about their activities and patterns of
action with the aim of increasing organization’s own freedom of action. Freedom of action is
the objective of organizations as regards the mitigation of negative effects of the external
environment. If the ability to act freely is considered a precondition to reaching one’s own
goals, and a crucial criterion of success in the interaction of an organization with the external
environment, the quality of the financial and strategic objectives can be assessed according
the degree of freedom which the organization obtains by reaching these objectives. The
opposite to this is the inability of an organization to make decisions freely, as a result of
which it has to deal with the consequences instead of causes, and follow a strategy of
survival, making decisions according to the „least worst option”. Operation in such
conditions is unsustainable and will not ensure the growth of the organization. The freedom
Strategic Management
Leonardo da Vinci Programme Project „Development and Approbation of Applied Courses Based on the Transfer of Teaching Innovations in Finance and Management for Further
Education of Entrepreneurs and Specialists in Latvia, Lithuania and Bulgaria
Gundars BērziĦs
of decision-making of an organization is crucial for the strategic management for intellectual
organizations, because the trend of their employees to act independently or semi-
independently involves the possibility for freedom of action and its elements in all areas of
activity of the organization, both in the external and in the internal environment. “The
traditional authoritarian management style is unsuitable for knowledge-based enterprises,
because the intellectual workforce places high value in high degree of independence and
freedom of action in decision-making”. (4, p. 6) If a high degree of freedom in decision-
making is a precondition to good performance of the staff of an intellectual organization, it is
logical to conclude that not only management style, but also the organizational strategy
should promote the ability of the organization as a system to freely make decisions in the best
interests of organization at any particular set of circumstances in an environment. It can be
assumed that an opposite situation deprives the intellectual workforce of motivation and
hampers creativity in their work.
Closing questions for discussion:
1. What are the elements of an environment subject to direct influence by an
organization?
2.2. Indirectly influenced external environment of an organization
Introductory questions:
1. How deeply should the indirect environment of an organization be analyzed and why
should it be done?
2. Where would you gather the information for the analysis of environment?
3. Which type of environment of the organization would you consider as more important:
directly or indirectly influenced?
External environment subject to indirect influence is the environment which the
organization has less chance to influence. This is the environment that managers of
Strategic Management
Leonardo da Vinci Programme Project „Development and Approbation of Applied Courses Based on the Transfer of Teaching Innovations in Finance and Management for Further
Education of Entrepreneurs and Specialists in Latvia, Lithuania and Bulgaria
Gundars BērziĦs
organizations in Latvia mention when they speak of “unfavourable” environment to business.
It includes law, taxation policy and many other factors of economic environment. In business
management literature, it is usually described by way of the PEST, or the PESTEL model, of
which PEST refers to political, economic, social and technological environment factors,
while PESTEL considers to political, economic, social, technological, environmental and
legal factors. Each of the above-mentioned elements of external environment can be regarded
as a huge system with numerous subsystems, each with its own objectives, principles of
operation, traditions and cycles. Consequently, the differences in scale of the elements of the
system are clearly visible. In addition, a major part of entrepreneurs regard these elements of
environment as restrictions, or biased or unbiased rules governing their activities, which
reduce their freedom of action and, as such, are detrimental to them. Each of the elements can
be characterized by scale (volume), objectives, and cycle (intensity of change). It is the
understanding of the scale, objective and cycle of each element of environment which would
increase the awareness of managers of organizations about the principles under which it
operates, and enable them to see the causal links between various interactions in the external
system, and assess the possibilities to influence these processes. A pronounced trend in
Latvia currently is placing the all the blame on everybody else: the government, the
Parliament, politicians, entrepreneurs, universities, educational system, taxation policy, etc.
In these circumstances, an organization, when building its strategy and analysing its external
environment, must be clearly aware of the factors of the environment as such, and the
possibilities to influence them as well. This awareness determines the three possible strategic
alternatives of action for an organization: influence and no adaptation, partial influence and
adaptation, full adaptation. By such clear definition of their initial position, organizations
avoid having illusions and false hopes for better days and build strategies based on the real
state of affairs of the external environment.
Model for analysis of the indirectly influenced external environment
One of the objectives for organizational strategy is to match the opportunities offered
by the external environment with the organization’s internal resources and capacities. It can
be based on the PESTEL model, by complementing it with the additional information which
Strategic Management
Leonardo da Vinci Programme Project „Development and Approbation of Applied Courses Based on the Transfer of Teaching Innovations in Finance and Management for Further
Education of Entrepreneurs and Specialists in Latvia, Lithuania and Bulgaria
Gundars BērziĦs
would enable the organization to structure the information obtained as better suited for its
strategy-building needs, that is, setting the alternative strategies and their corresponding
objectives. The model can be based on the cause-effect approach, which is successfully used
in the Fishbone model (cause-effect diagram). Each causal relation chain has a distinct cause
and effect, which can be characterized by the scale in which the course of events can be
understood. The scale (volume) is the extent of the cause-effect chain of the external
environment, which should be understood in order to identify the future trends, their direction
and influence on the organization. The scale can have two aspects, namely, time and extent.
The temporal aspect determines the length of the time period to be included in the analysis,
while the extent shows of how broad a perspective the particular event should be looked at.
However, from a costs point of view for the organization, it is important to determine the
frequency of the monitoring efforts of the external environment. The frequency of
observations depends on the length of the cycle and the intensity of fluctuations in the
particular factor of the environment. For example, currently, the Latvian legislative
environment should be monitored daily, which is very important for the long-term operations
of organizations; however, such daily monitoring requires considerable amount of time and
funds. Understanding of the scale of the event enables organizations to forecast trends and
sets the effective restriction for the resources an organization spends for the analysis of an
event which occurred in the external environment. Events in external environment can be
characterized by their target or purpose. In fact, this indicator also shows the trend of the
events as the direction of the cause-effect chain in the framework of the scale discussed
above. It can be said that every event occurs with a certain direction and purpose. This
direction clearly shows the way the events are heading. A third element used to describe
events in the external environment of an organization, is the cycle. A cycle of events shows
the probable future changes, if they are cyclical, and the features which help us identify the
recurrence or periodicity of the events. Use of such model for analysis of the indirect external
environment would provide organizations with better understanding of it and enable them to
make a strategic decision on the possible attempts to influence on the particular factors.
Strategic Management
Leonardo da Vinci Programme Project „Development and Approbation of Applied Courses Based on the Transfer of Teaching Innovations in Finance and Management for Further
Education of Entrepreneurs and Specialists in Latvia, Lithuania and Bulgaria
Gundars BērziĦs
Figure 2.3. Diagram of indirect external environment of an organization
Organizācijas netiešā ārējā vide Indirect external environment of an organization
Politiskā vide Political environment Ekonomiskā vide Economic environment Sociālā vide Social environment Tehnoloăiskā vide Technological environment Ekoloăiskā vide Ecologic environment Juridiskā vide Legal environment Mērogs Scale Mērėis Target Cikls Cycle Ietekmes iespējas Possibilities to influence Laiks Time Platums Extent Biežums Frequency
Indirect environment of an organization can be analysed by using the following table:
Scale Environment
Time Extent Frequency
Target Cycle Possibilities
to influence
Political When are the
changes about to
occur?
How many
industries will be
affected?
How often do
changes of
political
direction occur?
Trends Are the changes
cyclical? What
are the features
of the cycle?
What are the
chances to
influence the
political
situation?
Economic What events are
to be expected,
How many
industries will be
How frequent
the changes are
Trends What are the
features of the
Is it possible to
influence the
Strategic Management
Leonardo da Vinci Programme Project „Development and Approbation of Applied Courses Based on the Transfer of Teaching Innovations in Finance and Management for Further
Education of Entrepreneurs and Specialists in Latvia, Lithuania and Bulgaria
Gundars BērziĦs
when? affected? predicted to be cycle? economic
situation?
Social What events are
to be expected,
when?
What part of the
society will be
affected?
What is the
durability and
frequency of the
changes?
Trends and their
direction
Are the social
changes
cyclical? What
are the features
of the cycle?
Is it subject to
influence?
Technological What new
changes in
technology are to
be expected?
How many
industries will be
affected?
What is the
durability and
lifetime of the
changes?
What are the
trends and
directions of
technological
changes
Are the
technological
changes
cyclical?
Is there a
possibility to
influence the
development of
technologies and
their standards?
Environmental What events are
to be expected,
when?
How global will
the events be and
what industries
will be affected?
What is the
expected
frequency of the
changes, what is
the durability of
these processes?
Trends of events,
and the
development of
events
Are the events
cyclical?
Are the
processes subject
to influence?
Legal What new
changes in laws
are to be
expected, when?
What aspects of
society, industry,
organization
could be
impacted?
What is the
stability of
legislature and
the durability of
laws?
Trends in
legislature
Are the
legislative
initiatives
cyclical?
Can legislation
be influenced?
Figure 2.3. Table for the analysis of the environment having an indirect influence on an
organization
By performing an analysis as described in the above model, organizations obtain
summarized and clear information on the elements of their external environment which they
can use when building or updating their strategy. Thus they can spot recent trends and
opportunities in the external environment, as well as obtain a way to use them as a planning
tool, that is, make planning outputs an operational control tool. Such approach enables the
use of the up-to-date “opportunity” or “dynamic” strategy approach, when strategies are
opened and created from operational opportunities. In addition, this model enables the
organization to realistically assess its chances to influence its indirectly influenced external
Strategic Management
Leonardo da Vinci Programme Project „Development and Approbation of Applied Courses Based on the Transfer of Teaching Innovations in Finance and Management for Further
Education of Entrepreneurs and Specialists in Latvia, Lithuania and Bulgaria
Gundars BērziĦs
environment. This, for its part, means, that an organization builds its strategy on the basis of
the actual situation instead of illusions. A dynamic dimension is added by the trends and
cycle elements of the model, allowing us to identify the trends of the external environment
which are crucial for strategic management in a changing external environment.
Closing questions for discussion:
1. Why is the recurrence of events important? How can an organization use it in its
strategy?
2. Why, in an analysis of the external environment of an organization, is it frequently
sufficient to have trends instead of certain facts and figures to make long-term
decisions?
3. Changes in the content of a manager’s wok
Introductory questions:
1. What is the content of a manager’s work? Please give examples?
2. Have the management functions changed nowadays?
3. What is knowledge in an organization?
Intellectual organizations are an integral part of the global economy; therefore, they
have the same problems which traditional organizations face, and, importantly, one of the
issues is the change of the organization and their frequency in each particular field of activity
Strategic Management
Leonardo da Vinci Programme Project „Development and Approbation of Applied Courses Based on the Transfer of Teaching Innovations in Finance and Management for Further
Education of Entrepreneurs and Specialists in Latvia, Lithuania and Bulgaria
Gundars BērziĦs
of the organization. Changes are described by the number of events, which occur
continuously and directly influence the organization. The number of the interrelated events
influencing an organization is the consequence of globalization; therefore, it can be regarded
as one of the key change drivers in organizational management, along with knowledge and
change. The quote by Charles Darwin on the evolution of species seems very fitting for
contemporary organizations as well: „It is not the strongest of the species that survives, nor
the most intelligent that survives. It is the one that is the most adaptable to change”.
The content of work of the manager of an organization described as the activities
traditionally performed by a manager performing his or her functions: planning, organizing,
directing, motivating and controlling the organization’s work. The most important changes in
the content of work concern knowledge management in parallel with the traditional
organizational management function. Knowledge management has been studied and the
fundamental concepts defined: data, information, knowledge, wisdom. “Data are unprocessed
raw representations of reality; information is data that has been processed in some
meaningful ways; knowledge is information that has been processed in some meaningful
ways; wisdom is knowledge that has been processed in some meaningful ways”. (18, p. 5)
This approach views knowledge as a hierarchy. Management of a knowledge hierarchy is one
of the key changes to the content of contemporary managers’ work. “Business organizations
tend to be interested to use both their proprietary business knowledge, both the personal
knowledge of their employees. Business knowledge of an organization means practical
knowledge useful for management, production, services or innovation, rather than knowledge
in its wider social and scientific meaning”. (19, p. 2) Knowledge can be explicit or tacit; in
addition, the amount of tacit knowledge exceeds the amount of explicit knowledge. “Tacit
knowledge and explicit knowledge is not mutually exclusive; attempts to surface them in the
organization will require resources and can produce unexpected results”. (19, p. 12) Transfer
of tacit knowledge to an organization in their explicit form is a precondition to raising an
organization’s competitiveness in the new knowledge-based economy and a new piece of
content of a manager’s work, namely, the planning, organizing, directing, motivation and
control of a process for new applicable business knowledge. From the above-mentioned, we
Strategic Management
Leonardo da Vinci Programme Project „Development and Approbation of Applied Courses Based on the Transfer of Teaching Innovations in Finance and Management for Further
Education of Entrepreneurs and Specialists in Latvia, Lithuania and Bulgaria
Gundars BērziĦs
can conclude that with the influence of the new knowledge-based economy and the rapidly
changing environment, the content of manager’s work of an organization has been
complemented by activities related to the creation of new, explicit business knowledge which
serve to the organization in general and which the manager performs by managing the
knowledge hierarchy of the organization.
There are a number of theories for the knowledge management process in knowledge
management literature, which includes the static and the dynamic knowledge management
models which work in parallel in the same organization.
Strategic Management
Leonardo da Vinci Programme Project „Development and Approbation of Applied Courses Based on the Transfer of Teaching Innovations in Finance and Management for Further
Education of Entrepreneurs and Specialists in Latvia, Lithuania and Bulgaria
Gundars BērziĦs
Figure 3.1. Perspective of creative holism in organizational knowledge management (19, p.
12)
Radoša holisma perspektīva organizācijas zināšanu pārvaldībā
Perspective of creative holism in organizational knowledge management
Dinamiska procesa zināšanu sistēma Knowledge system of a dynamic process Autonoma cilvēku aktivitātes sistēma (CAS) (Noteikta misija)
Autonomous human activity system (HAS) (Mission determined)
Strategic Management
Leonardo da Vinci Programme Project „Development and Approbation of Applied Courses Based on the Transfer of Teaching Innovations in Finance and Management for Further
Education of Entrepreneurs and Specialists in Latvia, Lithuania and Bulgaria
Gundars BērziĦs
DaĜēji automatizēta cilvēku darbības sistēma (Noteikts mērėis)
Partially automated human activity system (Target determined)
Vispārēja cilvēku darbības sistēma (Noteikta problēma)
Generic human activity system (Problem determined)
Produkts, tehniskais serviss/procesu jautājumi
Product, technical service/process issues
Darīt Action Prakse Practice Savstarpēja mijiedarbība un pārveidošanās vienam otrā
Mutual interaction and inter-transformation
Veidot Creation Sistemātiskas metodoloăijas sistēma intelektuāliem vadītājiem un intelektuāliem darbiniekiem
System of systematic methodology for intellectual managers and intellectual staff
Dažādas teorijas, metodes un tehnikas no sociālajām zinātnēm, zinātnēm un tehniskajām zinātnēm
Various theories, methods and techniques from social sciences, sciences and technical sciences
Vadlīnijas zināšanu vadīšanā vadītājiem un darbiniekiem
Guidelines in knowledge management for managers and employees
Nemainīga rezultāta zināšanu sistēma Constant knowledge system Zinātniski nepamatotas zināšanas Scientifically unjustified knowledge Zinātniski pamatotas zināšanas Scientifically justified knowledge Tehniskas zināšanas Technical knowledge Vadības zināšanas Management knowledge Informācija Information Dati Data Organizācijas konkurētspējas divi pīlāri Two pillars of organizational
competitiveness
Given the challenges of the new economy, changing environment and the particularity
of intellectual organizations in terms of strategic planning, the use of autonomous human
activity system in strategic management of intellectual organizations is crucial. Research in
the problem of strategic management of knowledge in an intellectual organization, and the
transfer of knowledge from the tacit, individual level, to the explicit form of business
knowledge, its integration into the strategic plan and its implementation, has been scarce, and
theoretic background for these purposes has not been developed.
Strategic Management
Leonardo da Vinci Programme Project „Development and Approbation of Applied Courses Based on the Transfer of Teaching Innovations in Finance and Management for Further
Education of Entrepreneurs and Specialists in Latvia, Lithuania and Bulgaria
Gundars BērziĦs
It can be argued that the changes in the content of work are based on the sharing and
delegation of the power to analyse information and events and the power to make the
according decisions. Previously, with the amount of information being smaller and the size of
the organizations restricted, an organization could be managed by a single person who could
process the information crucial for the operations of the organization and make the according
decisions; however, the vast amount of information subject to processing, and the decisions
to be taken accordingly, frequently hinders their proper understanding. Consequently, the
shared information processing and decision-making ensures parallel decision-making across
the organization. In a parallel decision-making process, the coordination of the parallel
decisions made becomes a key task for the management of the organization. In traditional
hierarchical organizations, parallel decisions were made strictly according to the hierarchy,
within the rigorous framework of the powers and functions, thus effectively excluding the
overlapping of processes. In the modern horizontal intellectual organizations operating in a
rapidly changing environment, the delegation of the powers regarding the processing of
information obtained from the external environment and the ensuing decision-making is
frequently not accurate, because of the wide scope of tasks delegated to every employee of
such organizations. Under such conditions and changed time pressures, the role of the
coordinating function of the management of intellectual organizations increases at the
expense of the role of planning function as a set of activities aimed at reaching its objectives.
Thus, it can be concluded that the changing environment burdens organizations with an
additional amount of information, which the decision-makers of the organization must
process in order to respond appropriately and to match the actions of the organization with
the requirements of the environment.
Organizations that base their operation on a strategy usually have a well-developed
strategic plan. As a result of the increase in volume of information, the focus of management
functions has shifted from being in charge of the operation of the organization to efforts
aimed at ensuring the integrity of the organization and the exchange of information among
various stakeholders within and beyond the organization. The managerial functions of
traditional organizations were planning, organizing, directing, motivation and control;
Strategic Management
Leonardo da Vinci Programme Project „Development and Approbation of Applied Courses Based on the Transfer of Teaching Innovations in Finance and Management for Further
Education of Entrepreneurs and Specialists in Latvia, Lithuania and Bulgaria
Gundars BērziĦs
however, in modern organizations, the role of management changes due to the sheer volume
of the information which hampers the direction role of management, if decisions are made
only at the management level. If the number of changes and the volume of information is
restricted, the conventional management functions can be performed rather easily; however,
as the volume of information and number of changes increases considerably, the conventional
communication chains no longer ensure efficient decision-making. Modern organizations
have found a solution to this problem by reducing the number of managerial levels and
adopting the so-called horizontal structures, as well as by increasing the level of knowledge
of individual employees and within the organization on the whole. However, the operation of
these organizations is based on highly qualified employees who would be able to take
important decisions without continuous communication to coordinate the decision and on the
basis of the changing information and internal and external circumstances of the
organizational at a particular moment. In fact, it means that the larger part of the
organization’s workforce perform all the conventional organizational management functions
to full extent. Accordingly, it can be argued that the managerial functions of an organization
have not changed per se; rather, the number of employees performing the functions has
increased considerably. Thus, the key task of the executive management is to coordinate the
activities of the multiple managers and to guide them all in a single direction. A key problem
for this task is lurking in the decision-making process. The previous model, where a formal
order or instruction by the manager or owner of the organization was sufficient to announce
the change of course of action, does not satisfy the managing employees of the organization.
Managing employees are the employees who perform management functions at an
organization, yet, however, do not have a formal status of a manager, or have it only for a
certain period in connection with a formal or informal project, over which the particular
employee is in charge of and whose performance requires the involvement of other
employees. The managing employee needs to understand and accept the executive
management’s arguments in favour of the changes in the operation of the organization. The
survey of organizations found that managing employees are most inclined to resist change in
the operation of the organization if they lack information on the reasoning of executive
Strategic Management
Leonardo da Vinci Programme Project „Development and Approbation of Applied Courses Based on the Transfer of Teaching Innovations in Finance and Management for Further
Education of Entrepreneurs and Specialists in Latvia, Lithuania and Bulgaria
Gundars BērziĦs
management and on the conditions of the environment surrounding the organization. Such
situation causes distrust to executive management among employees, which may lead to
covert non-performance of the decisions made by executive management. Managers who told
they provided information on the reasoning behind their decisions to their employees on a
regular basis, and listened to the employees’ opinions, did not always receive support from
the employees, citing as reasons the inability by the employees to understand the information
of the environment and the reasoning of the management due to differences in the levels of
education and in priorities. Consequently, it can be concluded that the varied content of work
in organizations prevents us from developing a single best managerial model for an
organization. At organizations with a highly educated workforce and intellectual work,
employees should be treated as separate managing employees, which, for the most part, make
decisions themselves and perform their tasks with a clear understanding of his or her
motivation for action and link to the organization, similar to how a separate business or unit
might operate. Consequently, organizations, where line employees must make independent
decisions as a response to changes in the organizational environment and to organize their
work themselves, might be referred to as intellectual organizations. The conventional and
well-studied organizations where most of the tasks are regulated and decisions are taken at a
strictly defined managerial level might be referred to as traditional organizations. For an
intellectual organization, the strategic management should have two certain and distinctly
defined strategies: the external strategy and the internal strategy. The external strategy would
be focused on value creation for external clients of the organization, while the internal
strategy would be focused on value creation for its internal stakeholders, the managing
employees.
Concluding questions for discussion:
1. How have the functions of employees changed recently?
2. How have the functions of managers changed recently?
Strategic Management
Leonardo da Vinci Programme Project „Development and Approbation of Applied Courses Based on the Transfer of Teaching Innovations in Finance and Management for Further
Education of Entrepreneurs and Specialists in Latvia, Lithuania and Bulgaria
Gundars BērziĦs
4. Strategic management and its role in the management of a
modern organization.
Introductory questions:
1. Why strategic management issue is so topical in our days?
2. If you would have to explain term “strategy” in one sentence what would it be?
3. What is the difference between the strategic planning and the strategic management?
We may regard that in the modern management literature an issue on the strategic
planning is widely, comprehensively developed, justified, and grounded with studies and an
application of various methods that are used in the practise successfully. However, in the
literature the issue on the strategic management is comparatively indefinite. The following
excerpts certify this idea, "Strategic management is often described as the discipline still
being continuously in development process (Ketchen, Boyd, & Bergh, 2008)" (p.5, 621) and
"content analysis devoted to the topic of the strategic management repeatedly found that there
is a wide area for improvements and change of directions for studies (e.g., Bergh& Holbein,
1997; Boyd, Gove, & Hitt, 2005; Shook, Ketchen, Hult, & Kacmar, 2004 ) (6). Approval for
this statement can be found in various definitions of the strategic management. Practically,
they reflect a slightly changed definition of the strategic planning. In addition to previously
mentioned approach of the strategically operational management, it is necessary to mention a
limited aspect of the strategy. Symbolically, the strategy could be named as the way selected
by the organization for reaching of their objectives. Way is always related to the final
destination. However, it is essential to understand that any way in its essence is also a limit.
The limit aspect in the strategy development is often left without a notice and as the result it
is difficult to draw boundaries of the strategic way. In the operational management the limit
Strategic Management
Leonardo da Vinci Programme Project „Development and Approbation of Applied Courses Based on the Transfer of Teaching Innovations in Finance and Management for Further
Education of Entrepreneurs and Specialists in Latvia, Lithuania and Bulgaria
Gundars BērziĦs
factor is even more important because it foresees less possibilities of maneuver because of the
limited time period and process particularity. The limiting element of the strategy is
especially significant factor taking into account rapidly changing conditions of the external
environment. There are many definitions for the strategy and the strategic management. They
can be analyzed from historical view or according to their content. In cases when the same
term has very many definitions by various authors it is essential to take into account the view
and focus of various authors when they have made these definitions. It is necessary to review
various views on concepts of the strategy and the strategic management to be able to use
these opinions further with an objective to synthesize a common view that could enrich the
existing base of knowledge and provide a new insight in the issue of the strategic
management and the strategic planning putting the focus on the strategy in conditions of the
changing environment.
1. „Strategy is a large work of an organization. In situations of life and death it is Tao for
survival or disappearing. (Sun Tzu, The art of War)” (20, p.3). In this definition the
managing process of an organization and correspondence of an action to a specific
situation is accented. Thereby, actually the focus is made on operation activities that
are usually explicit in the specific situations.
2. „In the military area: Strategy is related to „drawing of a war plan ... by sketching
individual campaigns and deciding on individual operations within their scale (Von
Clausewitz, 1976:177). As it can be also seen from the strategy definition of the
military area it foresees the planning and individual behaviour in specific situations,
i.e. operational management.
3. In game theory: Strategy is „a full plan: plan that identifies what choices (players) will
make in all possible situations (von Newman and Morgenstern, 1944:79). This
strategic definition of the game theory intends future action, durability and a
behaviour of each player, limiting it more and more. There is only one the best
behaviour variant for each player in the specific situation.
4. Management science: Strategy is combined, comprehensive and integrated plan....
developed with an objective to ensure a basic task and achieving of goals. (Glueck,
Strategic Management
Leonardo da Vinci Programme Project „Development and Approbation of Applied Courses Based on the Transfer of Teaching Innovations in Finance and Management for Further
Education of Entrepreneurs and Specialists in Latvia, Lithuania and Bulgaria
Gundars BērziĦs
1980:9). This definition accents comprehensive, scholastic and integrated action of an
organization as well as its purposefulness expressed by means of goals.
5. Plan, strategy can also by a trick, specific “maneuver” made with an intention to
overcome an opponent or a competitor” (21, p. 4). This definition accents planning,
oneness of the strategy, uniqueness and competitions as the main element of the
organization environment.
6. „Determining of long-term goals and tasks of a company, accepting of operational
plan and distribution of resources required for fulfilling of this plan.” (Alfred
Chandler, Strategy and Culture (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1962)); main accent is
made on the planning process and elements of the organization system planned for
longer period of time.
7. „Strategy is a model of tasks, existence reasons or objectives and combination of main
policy and plans for fulfilling of these objectives expressed to show in which industry
company operates or will operate and what is the company like or what it will be.”
(Keneth Andrews, The Concepts of Corporate Strategy (Homewood, IL: Irwin,
1971));
8. „What is business strategy, it is all about the name, competitive advantage.... The only
task of the strategic planning is to make a company as effective as possible, long-term
superiority over competitors. Corporative strategy means a trial to change the
organization force against competitors in the maximally effective way. (Kenichi
Ohmae, The Minde of Strategist (Harmondsworth: Pengin Books, 1983) (20, p.21)
9. Strategy is a mediator between an organization and its environment (Mintzbergs,
1983)
10. Organization strategy describes how it will create a value for shareholders, clients and
citizens. 2004 (22, p.4)
11. Strategic management concept consists of a decision and operation set and as the
result the strategy is formulated and its implementation in life is done with an
objective to achieve goals of an organization. (23, p.248)
Strategic Management
Leonardo da Vinci Programme Project „Development and Approbation of Applied Courses Based on the Transfer of Teaching Innovations in Finance and Management for Further
Education of Entrepreneurs and Specialists in Latvia, Lithuania and Bulgaria
Gundars BērziĦs
12. „Strategy is a framework where choice can be made about essence and direction of the
organization’s future. With the framework we understand limits and parameters that
show what an organization can achieve” (23, p.86).
13. „Strategic management is full set of determinations for an organization to achieve
competitiveness and return for investments above the average level” (14, p.6)
14. „Strategy is an integrated and coordinated determination and activities created in
order to use basic competences and to acquire competitive advantage” (14, p. 144)
As we can see from the previously mentioned strategy definitions several terms are
used and their understanding is not straightforward and various authors have different
perspective on the meaning of the specific terms. To avoid further misunderstandings, the
following definitions of the main terms are offered from the strategy literature:
• Organization objectives are specific short-term and long-term quantitative results that
are directly related to tasks and are measured as the main indicators of fulfilling. They
have to reflect crucial success factors for every organizational area in an organization”
(23, p.254)
• „Tasks are qualitative and quantitative announcements what an organization wants to
achieve in measurable future. They have to be internally united and to agree with a
mission” (23, p. 254)
• „Strategic mission is an announcement for a unique existence of an organization and
its area of an operation expressed by product and market terminology” (14, p. 27)
• „Vision is desired future situation of an organization” (24, p. 13)
• Reason of an organization existence
• „Basic values of an organization are principles guiding behaviour of an organization”
(24, p. 207)
• „Basic competences of an organization are special set of applied technologies, skills
and/or business processes developed and learned during the time with an intention to
satisfy needs of clients” (23, p. 242)
Strategic Management
Leonardo da Vinci Programme Project „Development and Approbation of Applied Courses Based on the Transfer of Teaching Innovations in Finance and Management for Further
Education of Entrepreneurs and Specialists in Latvia, Lithuania and Bulgaria
Gundars BērziĦs
• Basic strategic competences of an organization are „combination of competences
required for an organization to dominate in the existing markets or to create new
markets, it may include abandoning of some existing basic competences,
strengthening of other competences and creating of other new competences” (23, p.
242)
• „Sustainable competitive advantage of an organization is accomplished if the
organization implements value creating strategy where other organizations are not
able to copy provided benefits or it is too expensive for them to do so” (24, p. 5)
• „Organizational culture is referred to complex set of ideologies, symbols and basic
values that ares united in the entire organization and impacts the way the organization
ensures its operation. This is social energy guiding – or inability to guide – the
organization” (14, p. 36)
• „Interested parties are all people (organizations) that are interested in the operation of
an organization, are able to impact an organization or can be impacted by an operation
of an organization. They can be internal (like employees) or external (like vendors or
pressure groups)” (23, p. 236). „Interested parties are individuals and groups that can
impact or are being impacted by the strategic operational results of an organization
and the ones that have claims regarding an operation of an organization to realize”
(14, p. 28)
• „Strategic flexibility is set of skills used by an organization to react on various
requests and possibilities that is a part of dynamic and indefinite competition
environment” (14, p. 20)
• „Strategic intention is mean for the usage of organization's internal resources, skills
and basic competences to achieve organization’s objectives in the competitive
environment. Strategic intention exists if all employees and organization levels are
determined to follow a specific (important) fulfilling criteria” (14, p. 26) May be
replaced with organization’s vision or vice versa.
• „Strategic groups consist of competing organizations with same competition methods
and positions in the market”. (23, p. 246)
Strategic Management
Leonardo da Vinci Programme Project „Development and Approbation of Applied Courses Based on the Transfer of Teaching Innovations in Finance and Management for Further
Education of Entrepreneurs and Specialists in Latvia, Lithuania and Bulgaria
Gundars BērziĦs
• „Crucial success factors (CSFs) are its product or service characteristic that are
especially valuable for a client group and where an organization has to exceed
competitors” (24, p. 96)
• „Synergy exists if a value created by business units of an organization created when
working together exceed the value that each business unit would create when working
separately” (14, p. 256)
• „Organization policy is regulations and guidelines determining limits in which an
operation of an organization shall take place.” (21, p. 10)
• „Corporative management represents relationships of interested parties and they are
used to determine and to control a strategic direction and a performance of an
organization” (14, p. 402)
• „Strategic control includes usage of long-term criteria by executive management
related to an organization strategy in order to assess operation of organization’s
departments and divisions” (14, p. 449)
• „Strategic leadership is an ability to foresee, to imagine, to maintain flexibility and to
inspire others to create strategic changes required for an organization” (14, p. 489)
• „Business model is a system in which a product or a service and information “flows”
among parties involved” (24, p. 13)
• „Strategic drift is taking place when an organization’s strategy starts progressively
disagreeing to its strategic position and its operational indicators become worse” (24,
p. 27)
• „General environment of an organization consists of elements of wider society
impacting society and organizations in them” (14, p. 50)
As we see from the definitions stated above the strategy includes a very wide scope of
issues and, in addition, it is necessary to mention that the definitions above is only a small
part from offers of various perspectives and methods used in the modern strategic
management. Definitions offered are the ones directly related to the strategic management of
an organization in conditions of dynamic environment.
Strategic Management
Leonardo da Vinci Programme Project „Development and Approbation of Applied Courses Based on the Transfer of Teaching Innovations in Finance and Management for Further
Education of Entrepreneurs and Specialists in Latvia, Lithuania and Bulgaria
Gundars BērziĦs
When the understanding of the role of the strategy in the work of an organization
developed, the focus made by organization leaders, researchers of management science also
changed while working on the strategy. This issue is studied in several studies on the
historical development of the strategy and figure 4.1 looks at one of these studies.
Period 1950’s 1960’s — early
1970’s
Late 1970’s —
mid 1980’
Late 1980’s —
1990’s
2000’s
Dominant Theme Budgetary
planning and
control
Corporate
planning
Positioning Competitive
advantage
Strategic and
organisational
innovation
Main Issues Financial
control
Growth planning,
especially
diversification
and portfolio
planning
Selecting
industries and
markets
Positioning for
market leadership
Focusing strategy
around sources of
competitive
advantage
Development of
new businesses
Reconciling size
with flexibility and
responsiveness
Principal
Concepts and
Techniques
Financial
budgeting
Investment
planning
Project
appraisal
Medium- and
long-term
forecasting
Corporate
planning
techniques
Synergy
Industry analysis
Segmentation
PIMS analysis
SBU’s
Portfolio planning
Resources and
capabilities
Shareholder value
Knowledge
management
Information
technology
Corporative
strategies
Competing for
standards
Complexity and
self-organisation
Corporate social
responsibility
Organisational
Implications
Systems of
operational and
capital
budgeting
become key
mechanisms of
coordination
and control
Creation of
corporate
planning
departments and
long-term
planning
processes
Mergers and
acquisitions
Multidivisional
and multinational
structures
Greater industry
and market
selectivity
Restructuring and
reengineering
Refocusing
Outsourcing
E-business
Alliances and
networks
New models of
leadership
Informal structures
Less reliance on
direction, more on
emergence
Strategic Management
Leonardo da Vinci Programme Project „Development and Approbation of Applied Courses Based on the Transfer of Teaching Innovations in Finance and Management for Further
Education of Entrepreneurs and Specialists in Latvia, Lithuania and Bulgaria
Gundars BērziĦs
Table 4.1. Evolution of strategic management (page 19, 20)
As seen in the table, the perception of the essence of strategy has changed significantly. From
the Latvian organisations’ viewpoint, it is quite advantageous to use the freshest concepts of
strategic management in planning and managing their future businesses. Otherwise, the lack
of understanding or use of outdated concepts can be one of the reasons for low
competitiveness.
Taking into account the non-stop process of organisation improvement, which is enforced on
companies by the competition and changes in the economic environment, the emergence of
new trends in the strategic management development is obvious. In the time of global
recession, the adjustment of the organisation’s management processes to the rapid changes is
a prerequisite for surviving. Taking this into account, new trends in strategic management can
be observed. “For most organisations the shift from 20th century to 21st century was
insignificant for the processes of operational activities. However, the new century has
brought considerable changes demanding new processes of planning and management” (page
99, 25). Nowadays the planning should be based on the principle “look for the unexpected in
all elements of organisational environment” (page 99, 25). The reason of such a statement is
changes in the provisions of economic activity drawing more and more away from the
“industrial economy towards the digital economy, where the intellectual capital has replaced
the basic assets” (page 25, 100). As a result, it is more difficult to appraise the value of the
organisation and capital. “Various organisations rushed to take advantage of the new assets of
knowledge and intellect. Both the traditional methods of cutting expenses, and the strategies
for economies of scale were no longer among the top choices of managers” (page 25, 100).
Alan Greenspan in his speech in 2000 suggested that in today’s world the ideas more and
more often replace the actual production of goods, and that competition for reputation
becomes an important driving force of the economy. The produced goods often can be
appraised even before the completion of the whole transaction. On the other hand, the service
providers usually can offer nothing but their reputation (p. 100, 25). Conditions like the
aforementioned are responsible for changes in the organisation management and decision-
making system. Both the speed of information exchange and combination of the digital
Strategic Management
Leonardo da Vinci Programme Project „Development and Approbation of Applied Courses Based on the Transfer of Teaching Innovations in Finance and Management for Further
Education of Entrepreneurs and Specialists in Latvia, Lithuania and Bulgaria
Gundars BērziĦs
possibilities has created the so-called “hypercompetition”. “Economy of hypercompetition is
based on a continuous and rapid creation of new organisational resources, like new products,
services, procedures and processes. In the digital economy, the organisation assets are
amortised very quickly.” (p. 101, 25) As an example of this process, the rapid changes in the
popularity of the Latvian restaurants and entertainment places can be mentioned, because a
company has to amortise basically all the assets during two-year time in order to gain a profit
before introducing a completely new concept and investments. The traditional M. Porter’s
five forces model (one of the forces being “Barriers to entry”) was considered to be self-
evident; yet, the use of internet in various industries has overcome those barriers and opened
an instantaneous global market for poorly-known businesses. It has created new and cheaper
channels of distribution. As a result, the marginal profit on a unit is being reduced (p. 101,
25). The global access to prices and information has increased. Organisations for which the
geographical borders were an argument for different prices for the same items, more and
more often come across the customers’ tendency to buy an item in the country where it has
the lowest price by using the global modular transport system and simplified, unified customs
procedures, which often are completely discharged, as within the European Union. This
tendency to choose products globally characterises not only the organisation business, but
also the people`s behaviour in retail business. For example, let us take the behaviour of
Latvian consumers — they use internet catalogues for comparing the prices of goods offered
by Ikea in Helsinki, Stockholm, and Poland in order to pick the country where to purchase the
household items whose supply and price are inadequate in Latvia. A significant finding for
the Latvian companies in organising the strategic planning and strategic management within
an organisation is the necessity of expanding the region and scope of analysis of competitors.
When developing a strategy, an organisation has to compare the chain of adding-value
processes and the customer added value not only in Latvia, but also globally. If this is not
present, the strategy (and consequently the necessary investments) of the company can be
defined as very risky. Regarding the wide-spread use of internet, growing knowledge of
information systems, improvement of means of transportation, and the growing number of
multimodal transport systems, it can be suggested that the global competition will continue to
Strategic Management
Leonardo da Vinci Programme Project „Development and Approbation of Applied Courses Based on the Transfer of Teaching Innovations in Finance and Management for Further
Education of Entrepreneurs and Specialists in Latvia, Lithuania and Bulgaria
Gundars BērziĦs
grow. When developing their strategies, all Latvian organisations should consider both the
aspects of regional competition and chain of the added value, and the global competitors.
Use the following criteria for setting the range of global competitors:
1. Availability of information on the Internet
2. Insignificant language barrier
3. Availability of multimodal transport system
4. Simple customs procedures
5. Simple possibility of physical movement
6. Significance of an excessive factor to a specific product/service
There is a growing tendency to use outsourcing. Organisations when assessing
strategic decisions related to vertical integration more and more often choose outsourcing as a
solution for optimisation of expenses and simplification of management, transparency.
Outsourcing is used as simple control and cost planning techniques, which reduce the risk to
investments and focus on the key elements of added value in the basic activity of an
organisation. There is popular term “virtual corporations or organisations” (p. 102, 25), which
characterizes the desire of virtual corporations or organisations to be flexible and able to
adjust to the changing environment.
Several comparatively stable economic and environmental indicators served as a basis
for strategic planning concepts, which enabled organisations to develop strategic planning
process and acquire good results using them – “low inflation, corresponding demand, stable
legal framework, low interest rates and stable share market. Such stability in the business
environment enabled strategic planners to use such aggressive strategies as reorganisation,
reduction, outsourcing, refocusing and cost reduction strategies. These strategies significantly
improved organisation profit indicators” (p. 25, 102). In the circumstances of rapid changes
use of methods which request time and stability is becoming more and more difficult. As a
result, organisation profit indicators deteriorated with the change of situation, and recurrently
used, previously successful, strategies did not bring the expected results. An alternative
solution used by many organisations was a focus strategy. “A new strategy focusing on things
one knows best or the spheres of organisation activity, where it has a clear and powerful
Strategic Management
Leonardo da Vinci Programme Project „Development and Approbation of Applied Courses Based on the Transfer of Teaching Innovations in Finance and Management for Further
Education of Entrepreneurs and Specialists in Latvia, Lithuania and Bulgaria
Gundars BērziĦs
competitive advantage, is becoming more and more popular (p. 102, 25). The same approach
is related to the tendency of horizontal mergers instead of vertical ones, thus focusing on the
current sphere of activity and synergies that arise due to merger.
Questions for discussion:
1. How many alternatives shall be assessed before taking the final decision?
4.1. Essence and structure of strategic management
Introductory questions:
1. Why is strategy often named pathway?
2. Do you have your own life and development strategy? If yes – why; if not – why?
The necessity of strategic management of an organisation is based on experience.
Managers` experience testifies that decisions of organisation all-level managers may be
divided into three categories: positive result, neutral result, negative result. In cases when
results are seen comparatively soon, as with everyday tasks, decision assessment is relatively
simple; however, if decision consequences appear in a longer period the task becomes more
complicated. The diverse experience organisation managers had in relation to consequences
of their previous decisions made seriously consider the necessity of evaluating decisions
crucial to an organisation, in a different way than everyday decisions. Organisation managers
found the solution in planning approach, which was later named as strategic planning.
“Strategic planning means to establish and maintain a sustainable performance of an
organisation in the future” (p. 26, 4). Another quotation that characterizes the essence of
strategy forming is „A pathway which does not provide a traveller is not worth travelling”
(p. 16, 27). Such approach shows the management of an organisation a key strategic
challenge, how to choose such pathway for an organization which would ensure sustainable
existence and development of an organisation; furthermore it points out, if an organization is
unable to provide its vitality and development, the chosen branch of activity is not suitable
for the specific organisation. There is an opinion that it is the task of strategic management to
guide and keep an organisation on the chosen pathway. Strategic management can be defined
Strategic Management
Leonardo da Vinci Programme Project „Development and Approbation of Applied Courses Based on the Transfer of Teaching Innovations in Finance and Management for Further
Education of Entrepreneurs and Specialists in Latvia, Lithuania and Bulgaria
Gundars BērziĦs
as a forward-looking, comprehensive organisation management system and decision taking
process.
Organisation management is a key necessity of contemporary enterprises in the fast-
changing environment. Strategic management is a tool an organisation manager may use to
organise the management process of an organisation, because it includes planning, long-term
vision, organisational structure and organization of work. This comprehensive viewpoint is
the advantage of strategic management. Such name most accurately displays the management
process in the fast-changing environment. Changeability of situation does not allow
organisations to make long-term plans and blindly follow them; however, if an organisation
wants to exist and develop it is possible and necessary to make strategically oriented
operational decisions. It is not an issue whether it is beneficial for an organisation to have a
strategy or not to have; it is an issue of ability of an organisation to exist in the current
situation. Many types of organisation strategy have been investigated: from strategic planning
to the balanced scorecard system. Such authors as M. Porter, Norton and Kaplan, and
Mintzberg have made a significant contribution to the understanding of strategic planning.
The leading authors representing various schools of strategy have given classified
descriptions of strategies. The understanding of different approaches to the issue of strategy is
of key importance, otherwise one may get an impression that strategy is an abstract notion,
since even scholars have no unique concept of strategy; furthermore, strategy may have
different meanings in different spheres of life.
The approach of various schools of strategy is important due to the reason that use of
certain metaphors demonstrates diverse aspects of the same idea.
Strategic planning schools are:
1. Design school: concept procedure. .... Finding balance between the inner
strengths and weaknesses of an organisation, and the external opportunities
and threats.
2. Planning school: a formal process ...not only the brain process; it is formal,
divided into specific steps, supplemented with control tables and various
techniques (especially related to tasks, budgets, programs, operational plans).
Strategic Management
Leonardo da Vinci Programme Project „Development and Approbation of Applied Courses Based on the Transfer of Teaching Innovations in Finance and Management for Further
Education of Entrepreneurs and Specialists in Latvia, Lithuania and Bulgaria
Gundars BērziĦs
3. Positioning school: an analytical process. ...The planner becomes an analyst.
Includes such concepts as strategic groups, value chains, game theory etc., but
always with an analytical approach.
4. Entrepreneurial school: process of future vision. ...The key person is the top
manager. Changed the strategy focus from accurate design, plan or position to
indefinite vision and a wide perspective.
5. Cognitive school: a mental process. Mainly involved in investigation of the
essence of strategy. The school has its deviations: interpretation or
constructive approach to strategy. Cognition is used to design strategies as
creative interpretations instead of maps of reality in a more or less objective
manner...
6. Learning school: a sudden process. Strategies appear unexpectedly, they are
found in an organisation, and the so called formulation and implementation
relation.
7. Power school: a negotiation process. There are two sub-groups. Micro power
school considers development of strategy as the internal policy of an
organisation – the process which involves negotiations, compulsion and
confrontation among the empowered players. From the viewpoint of Macro
power school an organisation is an entity which exerts power over others and
among its partners in an alliance, joint venture and other network relations, to
reach an agreement on “collective” strategies in its interests.
8. Culture school: a social process. ...Focus on common interests and integration
– formulation of strategy taking roots in organisational culture.
9. Environment school: a reactive process. Includes the so called “coincidence
theory” which investigates the reactions expected from an organisation in a
particular environment and the “population ecology” which requests
restrictions of significant strategic decisions. An “institutional theory” which
describes the institutional pressure organizations may encounter and, most
probably, is a hybrid of power and cognitive school.
Strategic Management
Leonardo da Vinci Programme Project „Development and Approbation of Applied Courses Based on the Transfer of Teaching Innovations in Finance and Management for Further
Education of Entrepreneurs and Specialists in Latvia, Lithuania and Bulgaria
Gundars BērziĦs
10. Configuration school: a transformation process. Organisations are considered
as configurations – in compliance with behaviour and characteristic quantity
cluster.... If an organisation may be described by the word ‘condition’,
changes may be described as a dynamic transformation process – a step from
one situation into another (pp. 23-26, 21).
However, this division of strategic schools is not the only one found in the
management theory; there are authors like Elf Ring and Volberda (2001), who have divided
the strategic management approaches into three strategic schools.
1. ‘Boundary school’ – basically deals with the issue where to set organisation
boundaries and how to guide the process across such division;
2. ‘Dynamic capability school’ – perceives strategic management as a collective learning
process with the purpose to develop the special abilities of an organisation which are
difficult to copy.
3. ‘Configurational school’ – perceives strategy as a process of establishment and
decline in the configuration of an organisation, such as strategic methods, archetypes
and stages of development (p. 176, 28).
Division of strategic approaches into schools is not establishment of new schools of
strategy theory; however, it shows the key tendencies in the sphere of strategic management.
An inquiry of entrepreneurs and experts shows that different understandings of the issue of
strategy among the respondents is a reason of diverse approaches to strategy by different
organisations, as well as of diversity and changeability in the organisation environment. So
we can with good reason state that entrepreneurs` different understanding of organisation
strategy causes changes of environment, which, for its part, is a reason for more complicated
organisation management. However, such diversity of understanding is an objective
phenomenon, representation of a person`s individuality. With the increase of individualism
the diversity of opinions will increase respectively. Such approach leads to a significant
conclusion, same as in the issue about possible organisational structures: currently there is no
“one best model”, organisations successfully apply different approaches. Similarly, in the
strategic management theory there is no “one best approach” or one dominating approach;
Strategic Management
Leonardo da Vinci Programme Project „Development and Approbation of Applied Courses Based on the Transfer of Teaching Innovations in Finance and Management for Further
Education of Entrepreneurs and Specialists in Latvia, Lithuania and Bulgaria
Gundars BērziĦs
organisation managers and strategy researchers have rather chosen the approach “it depends”
on specific activity conditions and criteria. Organisation managers, who have chosen strategic
management approach for management of an organisation, before commencement of
strategic management process have to specify which approach is the most appropriate for
their organisation and its specific conditions.
The previously described process for making of strategic decisions and the strategic
planning process in the organization is performed with a specific aim. Why does the
organization want to commence implementation of strategic management? From the gathered
definitions of strategic management and strategy, that comprise understanding of the authors
about the aim and necessity of a strategy, we can set several key words that characterize a
strategy: survival, competitive advantage, mission, vision, competences, gain above average,
competition, resources, abilities, operational direction, environment, risk, management,
strategic intent. Diversity of aims of strategic management can be seen when analyzing
definitions of strategic management provided by different authors. However, in all the
schools, models of strategy mentioned above the idea of strategic management itself can be
found. Holistic approach should be assumed as one of the primary conceptions. Strategy
covers and influences all organization. Thus, all organization and its environment is the field
of strategic management. The word ‘strategic’ refers to the management process, which
means that we can draw the border of strategic management up to where the field of
management or influence of a specific manager or a specific organization extends or up to
where it should extend. Strategic management, similar to systematic approach where
systematic thinking is emphasized, is the ability of managers to think strategically and
holistically. Substantial is the ability of a manager to see the total view of mutual influences
of processes of his organization and their connection with the latest and most advanced trends
of management theory, yet without falling into extremes and exaggerations in connection
with their implementation in his organization. “The greatest failures in strategic management
have occurred when managers took one opinion too seriously. This field had its obsession
with planning, later with general positionings that were based on precise calculations, and
now with learning” (27, page 21). Manager of an organization should have an understanding
Strategic Management
Leonardo da Vinci Programme Project „Development and Approbation of Applied Courses Based on the Transfer of Teaching Innovations in Finance and Management for Further
Education of Entrepreneurs and Specialists in Latvia, Lithuania and Bulgaria
Gundars BērziĦs
about management guidelines of an organization and his management principles, prior to
making the decision adopt or not to adopt a new theory in his organization. Coherence of
such knowledge is connected with the possible contradictions between the management
guidelines of a manager or an organization and the principles comprised within the latest
theories elaborated by other people. Exactly this hidden conflict of management principles is
the reason for failures of the new attractive theories in some organizations and convincing
success in others.
As it can be seen from the many previously described theories that have developed in
the course of time due to authors seeking answers to the substantial question – why do some
organizations succeed and others do not. Many methods have been created that have
experienced their prosperity and decline. For example, “Management by Objectives”, TQM,
Balanced Scorecard, Lean Management, 6 Sigma etc. It means that the range of methods
available nowadays to the manager for making of strategic decisions and managing of an
organization that succeeds can be considered sufficient. Moreover, there are organizations
that can not only survive, but also develop even in difficult conditions. It might be beneficial
to set a task not to answer the questions ‘how to do’, or ‘what to do’, because these questions
have been largely described in scientific literature with the help of various methods and from
various aspects, but rather ‘what is the most important for the management of strategy-
oriented organization in changing environment conditions. The question about importance is
more substantial than the question about how to implement the process. To find the answer as
to what is the most important, the method of reverse logics may be used, discarding what has
been proven as important factor, but not the determinant one. This approach is used when
determining the critical success factors of a sphere or CSF. Critical success factors are factors
that are critical for succeeding in a specific sphere. When studying the factors determining
success in each sphere and discarding the least substantial ones, the most determinant factors
can be obtained without the presence of which success in the particular sphere would be
impossible.
Implementation of processes depends on several competencies. Nowadays
competences of an organization may be purchased or obtained, if there is an understanding as
Strategic Management
Leonardo da Vinci Programme Project „Development and Approbation of Applied Courses Based on the Transfer of Teaching Innovations in Finance and Management for Further
Education of Entrepreneurs and Specialists in Latvia, Lithuania and Bulgaria
Gundars BērziĦs
to which of them is necessary and which is lacking, if some specific management
competencies are lacking, for example, project management organizations always have the
possibility to hire an employee with accordant specialization, to send its employees for
training or use services of consultants or currently popular external services. It can be
concluded that when availability of competences in the environment of an organization
exists, the matter about the competences lacking for implementation of a strategy is in fact a
decision of the organization about the necessity of a competence and a function of resources
of the organization. We might consider competences insignificant as an index, but the matter
about what competences we need is more substantial. It should be noted that many
organizations when establishing the strategy of the organization use a different approach.
They define the competences that they have and select the sphere of activity where these
competences would ensure the biggest yield. This question has been studied world-wide with
the aim to clarify what exactly determines success of an organization – sphere where the
organization operates, this approach was elaborated by M. Porter, or unique resources of the
organization. For example, Porras states that if the unique resources of an organization do not
correspond to current market, then the organization should change its sphere of activity and
not its competences or values. Though each of these approaches is important and topical
when elaborating the strategy of an organization, yet it is not the most important strategic
management issue of an organization. It can be justified by the fact that there are
organizations that have attained notable success in the market by using one, as well as the
other approach. The amount of resources of an organization is usually one of the differencing
factors in selection of the approach. It is easier for big organizations to choose a beneficial
sphere and succeed there. For example, General Elektric became known in Latvia as a
refrigerator brand, but currently it deals with financial entrepreneurship. Latvian textile
companies are a good example of how competences determined the circle of clients. If before
restoration of independence of Latvia the big textile companies were widely known with their
brand, for example, Rīgas apăērbs, Ogres trikotāžas kombināts, then with the market
conditions changing the companies retained their competences, but changed the circle of
clients, and now they successfully ensure manufacturing of other famous brands. It can be
Strategic Management
Leonardo da Vinci Programme Project „Development and Approbation of Applied Courses Based on the Transfer of Teaching Innovations in Finance and Management for Further
Education of Entrepreneurs and Specialists in Latvia, Lithuania and Bulgaria
Gundars BērziĦs
concluded that while both approaches ensure successful entrepreneurship, other factors that
are determinant should be searched. Finding of determinant factors should divide the
conception of strategic management into maximally small elements that arise from the
assumed opinion about strategy. Definitions of strategy provided before, as well as definition
of strategy elaborated by Drs Kepner and Tregoe - “Strategy is the framework which guides
those choices that determine the nature and direction of an organization. The framework is
borders and parameters that show what the organization may achieve” (86. page 23) - shall be
used. However, prior to commencing analyzing of the basis of strategic management of some
organization, it should be clarified what activities of an organization may be called strategic
and what may not. In management theories, approaches directed towards development of an
organization are considered strategic, but in economic models all activities that take the
reactions of other market players to activities of organization into account are considered
strategic. From the point of view of economic theory, the game theory is a typical sample of
strategic activity. “Game theory describes mutual interplay of reactions of competition in
specific group of competitors” (264, page 24). Terms like “Strategic behavior” can be found
in scientific literature, which is defined as cognitive, emotional and territorial interplay of
managers within a group (or among groups) if the matter affects strategic challenges” (93,
page 29). Interaction and mutual dependence of various groups both within an organization
and outside an organization is emphasized. “Strategic behavior” is defined as “Measures that
an organization take in order to improve its competitive position in relation to its competitors,
to obtain independent commercial advantage thus ensuring long-term profit” (30), there are
authors that emphasize the influence of environment on an organization “to influence
economic environment with the aim to increase profit” (382, page 31), when applying the
approach of game theory strategic behavior is defined as “investment of resources with the
aim to decrease choices of competitors” (46, page 32). “There are two categories of strategic
behavior. ‘Non-cooperative behavior’ occurs when organizations try to improve their position
in relation to its competitors by trying not to allow them enter the market, trying to
discontinue their operation or reduce their profit. ‘Cooperative strategic behavior’ occurs
when an organization tries to coordinate its activities in the market, thus decreasing reactions
Strategic Management
Leonardo da Vinci Programme Project „Development and Approbation of Applied Courses Based on the Transfer of Teaching Innovations in Finance and Management for Further
Education of Entrepreneurs and Specialists in Latvia, Lithuania and Bulgaria
Gundars BērziĦs
of competition (it does not always require strict agreement)” (30). Strategic behavior is
closely connected with the competitive dynamics. “Competitive dynamics occurs from a
range of competitive activities and responses of competitors among organizations that
compete in one sphere” (189, page 14). Intensity of competitive dynamics shows the
changeability element of the environment of organization from the side of competitors.
Assumption of mangers of organizations that external environment of organization,
especially competition will remain unchanged after commencement of implementation of
strategic activities of organization and their further implementation can be considered as one
of the biggest mistakes of organizations. “Mutual dependence among organizations means
that strategic competitiveness and gain above average can realize only when organizations
admit that their strategies have not been implemented independently from activities and
responses of their competitors” (191, page 14).
An opinion exists that defining of strategic activity requires usage of both approaches
- the strategic management approach where the main emphasis is put on durability,
alternatives and direction, and the view assumed by economists where the main emphasis is
put on interaction of various interested persons and their actions in relation to competitors.
The following definition of strategic behavior may be established: Strategic behavior is
activity where the managers make decisions, act taking into account the development
direction, values, alternative future development scenarios of the organization and the
reaction of interested persons to activity of an organization in its external and internal
environment. In order to understand this definition of strategic activity better, a task to define
non-strategic activity can be set. Activity model of an organization could be considered the
main element for differentiation of strategic and non-strategic activity. If organization, due to
any changes of external and internal environment, adapts to the changes of environment not
retaining its development direction, value system, then such activity can be considered non-
strategic. Such activity is also called reactive. Organizations simply react to stimulus of
external environment and follow the direction of such stimulus, changing their operation,
procedures, employees, suppliers, clients and products according to market situation at that
time.
Strategic Management
Leonardo da Vinci Programme Project „Development and Approbation of Applied Courses Based on the Transfer of Teaching Innovations in Finance and Management for Further
Education of Entrepreneurs and Specialists in Latvia, Lithuania and Bulgaria
Gundars BērziĦs
Questions for discussion:
1. What are the critical success factors of strategic management?
2. What is non-strategic behavior like?
4.2. Taking Strategic Decisions
Introductory questions:
1. Is it possible to say that taking decisions is one of the most important tasks of
managers of each level? Substantiate your arguments.
2. What kind of decisions are the most difficult?
3. What are the main preconditions for an organization to be able to take right decisions?
One of the main tasks of managers of organizations is taking decisions substantial for
the organization. Decision-taking pays a decisive role for ensuring a successful strategic
management in any organization. Theoretical substantiation of taking strategic decisions will
be divided into two parts, where the first part will deal with the general aspects of decision-
taking process, whilst the second part will consider specific aspects of taking strategic
decisions.
4.2.1. Theoretical Substantiation of Decision-taking
There are no wrong decisions, there are just different consequences. (Author)
Decision-taking is one of the most important tasks and main functions of all kinds of
managers. “A mechanism of decision-taking is, in fact, a mechanism of the entire
organization management.” (33 p. 399) “The main task of managers of all levels is taking
decisions”. (34 p. 521) Managers are expected to do this by the personnel and managers of a
higher level. A manager does not only have the duty to take decisions but also to undertake
responsibility for them. A particular significance in the decision-taking process is conferred
Strategic Management
Leonardo da Vinci Programme Project „Development and Approbation of Applied Courses Based on the Transfer of Teaching Innovations in Finance and Management for Further
Education of Entrepreneurs and Specialists in Latvia, Lithuania and Bulgaria
Gundars BērziĦs
to the present economic situation when, along with changes in the external environment, this
involves an increase of different events that have an impact on the organization, whilst the
time between the events reduce due to their increasing frequency. In fact, a reaction of the
organization to these events is a decision. Decision-taking, however, is connected with
different uncertainties, misunderstanding and inconsequent actions that might lead to grave
failures by the organization. P. Druker has said that “Decisions turn out to be unsuccessful
not because they have been incorrect from the very beginning but because that objectives (or
conditions) have been changed. Although initially the decision was correct, it became
inconsistent with them due to the change thereof”. (35 p. 15)
Many sources of literature deal with the issue of decision-taking. Methods of decision
taking have been broadly described, and the roots of these methods can be found in the
necessity of implementing strategic tasks of troops. These methods have then been
transferred to the field of decision-taking within organization management. Decisions can
formally be defined in the following ways:
1. A product of management, reaction of an organization to a problem;
2. Determination of actions based on several alternatives;
3. Selection of certain considered objectives and means of reaching thereof;
4. Choice of the kind of activities that guarantee a positive result of an operation (36 p.
13);
5. Decision taking is a selection of the only alternative amongst the rest;
6. Decisions of the management is an emotional and legal act of thinking that lead to
selection of one alternative out of several, these activities being performed by
managers acting within the field of their jurisdiction; (37 p. 211)
7. A decision is a point where a choice among alternatives is made, these alternatives
usually being competing possibilities; (38 p. 14)
8. Decision-taking in an organization is identification of a problem and finding a solution
for it; (39 p. 280)
Different sources of literature provide different classification of decisions. “Authors
propose classifying decision based on their level:
Strategic Management
Leonardo da Vinci Programme Project „Development and Approbation of Applied Courses Based on the Transfer of Teaching Innovations in Finance and Management for Further
Education of Entrepreneurs and Specialists in Latvia, Lithuania and Bulgaria
Gundars BērziĦs
1. Operative decisions;
2. Strategic decisions.
Operative decisions are related with ensuring everyday functioning of an organization.
Strategic decisions are related with policy and trends of development of the
organization for a long-term period.” (38 p. 16).
Decisions can also be classified based on their impact on an organization. “It is
generally accepted that some decisions have a greater influence than others.
1. Small decisions;
2. Average decisions.
3. Great decisions.
Having understood the significance of a decision, it is possible to determine the
amount of resources to be allocated for implementing a particular decision. Many managers
fail to understand that time, the one at their or someone else’s disposal, is becoming a
resource people are running short of”. (38 p. 17)
Decisions can also be classified based on their objects. “Decisions can beL
1. Money-related decisions;
2. Human-related decisions” (38 p. 17).
This kind of decision classification reflects the way of thinking of managers of
organizations. It is possible to determine the basis of a decision, for instance, “money”, and
then a manger can take a decision in a particular situation based on the particular criterion.
Another wide-spread criterion that serves as the grounds for decisions within organizations is
money. If work collective makes a pressure on a manager and this pressure exceeds the one
made by shareholders regarding saving financial resources, it is often that a manager obeys
the pressure of employees and a decision is made in favour of them. However, sometimes it is
not right to compare employees and financial resources when taking decisions. It is necessary
to apply “profit and costs analysis” (34 p. 539) and the suggested decision assessment model.
B. C. Jukajeva suggests a wide range of classifications for decisions of management:
1. Cause of origin:
a. Initiative;
Strategic Management
Leonardo da Vinci Programme Project „Development and Approbation of Applied Courses Based on the Transfer of Teaching Innovations in Finance and Management for Further
Education of Entrepreneurs and Specialists in Latvia, Lithuania and Bulgaria
Gundars BērziĦs
b. Instruction.
2. Kind of decision transfer:
a. Oral;
b. Written.
3. Party that makes decision:
a. Individual;
b. Collective, colleagues.
4. Level of innovations (uniqueness):
a. Routine (traditional);
b. Innovative (creative);
5. Availability of information:
a. Circumstances of certainty;
b. Possibility;
c. Circumstances of uncertainty.
6. Methods of taking decisions:
a. Based on figures;
b. Based on experience.
7. Directions of the aim:
a. One aim;
b. Several aims.
8. Based on the nature of decision:
a. Economical;
b. Technical;
c. Social;
d. Organizational.
9. Based on the period of action:
a. Long-term;
b. Operative (36 p. 39).
Strategic Management
Leonardo da Vinci Programme Project „Development and Approbation of Applied Courses Based on the Transfer of Teaching Innovations in Finance and Management for Further
Education of Entrepreneurs and Specialists in Latvia, Lithuania and Bulgaria
Gundars BērziĦs
As it has already shown above, definitions of management decisions considered
decisions from the point of view of problems. In such a case the task of a management
decision is solving a particular problem. In this case decision-taking can be divided into two
stages – “problem identification stage and problem solution stage. In the problem
identification stage, information of the surrounding environment and the internal situation of
the organization is analysed, it is also established whether functioning of an organization is
satisfactory, as well as causes of problem are being identified. Problem solution stage sets in
when alternative solutions of a problem are analysed and one of the solutions is selected and
implemented.” (39 p. 280) Thus, as managers search for solutions, they are clearly instructed
that it is necessary to make a research before implementing the solution.
When elaborating methodology for taking decisions related with the ability of an
organization to adapt to environmental changes, it is important to consider decisions that are
classified based on the method of taking of them. Different authors suggest several
classifications, however “decisions based on figures, decisions based on experience” (36 p.
39) and “programmable and non-programmable decisions” (39 p. 280 – 281) prevail. Peter
Druker divide decisions into four categories: 1. Typical problem; 2. In an enterprise regarded
as unique, however usual as to their essence, 3. Extraordinary situation; 4. New kind of
problem, indeed a unique problem. For all kinds of problems, except indeed unique ones, it is
necessary to find general solutions. However, unique events require different solutions.
Managers won’t be able to establish regularities among extraordinary situations. Good
managers will take their time to establish which one of the four types of problems they have
faced because incorrect determination of a problem may lead to a wrong decision”. (35 p. 9-
11) Although authors provide different classifications, they still have one principle in
common – either problem solutions can or cannot be standardized. In addition to the above
arguments, it is necessary to take into account the increasing impact of the changing external
environment that reduces the possibility to adopt a standard decision since new possibilities
are being created. A great part of everyday solutions at an operative level still can be
regarded as programmable decisions.
Strategic Management
Leonardo da Vinci Programme Project „Development and Approbation of Applied Courses Based on the Transfer of Teaching Innovations in Finance and Management for Further
Education of Entrepreneurs and Specialists in Latvia, Lithuania and Bulgaria
Gundars BērziĦs
“Programmable decisions – they recur and they are strictly defined. There exist even
ready-made procedures for solving a problem. These problems are structured, they usually
have clear criteria of solutions, the necessary information is at the disposal of the user, it is
easy to calculate alternative solutions and it is very likely that the selected decision would be
a success.
Non-programmable decisions are non-standard decisions, it is difficult to classify
them, there is no certain procedure for solving a problem. Such situation occurs when an
organization has not yet faced such kind of problem and does not know how to react. There
are no solution criteria, and the alternatives are unclear. Moreover, it is not clear whether the
solutions suggested would solve the problem. Usually, when taking non-programmable
decisions, several alternative solutions are elaborated. Often the process of taking non-
programmable decisions involves strategic planning due to the uncertainty, and it is very
difficult to take a decision.” (39 p. 280 – 281) The both above described classifications of
decisions require analysis of alternatives and selection of the most advantageous decision,
however, the main difference between the both kinds of classification is the simplicity of
difficultness to single out alternatives, and calculation of advantage offered by each of them.
“There are two ways how amangers take decisiosn in an organization. The first one is
a rational approach that guides a manager to the aim to be reach by the fecision. In other
sources of literature this method is called synoptical model. The other is restricted rational
approach, revision of perspectives that instruct a manager to the way of taking a decision
under the circumstances of restricted resources and time”. (39 p. 282)
“A rational approach requires systematic analysis of the problem, then a choice must
be made among the suggested solutions, and then it is necessary to implement it according to
a logical sequence of actions, step by step. A rational approach has been elaborated with the
view to guide decision-making process because often managers of organizations do not have
any system instructing them through decision-making process, and they guide themselves
based on an accidental choice. Although the rational model has been developed as “the ideal
model” that is unlikely to be implemented in real, difficult and ever changing life, it would
still help managers to thing in a more rational way when taking decisions. A manager always
Strategic Management
Leonardo da Vinci Programme Project „Development and Approbation of Applied Courses Based on the Transfer of Teaching Innovations in Finance and Management for Further
Education of Entrepreneurs and Specialists in Latvia, Lithuania and Bulgaria
Gundars BērziĦs
has to apply systematic approach procedures as often as possible. If managers have a better
understanding of a rational decision-taking process, then it would help him or her to take a
better decision also when taking one under circumstances of lack of information.” (39 p. 282)
Different sources of literature offer various descriptions of principles of a rational
approach having different versions; though they are rather similar. They have been
summarized in the Image 4.2.
Quality of decision-taking depends of the quality of information required to take the
decision. It can be stated that quality of decision-taking is directly proportional with the real
situation of information development and the specific features of the decision. If one has very
precise information at one’s disposition, the information not being compliant with a particular
decision or being partial, this might, in fact, lead to adoption of a low-quality decision.
Approach No. 1 (39 p.
283 - 285)
Approach No. 2 (35 p.
7-8)
Approach No. 3 (40 p.. 128)
1. To investigate the
surrounding
environment
1. Classification of the
problem
1. What “obligatory” conditions should be
included in the decision?
1.1. What is the most important thing that
one cannot do without?
1.2. What is the maximum sum that we are
ready to spend?
1.3. What is the maximum time within
which we should have return?
1.4. What should be the basic benefits that
we would get?
1.5. What key points should be included
into the alternative selected by me?
2. To define the
problem
2. Defining of the
problem
2. What would you like to obtain?
2.1. What are the expected benefits from
this decision?
2.2. What problems can be solved provided
that these problems are not classified
Strategic Management
Leonardo da Vinci Programme Project „Development and Approbation of Applied Courses Based on the Transfer of Teaching Innovations in Finance and Management for Further
Education of Entrepreneurs and Specialists in Latvia, Lithuania and Bulgaria
Gundars BērziĦs
as “mandatory”?
3. To establish the aim 3. Establishing the way
of solving the
problem
3. What are the side-effects of the decision?
4. To diagnose a
problem
4. Taking of a decision
regarding
circumstances that
would allow
choosing the right
rather than the most
acceptable solution
without observing
“the biding
regulations”
4. What are the alternatives?
5. To elaborate
alternatives
5. Taking of such
decision that would
include activities for
implementing the
decision in real life
6. To assess each of
the alternatives
6. Assessment of
validity and
effectiveness of the
decision taken by
comparing it to a
real course of
events.
7. To select the best of
the alternatives
8. To implement the
selected alternative
Image 4.2. Methods for assessing decisions step by step
Strategic Management
Leonardo da Vinci Programme Project „Development and Approbation of Applied Courses Based on the Transfer of Teaching Innovations in Finance and Management for Further
Education of Entrepreneurs and Specialists in Latvia, Lithuania and Bulgaria
Gundars BērziĦs
As it can be seen in Image 4.2, there are different approaches – beginning with very
formal ones and ending with the one that is better understood by entrepreneurs who apply
brainstorming method within the organization when setting powerful questions on the
problem to be analysed or decision to be made. The range of these questions can be
supplemented, but the most important of the suggested questions are as follows: “What would
be the benefits for the organization from this decision? How the decision falls within the
value system of the organization established in its mission? What are the most substantial
consequences of the expected ones? How would our decision influence stockholders of our
organization (employees, suppliers, transporters, customers, and the society)?” (40 p. 128)
The author particularly emphasized these questions because decision assessment models
suggested by the author further in his work would be based on the modified versions of these
questions. The author agrees with the P. Drunker’s decision assessment method concerning
the real course of events. This method will further be analysed i the section “Decision Audit”.
P. Drunker, in his concept of decision development, places an emphasis on the importance of
conditions. “A step of conditions in decision-making is to be aware of all conditions that the
decision to be taken should comply with. What are the objectives that we want to reach by
means of the decision? What are the main tasks to be implemented? What conditions should
be observed? In the science, these conditions are usually called as boundary conditions. For a
decision to be regarded as effective, it should comply with all boundary conditions.” (35 p.
15) Effectiveness of a decision in this case is being determined based on accomplishment
indices of all decision conditions. A decision is being considered by means of condition
(restriction) indices. Such approach correlates with the decision indices and control
mechanisms described in the balanced index system. However, the main difference is that the
system of balanced indices applies indices directed to the future, whilst P. Drunker offers
decision-restricting indices. “A decision that does not comply with boundary conditions is
worse than an incorrectly defined problem. It is not possible to implement a decision that is
based on correct data and wrong conclusions.” (35 p. 15) Substantial changes of boundary
conditions serve as the grounds for changing aims and strategy of the organization because
Strategic Management
Leonardo da Vinci Programme Project „Development and Approbation of Applied Courses Based on the Transfer of Teaching Innovations in Finance and Management for Further
Education of Entrepreneurs and Specialists in Latvia, Lithuania and Bulgaria
Gundars BērziĦs
implementation of the old strategy under new boundary conditions is ineffective. Boundary
conditions can be used as the basis for developing a map of critical external environment
indices, which would serve as an index system and signal the organization on critical changes
of boundary conditions in the external environment, which means starting developing new
aims and, in the case of need, strategy even in case if the previous strategy term has not yet
been expired or, in some cases, has just began. Such “external environment index maps” can
be an important part of organization strategy and serving as a linking element between the
internal and external environment of the organization, as well as function as a tool for
determining changes and measuring compatibility. By means of an external environment
index map of an organization and by performing constant monitoring, it is possible to
identify, in advance, elements of the environment that are crucial for the organization and to
immediately react on all organization levels by thus ensuring operative adoption to changes
of the external environment. Another positive effect of having developed such a map is
leaving off all insignificant factors and boundary conditions, which would ensure saving of
resources spent on ensuring monitoring of the external environment. By applying certain
methods, two important elements that ensure effectiveness of an organization are obtained,
these elements following from time consumption: less time needed for reaction and saving of
resources in the result of time saving, as well as other costs related to ensuring monitoring of
the external environment.
Boundary conditions are crucial for identification of conflicting decisions. “The most
dangerous decisions are those having mutually conflicting conditions to be met. Such
decisions are usually called a stake. However, their real cause is even smaller than a stake.
This is the hope that two (or more) unrelated conditions can be implemented simultaneously.
In fact, this is the hope that a miracle would occur. But it should be noted that miracles
sometimes occur, however one cannot count on them, and this is sad.” (35 p. 16-17)
One of the most important components of a decision of a manager is a compromise. A
compromise is “a conciliation made by mutual concession” (41 p. 391). Another compromise
practice, which is often applied by organizations, is the so-called compromise deals.
“Compromise deals mean a grounded choice by a person made among different products and
Strategic Management
Leonardo da Vinci Programme Project „Development and Approbation of Applied Courses Based on the Transfer of Teaching Innovations in Finance and Management for Further
Education of Entrepreneurs and Specialists in Latvia, Lithuania and Bulgaria
Gundars BērziĦs
offers. Compromise deals arise from fundamental differences in costs structures, which is
usually manifested by the price”. (42 p. 3) However, from the point of view of decision-
taking, this is a conscious choice of a manager among two or several alternatives. He is trying
to find the solution that would ensure the organization the greatest benefit possible. The main
difference between a compromise in a decision-taking process and a compromise among two
organizations, natural persons or an organization and a natural person is the fact that none of
the alternatives are worsened for the benefit of any other alternative. This condition is one of
the most important for ensuring impartiality of the choice of alternatives. During the
decision-making process, alternatives are elaborated in as objective manner as possible, based
on the available amount of information, and at the stage of confirmation, the alternatives
should be regarded as constant. When one alternative is selected, the weaker ones are set
aside since they did not prove themselves to be strong enough. The strong and weak sides of
such alternatives are not being changed except for cases when additional information of fact
has been revealed. Difficulties when looking for a compromise, are related with two
conditions. The first condition, which includes a subdivision, is the fact that “there exist two
kinds of compromises. The first ones are best characterized by an old saying: half a loaf of
bread is better than no bread. The second ones are best seen in the story about Solomon who
said that “A half of a child is better than no child”. In the first case, the boundary condition is
being observed. If a person is looking for food, a half of a loaf of bread would do to mitigate
hunger since it is still food. However “a half of a child” does not comply with the boundary
condition because such a child cannot live and grow.” (35 p. 18) For an enterprise, when
making a choice among alternatives, it is important to understand that there are situations
when it is better to put up with a lesser benefit and thus ensure changes, for instance, in the
growth of the market share, and there are situation when a “to-be-or-not-to-be” decision has
to be made, for instance, all alternatives that do not ensure sustainable development of an
enterprise but only prolong viability for a certain period of time are put aside. Many Latvian
companies might deal with such a choice in the nearest future. The second conditions is
related with different basis for comparing alternatives included in the alternatives, these bases
being figures, proportions, qualitative indices, trends etc. in case if an organization is willing
Strategic Management
Leonardo da Vinci Programme Project „Development and Approbation of Applied Courses Based on the Transfer of Teaching Innovations in Finance and Management for Further
Education of Entrepreneurs and Specialists in Latvia, Lithuania and Bulgaria
Gundars BērziĦs
to reach different aims simultaneously, whilst each of the aims has another basis. There are
solutions suggested for this problem, them helping to find the right solution. “Balanced
exchange. It enables finding practical solutions even if you have to reach several aims and
compare a range of alternatives. In fact, the approach of a balanced exchange resembles
barter since it makes you calculate benefit of one alternative by transferring it to the units of
measurement of the other”. 43 p. 29-30)
As an organization is looking for a compromise by applying a rational method, it is
substantial to agree on a common understanding of a compromise, details particularly dealing
with strategic issues, as well as formation of a common assessment base for all alternatives.
Otherwise one can spend much time and effort in fruitless discussions and taking a decision
that does not correspond to the situation. Compromises, which an organization applies to its
clients and takes into account when taking decision, are important sources of identifying
possibilities from the point of view of organization strategy. As an organization seeks for
entrepreneurial opportunities, might consider compromises suggested by the field or the
company as conditions that, in fact, are restrictions, and find new development possibilities in
them. This phenomenon in the strategic management of organizations is considered from the
point of view of field restrictions. “A compromise takes place when the field applies
restrictions created by it and following from the practice of it an restrictions applied to its
clients”. (42 p. 3) The system of imposing decision conditions or restrictions in an enterprise
can serve as a considerable obstruction for innovations in an organization because it restricts
the ability of an organization as a system to adapt to changes of the external environment.
This, in fact, means that policy of the organization, internal regulations, rules of procedure,
work practices a.o. hamper operative speed of reaction and diversity of ideas regarding
situation changes within the organization and the external environment thereof. Before an
organization is able to adapt to the organization environment, they have to revise policy and
instruction system of the organization with the view to reduce restriction for managers of all
levels and employees regarding the issue of flexibility of the decision.
Strategic Management
Leonardo da Vinci Programme Project „Development and Approbation of Applied Courses Based on the Transfer of Teaching Innovations in Finance and Management for Further
Education of Entrepreneurs and Specialists in Latvia, Lithuania and Bulgaria
Gundars BērziĦs
4.2.2. Theoretical Substantiation of Strategic Decisions
Admitting the need of strategies in the decision-taking process is the first step of
launching strategic process in an organization. As it will be described further in this work on
decision taking, than launching of strategic planning requires the trust by the organization in
the necessity of the strategy. Moreover, it is necessary to be sure and to understand what is
strategy, strategic action and what is the difference between strategy and simple planning.
The range of strategic questions is usually related with “long-term activities of an
organization; field of activities; advantages over competitors; analysis of the changing
business environment; formation of resources and competences; values and expectations of
stockholders. Consequently, these decisions are: complex as to their nature; made under
unclear circumstances; have an impact on operative decisions; require an integrated approach
(from the internal and external environment) by involving considerable changes”. (24 p. 10)
It is important for managers of the organization to understand what an effective
strategic decision is. “The ability to regularly take fast, broadly supported and high quality
strategic decisions is a counter stone of an effective strategy”. (45 p. 149) Speed in particular
is one of the most important factors in conditions of a rapidly changing environment. Fast
taking of decisions as usually understood taking of operative everyday decisions; however,
the rapidly changing environment of nowadays requires speeding up the process of strategic
decision-taking; moreover, not only in the period of strategy operation, i.e. the process of its
formulation, but also during the course of implementation of strategy by means of passive
correction and control of the course of realization of strategy and monitoring of the reached
steps towards the set aim of the organization.
Scientific literature offers several schemes describing the process of strategic
decision-taking, and all of them are more or less similar. Let as examine in details one of the
processes of decision taking:
1. Determining the mission of organization by including a statement, philosophy and
main aims of existence of the organization;
Strategic Management
Leonardo da Vinci Programme Project „Development and Approbation of Applied Courses Based on the Transfer of Teaching Innovations in Finance and Management for Further
Education of Entrepreneurs and Specialists in Latvia, Lithuania and Bulgaria
Gundars BērziĦs
2. Assessment of the internal environment of the organization by including
assessment of its culture and history, as well as that of formal and informal
organization;
3. Assessment of the external environment by applying PEST analysis;
4. Coordinating external possibilities and threats of the organization with the internal
force and weak dies of with by applying a SWOT analysis;
5. By applying previous analysis, to identify desired options in the frameworks of the
mission of the organization;
6. Selection of long-term strategies and policies among the respective range of
strategies and policies with a view to reach the possibilities chosen by the
organization;
7. Elaboration of short term and medium term strategies and action programmes that
are coordinated with long term strategies and policies;
8. Implementation programmes that are based on budgets and action plans that are
based on particular allocated budget resources and are monitored by means of the
respective management information, planning and control system, bonus system
and sanction system;
9. Tests and Assessment system for monitoring of strategic process and ensuring of
information for the system of further strategic decisions”. (23 p. 248)
Such process of strategic decision-taking does not automatically mean that a company
is able to adapt to the rapidly changing external environment, and it can be regarded as
strategic management. Moreover, “the process can and cannot be formally expressed through
a system of strategic planning”. (23 p. 248) Graphically, the system of taking strategic
decision can be pictured as in the Image 4.3 below.
Tests and assesses the current: • Mission • Aims • Strategies • Policies
Scanning of the external environment
Examination of higher management and the environment
SWOT analysis in the present circumstances
Identification of strategic factors • Opportunities • Threats
Verification and, if necessary, revision of • Mission • Aims
Best alternatives are created, assessed and selected
Elaboration of implementation strategy
Measuring, assessment and control
Strategic Management
Leonardo da Vinci Programme Project „Development and Approbation of Applied Courses Based on the Transfer of Teaching Innovations in Finance and Management for Further
Education of Entrepreneurs and Specialists in Latvia, Lithuania and Bulgaria
Gundars BērziĦs
Image 4.3. Process of strategic decision-making (23 p. 249)
One of the main problems that exist in organizations that use the procedure of
strategic decision-making is related with a comprehensive and regular implementation at all
organizational levels. Periodical implementation of a strategic decision within organization is
association with campaign management campaigns in situations when the organization
requires reorganization.
4.2.1. Understanding of Strategy
Strategic management process of organization has different levels. Levels of
understanding can be classified based on the object, understanding of organization strategy
and understanding of strategy as an object disregarding a particular organization. To be able
to establish a successful strategic management process, it is necessary to achieve an in-depth
understanding of both levels.
4.2.2. Understanding of Strategic Management of an Organization
Each organization has an individual understanding on organization strategy regarding
the vision of future of an organization as a system. Future vision of an organization is shown
by its aims and decisions. Having surveyed representatives of organizations, it can be
concluded that opinion of managers and employees of organizations considerably differ
regarding the fact whether the organization has or has no strategic development. The main
reason that followed from the survey was that the words of managers did not match their
Scanning of the internal environment
Identification of strategic factors • Strong sides • Weak sides
Strategic Management
Leonardo da Vinci Programme Project „Development and Approbation of Applied Courses Based on the Transfer of Teaching Innovations in Finance and Management for Further
Education of Entrepreneurs and Specialists in Latvia, Lithuania and Bulgaria
Gundars BērziĦs
activities. Such situation is better noticed by employees of the organization. Organization cab
be classified into four categories based on their attitude towards strategic decisions.
1. Strategic organizations are organizations, formation and implementation of strategy of
which and taking everyday decisions at all levels is related with the strategy of the
organization;
2. Strategy-oriented organizations are organizations that have elaborated their strategies,
plans and programmes for implementation thereof, allocated budget resources for
implementation of the strategy; however, implementation of the strategy is the priority
only of the higher and medium management. Everyday decisions are not always
coordinated with the strategy. Personnel of the organization are being informed on the
strategy in the form of campaigns and in accordance with the terms of the strategy.
3. Planning organizations are organizations that develop a strategy; however
implementation thereof is the priority only of the higher management. Other levels of
the organization are informed in the form of campaigns. Strategic decisions are
adopted only at a higher level. At other management level, plans are implemented. If
there is no plan related with the decision to be taken, then the decision is adopted
without any coordination thereof with the strategy.
4. Adaptive organizations are organizations that do not elaborate any strategy, decisions
are made in accordance with the requirements of the internal and external
environment and understanding of managers of each organizational level regarding
the best possible solution in a particular situation.
Behaviour of each of the above mentioned types of organizations can be characterized bas on
two main criteria: periodicity and the number of organizations taking part in development of
strategic decisions and organizational levels involved in the process of decisions-making, the
decisions being based on a strategy: Management Medium level
management
Lower level
management
Employees
Strategic organization Initiates and supports
elaboration and
implementation of strategy.
Periodicity: constantly
Takes part in elaboration,
implementation and
improvement of strategy on
regular basis
Periodicity: constantly
Takes part in elaboration,
implementation and
improvement of strategy
Periodicity: on regular basis
Partially take part in
elaboration of strategy,
participate in implementation
of it, are facilitated to get
involved in improvement of
Strategic Management
Leonardo da Vinci Programme Project „Development and Approbation of Applied Courses Based on the Transfer of Teaching Innovations in Finance and Management for Further
Education of Entrepreneurs and Specialists in Latvia, Lithuania and Bulgaria
Gundars BērziĦs
strategy
Periodicity: on regular basis
Strategy-oriented
organization
Initiates and supports
development and
implementation of strategy
Periodicity: constantly
Participates in elaboration,
implementation and
improvement of strategy.
Periodicity: constantly
Takes part in elaboration and
improvement of strategy.
Periodicity: occasionally, in
the form of campaigns
Do not participate in
elaboration and improvement
of strategy. Participate in
implementation of strategy.
Periodicity: in the form of
campaigns
Planning organization Initiates and supports
development and
implementation of strategy.
Periodicity: on regular basis
Partially participates in
elaboration of strategy. Uses
budget and plans for
implementation of the
strategy.
Periodicity: in the form of
campaigns, constant planning
process
Participates in
implementation of strategy.
Periodicity: in the form of
campaigns
Implement plans of the
management
Adaptive organization Strategy is not elaborated,
operative plans are
developed.
Implementation of plans,
solving of everyday
problems.
Operative actions according
to what is needed
Fulfilling work tasks.
Analysis of adopting of strategic decisions by an organization gives us an insight into
the attitude of the organization towards the strategy and thus its attitude towards development
prospects of the organization and the amount of risk related with the organization.
Having summarized all above mentioned challenges of strategic decisions, we will see
how necessary a complex approach towards making strategic decisions is. “Definition of
strategy includes assessing design, formation of an intuitive vision and expected training; it is
related with transformation and a process in a long term, and it should also include a prior
analysis and subsequently elaborated programmes, a well as continuous discussions, and it
should also comply with the increasing requirements of the environment of the organization.
Try to omit one of these elements, and you’d see what happens!” (21 p. 28)
4.2.3. Necessity Approach
When executing analysis for determining the dominant aspects in the organization
working in creative industry, it is possible to determine the level of understanding by the
organization of the strategy. This attitude can be changed based on another understanding of
the strategic management process by the organization. This attitude is based on the necessity
approach. The necessity approach, however, is based on a supposition that an organization
Strategic Management
Leonardo da Vinci Programme Project „Development and Approbation of Applied Courses Based on the Transfer of Teaching Innovations in Finance and Management for Further
Education of Entrepreneurs and Specialists in Latvia, Lithuania and Bulgaria
Gundars BērziĦs
would cease developing in a long period of time provided that the structure or an element of
the organization has not proved to be necessary for existence. At the organizational level,
such a situation is manifested in the fact that an organization loses its position in the market
and has to go bankrupt or cease its activities because products or services of it are no more
necessary. It is possible to single out several levels of necessity by classifying them based on
the environment it pertains to:
1. Internal environment:
a. Individual necessity – employee, position
b. Structural necessity – organizational structure, levels
c. Necessity for processes – a particular process, procedure, norms within an
organization
d. Necessity for products, services – a particular product, service or groups
thereof
e. Necessity of resources – which resources are indeed indispensible, which
are not and do not form a sufficient added value.
2. External environment:
a. Necessity of a client – whether a particular is indeed necessary?
b. Necessity of suppliers – what suppliers are indeed necessary for successful
functioning of the organization?
c. Necessity of competitors – whether it is necessary for the organization to
compete with the particular organization?
d. Necessity of other stakeholders – opinions and activity conditions of what
stakeholders should be taken into account and used in coordination of
objectives of the organization?
Such approach is broadly used in management methods that contribute into
discussions about the environment of the organization, it is easy to understand and use for
situation analysis.
By applying this approach, each element of a system should continuously prove the
necessity of its existence for the organization and its stakeholders, whilst the system in
Strategic Management
Leonardo da Vinci Programme Project „Development and Approbation of Applied Courses Based on the Transfer of Teaching Innovations in Finance and Management for Further
Education of Entrepreneurs and Specialists in Latvia, Lithuania and Bulgaria
Gundars BērziĦs
general should prove necessity of each element of it. Strategic management of an
organization is shown in maintenance of necessities monitoring, conditions for system
functioning and principles, which in general can be called as necessity management process.
This concept places an emphasis on self-regulatory approach. The concept of added value is
based on coordinated activities of the system when each of the elements of the system
contributes into the system at the same level that is necessary; otherwise resources are
overrun. The theory of added value is rather statistical and does not provide for any
dynamism in the system. However, the concept of necessity provides for introducing a chaos
element in the system. If system behaviour is determined under chaos conditions, our main
strategic task is to create a self-regulating system that would be able to adapt itself to
environment conditions. According to this concept, a system is able to adapt to the
environment and function in highly determined conditions. Problem of the concept is related
with flexibility of the system and consumption of resources. A classical approach to ensuring
flexibility is maintenance of extra resources in the case if demand changes or if it is necessary
to change products or services. Flexibility costs a lot for an organization. In the result of it,
flexibility level within an organization usually is a compromise between the level of
flexibility and costs for maintenance of extra resources, extra services and use of services
related with the organization. However, flexibility is indispensible for an organization to be
able to adapt to environmental changes. However, this issue can be approach from another
viewpoint by defining that each element of the system shows its necessity for the system in
general, whilst the system proves its necessity in the element of it, and thus it would find, by
way of self-regulation, the best and most appropriate regime of functioning in a particular
situation. SBU and ABC concepts, in fact, have applied this approach when these were
elaborated; however, it is possible to define that the task of each individual element of the
system is to prove its necessity to the system in general and each its element. This can be
reached by ensuring that each element of the system constantly improves its field of action
and thus forms the necessity for improvement in other elements of the system. The aim is to
ensure efficiency of a self-regulating system by preserving flexibility elements within the
system. The difference between the Japanese Kaizen that brings forward the concept of
Strategic Management
Leonardo da Vinci Programme Project „Development and Approbation of Applied Courses Based on the Transfer of Teaching Innovations in Finance and Management for Further
Education of Entrepreneurs and Specialists in Latvia, Lithuania and Bulgaria
Gundars BērziĦs
constant development lies in improvement motivation. It is possible to say that each element
of a system perfects itself with a view to prove its necessity rather than to develop and
broaden. Development, in fact, is just a result of the improvement process. Such change of
motivation is an important condition for forming of organizational culture. Organizations
define development as their objective and require improvement from its employees, and they
often face resistance to changes. In the basis of such resistance, lies a natural indisposition of
employees to conform to changes because this requires extra intellectual, mental and often
physical effort. Such a situation leads to spending of resources by the management into
proving the necessity of improvement by thus creating additional stimulus and motivators
that would ensure involvement of employees into self-perfection. The concept of necessity
also deals with this issue from another side by creating conditions in functioning of an
organization, and it follows there of that employees themselves should prove that they are
needed by the organization. In practical entrepreneurship, we can observe this approach in
organization where carried development of employees serves as the main stimulus.
Employees lot upon better future prospects to climb hierarchy of the organization, they are
ready to undertake different challenge because otherwise their carrier in a particular
organization would case developing. By improving knowledge and skills, they indirectly
show the organization needs him or her. Such approach is applied by Proctor & Gamble.
Employees are given the possibility to make a career only if he is ready to occupy positions
and work with different product categories and often in different states with a view to gain
the necessary experience in functioning of an international organization. However, the
majority of organizations having restricted career possibilities, try to elaborate different
motivation schemes to facilitate self-improvement. Proving of necessity does not mean that
elements of a system should compete with one another. Here, it is possible to make
conclusions that are stated in the book “Blue Ocean Strategy”, namely, “In the blue ocean,
competition should not be taken into account because rules of the game are waiting to be
introduced”. (50 p. 5) Such an approach should also be applied to introduce the culture of
need for employees of an organization. From the strategic point of view of an organization,
application of the Pareto principle in determining strategic and individual necessities and
Strategic Management
Leonardo da Vinci Programme Project „Development and Approbation of Applied Courses Based on the Transfer of Teaching Innovations in Finance and Management for Further
Education of Entrepreneurs and Specialists in Latvia, Lithuania and Bulgaria
Gundars BērziĦs
decision-taking process is of great use, although this entity is difficult to be measured. Still, it
is important to apply it as a principle. “Effective functioning of Pareto is reached if it is not
possible to reached a better result by worsening the situation for any party”. (23 p. 184)
Understanding of this principle is substantial for each employee of an organization, and it
should be applied to each employee of the organization and used in the frameworks of
strategic management of the organization when developing culture of the organization.
Importance of this principle lies in the fact that it is typical for a person to prove his or her
necessity by creating systemic procedures dependant on him or her, obtaining control over
and access to information rather than by creating an added value for the organization and
improving himself or herself. Everyone knows a saying that “each bureaucratic system would
become even more bureaucratic in the long run”, because it creates elements of its
maintenance and spreading by using the authority conferred to it and trying to broaden the
latter by thus creating an illusory feeling of control and security. This feeling of control and
security is the most dangerous phenomenon for an organization that is willing to become able
to adapt to rapidly changing conditions of the environment. However, it should be
emphasized that the willing of employees to create a safe and stable system is natural and it
follows, for instance, from the hierarchy of needs by Maslov, and it is one of the basic
elements of motivation of a person. Consequently, the main task of managers of
organizations who want to manage the organization by applying the necessity approach is to
create and maintain elements and restrictions of system improvement that would altogether
create an environment wherein employees and clients would be able to prove their necessity
for the organization and would not, at the same time, worsen the situation of other
stakeholders. These individual features and understanding of cultural element of an
organization might considerably improve understanding of managers and employees of the
principles of functioning of an organization. When elaborating organizational strategy and
managing its implementation, managers should constantly make sure that each element of the
system proves its necessity on the one hand and would not cause excessive use of resources
to any structural unit on the other hand; in other words – it is necessary to ensure necessity
though efficiency. A similar approach was applied in the so-called “Force Field Theory”
Strategic Management
Leonardo da Vinci Programme Project „Development and Approbation of Applied Courses Based on the Transfer of Teaching Innovations in Finance and Management for Further
Education of Entrepreneurs and Specialists in Latvia, Lithuania and Bulgaria
Gundars BērziĦs
elaborated by Kurt Levin. This theory is based on the thesis that human behaviour is a
function of a person and the environment: B=f(P,E) (51). Based on this function, a method
for analysing situations and challenges from the point of view of forces that facilitate or raise
obstacles for changes by evaluating each force in the scale from 1 (weak) to 5 (strong) has
been developed (52). Such self-regulating approach has a risk factor, namely, non-systematic
functioning of elements of the system and loss of a common aim provided that each element
of a system is trying to be independent and not to be subject to a common management of the
organization. It is possible to apply the principle of correspondence to assess necessity.
Conformity means conformity of functioning of an organization with the strategy and
environment of the organization. The second complex criterion is financial benefits. To
assess financial benefits, it is possible to apply the following elements: profit, value of an
organization, credit standing. If any of the indices has increased whilst the others have not
substantially deteriorated, it is possible to conclude that an organization has obtained a
financial benefit.
4.2.4. Model of Counterforce
It is important for managers of organization to understand what ensures successful
and sustainable functioning of an organization. Strategic management is one of the methods
to form a successful future for an organization; it is necessary to understand, however, what
the driving force of such development is and what obstructs the organisation to get improved.
By applying this method of analysis, the organization is able to assess its development
possibilities and forces that would obstruct development thereof.
Counteraction force, restrictive force, target and idea force, organizational (internal
resources) force. Interaction of these four forces determines the ability of the organization to
reach its aims set.
Counteraction force can be characterized as all possible activities that are
deliberately or unawares performed by internal or external stakeholders when reaching their
individual aims and that directly or indirectly obstruct further implementation of
organization’s strategy.
Strategic Management
Leonardo da Vinci Programme Project „Development and Approbation of Applied Courses Based on the Transfer of Teaching Innovations in Finance and Management for Further
Education of Entrepreneurs and Specialists in Latvia, Lithuania and Bulgaria
Gundars BērziĦs
Restrictive force can be characterized as a complex of external political, legal,
economical or business restrictions that determine external restrictions of activities by the
organization, as well as internal regulations and policies of the organization. External
restrictions of an organization might have a formal and informal character. Formal external
restriction to activities of an organization might be determined by different regulating acts,
laws, taxes and agreements. Informal restrictions are such restrictions that are established by
the norms, customs and specific cultural features of a particular state, society organization.
Target and idea force can be characterized as force that creates idea value for a
client and that would attract and hold a client to the organization. Quality of aims is related
with the fact how well employees of the organization have understood them and how well
they describe the idea forming the value. Consequently, each idea can be assessed based on
two criteria. 1. Added values created for clients by an idea and 2. Clarity and deepness of
aims and objectives describing the idea. Strategically operational management concepts
provide that strategic aims and objectives of an organization should have clearly visible
conditions at the operative level. However, operative solutions should have a visible ling with
strategic aims and creating value to clients in accordance with the strategy.
The Force of internal resources and abilities of an organization are related with
the capability of an organization and its body of resources that ensure a sustainable and
constant formation of value and profit for an organization. Abilities of an organization
include ability of mangers of each level to fulfil managerial functions by also ensuring
implementation of strategy and gaining expected return on investments. It is possible to apply
return indices and resources dynamics indices as criteria for assessing abilities of the
organization or its management. This approach is schematically showed in Image 4.4.
Strategic Management
Leonardo da Vinci Programme Project „Development and Approbation of Applied Courses Based on the Transfer of Teaching Innovations in Finance and Management for Further
Education of Entrepreneurs and Specialists in Latvia, Lithuania and Bulgaria
Gundars BērziĦs
Image 4.4. Scheme of aim force and restrictions
This approach can be used by facilitating assessment of strategic alternatives. In the
process of assessment of strategic alternatives, several aims of ides to be implemented are
developed (depending on the stage of alternativity) , each aim/idea is determined with
the level of opposition/support by stakeholders in the scale from +3 to -3, whilst each
external and internal restriction is established with the force of restriction influence. In both
cases, opinion of experts of strategy developers is taken into consideration. Then each
aim/idea is determined the planned amount of the necessary resource and its availability
is assessed. Availability of necessary capabilities is determined in the same way . Then
availability of resources and capabilities is assessed based on an expert examination scale
(from +3 to -3). After assessment of aims/ideas, an organization is able to take a more
Objectives
ideas,
force
Objectives
ideas,
force
Resources,
abilities,
force
Resourc
es,
abilities,
External
itnernal
stakeholders
External
itnernal
restrictions
Aims to be
reached
Strategic Management
Leonardo da Vinci Programme Project „Development and Approbation of Applied Courses Based on the Transfer of Teaching Innovations in Finance and Management for Further
Education of Entrepreneurs and Specialists in Latvia, Lithuania and Bulgaria
Gundars BērziĦs
equitable decision regarding possible alternatives of strategic action. Information summarized
by the organization is showed in Image No. 4.5.
Aims, ideas Opposition
and support
of external
and internal
stakeholders
(from +3 to -
3)
External and
internal
restrictions
(from 0 to -3)
Resources Availability of
resources
Abilities Availability of
abilities
Strategic
action
x y z
x y z
x y z
Image 4.5. Assessment table of aims/ideas of strategic alternatives
The main advantage of this method is realistic view on internal and external
assessment of organization’s environment during the strategy development process. This
allows avoiding ungrounded hopes to the most advantageous solution of external
environment if compared to what is possible, which would then lead to looking for guilty
persons outside organization, like, the state, legislation, global crisis etc.
Elements of Strategic Management Process
As an organization reaches a common concept of strategy, the next step of strategic
management is development of such strategy. In the initial stage of strategy development, it is
possible to apply methods described in changes management theory regarding initiation of
changes in organizations. One of the main tasks of strategic management is introduction of
positive changes in an organization during implementation of strategy. Consequently,
changes cannot be avoided and are even indispensible. Rapidly changing environment is
Strategic Management
Leonardo da Vinci Programme Project „Development and Approbation of Applied Courses Based on the Transfer of Teaching Innovations in Finance and Management for Further
Education of Entrepreneurs and Specialists in Latvia, Lithuania and Bulgaria
Gundars BērziĦs
particularly demanding towards the ability of an organization to adapt to environmental
changes.
4.2.5. Initiators of Strategy and Their Motivation
The initial stage of developing a strategy is always related with motivation for
elaborating a strategy and its initiator. Initiators of strategy can be classified into three
categories: formal, informal and indirect initiators.
1. Formal initiators of strategy are supreme management and shareholders of an
organization. Their formal status depends on legal status and hierarchical structure of
the organization.
2. Informal initiators of strategy are stakeholders of organization having a direct impact
on the work of the organization whilst they do not have the right to initiate such
process;
3. Indirect initiators are those stakeholders of an organization that cannot directly
influence functioning of an organization, but are able to incite the need for the
organization to change its strategy.
Formal initiators Motivations and stimuli for initiating strategy changes
Shareholders / council 1. It is necessary to have a clear vision of the future of the
organization
2. Bad results of organization performance
Board / Management 1. It is necessary to have a clear vision of the future of the
organization
1. Bad results of organization performance
2. End of term of the previous strategy
3. Changes in the internal and external environment of the
organization
4. Legalization of policy of organization management
Informal initiators
Medium level
management
1. Dissatisfaction with organization management
2. Obtaining of a more beneficial situation
Strategic Management
Leonardo da Vinci Programme Project „Development and Approbation of Applied Courses Based on the Transfer of Teaching Innovations in Finance and Management for Further
Education of Entrepreneurs and Specialists in Latvia, Lithuania and Bulgaria
Gundars BērziĦs
Labour unions 1. Beneficial circumstances for employees
Clients 1. Dissatisfaction with the product / service
2. Increase / reduction of demand
3. Consolidation of clients, vertical and horizontal integration
4. Necessity to reduce an enterprise
5. Changes in clients’ strategies
6. Demand of new technologies and innovations
7. Emergence of new clients and target groups
8. Fashion trends
9. Changes in habits, paradigms and cultures
10. Demographical changes
Suppliers 1. Dissatisfaction with collaboration
2. Consolidation of suppliers, vertical and horizontal integration
3. Change of an owner
4. Changes of supply and demand
11. Necessity to reduce an enterprise
5. Change in suppliers’ strategies
6. Offer of new technologies and innovations
Organizations R&D 1. Emergence of new technologies
2. Elaboration of innovations
Non-governmental
organizations
1. Requirements of ecology
2. Ethical criteria for organization functioning
Indirect initiators
Competitors 1. Changes in the competitors’ strategies
2. Counterclaim measures of competitors that were not foreseen in the
strategy
3. Market development trends
4. Emergence of international competitors, trends of globalization
Government 1. Changes in the State policy
2. Tax changes
3. Political stability
Strategic Management
Leonardo da Vinci Programme Project „Development and Approbation of Applied Courses Based on the Transfer of Teaching Innovations in Finance and Management for Further
Education of Entrepreneurs and Specialists in Latvia, Lithuania and Bulgaria
Gundars BērziĦs
Local governments 1. Changes in regional policies
2. Changes in local government development strategy
Image 4.6. Initiators of strategies and the field of influence
By applying this approach, an organization can assess the level of necessity of
strategic changes directly with the stakeholders. Organizations should use this assessment
approach with a view to find or whether there is enough motivation to launch another
strategic cycle and whether all conditions are present. Such analysis should be made before
each strategic period disregarding whether it is the end of a planning period or there is an
objective necessity to change strategy before the expiry of the term.
4.2.5. Team for Elaboration of strategy
When forming a team to elaborate strategy, first it is necessary to realize the necessity
of introducing a strategy by ensuring that each member of the team is aware of urgency and
importance of each question. An organization can find motivation that conforms to the
strategy and substantiate necessity and urgency of a new strategy. Only after the formal
initiator of strategy has elaborated and achieved a common understanding by the strategy
development team of the necessity and urgency of strategy, it is permitted to inform other
participants of the organization regarding the launching of the strategy development process.
The initiator of strategy development and his or her team is the one responsible for the results
of the strategy, and therefore they are responsible for announcing the strategy launching
procedure before announcing the launch of the process that might lead to dissatisfaction
amount stakeholders of the organization. To substantiate such approach, it is necessary to
mention an expression of a German Minister of Foreign Affairs Joschka Fischer that he
addressed to the international society before the start of the Iraq war: “I cannot persuade the
society on the necessity of war if I personally do not believe in it”. In a similar way, formal
initiators of strategy should analyse one’s trust into the necessity of strategy. If it turns out
that motivation is insufficient or there is not trust into the necessity of it, it is advised not to
launch the process. If the process is launched without having strong confidence in the
necessity of it, it is pretty likely that the process would turn out to be formal and non-
Strategic Management
Leonardo da Vinci Programme Project „Development and Approbation of Applied Courses Based on the Transfer of Teaching Innovations in Finance and Management for Further
Education of Entrepreneurs and Specialists in Latvia, Lithuania and Bulgaria
Gundars BērziĦs
effective, which would lead to overrun of resources. When the issue regarding the necessity
of strategy is clear, it is possible to launch the formal procedure of strategic decision-making.
4.2.6. Elements for Formation of Strategic Management System
Nowadays it is not possible to single out the most correct strategic management
model for organizations that would ensure a long-term success. There exist, however, a body
of strategic management elements that should be used by obtaining a model of strategic
management appropriate for each particular organization, that would ensure a long-term
success for it. There exist groups and sequences of strategic management processes that can
be applied by an organization to form a system of strategic management that would
correspond to its specific features.
Consequently, it is important to decide on the way of choosing the most appropriate
strategic approach. It is necessary not to regard the condition of choosing a strategic approach
as a common body of factors, but it is indispensible to divide and analyse them in several
categories:
1. Conditions of the internal environment;
a. Specific requirements of founders;
b. Specific features of organization management;
c. Conditions of organization culture;
d. Abilities and competencies of organization;
e. Resources of organization.
2. Conditions of the external environment;
a. Conditions of the competition environment;
b. Conditions of the general environment;
c. Specific features of environment dynamics.
When analysing the above mentioned factors, an organization can better select
strategy that is best compliant with the particular organization and specific conditions of its
functioning. When the above mentioned internal and external environmental conditions are
Strategic Management
Leonardo da Vinci Programme Project „Development and Approbation of Applied Courses Based on the Transfer of Teaching Innovations in Finance and Management for Further
Education of Entrepreneurs and Specialists in Latvia, Lithuania and Bulgaria
Gundars BērziĦs
analysed, developers of strategy of an organization create a unique system for developing a
strategy. Organization-specific strategy development and implementation system facilitates
development of a unique strategy that cannot be copied by competitors. Thus organizations
might avoid unconscious copying of the strategy by competitors, which would prevent an
organization to develop an efficient differentiation strategy. In order to make a scheme for a
unique strategy system, the process of strategy development can be divided into two separate
stages by grouping available theories and methods into each stage. Additional benefit from
application of this approach is the understanding of theoretical and practical issues related
with strategic management.
Methodological approach of strategy development is the principle of strategy
elaboration selected by an organization. This principle is used as the basis for introducing
strategic process within an organization;
1. Methodological approach of strategic management is a choice made by the
management of an organization regarding methods that are most appropriate for the
needs and specific features of the organization. This shows the willingness of the
management to introduce strategic management in a particular organization;
2. Administrative approaches of strategic management is a way how an organization can
choose to perform strategy administration and implementation process;
3. Strategy structure elements are those elements that can be included into the strategic
management process; choice of strategic structure elements depends on the methods
of development of a particular strategy;
4. Strategic issue analysis methods are methods that help analysing strategic information
and adopt strategic decisions. The choice thereof depend on strategy methods within
an organization and selected elements of structure;
5. Content elements of a strategy are alternatives available to an organization, possible
choices and practical strategies. The choice of particular strategies depends on the
methodology of strategic management defined by the organization, its content and
information obtained in the result of analysis.
Strategic Management
Leonardo da Vinci Programme Project „Development and Approbation of Applied Courses Based on the Transfer of Teaching Innovations in Finance and Management for Further
Education of Entrepreneurs and Specialists in Latvia, Lithuania and Bulgaria
Gundars BērziĦs
Such approach would permit managers of organization, when launching the process of
strategic management, to select the most appropriate approaches, elements, methods and
content. The difficulty of making such choice lies in the fact that in each of these segments a
number of different methods, theories and concepts are available, them often being mutually
contradictory because their authors have developed them in a complex way, staring from
methodology and ending with practical content elements.
Strategic Management
Leonardo da Vinci Programme Project „Development and Approbation of Applied Courses Based on the Transfer of Teaching Innovations in Finance and Management for Further
Education of Entrepreneurs and Specialists in Latvia, Lithuania and Bulgaria
Gundars BērziĦs
Methodological
approaches for
strategy development
Administrative approaches of
strategic management
Structural elements of strategy Methods of analysis of strategic
issues
Strategy content elements
• Strategic
decision-making
• Strategic
planning
• Strategic
management
• Strategic
leadership
• Initiative of the strategy
initiator regarding strategy
development
• Organization of a team for
elaboration of strategy
• Instructing of management
• General management
personnel meeting
• Strategy assessment meeting
• Plan revision 1
• Strategy revision meeting
• Strategy assessment meeting
• Plan revision 2.
• Strategy revision meeting 2
• Repeated submission of plan
• Submission of a plan to the
board of directors
• Strategy motivation and
substantiation of necessity
• Mission
• Vision / strategic aim
• Policy of organization
• Structure of organization
• Main aims
• Objectives
• System of execution
criteria
• Basic values
• Reasons for existence
• Competition advantage
• Critical success factors
• Organization business
model
• Organization culture
• Basic competencies
• Strategy selection
(alternatives)
• Planning of scenarios
• Corporate strategy
• SBV strategies
• Business level strategy
• Functional strategy
• Change management
strategy
• Re-engineering
• Implementation strategy
• Programmes
• Projects
• Model of five forces
• 7s framework model
• BCG matrix
• Benchmarking
• Cause-effect diagrams
• Idea cards
• Financial analysis methods
• Expected profit analysis
• Analysis of possibilities
• Analysis of stakeholders
• Real opportunities (RO)
analysis
• Costs – expenditures analysis
• Analysis of competitors
• Balanced indices system
• Targeted changes model
• Target analysis
• Motivation analysis
• Basic competence analysis
model
• Basic quadrant model
• Selling funnel analysis
• Change quadrant analysis
• PEST
• PESTEL
• Priority matrix
• Risk analysis
• Coherence analysis
• Synergy analysis
• Force field analysis
• Strategic layout analysis
• Strategic cards
• Strategic decision tree analysis
• SWOT analysis
• TOWS matrix
• Value chain analysis
• Development strategy
• Diversification strategy
• Integration strategy
• Reduction strategy
• General strategies
• Low price leader
• Differentiation
• Focus
• Strategic position
• Strategic clients
• Strategic segments
• Strategic groups
• Vertical integration
• Horizontal integration
Image 4.7. Elements of strategic management
Strategic Management
This method shows organizations the way how it is possible to easily reach the most
appropriate strategic management model and to implement it. In fact, such approach can
be implemented by summoning a one-day management seminar in accordance with the
organization management hierarchy and, by using Image 4.7, to subsequently form a
strategic management model of the organization by applying the brainstorming method.
Such approach would ensure involvement of the appropriate managerial levels into the
management process and would clearly show the mechanism of its implementation.
Questions for discussion:
1. What are the main elements of strategic necessity approach?
2. What forces are taken into account in the model of counterforce and how these
can influence strategy of an organization?
3. What are the elements of strategy management system?
Strategic Management
89
5. Strategic operational management model
Introductory questions:
1. How would you start the elaboration of a strategic plan in a creative organisation?
Please identify the first 5 steps!
2. Why does nowadays the strategic and operational planning come closer to each
other?
3. What are the key success factors for a successful implementation of a strategy?
Due to the rapid changes in the environment of a company it is possible to change
also the strategic management approach that would enable introducing an approach in the
management of a company focussing on getting over changes and uncertainty. It can be said
that the companies may no longer rely on a 5-year strategy without introducing updates and
changes within the period. Traditionally strategy monitoring approach is being used, updating
the strategy and the set objectives to correspond with the changes in the internal and outer
environment of the company. It is being offered to develop this approach further, extending it
till the operational management level. This approach may be especially used by the
intellectual companies, where there is a highly qualified labour force. The strategic
operational management approach is based on a dynamic approach of the strategic
management process that prevents incompatibilities between the static strategy to the next
period and changes in the environment within this period. Aim of the company may be
considered the improvement thereof, which happens in line with the improvement of
activities and processes in the company. Strategy is one of the processes in organisation, a
plan that is subject to the improvement process, strategic management and implementation
process is also improving affecting the strategy itself. The strategy is elaborated and
implemented by respective persons of the company, thus the strategic management and
improvement process is realized in line with the organisational structure and is not
implemented separately by particular structural units. Let us look at the future of an
organisation not like a determined, static situation, which is the usual case in strategic plans
and which are modified with alternative scenarios, but still are static and uncertain. The
uncertainty approach allows the company to look at its future including all possible scenarios
in its development and meets the chosen development direction. The development directions
Strategic Management
90
are taken from the traditional corporative strategies by M. Porter: development, integration,
diversification, reduction. Such an approach may be used, but in these uncertain conditions
allow a faster change from one corporative level strategy to another. For example,
organisations that managed to switch from a development strategy to the integration strategy
at the beginning of the economic downturn are now in a better position than the companies,
the management model of which was adapted to the development strategy. Using such an
approach the key task of the upper management level of a company is to create development
possibilities on a regular basis for the middle and lower level managers. The development
possibilities are optional, but independent business models. These can be regarded as a kind
of projects that are offered to managers of the middle and lower management level for
approbation and implementation. Such approach enables involvement of all management
levels in the strategic management of the company and provides permanently a tense and
motivating working environment thus preventing routine due to similar everyday activities.
The issue of motivation is especially important to the creative companies and persons
working in the creative industry, where a highly qualified labour force to create motivation
requires interesting, new working conditions and change of activities on a regular base. See
the strategic management model in Figure 5.1.
5.1. Figure. Strategic management Stratēăiskās vadīšanas process Strategic management
Strategic Management
91
Atbilstība Augstākā līmeĦa vadība Organizācijas virziens; iespēju uzvērtēšana Rada jaunas iespējas; organizē realizāciju
Vidējā līmeĦa vadība Identificē iespējas Realizē un koordinē iespēju realizāciju; koriăē ieviešanu
Zemākā līmeĦa vadība Identificē vides izmaiĦas
Compatibility Upper management level Direction of the organisation; assessment of opportunities Creates new opportunities; organises the implementation thereof
Middle management level Identifies opportunities Implements and coordinates implementation of opportunities; corrects the implementation
Lower management level Identifies changes in the environment
The key elements of the strategic operational management, which forms the basis of all
management systems, are the decisions taken in relation to the company management. The
difference between the strategic operational and traditional strategic management is the
linkage of decisions made by all management levels to the operational management of the
company, thus enabling the compatibility thereof to the current circumstances in the internal
and outer environment of the company and the strategy.
Closing questions to the topic:
1. Why is compatibility regarded as the basis of strategic management systems?
2. How important is it to involve lower level managers in the creation of strategic
opportunities? How is it of benefit to the company?
5.1. Problems / opportunities identification approach
Introductory questions:
1. Why do the employees only identify problems, but do not offer any solutions?
2. What methodology shall be used to make the employees change and make them offer
solutions and make decisions according to their skills?
One option, how a manager may provide recommendations to the board of a company, is
to follow the 4 steps:
1. Problem / opportunity
2. Reasons in the internal and external environment of the company
3. Review of alternative options
4. Action
5. Assessment of consequences
6. New opportunities/ problems
Strategic Management
92
5.2. Figure. Problem-opportunities solution model
Introducing such a system in the review of the company issues would improve the
decision-making process and provide time-savings. In the organisation in Latvia it is common
to use in the horizontal and vertical communication only the first level – “we have a
problem”. Such kind of communication of unprepared information within a company proves
that there are unskilled managers and managers unwilling to learn on all management levels.
This results in the operational management being involved in the solution of a problem, while
in fact this means that the higher level management is bothered with other issues and may not
pay their attention to strategic issues. It can thus be concluded that one of the crucial
inefficiency reasons in the companies in Latvia is the fact that the communication level - “we
have a problem” - is being used. In relation to the latter, two types of costs are identified:
1. Costs related to the decision-making
2. Costs related to the implementation of the decision
Nowadays the companies do not calculate the costs related to decision-making and
consider only costs related to the implementation of the decision. This leads to waste of time
in the horizontal communication with colleagues and vertical communication with
supervisors and inferior, or discussing the issue in workshops without prior preparation, with
limited amount of information in hand that may lead to:
1. Making subjective decisions within a group, where there is limited information
available;
2. Inferiors avoiding decision-making and transferring this duty to the workshop, a
colleague or the supervisor;
3. Worsening of financial situation of the company due to irrational use of working time;
Strategic Management
93
4. Losses due to making subjective decisions that are not related with the company
environment;
5. Losses due to lost opportunities that appear more and more in the changing situation,
when the opportunities appear and get lost again, if these are not taken.
Each such communication should be carefully prepared by the respective person.
Considering the quality of the internal communication within the company and the necessity
to react quickly to the problem within a changing environment, the companies may use 3
optional procedures for the vertical and horizontal communication. Basis for the
differentiation of the internal communication the available information may be used:
1. Procedure of full information communication;
2. Procedure of partial information, procedure based on experience communication;
3. Problem identification procedure.
Procedure of full information communication for the vertical and horizontal
communication involves a description chart of the problem/ opportunity: problem,
environment, options, decisions, actions and possible consequences.
Procedure of partial information involves the problem and at least 3 solution
options. As a result of the communication a decision is made, which is one of the proposed
options, or one of the options is being altered and improved.
Problem identification procedure involves only the identification of the problem
and reporting the fact as such. Such communication may be used only in cases, where the
employee has noticed a problem or an approaching problem, but he/she is not responsible for
the problem, he/she cannot solve the problem due to lacking skills.
Criteria for the application of one of the aforementioned procedures depends on the
company specifics, number of organizational management levels and these should be
identified on individual basis. A document, where a company should describe the application
of each communication option, could be the general guidelines of the company, which is
approved by the decision-making body (the company structure differs in each company). The
following criteria groups result out of the classification of the decision-making:
1. Criteria of amount or significance. If the problem solution relates to an amount of
money according to the company size, the procedure of full information
communication shall be used; in all other cases procedure of partial information and
problem identification procedure may be used. Depending on the amount of money
Strategic Management
94
or the period thereof, within the procedure this approach enables to describe the
criteria related to the implementation of the respective procedure in detail.
2. Level criteria. For strategic decisions procedure of full information communication
shall be used, but for tactic and operational decisions procedure of partial
information may be used. In a way the criteria overlap, but depending on the type of
company the necessity may arise to apply both of the criteria separately.
Introducing both - the problem solution procedure and the calculation of costs in
relation to the decisions - would provide time savings, increase in efficiency and development
of learning culture within a company.
Closing questions of the topic:
1. How many options would you consider to make an efficient decision?
2. In which cases the procedure of full information should be used?
3. How can subjective decision-making be avoided? What is the basis for subjective
decision-making?
5.2. Calculation of costs related to decisions.
Introductory questions:
1. Why is it necessary to calculate costs in relation to decisions and in which cases it is crucial? 2. What is efficiency and how to achieve it in a company?
One of the simple ways to increase efficiency in a company is starting with
calculation of average costs per hour within each management level. The issue of calculation
of costs related to decisions was identified from the interviews carried out in the companies.
The interview results showed that organisations do not calculate costs related to decisions.
The administrative expenses are calculated from the moment, when project implementation is
started, but the costs on launching a project are not considered and included in the total
overheads. From the point of the total company expenses it is correct, but this does not show
the full costs of the project. The modern softwares allow calculating the time spent for each
project separately. For large companies, where multi-level decision-making procedures are
Strategic Management
95
introduced, it is recommended to introduce procedures calculating costs related to the
decisions. The most difficult in this procedure is the moment, where the starting point of the
costs related to decisions is determined. Often the costs are calculated from the moment,
when a problem/ opportunity is identified and the solution thereof is started (see Fig. 5.2).
The person initiating the problem/ opportunity solution creates a title and code for the
decision in the software, and all other persons use it, indicating it in their time-sheets. The
point, where the calculation of costs related to the problem/ opportunity ends, usually is the
moment, where all stakeholders agree on a solution that is described in paper and transferred
to respective employees and structural units. By using this approach the company would get
the actual administrative costs for their key decisions, which would be the basis to assess the
qualification of employees and optimisation of administrative costs.
Closing questions for discussion:
1. How shall the moment of problem identification be fixed?
2. What costs are considered in the calculation of the total costs related to the
decision?
5.3. Decision audit
Introductory questions:
1. What is the use of assessing decisions of the managers?
2. Which decisions by the managers you would like to audit on a regular basis?
One cannot underestimate the significance of decisions in a modern company. This is
also closely related to the quality of the decision, based on which it is possible to determine
the qualification of the manager and benefit to successful operation of the company. “Quality
of a decision is a set of features, which provide successful implementation of a decision and a
certain effect is being achieved,” (36, p.56). A significant issue in this definition – how to
measure the efficiency of decisions? The issue of efficiency is one of the key competitiveness
elements of companies and efficient decisions are a key aspect in the efficiency of a
company. It can be said that each decision made by all level managers jointly and separately
bring the company closer or move back from the company objectives. “Efficiency of
decisions stresses a mandatory balance between the expected and achieved economic and
social effect with expenses on elaboration and implementation. Observing this criterion is the
Strategic Management
96
key precondition for the survival and growth of companies within market economy,” (36, p.
56). The achieved effect and balance of invested capital is the main principle of efficiency,
which can be related also to decision-making. There are authors, who offer to measure
efficiency of decisions, according to the performance rate of the decisions made:
x100
(p.36, 57)
Such an approach indirectly points to the efficiency of the manager and could be
applied in large companies aiming to measure the balance between the manager and related
structural units and the ability to introduce ideas of the higher management. If this rate in
such systems will turn out to be low, this may point to the fact that the higher level
management is not well informed of the actual situation within the company or in the external
environment, and this can be grouped by reasons of the non-performance of the decisions:
1. Organisation as a system wishes to implement management decisions, but due to
objective reasons this is not possible.
2. Organisation as a system does not implement management decisions:
a. Impossible due to objective internal reasons – no time, financial, human
resources etc.
b. Does not want to implement management decisions – no motivation, no
control mechanisms within the company, no belief in the management.
Strategic Management
97
It should be noted that such situation within a company points out to an unskilled
manager. A decision that is not implemented in time or is delayed is also an indicator that the
company is working of low quality. Such criterion in case of written decisions can be treated
as an auditable performance criterion of the manager and is relatively easy to be checked in
the annual decision audit process. The manager is responsible, according to management
duties, also of the decisions and control of the works performed by his/ her employees. The
implementation of the decisions directly depends on the ability of the manager to organise,
coordinate and motivate the respective persons within the company. Considering the impact
of the changing environment on a modern company, this criterion may be used to audit the
management and their decisions in addition to the external environment impact criteria and
adverse impact by the delayed decisions. In such way a more objective result of the decision
audit is reached.
Closing guestions for discussion:
1. Why do companies not implement decisions of higher level managers?
2. Which company management level is most important for the implementation of the
strategy?
5.4. Versatility of decision results
Introductory questions:
1. Based on what criteria can the qualification of different level managers be evaluated?
2. Which financial ratios best depict the qualification of managers?
3. Which managers within the company implement the strategy?
One of the possible options how to look at the management decisions is the multi-
functionality. This means that the company managers shall be able to look at the problem
from different perspectives and make a versatile decision. Such approach would provide
efficient operation of the company, where with a single decision several results are achieved.
There is an idiom - “To kill two birds with one stone” -, which hides one of the key elements
in efficient operation: with one action several positive results are achieved. If we look at the
global ecosystem, we see that in the nature there is no such action with only one result, on the
contrary – several positive effects. For example, the tree – it is home to birds, insects, a secret
place to hide, it produces oxygen, dung, creates shadow, shelter from the sun, produces fruits
Strategic Management
98
etc. One of criteria to describe an efficient decision is the number of positive effects it
creates. A very practical method, which the manager can use by him /herself, before making a
decision; it can also be used by higher management, carrying out the annual performance
assessment of the managers. Thus it can easily be calculated, how many positive effects the
formal (written) decisions, which are being assessed on random choice, created. Such an
approach would provide an objective assessment of the manager’s work, because the results
would be quantified thus providing an opportunity to compare these, since the results can be
ranged. The annual result, which is quantified, may also be called a “decision feasibility
rate”. At the end of the year the decision feasibility rate may be positive or negative. Criteria
to assess the efficiency of decisions are divided in two main groups, where the impact of the
decision on the following is being assessed:
1. Subject of the decision:
a. Customers, customer groups or a single customer;
b. Organisation;
c. All employees, particular group of employees or a single employee;
d. Cooperation partners, group of partners or a single partner;
e. Community, part of community;
f. Whole ecosystem.
2. Decision functions:
a. Implementation of the strategy;
b. Increase of efficiency;
c. Increase of motivation;
d. Increase of profit.
3. Compatibility:
a. In line with the strategic plan, mission, vision;
b. Not in line with the strategic plan, mission, vision:
i. Positive impact on financial results;
ii. Negative impact on financial results.
The studies carried out so far show that the managers on different management levels
lack time for detailed assessment of their operational decisions, and as a result of that the
number of justifying facts is being decreased. In making a decision, often no more than two
facts are considered. This hypothesis is on one hand based on a principle of planning and
setting goals, where the higher level objectives are turned into lower level objectives – thus it
Strategic Management
99
can be said that the strategic objectives are changed to operational objectives; on the other
hand the implementation of objectives is carried out through everyday activities, taking
operational decisions. While on the strategic level there are 5 – 10 strategic objectives, on the
operational level (top of the objective tree) there may be a far larger number of objectives.
The first task for the company is to develop such operational objectives, which are in line
with the strategy of the company, and the second task is to make such decisions in their
everyday work that these are in line with the strategy of the company, considering that the
number of operational decisions managers make every day is huge. Out of this fact an
assumption is made that in a very changing environment the managers have no time to assess
each of their operational decisions in detail. Managers solve this problem by decreasing the
number of justifying facts that are considered in the decision-making. In making a decision,
often one or two facts are considered, for example, the profit or loss etc. The manager makes
decisions, based on the amount of information and his/ her own priority system. Considering
the changing environment that leads to the necessity to make many decisions within a very
short period, it can be assumed that it is possible to make operational decisions based on two
complex aspects – the compatibility aspect and the financial profitability aspect.
In addition to the model described before, one may also use the decision direction
model. This model is based in a depiction of the objectives, mission, vision and financial
benefits of the company.
Strategic Management
100
Stratēăija
1 2 3
1
2
3
-1-2-3
-1
-2
-3
Atbilst misijai, vīzijai Neatbilst misijai, vīzijai
Negatīvi finanšu rezultāti
Pozitīvi finanšu rezultāti
4.3 Figure. Axles of compatibility and financial results Pozitīvi finanšu rezultāti Neatbilst misijai, vīzijai Atbilst misijai, vīzijai Negatīvi finanšu rezultāti
Positive financial results Not in line with mission, vision In line with mission, vision Negative financial results
The idea of the model is based on several assumptions:
1. The company has an approved sustainable strategic plan, key objectives and priorities;
2. In order the company could adapt to changing outer environment, the managers shall
make decisions, which are not directly described in the strategic plan. This is due to
the necessity to work in circumstances of limited chaos.
a. If the company avoids elaborating a strategic plan, the number of such
decisions increases all the time.
b. If the decision is not in line with the strategic plan, this does not always mean
that it is a wrong decision.
3. The model can be used in two ways:
4. The managers of the company need a simple tool that enables them visually and on a
graph to carry out assessment of everyday decisions, which are made in relation to
Strategic Management
101
tactic and operational issues due to changes in external or internal environment, as
well as due to recommendations by customers or employees.
a. To make a positive decision;
b. To make a negative decision;
c. To postpone decision-making, requiring additional information etc.
5. The higher decision-making bodies of the company or a supervising body need a
simple tool, with the help of which the management work can be assessed with a
simple dimension analysis.
The idea of the assessment of decisions is modelled on two dimensions:
1. On X axle the compatibility with the strategy of the company is depicted;
2. On Y axle the financial benefits are depicted. Where the Manager makes assessment
of the decision before actual decision-making, these can be the potential benefits to
the company; at the end of the year, carrying out the decision audit, the actual
consequences can be assessed.
3. The results are measured from -3 (very low compatibility) till +3 (very compatible) on
each axle, on an interval of “1”, “0” in the middle.
4. The decision to be assessed by an expert (the decision making person may be the
expert him/herself) assessing, how much it complies with the mission, vision, rating
the decision from “-3” till “+3”. Thus the location of the decision is placed on the X
axle.
5. The financial benefit from the decision is assessed by an expert either before actual
decision-making or in the decision audit, assessing the actual impact of the decision
on financial results of the company, where the capital return in relation to each
decision is assessed. The result is placed on Y axle.
6. All decisions can be grouped in 5 categories (see Fig. 5.4):
a. Decision that is completely in line with the strategy of the company; hits the
target and is right in centre in this graph. No marks are placed on the graph; no
deviations from the nature of the strategy – nor in the financial aspects, nor in
the outputs.
Strategic Management
102
b. The subject and nature of the decision is in line with the mission and vision of
the company, but it is not included in the strategy; positive impact on financial
results.
c. The subject and nature of the decision is in line with the mission and vision of
the company, but it is not included in the strategy; negative impact on
financial results;
d. The subject and nature of the decision is not in line with the mission and vision
of the company, but it is not included in the strategy; negative impact on
financial results.
e. The subject and nature of the decision is not in line with the mission and vision
of the company, but it is not included in the strategy; positive impact on
financial results.
5.4. Figure. Assessment of decisions
Considering the double use of this model the conclusions can be classified in 2 groups
according to the period, when assessment of decisions was carried out.
1. Prior to decision-making as a tool to assess decisions;
2. Audit tool of decisions by managers.
Conclusions Action
In line with the Positive: the manager knows the strategy well and The higher level
Strategic Management
103
strategy
knows how to use information and decisions in line
with it.
Negative: In case all decisions made by the manager
are in this area of the graph, there is high probability
that the manager only follows the tasks defined in the
strategy, but does not make innovative and risky
decisions, which threatens the capability of the
company to adapt to changing circumstances.
Problems with motivation may exist in the company.
managers shall pay more
attention to the
motivation and his/ her
ability to risk and think
innovative – training
courses,
In line with mission,
vision, positive
financial results
Positive: the manager understands well and is able to
follow the changes in outer environment, innovative,
creative and cares for the development of the
company; motivated.
Negative: Risks of the decisions shall be assessed;
these can be too high, although there is profit. The
rest of the company probably is not ready for the
challenges due to such decisions.
In line with mission,
vision, negative
financial results
Positive: Manager sought possibilities to improve the
work of the organisation, addressed the challenges in
a creative way. Adverse impact on financial results
shall be assessed – if “-1”, probably other, intangible
benefits were achieved, which will provide results
over a longer term, what are the development
possibilities of this idea. Manager is given the
possibility to learn from own mistakes.
Negative: manager is not capable to assess financial
risks, lacks planning, coordination and organisational
skills, but only in cases, where the overall benefit
from the investment is far too less.
Not in line with
mission, vision,
positive financial
results
Positive: Manager is able to see positive effect on
financial results, even if the decision is not in line
with strategy, mission and vision. From point of view
of the organisation, such challenges shall be taken
and decisions made, because probably the strategy,
If there are much
decisions in this area of
the graph, the company
should consider
elaboration of a new
Strategic Management
104
mission and vision do no more correspond to the
actual situation.
Negative: If such situation arises and each structural
unit makes their own decisions, which are not in line
with the strategy, mission and vision, this may lead to
loss of the overall direction and loss of target
audience.
strategy, updating also
the mission and vision
Not in line with
mission, vision,
negative financial
results
Positive: Opportunity to learn from own mistakes.
Negative: Unskilled manager, lacks loyalty,
neglecting.
Consider changing the
manager.
According to sources, it is recommended to consider the decision functions
corresponding to the management functions:
1. Organizing;
2. Coordinating;
3. Motivating (36, p.14).
It is important that the manager often has to make decisions either to do or not to do
something. “In a random test it was concluded that 25% of all decisions made in the
companies could have not been made at all, because in fact these were not possible to be
implemented,” (36, p.11). Particularly the ability of the manager to assess the situation and
make the right decision in the right moment is seen in the financial results of the company.
Major part of manager decisions are related to assigning the resources (financial or time) in
relation to the implementation of the decision, and this is related also to the time resources of
the manager him/ herself, as well. Often the decision not doing anything provides time
savings to the company. To carry an in-depth analysis of the decision processes by the
management, one shall start with the conscious review of the necessity to do/ not to do
something.
Closing guestions for discussion:
Strategic Management
105
1. How will you choose the manager’s decision that will be assessed according to the
assessment model thereof?
2. Who is able to assess the decisions made by the higher management?
3. What would you, as the managing director of the company do, if decisions made by
your employees have positive effect on financial results, but are not in line with the strategy?
6. Assessment of the efficiency of the strategy
Introductory questions:
• How important is it to know, how efficient is your strategy and what happens,
if it is not controlled?
• Which stakeholder groups are mostly interested in the efficiency of the
strategy and which may be against the assessment of the strategy?
Before assessing the efficiency of the strategy, traditional ways to assess and measure
company performance shall be considered.
The profit and loss account and the balance sheet are the primary assessment tools for
major part of companies. The documents provide an objective description of the overall
situation, the performance of the company in a particular moment, and the historical accounts
and balance sheets show general information of previous performance. The only limitation in
the profit and loss accounts and the balance sheets is the fact that they depict only the
financial performance. It can be argued, of course, that the financial performance is the only
reasonable and justifiable measure, which can be taken seriously, since the survival of the
company is directly related to its financial results. It is often mentioned also that the assets
and liabilities are understandable only then, when they are turned in financial terms, where it
would be hard to make mistakes.
The financial performance unfortunately cannot depict the future success of the
company. The possible success is as good as its strategy. High number of operation
termination even in kind of successful companies and long-term survival is based on a
precise, concrete strategy of an overall situation strategy and the ability to implement it.
There are two goals for the assessment of a strategy:
- Does it happen? Does the company do, what was intended? Are the critical
success factors achieved?
- Does the strategy work? Is it the right choice? Do the strategic objectives
provide expected results? (12, p.188)
Strategic Management
106
In a hypercompetitive environment the companies are currently working in, the
second set of questions from the abovementioned should not be used too often, but
sometimes an answer shall be provided to these questions even, when there is the smallest
evidence. Good managers know, when to step back and disassemble the existing strategy for
the sake of a new one (12, p.188).
Sometime pressure from investors is hard to bear. The announcement on profit causes
the drop of stock prices, the decrease of stock prices may cause excitement among
employees, employees in such state tend to frighten customers away, and the customers will
make their orders elsewhere.
All evidence proves that the companies, which will be able to control the relationship
of all stakeholders efficient, will survive and grow. If the stakeholders are not “surprised”,
they are informed of the key strategic objectives, they are informed of the possible
consequences by the strategy, they will usually support the organisation even if the key
financial indicators will not be very promising.
Before we look at any assessment methods, one should understand, what shall be
assessed. The efficiency of the strategy shall be assessed and this is done, based on particular
or general criteria that are common in the whole company. These criteria were developed by
Robert Kaplan and David Norton, who in their books and magazines offer a very valuable
general, overarching set of criteria (12, p.189).
Kaplan and Norton have developed a system called balanced scorecard. This system
included 4 key areas or perspectives, how one can assess, whether the chosen strategy is
successful:
1. Financial perspective – still a very important aspect, since it is regarded as a
universal, easy to understand and almost with no culture barriers. Traditionally the
finances are assessed by profitability and return on investment. But a growing
tendency is to assess the economic value they add. The shareholder profit is more
important to those companies, which are owned by a large number of shareholders.
2. Customer perspective – includes several options, although each of these is somehow
related to customer satisfaction, which is the basis in order to keep customers and get
part of the market through new customers.
3. Internal environment and processes’ perspective – a set of processes that the
company does internally, i.e. all things, which are done to develop a product, offer
service, transport the good to the market etc. The internal measurements are related to
Strategic Management
107
productivity and efficiency in the respective industry the company is working in. This
related to constant quality improvements and cost reduction.
4. Learning and growth perspective – related to such areas as employee training
courses, i.e., whether in providing information or training courses, the company
performance can be affected (12, p.189).
The aforementioned four perspectives of the balanced scorecard are very valuable,
because:
a) It provides a simple overarching view from the strategic success assessment
(financial, customers, internal environment, growth);
b) Helps to integrate this kind of process thinking – „What could I do and how could
I assess, how efficient have I improved or managed my own company or the
performance of its structural unit, based on these four criteria” (12, p.192).
From the abovementioned assessment criteria, another approach in the elaboration of
the strategy is developed and a strategy objective is created. The steps in elaboration of the
strategy are depicted in Figure 6.1 (12, p.192).
Strategic Management
108
6.1. Figure. Strategy elaboration.
Some arguments, why the balanced scorecard system approach in the elaboration of
the strategy is of risk:
- Few attention is paid to all key future perspectives, which is crucial, when a
viable strategic aim shall be identified;
- It is assumed that the vision and values within the company already exist,
which is not always the case. Moreover – often the stakeholders lack common
approach. Due to this reason, in the first two steps the vision and values are re-
approved, as seen in Figure 13.1;
- No overall transaction with competitors. Few possibilities to forecast the future
markets with existing and new competitors, trying different impact of them
(12, p. 193).
Although on the other hand, as soon as the company has underwent this future
outlook, the balanced scorecard system approach specifies some very pragmatic ways, how to
Strategic Management
109
approach implementation of the strategy. It is valuable, because serious measurements
require a coordination level, communication and agreement.
Closing questions for discussion:
• Which strategic perspectives would you use as priorities to assess the strategic
progress in your company? What does it depend on?
• Develop an assessment plan for the strategy you have elaborated.
7. Strategic control
Introductory questions:
• What is the difference between strategy efficiency assessment and strategic
control? Is it important to use both for achievement of strategic aims of an
activity?
• Provided the strategy is flexible, how to ensure control, if we know that control
parameters are fixed?
Strategic control is a process wherewith an organisation creates control systems and sets
goals to achieve. The aims of strategic control are:
- To provide management with the means which motivate employees to work
for achievement of organisation goals;
- To provide a feedback to show how good the organisation and its employees
work. (5, p. 287).
The main task of control is to motivate employees concentrate on problems an
organisation may encounter in the future, solving thereof shall require creative approach and
employee contribution.
Strategic control systems are formal systems for setting of goals, monitoring,
assessment and provision of feedback; their primary function is to provide management with
the information whether an organisation strategy and structure comply with the strategic aims
attaining indices for. (5, p. 287)
Strategic Management
110
An efficient strategic control system has several features:
- It is sufficiently flexible to enable the company manager to react on
unexpected events;
- It provides accurate information displaying true results of company activity;
- It provides management with timely information;
- It is sufficiently open to perceive and follow events of the external
environment which may have a significant influence on organisation;
- It shall avoid negative reports since there is a possibility that it is designed to
show negative results only;
- Responsibility centres shall be established at the company level.
Responsibility centres are indivisible components of a company responsible for a
certain sphere of company activity; they are assessed and controlled respectively. The
primary management task is to divide organisation according to responsibility centres, which
serve as a virtual company division by certain features or types displayed in Table 7.1.
Type of responsibility
centres
Example of responsible
structure
What is controlled Control instruments
Revenue centre
Commerce division
Branches of activity
Product divisions
Revenue
Purposes of sales
amount
Expenses centre
Functional divisions
Labour and intangible
resource costs
Detailed elaboration of
budget
Accounting of product
costs
Centres of constant Functional divisions
Strategic Management
111
expenses Branches of activity
Total expenses Budget
Profit centres Market or product
division
Profit Profit or loss account
Investment centres
Branches of activity
Return on capital
Full financial reports
ROI – Return on
investment
Return on assets
Table 7.1 Types of responsibility centres.
The set responsibility centres are usually used for management accounting and
accountancy purposes, to classify both expenses and revenues. Often organisational structure
is used as a basis for setting responsibility centres, because it has already been divided into
certain divisions or functions. Also company value chains may be used for setting of
responsibility centres; such chains most accurately display the values in a production
company and may serve as a basis for establishment of control system.
The task of a company management is to create a more efficient strategic control
system, which is based on four stages:
1. Set standards or aims the achievements are assessed against.
2. Create frames of reference or monitoring which show whether the aims are
achieved.
3. Compare the current situation against the set aims.
4. Assess the results and make adjustments if the aim has not been achieved. (5, p.
290).
Either decision may lead to partial changes in the organisation strategy or structure, or
changes in resource investment. Strategic control in an organisation is usually manifested and
shows up at all four strategic management levels, including the individual level (the fourth
level). Each level is linked with diverse control functions.
Strategic Management
112
When establishing the control system the company management must take into
account the least loss principle, namely, when taking a decision to control or not to control
certain parameters, managers concede that certain losses may arise due to inaccuracies of the
least control executed.
Organisations may use quite simple control systems that determine company
production amounts, as well as more complicated control systems that measure and control
organisational behaviour.
There are five types of strategic control systems which an organisation may use to
monitor and control its activities:
- Direct monitoring;
- Financial control;
- Performance control;
- Bureaucratic control;
- Organisational culture (5, p. 292)
Direct monitoring is a type of strategic control whereby the manager performs direct
control, and a formal control system does not exist. Direct monitoring system is
recommendable for carrying out principal changes or solving critical situations within a
company.
Financial control – within this type of control the company strategic management
(owners) set financial goals a company should attain. Such goals are an increase in profit,
cost-efficiency etc. The company attained goals are compared with those of other
organisations using the market value of shares, return on investment, market share and even
the cash flow. Thus a company can assess how well it operates.
Performance control is a control system whereby the managers assess or forecast the
performance of goal parameters for each branch, division or employee and compare the
achievements with the set goals. Very often a company remuneration system is linked to
performance of goals; therefore performance control provides motivation to all-level
managers in an organisation.
One of the drawbacks of the financial accounting control system is use of quantitative
indicators for measurement of company performance results. Financial information is
Strategic Management
113
important; however, to obtain a more complete outline of the company performance results
they should be supplemented with qualitative indicators. Balanced scorecard model is based
on supplement of financial information with performance indicators, which demonstrate how
the organisation achieves the four elements of competitive advantage.
Table 7.2 is an example of balanced scorecard model. This model should be
perceived as the various instruments and indicators on an aircraft control panel. To
successfully pilot an aircraft, a pilot needs to make use of a lot of measurements and
information. If a pilot relied on just one indicator the flight would be a failure. The same
refers to a company management – to successfully run a company, managers shall be able to
monitor performance indicators in many spheres.
Finance
Clients
Critical
success
factors
What to
measure
Purpose How to
measure
Critical
success
factors
What to
measure
Purpose How to
measure
Survival Cash
flow
Positive
cash flow
Every
month
Customer
service
(standard
products)
Cash
flow
Internal environment
Innovations and training
Strategic Management
114
Critical
success
factors
What to
measure
Purpose How to
measure
Critical
success
factors
What to
measure
Purpose How to
measure
Develop
ment of
IT
system:
- function
- costs
Performan
ce for the
invested
funds
LVL
(compared
to
competito
rs)
Best
service
- rapidity
of
reaching
the market
- easiness
of
imitation
Table 7.2 Example of a balanced scorecard model.
High-level researchers suggest considering a company activity from four different
angles:
- Financial perspective - provides a company development and profitability.
- External relations or client perspectives - take care of the value creating
strategy, which makes difference for clients.
- Internal environment - shows the strategic priorities among the various
processes from the point of view how they satisfy the client and owners`
interests.
- Learning and growth or innovation perspective - focuses on company priorities
regarding management of changes, innovations and growth. (5, p. 295)
Bureaucratic control is a type of control which includes development of a system of
comprehensive regulations and procedures to direct company activities and functions, and
activities or the course of activities of individuals. The task of bureaucratic control is not to
set or specify aims, but to standardize way of rendering. The main types of bureaucratic
control are activity budget and standardization.
Strategic Management
115
Organisational or corporate culture is the entirety of norms, standards and values
among employees of an organisation, which affects the course of activity. Control, using the
culture, is powerful, when values are stable for employees and they, without thought, comply
with organisational values. Table 7.3 displays the ways, how organisational culture affects
employees.
Table 7.3 Ways of transmitting culture
Some organisations are characterized by informal employment relationship:
employees wear casual clothing and address each other informally. While other organisations
request a strict dress code and employee communication is performed through formal
channels. Both the organisational structure and the culture change employee behaviour,
therefore concordance is of great importance, thus providing for successful implementation of
strategy. Strategic leaders have a significant impact on organisational culture.
Closing questions for discussion:
Rituals and Signs, symbols Structure of Control system Organizational
Organizational
Strategic Management
116
• Which forms of control would you use in the organisation you analyse and
why these ones?
• Develop a strategic control plan for the organisation you analyse.
8. Pursuit of excellence
Introductory questions:
• Why do organisations keep improving and developing?
• Why do organisations need excellence?
• Who is responsible for excellence in an organisation?
• Name organisations that you consider a standard of excellence. Justify
your choice!
Any process of strategic planning should be based on a progress towards excellence,
as it is among the main driving forces securing a sustainable competitive advantage. One of
the main mistakes of different organisations is that strategy and organisation’s environment
are considered to be static elements, as a result the organisation’s activities are not adjusted to
changes of the external environment, and the organisation gradually loses its position in the
competition fight. The progress towards excellence begins with an assumption that nothing is
good enough and there can always be space for improvement. When organisational culture is
in favour of such an approach, it is inclined towards an uninterrupted improvement of every
organisational system, in a long-term period it ensures the existence and development of an
organisation without regard to any environmental changes.
What is excellence? Two groups of authors, Tom Peters and Robert Waterman in their
book In Search of Excellence (1982), and Walter Goldsmith and David Clutterbuck in their
book The Winning Streak (1997), have identified the condition of excellence in successful
organisations (12, p.199):
Peters and Waterman: 8 principles Goldsmith and Clutterbuck: Ten key
factors for the balance of success
A bias for action - rather perform a real Control versus autonomy - give people
maximum freedom, but not to lose the
Strategic Management
117
activity than a non-stop analysis. advantages of the organisation’s size and its
driving force at the same time.
Staying close to the customer - learn your
customers and cater to their needs.
Long-term strategy versus short-term
urgency - solve tomorrow’s problems today,
thinking strategically means reducing non-
stop fire fighting in a long-term period.
Autonomy and entrepreneurship - create
small operative units and encourage them to
act independently.
Evolutionary versus revolutionary change
- focus on what is not working at the moment
and fix it before looking for new problem
areas.
Productivity through people - every
employee is aware of the importance of their
performance in gaining success.
Pride versus humility - be proud of success,
but always be careful not to become self-
satisfied.
Hands on, value driven - the top
administration is at the very heart of the
organisation and keeps strong faith in it.
Focus versus breadth of vision - stick to the
knitting at all times, but recognise the
moment when changes are needed.
Stick to the knitting - keep running the
business that your organisation does the best.
Values versus rules - values are understood
and they determine the decision-making at all
levels, but still there are rules laying out what
employees should do.
Simple form, lean staff - horizontal
organisation with a simple structure.
Customer care versus customer count -
growing bigger means getting more
customers, balance it with your capacity to
take care of them.
Simultaneous loose-tight properties - make
a true commitment to the key values of the
organisation and in the same time encourage
Challenging versus nurturing people -
define ambitious goals for people, but
support and understand them at the same
Strategic Management
118
differences and diversity of approaches. time.
Leaders versus managers ― they both are
of importance, though in successful
organisations more attention is paid to
leadership than to management.
Gentle versus abrupt succession - smooth
changes in the organisation management;
succession of core values and strategy.
Nowadays the European model for quality improvement or EFQM is used as the basic
model of excellence. The non-profit organisation EFQM (European Foundation for Quality
Management) was established in 1988 by 14 presidents of the most popular European
companies (Bosch, BT, Bull, Ciba-Geigy, Dassault, Electrolux, Fiat, KLM, Nestlé, Olivetti,
Philips, Renault, Sulzer, Volkswagen), and approved by the European Commission.
Assessment of a company by using EFQM, can give the organisation the following:
- Possibility of benchmarking the management efficiency against the best
European companies;
- Possibility to learn from the experience of the most successful European
companies;
- Identification of the strong and weak sides of the company, basing on the
facts;
- Involvement of the staff in performing of the company self-evaluation, thus
motivating them to participate in the achievement of common goals;
- Identification of the “Best practice” within the organisation;
- Evaluation of all the processes/activities that are important for the
organisation;
- Taking into account the conclusions when performing the strategic planning.
Table 8.1. shows a schematic representation of the model.
Strategic Management
3. People
Management
7. People
Satisfaction
2. Strategy &
Planning
6. Customer
Satisfaction 1. Leadership
4. Resources
5. Quality
System and
Processes
8. Impact on
Society
9. Business
Results
Enablers Results
Feedback
(ACT)
Table 8.1. European model for quality improvement or EFQM
The main elements of the model can be divided into two groups, namely, enablers and
results of the organisation activity. In this model, the point of reference is the relative
coefficients (altogether 1000 points), which were allocated to each of organisational elements
included in the model ― 500 points to both enablers and results.
Enablers of the organisation’s activity Results
Leadership (100) - manner of inspiring,
supporting, and encouraging the climate of
excellence in an organisation by the
administration and other leaders.
Customer Satisfaction (200) - evidence
showing the customer perception of
organisation’s products, services, and
customer relationship management.
Strategy & Planning (80) - manner of
defining, implementing and adjusting a
People Satisfaction (90) ― evidence
showing the staff’s perception of their
Stratēăiskā vadīšana
Leonardo da Vinci programas projekts„Development and Approbation of Applied Courses Based on the Transfer of Teaching Innovations in Finance and Management for Further
Education of Entrepreneurs and Specialists in Latvia, Lithuania and Bulgaria
Gundars BērziĦs
121
strategy and turning it into a policy by an
organisation.
organisation.
People Management (90) - manner of
making use of employees’ full potential in
serving customers by an organisation.
Impact on Society (60) - what an
organisation gains in the relationship with the
society. Perception of the organisation’s
performance by the society regarding the
quality of life, environment, and conservation
of global resources.
Resources (90) - manner of making use of
organisation’s resources to support the
strategy.
Business Results (150) - what an
organisation gains in relation to the set goals
and needs of the interested parties.
Processes (140) - performance of all value-
adding processes in an organisation, and
manner of their control and improvement,
thus securing a non-stop development of the
organisation.
In the strategic planning process, which is a part of the strategic management, the
organisation should develop both the internal standards of quality (for evaluating the activity
of different units in the whole period of the strategic plan), and external standards (they
would be compared to those of the particular industry). This kind of approach allows for
planning and regular supervision of the excellence level of the organisation’s performance.
Taking this into account, it can be concluded that the progress towards excellence is a sequel
and part of the strategic management in the process of strategy implementation and
development.
Stratēăiskā vadīšana
Leonardo da Vinci programas projekts„Development and Approbation of Applied Courses Based on the Transfer of Teaching Innovations in Finance and Management for Further
Education of Entrepreneurs and Specialists in Latvia, Lithuania and Bulgaria
Gundars BērziĦs
122
Closing questions for discussion
1. Why organisations use the EFQM model?
2. Imagine: after using the EFQM model in an organisation the results gained
significantly fall behind the expectations; what would you do if you were the manager
of this organisation? Name five consequent activities.
3. What is responsible for success of an organisation? Name and justify at least five
elements, use examples.
Bibliography
1. Gibney, John, Copeland, Stuart, Murie, Alan. Toward a `New' Strategic Leadership of
Place for the Knowledge-based Economy. Downloaded from http://lea.sagepub.com at
Library of Latvia University on February 27, 2010. [Tiešsaiste] 2009 5: 5-23. gada.
http://datubazes.lanet.lv:2554/cgi/reprint/5/1/5.
2. Asgeirsdotter, Berglind. OECD Work on Knowledge and the Knowledge Economy.
[red.] Brian (Editor) Foray, Dominique (Editor) Kahin. Advancing Knowledge and the
Knowledge Economy. bez viet. : MIT Press, 2006, 3.
3. Foray, Dominique. Optimizazing the Use of Knowledge. [red.] Brian, Foray, Dominique
Kahin. Advancing Knowledge and the Knowledge Economy. bez viet. : MIT Press, 2006, 2.
4. Babris, Sandis. Promocijas darbs: Intelektuālo darbinieku vadīšanas metodes. Riga :
Latvijas Universitāte, 2006.
5. New Frontiers of the Reputation–Performance. Donald D. Bergh, David J. Ketchen, Jr.,
Brian K. Boyd, Julianne Bergh. 3, bez viet. : © 2010 Southern Management Association.,
2010. gada, Journal of Management, Sēj. 36. DOI: 10.1177/0149206309355320.
Stratēăiskā vadīšana
Leonardo da Vinci programas projekts„Development and Approbation of Applied Courses Based on the Transfer of Teaching Innovations in Finance and Management for Further
Education of Entrepreneurs and Specialists in Latvia, Lithuania and Bulgaria
Gundars BērziĦs
123
6. Research Methodology in Strategic Management Past Accomplishments and Future
Challenges. David J. Ketchen Jr., Brian K. Boyd, Donald D. Bergh. 4, bez viet. : Sage
Publications, 2008. gada 10, Organizational Research Methods, Sēj. 11.
10.1177/1094428108319843.
7. Noteikumi par intelektuālā darba novērtēšanas un kvalifikācijas kategoriju noteikšanas
pamatmetodiku. www.likumi.lv. [Tiešsaiste] [Citēts: 2010. gada 12. 04.]
http://www.likumi.lv/doc.php?id=40439&from=off.
8. Noteikumi par fiziskā darba novērtēšanas un amatu kvalifikācijas kategoriju noteikšanas
pamatmetodiku no valsts budžeta finansējamo institūciju darbiniekiem. www.likumi.lv.
[Tiešsaiste] [Citēts: 2010. gada 12. 04.]
http://www.likumi.lv/doc.php?mode=DOC&id=77569.
9. OCDE/GD(96)102. OECD.org. OECD.org. [Tiešsaiste] 1996. gada. [Citēts: 2010. gada
03. 04.] http://www.oecd.org/dataoecd/51/8/1913021.pdf.
10. http://www.1000ventures.com. [Tiešsaiste] [Citēts: 2010. gada 08. 03.]
http://www.1000ventures.com/business_guide/crosscuttings/new_economy_transition.html.
11. Senge, Peter M. The Fifth Discipline. London : Random House Business books, 1990.
ISBN 0 7126 5687 1.
12. Morgan, Gareth. Images of Organizations. bez viet. : Saga Publication, 1997. ISBN 0-
7619-0631-2.
13. M.A.Hitt, R.D.Ireland, R.E.Hoskinson. Strategic management: competitiveness and
globalization. USA : South-Western College Publishing, 2001. ISBN: 0-324-01731-6.
14. Schumpeter, Joseph A. The Economics and Sociology of Capitalism. [red.] Richard
Swedberg. Princeton : Princeton University Press, 1991. ISBN 0-691-04253-5.
15. NIedrīte, Vizma. Intelektuālo organizāciju vadīšana mainīgā vidē. Latvijas universitātes
raksti. Vadības zinātne. Rīga : LU Apgāds, 2003, Sēj. 660, lpp. 215-223.
Stratēăiskā vadīšana
Leonardo da Vinci programas projekts„Development and Approbation of Applied Courses Based on the Transfer of Teaching Innovations in Finance and Management for Further
Education of Entrepreneurs and Specialists in Latvia, Lithuania and Bulgaria
Gundars BērziĦs
124
16. Letonika. [Tiešsaiste] [Citēts: 2010. gada 05. 08.]
http://www.letonika.lv/groups/default.aspx?r=1107&q=vad%C4%AB%C5%A1ana&id=2060
762&&g=1.
17. Reconstituting knowledge management. Jean-Baptiste P.L. Faucher, Andre´ M.
Everett and Rob Lawson. 3, bez viet. : Q Emerald Group Publishing Limited, 2008. gada,
JOURNAL OF KNOWLEDGE MANAGEMENT, Sēj. 12. ISSN 1367-3270.
18. Knowledge, management, and knowledge management in business operations. Fei Gao,
Meng Li and Steve Clarke.
19. Grant, Robert M. Contemporary Strategy Anaysis. 5 th. bez viet. : Blackwell Publishing,
2005. lpp. 548.
20. Henry Mintzberg, Joseph Lampel, James Brian Quinn, Sumantra Ghoshal. The
Strategic Process. New Jersey : Pearson Education, 2003. ISBN 0-13-122790-4.
21. R.S.Kaplan, D.P.Norton. Strategy Maps converting intangible assets into tangible
outcomes. Boston : Harvard Business School Publishing Corporation, 2004. ISBN 1-59139-
134-2.
22. F.Channon, Derek. Encyclopedic dictionary of strategic management. Oxford :
Blackwell Publishers Ltd. , 1999. ISBN 0-631-21078-4.
23. G.Johnsen, K.Scholes, R.Whittington. Exploring Corporate Strategy. Essex : Pearson
Education Limited, 2005. ISBN 0-273-68734-4.
24. Survay of Recent Developments in Strategic Management: Implications for Practitioners.
Kukalis, Sal. 1, 2009. gada April, International Journal of Management, Sēj. 26, lpp. 99-106.
ISSN 0813-0183.
25. Warren, Kim. Strategic Management Dynamics. West Sussex : John Wiley&Sons, Ltd,
2008. ISBN 978-0-470-06067-4.
Stratēăiskā vadīšana
Leonardo da Vinci programas projekts„Development and Approbation of Applied Courses Based on the Transfer of Teaching Innovations in Finance and Management for Further
Education of Entrepreneurs and Specialists in Latvia, Lithuania and Bulgaria
Gundars BērziĦs
125
26. Naimi, Michail. Kniga Mirdada. SanktPeterburga : Best, 2004. lpp. 19.
27. Steven ten Have, Wouterten have, Frans Stevens, Marcel van der Elst. Key
Management Models. Harlow : FT Prentice Hall, 2003. ISBN 0 273 66201 5.
28. Strategic project management and strategic behaviour. Grundy, Tony. 2000. gada,
International Journal of Project Management, Sēj. 18.
29. R.L.Smith, D.K.Round. A Strategic Behaviour Approach to Evaluating Competative
Conduct. ANU E Press. [Tiešsaiste] 1998. gada. [Citēts: 2009. gada 11. 03.]
http://epress.anu.edu.au/agenda/005/01/5-1-A-3.pdf.
30. Dennis Carlton, Joseph K Perloff. Modern Indastrial Organization. bez viet. : Good
Year Books, 1994. ISBN: 9780673469021.
31. Martin, Stephan. Advanced Industrial Economics. Malden : Blackwell Publishers, 1993.
978-0631178521.
32. Lafta, Dž. K. Teorija Organizacij. Moskva : Izdatelstvo Prospekt, 2006. ISBN 5-98032-
186.
33. Hofs, Kjells Gunnars. Biznesa Ekonomika. Rīga : JāĦa Rozes apgāds, 2002. ISBN 9984-
23-042-2.
34. Drukers, Pīters. Efektīvs lēmums. Lēmumu pieĦemšana. Rīga : Lietišėās informācijas
dienests, 2007.
35. V.S.Jukaeva. Upravlenciskije Rešenija. Moskva : Daškovs i K, 2007. lpp. 324. ISBN 5-
91131-059-7.
36. P.V. ŽuravĜova, R.S. Sedegova, V.G.Jančeska. Teorija Sistemnogo Menedžmenta.
Moskva : "Ekzamen", 2006. ISBN 5-472-01871-4.
37. Dearlove, Des. Key Management Decisions. London : Prinston Hall, 2002. ISBN 0 273
63009 1.
Stratēăiskā vadīšana
Leonardo da Vinci programas projekts„Development and Approbation of Applied Courses Based on the Transfer of Teaching Innovations in Finance and Management for Further
Education of Entrepreneurs and Specialists in Latvia, Lithuania and Bulgaria
Gundars BērziĦs
126
38. Daft, Richard L. Organizacii. Sankt Peterburg : "Praim-Evroznak", 2003. ISBN - 5-
93878-030-6.
39. Lambert, Tom. Key Management Questions. London : Prearson Education Limited,
2003. ISBN 0 273 66153 1.
40. Latviešu valodas vārdnīca. Rīga : Avots, 1998. ISBN 5-401-01050-8.
41. G.Stalker, JR., D.K.Pecaut, B. Burnett. Laužot kompromisus, atraušanās izaugsme.
Harvard Business Review on Strategies for Growth. Boston : HBS Press, 1998.
42. Džons Hammonds, Ralfs Kīnijs, Hovards Raifa. Līdzvērtīga apmaiĦa: racionāli
paĦēmieni kompromisu meklēšanā. Lēmumu pieĦemšana. Riga : Lietišėās informācijas
dienests, 2007.
43. Eisenhardt, Kathleen M. Strategy as Strategic Decision Making. [grāmatas aut.]
J.Lampel, J.B.Quinn, S.Ghoshal H.Minzberg. The Strategic Process. New Jersey : Pearson
Education, 2003, Sēj. Spring.
44. W.C.Kim, R. Mauborgne. Blue Ocean Strategy. Boston : Harvard Business Shool Press,
2005. ISBN 1-59139-619-0.
45. Sansone, C. un C. C. Morf, A. T. Panter. The Sage Handbook of Methods in Social
Psychology. bez viet. : Sage, 2003. ISBN 9780761925354.
46. Force Field Analysis. Mind Tools. [Tiešsaiste] Mind Tools Ltd. [Citēts: 2009. gada 13.
03.] http://www.mindtools.com/pages/article/newTED_06.htm.
47. Colenso, Michael. Strategic Skills for Line Managers. Kent : _______________nezinu
kurš (dzeltenā grāmata), 1998. ISBN 0 7506 3982 2.
48. Jānis Caune, Andrejs Dzedons. Stratēăiskā vadīšana. Rīga : Lidojošā zivs, 2009. ISBN
978-9984-39-781-8.
49. V.Praude, J.BeĜčikovs. Mededžments. Rīga : Vaidelote, 2001. ISBN 9984-507-52-1.
Stratēăiskā vadīšana
Leonardo da Vinci programas projekts„Development and Approbation of Applied Courses Based on the Transfer of Teaching Innovations in Finance and Management for Further
Education of Entrepreneurs and Specialists in Latvia, Lithuania and Bulgaria
Gundars BērziĦs
127
50. Wright Peter, Kroll Mark J., Parnell John. Strategic management concepts 4th edition.
Upper Saddle River, New Jersey : Prentice Hall, Inc, 1998. ISBN 0-13-681750-5.
51. Jānis Caune, Andrejs Dzedons. Stratēăiskā vadīšana. Rīga : Balta eko, 2004. ISBN
9984-9683-9-1.
52. Leiks, Nevils. Stratēăiskā plānošana. Rīga : Multineo, 2007. ISBN 978-9984-9957-0-1.
53. Finley, Paul. Stategic Management . Harlow : Pearson Education Limited, 1999. ISBN 0-
201-39827-3.
54. http://www.mindtools.com/pages/articles/newSTR_91.htm. [Tiešsaiste] [Citēts: 2010.
gada 15. 2010.]
55. E.Raynor, Michael. The Strategy Paradox. New York : The Doubleday Broadway
Publishing Group, 2007. ISBN: 978-0-385-51622-8.
56. The Ansoff Matrix. http://www.mindtools.com/pages/article/newTMC_90.htm.
[Tiešsaiste] [Citēts: 2010. gada 15. April.]