University of Floridaufdcimages.uflib.ufl.edu/UF/E0/05/02/14/00001/LOFARO_E.pdf4 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS I...

AD MAJOREM DEI GLORIAM: AN ISOTOPIC INVESTIGATION OF INDIGENOUS

LIFEWAYS IN A JESUIT CHURCH FROM EARLY COLONIAL HUAMANGA

(AYACUCHO), PERU

By

ELLEN MARGARET LOFARO

A DISSERTATION PRESENTED TO THE GRADUATE SCHOOL

OF THE UNIVERSITY OF FLORIDA IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT

OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF

DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY

UNIVERSITY OF FLORIDA

2016

To my family

4

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

I would first like to thank my family, as I would not have finished this dissertation

without their unfailing support and help.

I also offer my sincere thanks to the many people and institutions that have facilitated my

research over the years, particularly my advisor, John Krigbaum, and the University of Florida

(UF) Bone Chemistry Lab. I would also like to thank my committee members Susan deFrance,

Michael Moseley and Mark Brenner for their insight and guidance, as well as George Kamenov

and Jason Curtis. I would like to thank the Dirección Desconcentrada de Ayacucho and the

Ministerio de Cultura de Perú for allowing me to analyze the collections from La Iglesia de la

Compañía de Jesús de Huamanga, and export samples for isotope analysis under Resolución

Viceministerial #114-2014-VMPCIC-MC. I would also like to thank Jorge Luis Soto Maguino,

Bernardino Segovia Gomez and Patricia Fernández Castillo.

I wish as well to acknowledge the financial support I have received through UF and

external granting institutions. I have received support from the UF Office of Research, the UF

Graduate School, the UF College of Liberal Arts and Sciences, the UF Department of

Anthropology, the UF Center for Latin American Studies, the UF Center for Land Use and

Environmental Change and the UF Graduate Student Council, as well as the Getty Research

Institute and the National Science Foundation (UCLA SIMS workshop).

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

page

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS ...............................................................................................................4

LIST OF TABLES ...........................................................................................................................7

LIST OF FIGURES .........................................................................................................................9

LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS ........................................................................................................11

ABSTRACT ...................................................................................................................................12

CHAPTER

1 INTRODUCTION ..................................................................................................................14

Theoretical Underpinnings .....................................................................................................18

Organization of Thesis ............................................................................................................23

2 ARCHAEOLOGICAL AND HISTORICAL OVERVIEW ...................................................26

Archaeological Overview .......................................................................................................26

Early Colonial Period .............................................................................................................30 History of La Iglesia de la Compañía de Jesús de Huamanga ................................................36

3 ISOTOPE ANALYSIS OVERVIEW .....................................................................................42

Carbon Isotope Analysis .........................................................................................................43

Nitrogen Isotope Analysis in Humans and Animals ...............................................................46 Oxygen Isotope Analysis in Humans and Animals ................................................................47

Overview of Strontium Isotope Analysis ...............................................................................49 Overview of Lead Isotope Analysis .......................................................................................51

Overview of Regional Geology ..............................................................................................52

4 MATERIALS AND METHODS ...........................................................................................55

Materials .................................................................................................................................55

Field Methods .........................................................................................................................55 Exportation Process .........................................................................................................56 Bone and Tooth Samples .................................................................................................56 Environmental Baseline Samples ....................................................................................57

Laboratory Methods ................................................................................................................57 Bone Collagen and Bone Apatite Pretreatment ...............................................................57 Bone Collagen .................................................................................................................58

Bone Apatite ....................................................................................................................60

6

Tooth Enamel – Strontium and Lead Isotope Analysis ...................................................61

Sediments – Strontium and Lead Isotope Analysis .........................................................63 Standard Reference Materials ..........................................................................................63

5 RESULTS OF ISOTOPE ANALYSES ..................................................................................64

Heavy Isotope Results ............................................................................................................64 Strontium Isotope Results ................................................................................................65 Strontium Concentration Results .....................................................................................66 Strontium Isotopes Compared with Lead Isotope Results ..............................................66 Lead Isotope Results ........................................................................................................66

Lead Concentration Results .............................................................................................68 Tooth Enamel Trace Element Concentrations .................................................................69

Light Isotope Results ..............................................................................................................69 Carbon Isotope Results ....................................................................................................70 Nitrogen Isotope Results .................................................................................................72 Oxygen Isotope Results ...................................................................................................73

Faunal Light Isotope Results Organized by ICJH Location ............................................74

6 DISCUSSION .........................................................................................................................95

Strontium Ratios .....................................................................................................................95 Strontium Concentrations .......................................................................................................99 Lead Ratios .............................................................................................................................99

Lead Concentrations .............................................................................................................101 Carbon and Nitrogen Bone Collagen ....................................................................................104

Carbon and Oxygen Bone Apatite ........................................................................................108

7 CONCLUSION.....................................................................................................................119

APPENDIX TRACE ELEMENT CONCENTRATION RESULTS .......................................123

LIST OF REFERENCES .............................................................................................................126

BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCH .......................................................................................................141

7

LIST OF TABLES

Table page

5-1 Strontium and lead results from the ICJH, Ayacucho, Peru. .............................................84

5-2 Descriptive statistics for 87

Sr/86

Sr, 206

Pb/204

Pb, 207

Pb/204

Pb, 208

Pb/204

Pb human tooth

enamel from the ICJH, Ayacucho, Peru. ...........................................................................87


Sr/86

Sr, 206

Pb/204

Pb, 207

Pb/204

Pb, 208

Pb/204

Pb faunal tooth

enamel from the ICJH, Ayacucho, Peru. ...........................................................................87


Sr/86

Sr, 206

Pb/204

Pb, 207

Pb/204

Pb, 208

Pb/204

Pb soil samples

from the ICJH, Ayacucho, Peru. ........................................................................................87


Sr/86

Sr, 206

Pb/204

Pb, 207

Pb/204

Pb, 208

Pb/204

Pb human tooth

enamel with “local” 87

Sr/86

Sr from the ICJH, Ayacucho, Peru. ........................................87


Sr/86

Sr, 206

Pb/204

Pb, 207

Pb/204

Pb, 208

Pb/204

Pb faunal tooth


Sr/86

Sr from the ICJH, Ayacucho, Peru. ........................................88

5-7 “Local” ranges for 206

Pb/204

Pb, 207

Pb/204

Pb and 208

Pb/204

Pb from the ICJH, Ayacucho,

Peru. ...................................................................................................................................88

5-8 Lead concentrations (208

Pb ppm) compared to 206

Pb/204

Pb ratios from the ICJH,

Ayacucho, Peru. .................................................................................................................89

5-9 Results of 13

C and 15

N on bone collagen and 13

C and 18

O on bone apatite from

ICJH, Ayacucho, Peru........................................................................................................90


Cap, 18

O, 13

Cco and 15

N of all human bone samples

from ICJH, Ayacucho, Peru. ..............................................................................................92


Cap, 18

O, 13

Cco and 15of human bone samples from

ICJH, Ayacucho, Peru; adults only. ...................................................................................92


Cap, 18

O, 13


ICJH, Ayacucho, Peru with “local” 87

Sr/86

Sr ratios. ..........................................................92


Cap, 18

O, 13


ICJH, Ayacucho, Peru with “non-local” 87

Sr/86

Sr ratios. ..................................................92


Cap, 18

O, 13

Cco and 15of all faunal bone samples

from ICJH, Ayacucho, Peru. ..............................................................................................93


Cap, 18

O, 13


separated by taxa from ICJH, Ayacucho, Peru. .................................................................93

8


Cap, 18

O, 13

Cco and 15of deposito faunal bone

samples from units 10 and 11 of the ICJH, Ayacucho, Peru. ............................................94


Cap, 18

O, 13

Cco and 15of the church burial faunal

bone samples from units 6, 7, 8, 14, 16, 17 and 18 of the ICJH, Ayacucho, Peru. ...........94

6-1 Four individuals from ICJH, Ayacucho, Peru, with multiple teeth tested for 87

Sr/86

Sr, 206

Pb/204

Pb, 207

Pb/204

Pb, 208

Pb/204

Pb on human tooth enamel ..........................................116

6-2 Average 13

C and 15

N of faunal bone collagen, from the ICJH, Ayacucho, Peru. ........117

6-3 Adult human 13

Cap and 13

Cco values from the ICHJ, Ayacucho, Peru, with original

and modified values with enrichment factors for comparative purposes. Individuals

with * have tooth pairs with outlier 87

Sr/86

Sr ratios. ........................................................118

9

LIST OF FIGURES

Figure page

2-1 Location of the modern city of Ayacucho (historically known as Huamanga). Map

made by Michael Ahillen with ArcGIS using ESRI, DeLorme, GEBCO, NOAA

NGDC, and other contributors. ..........................................................................................38

2-2 Exterior of La Iglesia de la Compañía de Jesús de Huamanga, in Ayacucho, Peru.

Photo credit: “Templo de La Compañía, Ayacucho” by Eduzam

(https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Templos_virreinales_de_Ayacucho#/media/File:Temp

lo_de_La_Compa%C3%B1%C3%ADa,_Ayacucho.JPG) is used under CC BY-SA

4.0.......................................................................................................................................39

2-3 Ornate wooden altar inside La Iglesia de la Compañía de Jesús de Huamanga, in

Ayacucho, Peru. Photo taken before restoration in 2000. Photo credit: “La

Compania” (https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:LaCompania.jpg) is in the

public domain.....................................................................................................................40

2-4 Simplified representation of La Iglesia de la Compañía de Jesús de Huamanga, in

Ayacucho, Peru. Numbers indicate units excavated in 2008 and mentioned in the

present investigation. Figure created by Ellen Lofaro. ......................................................41

3-1 A generalized geological map of the Ayacucho region, with the city of Ayacucho

highlighted within a white oval. Figure credit: Figure 2 from Wise and Noble (2008):

Revista de la Sociedad Geológica de España, 21(1-2): 73-91. ..........................................54

5-1 Conventional delta notation. ..............................................................................................75

5-2 87

Sr/86

Sr ratios for humans, animals and soils, ICJH, Ayacucho, Peru. Solid black

line indicates the faunal average and dashed black lines indicate the upper and lower

range of a 2σ baseline for local ratios. Individuals with more than one tooth sample

are identified by number and teeth sampled. .....................................................................76

5-3 87

Sr/86

Sr ratios versus Sr concentrations (88

Sr ppm) for humans and fauna from the


5-4 87

Sr/86

Sr ratios versus Sr concentrations (88

Sr ppm) for humans only from the ICJH,

Ayacucho, Peru, with the upper range of the 2σ local baseline indicated with a

dashed black line. The lower 2σ local baseline range, 07.70473 87

Sr/86

Sr, is off the

scale of this figure. .............................................................................................................78

5-5 87

Sr/86

Sr ratios versus 206

Pb/204

Pb ratops for humans, animals and soils, ICJH,

Ayacucho, Peru. The black dashed line indicates the upper 2σ local baseline for local 87

Sr/86

Sr ratios. The lower 2σ local baseline range, 0.770473 87

Sr/86

Sr, is off the scale

of this figure. ......................................................................................................................79

10

5-6 87

Sr/86


Pb/204

Pb ratiosfor humans and animals, ICJH, Ayacucho,

Peru. ...................................................................................................................................79

5-7 87

Sr/86


Pb/204

Pb ratios for humans, ICJH, Ayacucho, Peru ...................80

5-8 206

Pb/204

Pb, 207

Pb/204

Pb and 208

Pb/204

Pb ratios for humans, fauna and soil from the


5-9 206

Pb/204

Pb, 207

Pb/204

Pb and 208

Pb/204

Pb ratios for humans, fauna and soil from the

ICJH, Ayacucho, Peru. Individuals with non-local 87

Sr/86

Sr ratios are outlined in

black. ..................................................................................................................................82

5-10 206

Pb/204

Pb ratios versus lead concentrations (208

Pb ppm) from the ICJH, Ayacucho,

Peru. ...................................................................................................................................83

5-11 Lead concentrations (208

Pb ppm) versus 206

Pb/204

Pb ratios from the ICJH, Ayacucho,

Peru. Individuals with non-local 87

Sr/86

Sr ratios are indicated within black rectangles. ...83

6-1 Lead isoscape of the Andes. Figure created by John Krigbaum and adapted from

Krigbaum and Kamenov (In preparation) with Machu Picchu data from Turner et al.,

2009. The ICJH data point is this study’s mean with its small radiating lines

indicating 1σ. ...................................................................................................................112

6-2 206

Pb/204

Pb ratios versus lead concentrations (208

Pb ppm) for the four individuals with

multiple teeth sampled. Note that Individual 14 has non-local strontium ratios and

the widest range of 206

Pb/204

Pb ratios, while the other three have local strontium

ratios. ................................................................................................................................113

6-3 Results of caprine 13

Cco and 15

N from the ICJH, outlined in red, as well as the

outlier chicken (BCL-3362, red triangle), plotted against other sites (Figure modified

from Kellner and Schoeninger 2008). ..............................................................................114

6-4 Results of 13

Cco and15

N from the ICJH, in red, plotted against data from other sites

(Figure modified from Kellner and Schoeninger 2008). .................................................115

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LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS

Ar Argon

C Carbon

CO2 Carbon dioxide

Delta (lower case)

Delta (upper case)

HBr Hydrobromic acid

HCl Hydrochloric acid

HNO3 Nitric acid

ICJH Iglesia de la Compañía de Jesús de Huamanga

K Potassium

M Molar

mL Milliliter

MC ICP-MS Multi-collector inductively-coupled-plasma mass spectrometer

n= Number

N2 Nitrogen

NaOCl Sodium hypochlorite (bleach)

O Oxygen

Pb Lead

Ppm Parts per million

Sr Strontium

TRA Time-resolved analysis

VPDB Vienna Pee Dee Belemnite

‰ Parts per thousand (“per mil”)

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Abstract of Dissertation Presented to the Graduate School

of the University of Florida in Partial Fulfillment of the

Requirements for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy

AD MAJOREM DEI GLORIAM: AN ISOTOPIC INVESTIGATION OF INDIGENOUS

LIFEWAYS IN A JESUIT CHURCH FROM EARLY COLONIAL HUAMANGA

(AYACUCHO), PERU

By

Ellen Margaret Lofaro

August 2016

Chair: John Krigbaum

Major: Anthropology

This dissertation uses a holistic approach, combining isotope geochemistry, skeletal

analysis, archaeology, and 17th

- 18th

century Spanish texts, to examine the lives and deaths of

individuals buried in La Iglesia de la Compañía de Jesús de Huamanga (ICJH), built in AD 1605

by the Jesuits in Huamanga, now Ayacucho, Peru.

Only indigenous individuals were buried underneath the church floors; few show signs of

stress or disease. Ethnohistorical documents show indigenous Peruvians using the legal system,

church service and labor agreements to evade Spanish forced labor (mita) at the mines of

Huancavelica and Potosi, among others. Analyses of strontium and oxygen isotopes reveal that

one-third of the individuals were not born locally, correlating with census records documenting

rural migration into the city. Lead isotope results are narrow and lead concentrations are high,

indicating that all were affected by anthropogenic lead, likely from mining.

Carbon isotope analysis reveals a diet that included C3 and C4 plants and their consumers;

nitrogen isotope analysis shows varying levels of N2 enriched food consumption. Both suggest

access to multiple food sources. Additionally, faunal remains were found in a storage area and

also were found with human burials inside the church. Carbon and nitrogen isotope analyses

13

reveal a variety of foddering practices. Strontium and oxygen isotope analyses suggest that only

some animals were born locally, and that local and nonlocal animals served as quotidian food

sources as well as potential burial offerings, a traditional Andean practice incongruent with

Catholic doctrine.

Few scholars have addressed indigenous experiences with Spanish colonialism in the

Andes by examining its physical effects on native bodies. This dissertation explores how

indigenous people actively shaped their lives through migration, the use of Spanish religious and

legal systems to avoid the harshest occupations, and by a blending of beliefs or resistance

through the presence of animals with buried human remains. Through isotopic analysis, it

documents impacts upon indigenous bodies, actions, responses, and lifeways, provides strong

evidence for native agency that revises the stereotypical Black Legend of victimized passive

natives, and argues for widespread re-assessment of this colonial relationship.

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CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

This dissertation explores the indigenous experiences of colonialism in the Andes, using

isotope analysis to investigate aspects of life and death of the native individuals buried beneath

the church floor of the Iglesia de la Compañía de Jesús de Huamanga (ICJH) in Ayacucho, Peru.

In concert with archival evidence, these bioarchaeological analyses are used to highlight under-

documented indigenous agency and strategies of resistance to colonial Spanish powers.

The ICJH was built within the current boundaries of the modern city of Ayacucho (then

called Huamanga), adjacent to the main plaza. Construction by the Jesuits began in AD 1605 and

the church was in use for over 150 years until the Pope disbanded the Jesuits and they were

expelled from Peru in AD 1767. The church still stands today and has a practicing congregation.

While impressive archival and historical research is centered on the early colonial Andes,

bioarchaeological research using isotopes on recovered remains is still gaining momentum,

particularly in terms of colonial religious structures and the people buried within them.

Questions of mobility and diet are central to understanding individual lives and group

dynamics, and are linked to indigenous agency and strategies of resistance. In colonial Peru, in-

migration from the country to the city, as well as working for the church, provided ways for

indigenous individuals to escape the harsh forced labor system of the Spanish. Isotope analyses

of strontium, lead and oxygen provide proxies to investigate mobility at both the individual and

group level. Dietary analysis, using isotope ratios, elucidates the subsistance patterns of people

and the foddering patterns of animals in the urban colonial setting of Ayacucho, with carbon

isotope values indicating broad ranges in relative C3 versus C4 plant ingestion, and nitrogen

isotope values tracking the consumption of N2 enriched food, such as protein or plants like

quinoa. The strength of these isotopic proxies lies in their direct connection to specific

15

individuals, whereas other archaeological methods generalize about patterns of mobility and diet

at the site-level, through associated artifacts, ecofacts and context.

The ability to explore individual mobility and diet is a strength of isotopic analysis when

applied to studies in bioarchaeology. Bioarchaeology is the subfield of anthropology that focuses

on analysis of human remains in archaeological contexts. Isotopic and genetic analyses are but a

few of the powerful tools increasingly used in the bioarchaeology toolkit, which allow

researchers to build multi-scalar levels of analyses regarding families, communities and broader

regional areas from the study of individual human remains. Isotopic analyses of the human

skeletal remains from the ICJH will be used as proxies for individual mobility and diet, as well

as industrial pollution levels, while skeletal analysis will be used to explore stress and disease

among the individuals. When combined, these results speak to broad questions of indigenous

health and lifeways which reveal indigenous resistance to and impact on Spanish colonial

structures and religion that have yet to be documented with isotope analysis.

The Toledan mita system of forced labor sent indigenous Andeans to work at the hellish

mines of Huancavelica and Potosi, among others, where diseases such as silicosis of the lungs

and mercury poisoning were common and death rates were high (Brown, 2001; Cole, 1985;

Bakewell, 1984). Ethnohistorical accounts and census records document substantial migration

away from home communities to evade mita service by individuals who were then called

foresteros (Wightman, 1990). During the 17th

century, huge numbers of indigenous Andeans

began to enter into wage labor contracts with colonial producers, and some agreements specified

freedom from mita service, particularly for skilled artisans. Historical documents note that more

than two-thirds of contract laborers in the city of Huamanga were from rural areas far outside the

city (Stern, 1993). The lay assistants of Catholic priests were also spared from forced mita labor.

16

Given this suite of exemptions from forced labor and the stimulus these exemptions created for

in-migration, it is reasonable to hypothesize that some individuals buried underneath the church

floors of the ICJH in Ayacucho were not born locally. Individuals born in areas that are

geologically distinct from Ayacucho will have lead, strontium and oxygen isotope values in their

tooth enamel different from those in the teeth of individuals born locally.

Who was buried in the ICJH? In addition to those bound to church service, it was likely

that individuals active in the ecumenical life of the church and those who donated large amounts

to the church were also interred within the church. Although the original church register remains

lost, the research presented here provides information that clarifies the dynamics of the

relationship between the church and native parishioners. Burial location within the church was

often a quid pro quo for donations of time or wealth, with areas near the front, by the main or

side altars, recognized as particularly desirable or prestigious. It is possible that future

investigations of the individuals buried closer to the front of the church may reveal diets different

from those of individuals buried in the back, reflecting differences in social standing or service.

Analysis of carbon and nitrogen stable isotope ratios can determine broad dietary differences

among individuals, particularly in terms of consumption of C4 plants such as maize and

amaranths and the consumption of higher-quality protein, and the more varied the food sources

consumed, the greater the likelihood of higher community standing.

Skeletal analysis conducted by the author of the materials at the ICJH included faunal

remains recovered from storage areas connected to the church, called depositos, but also revealed

faunal remains in every burial unit that contained human skeletal remains. This discovery led to

interesting new questions of how animals were integrated into quotidian life and burials in the

early colonial church. Were the animals local or sourced from other areas? Were they fed a

17

special diet? Animal offerings typically are not part of Catholic burial practices, but they were a

significant part of traditional religious practices prior to Spanish conquest. Their presence

indicates a blending or reimagining of indigenous and Catholic beliefs (or perhaps resistance to

normative Catholic practice) and likely reflects the fluidity and change within larger Andean and

colonial structures and contexts.

One colonial paradigm, often called the Black Legend, was the stereotypical perception

of the relationship between the Spanish colonizers and natives as equal to that between master

and slave. Under this paradigm, the lot of indigenous people was simply to be exploited and

abused. While true to some extent, this belief gives all agency to the colonizers and leaves all

those colonized as conforming, passive victims. Following the lead of historian Steve Stern

(1993), the present examination attempts to give voice to indigenous agents and to explore their

actions and creativity in moderating the negative impact of Spanish colonial rule. This approach

is not meant to diminish native suffering and exploitation, which is all too well documented, but

intends to reveal and engage indigenous responses and actions to colonial structures in a

productive, positive manner.

As noted by Stern (1993), there was no single meaning of conquest to those who lived

through it, and to those who came after it. Whereas the conquistadors ostensibly professed

objectives of “God, Gold and Glory,” that alliterative catch phrase is often amended by the

comment that “God was first on their lips and last in their hearts” (Seaman, 2013; Stern, 1993),

and was particularly true in the case of Francisco Pizarro and his fellow conquistadors as they

invaded and conquered the Andes. The Christian priests and missionaries who followed the

conquistadors derived their power and authority from royal edicts to convert the pagan

foreigners, which in turn legitimized imperial exploits for revenue, land and status. Although the

18

majority of the religious orders were aligned with the conquistadors, a few became advocates for

and defenders of the local indigenous people, though sometimes they too were denounced for

abusing their power (Stern, 1993). But as Stern (1993) notes, indigenous challenges to power

have often been minimized or omitted from conquest dialogues and documents. Instead, there

has been a general but biased sense of how Spanish conquest turned indigenous people from

active participants into passive subordinates in their own lives. Stern, Spalding (1984) and

MacCormack (1991, 1993), as well as researchers such as Brosseder (2014) and Ruan (2012),

attempt to pursue “explicitly Andean vantage points” (MacCormack, 1993:248) during the early

colonial period. Focusing on their aims and building upon Stern’s quite detailed historical work,

this investigation uses a single church in Ayacucho as an isotopic and archaeological case study

to examine at indigenous lives, on both the individual and community levels, to situate how their

lives and deaths fit into the broader historical picture of the early colonial Andes. As such, this

study investigates colonial impacts upon indigenous bodies, native agency and resistance, and

provides a view of the religious context of this church community that serves to recover, mediate

and correct the indigenous history that was erased or modified by the Spanish written word and

foreign policies.

Theoretical Underpinnings

What is agency? There is no lack of theories of agency that can be applied to this

research. In their introduction to the volume Agency in Archaeology, Dobres and Robb (2000)

argue that agency is a platitude, not a paradigm, and that it needs to be critically and productively

problematized, particularly in terms of definition, scale, temporality, intentionality, material

culture and politics. They trace the roots of practice theory back to Marx’s concept of praxis

(everyday material production, through which people produce cultural histories (Marx, 1963

[1869]; Marx & Engels, 1970 [1864])), as well as Giddens’ duality of structure (people

19

unintentionally create the conditions/structures in which they live (Giddens, 1979; 1984)) and

Bourdieu’s (1977) habitus (the routines of daily life, whereby people create and are structured by

institutions and beliefs that are often beyond their awareness/control). Concern with agents and

agency began in the 1980s among Marxists, symbolists, structuralists, and feminists. Their

common ground was a belief that people actively negotiated and created their world while

simultaneously being constrained by it. Some scholars focused on ancient gender dynamics,

including modern concerns with embodiment and collective subjectivity (e.g. Silverblatt, 1988;

Gero, 2000). Others examined material culture variations and interferences, going beyond

context-dependence to situated social personae (e.g. Hodder, 1987; Wobst, 2000). Others

connected agency and material culture via phenomenology or structuration theory (e.g. Barrett,

1984; Tilley, 1993), while some focused on emerging inequality and how the pursuit of prestige

and power can lead to large-scale social change (e.g. Clark & Blake, 1994; Marcus & Flannery

1996).

Dobres and Robb (2000) define agency as the material conditions of social life, both

dialectically constrained and enabled by structures, institutions and beliefs, in which the

motivations and actions of agents are important. Ultimately, the authors note two approaches to

agency. The first is eclectic, recognizing that agency operates in many ways at once, but this can

over-generalize it to the point of non-utility. The other approach offers a narrower, clearly

defined agency, but its implementation is problematic. In the meantime, they note areas in need

of more exploration: intentionality of agents versus unintended outcomes of agents’ actions;

scale—group agency, individual agency, multiple agency and their interactions; which parts of

agency shape long-term change; how to use artifacts to analyze past agency; and the politics

20

inherent within agency—not legitimizing modern social relations by uncritically projecting them

into the past.

Brumfiel (2000), in her conclusion to the Dobres and Robb volume, writes that consensus

on agency includes its definition as intentional choices made by people who take action to realize

goals; that these people are socially constituted; and that there is a dynamic between actors and

structures. However, disagreements arise over defining agents in the archaeological past, and

whether their goals were predictable (argued by a majority of authors) or uniquely situated

(minority view). In this same volume, Hodder (2000) is alone in arguing that agency studies

should focus on the individual. Though perhaps too exclusionary, his arguments in favor of

studying individuals resonate with many bioarchaeologists.

Hodder (2000) argues that archaeologists have not given enough attention to small-scale

practices within the long term, and that the focus on agency and the construction of individuals

and subjects is inadequate to deal with these large-scale differences. He criticizes theories of

embodiment and practice for omitting the consideration of quotidian lives. This important point

articulates a theoretical place where bioarchaeology fits well into post-processual, processual

plus and other agency-driven theoretical narratives. Just as Hodder urges that agency-centered

studies should focus on individuals, bioarchaeological techniques allow archaeologists to

examine individual-scale dynamics about lived lives in the past. Over the last decade, for

example, the topic of osteobiography or skeletal biography has become quite influential. Early

adopters of the term include Saul (1989) and Scott and colleagues (1998), the latter who

investigated the remains of soldiers who died in the Battle of Little Bighorn. A recent work,

edited by Stodder and Palkovich (2012), examines the bioarchaeology of identity in individual

case studies throughout the world. Some papers within the volume, such as Boutin’s (2012)

21

chapter investigating daily life in ancient Syria, go as far as blending bioarchaeological data,

context and theory with an appealing and informative, scientifically accurate narrative. This

approach has the potential to be one through which bioarchaeologists move the field forward,

impacting how data are interpreted, processed and situated within larger anthropological research

problems. While this dissertation does not include such descriptive skeletal biographies in the

narrative non-fiction sense, it does explore the diets, motilities and lifeways of specific

individuals buried underneath the church floors at the ICJH to uncover a broader picture at the

group level of movement, disease and dietary patterns, all of which inform multi-scalar

indigenous agency during the early colonial period.

This research also seeks to explore indigenous resistance to structures imposed by

Spanish colonizers, including the mita labor system and church practices. In analyzing structure,

which is often aligned with agency and practice theory, Sewell (1992) feels that structure is

under-theorized. He critiques and attempts to reformulate Giddens’ duality of structure and

Bourdieu’s habitus to include human agency tied to social actors, the potential for structures to

change, and the ability to overcome structure’s materialist/semiotic divide.

Joyce and Lopiparo (2005) argue that agency and structure cannot be separated and that

the right language and scale is needed to deal with structured agency. Also, for them, everything

that changes or persists in archaeological sites is evidence of agency. They see a similar

vocabulary arising—that of chains, networks and citations—to discuss sequences of action in

time at multiple scales, which helps link the quotidian and local to the global and historical.

However, they also emphasize that it is important to be self-aware and critically reflexive about

one’s own viewpoints, particularly in regard to theories of agency and practice, which suggest

varying amounts of freedom and choice-making ability in human actors. This theoretical choice

22

of assumptions is not a methodological one, and varies on a spectrum from a structured society

that overwhelms the lives of individuals to one that grants almost unfettered free will. In Joyce

and Lopiparo’s opinion, these more deterministic views are grounded, perhaps incorrectly, in

Bourdieu’s habitus and Giddens’ structuration, ignoring the duality of structure. Greater freedom

of action is tied to de Certeau’s tactics (1984), and Butler’s performativity (1977). The above

models (chains, etc.) position humans who are actively making links in and over time, both

discursively and non-discursively. Sequences of practices contain structured agency and a focus

on archaeological materiality on multiple scales can help answer questions of intended versus

unintended consequences of actions. This viewpoint shifts the archaeological emphasis from

identifying agency as a thing (separate from structure) with an emphasis on shared practices to

determining people’s actions as they both reassert valued past traditions and practices and

innovate within these constraints, concentrating upon repeated practices.

By having individuals buried underneath its floors, the ICJH becomes, in effect, a

mortuary monument. In addition to all of the entanglements and politics of the living people who

use the church as a religious space, the past lives of deceased community members are honored

in this sacred space. Mortuary monuments may be used to legitimize territorial claims (Arnold

2002; Isbell 1997), and the individuals buried underneath the floors of the ICJH were used by the

Jesuits and their community of followers to legitimize their claims, both spiritual and territorial,

in Ayacucho. Thus the ICJH itself becomes a social landscape and a mortuary landscape, both of

which are recursively connected, constantly becoming and always negotiated by actors with

varying levels of empowerment and interactions with and within the ICJH’s histories (de

Certeau, 1984; Lefebvre, 1991).

23

Hodder (2000) discusses the utility of narrative windows as a framing device, noting that

such a multiscalar focus, with more emphasis on small lived events, allows one to access

intentionality, uncertainty and creativity in individual lives. Such narrative issues are almost

inherent in isotope analysis, which, depending on the tissue sampled, examines patterns from

childhood or about the last ten years before a person’s death. As windows of time in individual

lives are examined, a fuller picture of the individual lives connected with the ICJH for more than

a century can be reconstructed.

Organization of Thesis

This dissertation's dominant focus upon isotope analyses helps to construct a fuller

picture of the individual lives connected with the ICJH by generating data that illuminates both

childhood and approximately the last ten years of a person’s life, depending on the tissue

sampled. These “isotopic” windows in time align well with Hodder’s (2000) discussion of the

utility of narrative windows as a framing device, in which he notes that such a multiscalar focus,

with more emphasis on small lived events, allows one to access intentionality, uncertainty and

creativity in individual lives. Added to this information are data derived from archaeological

evidence that is situated at the individual’s time of death and the historical and archival evidence

that provides a context for the individual, the church, and native society. Together, these strands

provide new insights into the lifeways of indigenous people under Spanish rule.

This examination begins in Chapter 2 with an archeological and historical overview of

the city and surrounding areas of the modern city of Ayacucho, Peru (which was called

Huamanga from the 16th

to mid-19th

centuries). It reviews climate, rainfall, natural resources,

geography, and geology, and specifically how these factors affect stable isotopes and what

information such isotope measures provide. The chapter also provides summaries of pertinent

archaeological work in the area, focuses upon the early Spanish colonial system in general and in

24

Peru specifically, and sketches the history of La Iglesia de la Compañía de Jesús de Huamanga,

together with a description of the burial areas beneath the church investigated in this study.

Chapter 3 provides an overview of isotope analysis, its usefulness in recent studies and

the specific isotope analyses of human and faunal remains undertaken in this study—carbon,

nitrogen, oxygen, strontium, and lead. A further feature of this chapter is a summary of the

regional and local geology of Ayacucho, which is used to establish a comparative baseline for

several of the analyses.

The materials and methods used in this dissertation are presented in Chapter 4. The

chapter includes an explanation of field methods, the export process, sampling techniques used

for bone and teeth, environmental baseline samples, laboratory methods, pretreatment of bone

collagen and bone apatite samples, the method of extracting and processing tooth enamel

samples, and the treatment and use of sediment samples.

Results of the isotope analyses are first briefly summarized in Chapter 5, then explained

in detail. Topics covered include explanations of conventional notation and descriptions of

standard reference materials used, followed by the results of isotope analyses: strontium isotope

ratios and concentrations, strontium compared with lead isotope ratios, lead isotope ratios and

concentrations, tooth enamel concentrations, carbon isotopes, nitrogen isotopes, and oxygen

isotopes as well as faunal light isotopes organized by ICJH location.

Chapter 6 contains a discussion of the isotope data presented in the previous chapter.

This section features discussions of strontium isotope ratios and strontium concentrations, lead

isotope ratios and lead concentrations, carbon and nitrogen isotopes in bone collagen, and carbon

and oxygen isotopes bone apatite.

25

The final chapter of the dissertation, Chapter 7, synthesizes the multi-disciplinary data

and materials previously presented in terms of the isotopic, archaeological and historic

investigations of the remains, both human and faunal, buried beneath the floor at ICJH. It

provides a holistic and informed bioarchaeological analysis that folds and interweaves myriad

data to elucidate the context and pattern of the indigenous experience of La Iglesia de la

Compañía de Jesús de Huamanga in early colonial Peru.

26

CHAPTER 2

ARCHAEOLOGICAL AND HISTORICAL OVERVIEW

The historical city of Huamanga is located in the south central highlands of Peru. Simón

Bolívar changed Huamanga’s name to Ayacucho in AD 1825, after the Battle of Ayacucho, one

of the last battles in the Peruvian War of Independence from Spain. The city is located within the

Mantaro River drainage basin (Figure 2-1). Although the Mantaro River is a tributary of the

Amazon, there is not enough water in the highlands for extensive irrigation. The short rainy

season lasts from December to March. This general water shortage has led to the construction of

impressive hydraulic systems as well as bouts of conflict and competition for water control

throughout the highland areas of the Andes (Gelles, 2000). The varied topography, with its steep

elevation changes, led to a system of verticality as a way for kin groups to best utilize

microenvironments and support larger community networks, using reciprocal relationships to

maintain self-sufficiency (Murra, 1972, 1985; Mumford, 2012). There is a long history of

mobility of people and resources in the Andes that continued through the colonial period.

Archaeological Overview

Archaeological investigations spearheaded by Richard MacNeish explored the Ayacucho

basin from 1969 to 1971, leading to the creation of a local chronology based on Rowe’s (1960)

horizon and period framework. MacNeish and colleagues (1975, 1970), working at Pikimachay

Cave, located 24km north of Ayacucho, found lithics likely used for food or animal skin

preparation in the lowest cave layers. Radiocarbon dates from this multi-occupation site range

from 20,200±1000 to 9000 BP (MacNeish, 1980, 1976). The cave of Jaywamachay, 40km

southwest of Ayacucho, has early components that date to the Puente complex (Lumbreras,

1974).

27

Recent reevaluation and recalibration of radiocarbon dates throughout the Andes by

Rademaker and colleagues (2013) found that imprecise earliest dates often come from central

Andean rockshelters, in which non-cultural organic materials from trapped sediments and

denning animals are potentially incorporated into the archaeological record and sampled for

radiocarbon dating. Specifically, they question the validity of MacNeish’s radiocarbon dates

from Jaywamachay (though they do not mention Pikimachay), where the sediments containing

the tested organic matter lacked associated artifacts and “unequivocal” cultural materials

(Rademaker et al., 2013:35). They also rejected 37 dates from 20 other archaeological sites.

Reasons for rejection included: 1) dates were from non-cultural contexts, 2) inappropriate

material was dated, such as bone apatite fractions or animal feces, 3) substantial difference from

precise ages from the same context, 4) 1-sigma standard errors greater than 300 years, and 5)

contamination issues. Rademaker and colleagues (2013) note that there are no accepted

radiocarbon dates from Peruvian archaeological sites older than 13,700 BP.

The following period, with more archaeological evidence, is the Formative/Initial period

(~1800 BC to AD 100), and its sites in the Ayacucho area include Rancha and Wichqana. The

latter is reported to have a U-shaped ceremonial structure associated with the crania of

decapitated women (Moseley, 2001:154). The Early Intermediate Period (EIP, ~AD 200 to AD

600) in the Ayacucho Basin is associated with the Huarpa people, who terraced the surrounding

steep slopes for both irrigated and dry farming. Their capitol is believed to have been the site of

Nawimpukyo, an urban city on a hill overlooking the modern city of Ayacucho (Leoni, 2004). At

the close of the EIP, the populations of Nawimpukyo and other administrative centers are

believed to have moved north to Wari and Conchopata, sites whose populations grew rapidly

(Lumbreras, 1974:152).

28

The transition between the EIP and the subsequent Middle Horizon (MH) time period

(~AD 600 – AD 1000) was marked by severe drought. Data from the Quelccaya glacier in the

Peruvian Andes (Cordillera Oriental) indicate that rainfall decreased 25-30% from AD 562 to

AD 594 (Thompson et al., 1985). In addition, high magnitude earthquakes and El Niño events

impacted the already stressed populations during the 6th

century AD (Moseley, 2001:223).

Despite these conditions, the Wari people rose to power during the MH. The extent and

nature of the Wari polity/empire are open to conjecture and often debated. Wari was both

political and religious in nature, and its capital, Huari, is located 25km north of the modern city

of Ayacucho. The Wari grew throughout the EIP and by AD 600, its ceramic styles were present

in the coastal Ica Valley. The site of Huari is 3-4km2, and is estimated to have had a population

between 10,000 and 15,000 people until its abandonment ~AD 1000. Investigated by teams led

by Luis Lumbreras, William Isbell and Anita Cook and currently by José Ochatoma and Martha

Cabrera, Huari was shown to have had an extensive irrigation system and underground water

transport throughout the city, with highly partitioned interior space. Residential spaces, a sunken

court and burial spaces are present (Lumbreras, 1974; Cook, 2001; Isbell and McEwan, 1991).

Additionally, there is evidence of craft specialization—ritual ceramics, projectile points and

jewelry—as well as evidence of extensive trade, including ceramics from Cajamarca to the north,

shell from Ecuador, and imported copper, silver, gold and gemstones (Moseley, 2001:231).

Groups led by Isbell, Cook, Ochatoma and Cabrera excavated at the nearby site of

Conchopata as well, thought to be an elite residential area. Bioarchaeological analysis at

Conchopata was conducted by Tiffiny Tung and colleagues (Tung, 2012). Tung and Knudson

(2008, 2011) and Finucane and colleagues (2006) published isotope data from individuals buried

at Conchopata. Its location close to the modern city of Ayacucho (~12km south of Huari) and its

29

location on the same geological formation as the modern city (Chapter 3; Wise & Noble, 2008)

make Conchopata an ideal comparative group for the present study sample, particularly for

examining and refining an environmental isotopic baseline for the region.

The fall of the Wari polity circa AD 1000 marks the beginning of the Late Intermediate

Period (LIP). The speed and mechanisms of its fall are still a matter of speculation and debate.

Around AD 1100, climate change and drought again impacted the Andes, with drought peaking

circa AD 1250 according to lake sediment cores from the nearby Andahuaylas Valley (Hillyer et

al., 2009).

The end of the LIP and start of the Late Horizon (LH) is marked the rise of the Inca

empire in the mid-15th

century AD. At its zenith, the vast Inca empire, Tahuantinsuyu, extended

5500km along the Andes of South America. The Inca forcibly moved and relocated entire

communities and individuals to prevent revolts and ensure a substantial labor force (Pease, 1982;

Wachtel, 1982). Hierarchies differed depending on scale during the LH. Whereas the Inca elite

generally exploited conquered communities, local and regional conflicts were mainly between

ethnic or allyu (kin) groups (Stern, 1993). It is believed that the Inca conquered Ayacucho in

1460, but not without strong opposition from multiple ethnic groups. For example, the Soras and

Lucanas in the south held out for more than two years in a fortress under Incan siege, and the

Angareas in the north fought the Inca constantly (Stern, 1993). The Inca attempted to intensify

existing local rivalries to increase their control over the Ayacucho region, in addition to

resettling mitmaq colonies in the area. They created administrative and political centers at

Quinua and Huamanguilla, near the modern city of Ayacucho, and created an enormous

religious, military and economic center at Vilcashuaman to the south, with an urban center

30

estimated to have supported a population of at least 10,000 people, a palace and sun temple,

garrisons for the military and vast storehouses (Stern, 1993).

The Inca capital, Cuzco, is now the modern gateway to the famous tourist site of Machu

Picchu, thought to be an elite Incan hunting lodge. Turner and colleagues (2009) conducted

bioarchaeological and isotopic analyses of some of the individuals buried at Machu Picchu, and

found evidence of substantial immigration to the site based on analysis of lead, strontium and

oxygen isotope ratios. They suggest that rather than mitmacona colonists, yanacona and

acllacona immigrations created a cosmopolitan assemblage of high status retainers who

permanently maintained Machu Picchu for the Inca ruler Pachacuti. Turner and colleagues’

(2009) analysis of lead isotope data will prove a useful basis for comparison with the lead

isotope values from the present study.

Early Colonial Period

The Spanish had arrived in Mexico in 1519, and the diseases they brought with them

quickly spread through Central and South America, arriving in Peru before the conquistadors.

Populations were decimated – estimates suggest that within 40 years of the Spanish invasion, the

population had declined by 50% (Cook, 1981). The consequences of diseases due to contact were

similar to the effects of the Black Death in Europe (Moseley, 2001:11), because indigenous

populations had no immunity to smallpox and measles viruses or the typhus bacterium. When the

Spanish arrived in Peru in 1532, they found an empire in turmoil, in the midst of a civil war over

who was to be the next Inca leader. Francisco Pizarro and his mercenaries wasted no time

overthrowing the powerful Inca Empire and claiming the territory for Spain (D’Altoy, 2002).

Though various groups of indigenous inhabitants rebelled and fought against the Spanish during

the 1530s, none succeed in driving them out. The Inca, however, established an independent state

at Villcabamba, from which they harassed the Spanish through raids and massacres for more

31

than 30 years, until 1572, when an expedition mounted by Viceroy Toledo captured the last Inca

ruler, and had him beheaded in Cuzco for treason (D’Altoy, 2002).

Stern (1993) chose Huamanga (modern day Ayacucho) as a case study in his influential

work for a number of reasons that validate additional archaeological investigation. Once in

power, the Spanish set up regional bases to control and expand their access to more distant lands.

He suggests that it was at these regional and local levels that the mix of indigenous and European

inhabitants and their conflicts created new societies. To focus on the “peasantry,” Stern avoided

analysis of the capital cities of Lima or Cuzco, which were occupied by the Inca elite. Stern

notes that the region of Huamanga was big enough to evince changing colonial trends and hence

worth of study. Additionally, its rich archaeological history over the centuries adds to its regional

importance, and supports further archaeological investigation during the early colonial period,

particularly as a means of examining individual lives in broader context.

The city of Huamanga was founded in 1539. Regionally, there was population decrease

as a consequence of disease, but there was also the rise of commercial agricultural and cloth

manufacturing (Stern 1993). Mining boomed in the areas surrounding Ayacucho. The Spanish

“discovered” the silver mines at Potosi, now in present-day Bolivia, in 1545 (Fisher, 1977;

Bakewell, 1984; Cole, 1985), though they had been known and exploited by indigenous people

for thousands of years. Some of the earliest evidence of metallic objects (gold, silver, copper and

bronze) were recovered from the site of Chavin in northern Peru (Craig & West, 1994; Burger,

1982). In the 1560s, mine production at Potosi collapsed due to exhaustion of the higher-grade

ores, coupled with a labor shortage (Bakewell, 1984; Cole, 1985). However, the discovery of

mercury in Huancavelica in 1563, in addition to development of a mercury amalgamation

process used to refine low-grade silver ore created in 1556 by Bartolome de Medina, renewed

32

interest in Potosi. In 1571 Pedro Fernandez de Velasco refined Medina’s amalgamation process

to make it usable at high altitudes such as Potosi (Fisher, 1977). To deal with the labor shortage,

the Spanish adopted a forced labor system called mita that required indigenous communities to

send one seventh of their adult male populations to work in the mines at Huancavelica and Potosi

(Glave, 1989, cited in Dell, 2010; Bakewell, 1984). This mita system, co-opted from the mit’a

system previously used by the Inca empire (D’Altoy, 2002), was instituted by Spain in 1573 and

not abolished until 1812, when the silver deposits were finally depleted. While other silver mines

existed throughout the Viceroyalty of Peru, notably Cerro de Paso, Castrovirreiyna and Oruro,

the mines at Potosi are believed to have produced 80 to 85% of the Viceroyalty’s silver from

1570 to 1630 (Fisher, 1977). The need for mercury to process the galena ore for silver made the

Huancavelica and Potosi mines the “twin pillars” that supported the Spanish viceroyalty in Peru

(Stern, 1993:xviii).

The Spanish were not alone in profiting from Potosi. For example, in the late 1580s, the

son of a Tacna kuraka (lord) owned a winery and four vineyards, as well as a llama train to

transport wine to Potosi and three ships for commerce between Tacna, Arica (in modern Chile)

and Lima’s port of Callao. He was one of a group of indigenous individuals and communities

who created their own initiatives under colonial rule (Stern, 1993; cf. Pease, 1978; Murra, 1978).

Ayacucho is centrally located in the Andes, and during the early colonial period it

became a commercial crossroads and hub between Potosi, with its silver, Huancavelica, with its

mercury, and Lima, the capital of the Spanish Viceroyalty and the link to European commerce

(Stern, 1993). However, its central location also supported a non-Christian millenarian

movement called Taki Onqoy during the 1560s.

33

Indigenous adoption of Christianity did not necessarily occur as the Spanish priests and

missionaries envisioned. Instead of replacing indigenous deities and frameworks with a Christian

one, indigenous people selectively incorporated and deployed Christianity within their own

framework of understanding (Stern, 1993:xl and cf. sources within). In the region of Ayacucho,

Taki Onqoy, or the “dancing sickness,” broke out during the 1560s. It is also translated as the

“dance of desperation” (Varón Gabai, 1990:331). The Taki Onqoy movement argued that earlier

collaboration between locals and the Spanish over Christianity was wrong and that the

previously weakened Andean huacas, or deities, had regained their strength, leading to a

cataclysm that would free the Andean world from Spanish and Christian corruption (Henson,

2002; Milliones, 1990; Stern, 1993:xli and cf. sources within). Preachers of Taki Onqoy taught

that huacas could now essentially possess indigenous believers, causing them to speak, tremble,

roll on the ground and make faces. When such possession happened it was venerated and

celebrated for several days with feasting, drinking and dancing (Henson, 2002; Millones, 1990).

The Spanish moved swiftly to extirpate such idolatry and appointed Cristobal de Albornoz, a

Spanish priest, to find the leaders of the Taki Onqoy movement and punish them according to

their rank and degree of guilt. Punishments ranged from fines and cutting off their hair to

flogging and exile (Wachtel, 1977). The revival faded after the 1560s, but the search to punish

idolaters continued throughout the 16th

century.

After the economic crisis and breakdown of the Taki Onqoy movement during the 1560s,

a new Viceroy, Francisco de Toledo, arrived and carried out sweeping reforms during his reign

from 1569 to 1580 (Orlove, 1985). In addition to beheading Thupa Amaru and quashing the Inca

rebellion at Vilcabamba, one of the most far-reaching of the Toledo reforms was the creation of

reducciones, or resettlements, of native people (D’Altoy, 2002). These were created to help

34

increase production at the mines. Although the reducciones created urban growth, they also

disrupted ancient ties to land and were subject to a new form of taxation, a head tax (tax per

person) called tributo (Orlove, 1985), which obligated indigenous Andeans to obtain money to

pay the tributo using wages from labor, or by engaging in commerce or using other means.

In the 1570s, the restructuring of the political economy led to strategies of indigenous

resistance. Stern (1993) argues that the changing labor systems and political economy were

European adaptations to issues caused by native resistance. Although the indigenous inhabitants

of Peru could not shape society exactly as they wished, they were certainly active agents who

changed their own lives as well as the lives of the Europeans with whom they were in contact.

Thus, the indigenous inhabitants of Peru were not simply passive victims of conquest, but instead

active agents who began using the Spanish legal system in the 1570s to undermine exploitative

Spanish practices and protect their individual, ayllu and community interests and self-

sufficiency. Natives brought lawsuits to Spanish colonial courts in efforts to lower quotas for

mita labor, to change types of tribute and lower tribute taxes, and to retain their best agricultural

lands. They also began abandoning residences in the new reducciones and returned to traditional

settlement patterns in widely dispersed areas (Stern, 1993). Even when indigenous Andeans did

not win their legal battles, they still caused their colonial opponents distress and loss of money

and resources.

Unfortunately, indigenous Andeans also used the Spanish colonial judicial system against

one another, reinforcing ayllu rivalries and ethnic strife. By 1640, the rise to power of a few

successful native Peruvians disrupted internal structure and culture, causing new problems. Stern

(1993:132) argues that these conflicts created class dynamics that tied privileged Andeans to the

colonial power structure, which weakened indigenous capacity to unite and resist exploitive

35

colonial structures. Indigenous people as well as Spaniards and religious communities could

receive land grants and titles, which came with mita requirements. Historical documents note

that nine indigenous families in the city of Huamanga were considered “high elites” and

commanded over 40% of the mita laborer contingents (Stern, 1993:100).

From the Ayacucho region alone, the Toledan mita system conscripted 14,181

individuals to work the mines at Potosi and 3280 individuals to work the mines at Huancavelica

(Bakewell, 1984). Many individuals attempted to escape mita service by fleeing their

communities, but this came at a high cost. One faced severe punishment if caught, in addition to

giving up one’s community, land and family. Further, one likely had to pay additional taxes as a

forastero, a foreigner, or join a hacienda, a rural estate with a permanent labor force (Wightman,

1993; Keith, 1971). Some contract labor agreements, particularly for skilled artisans, exempted

individuals from mita labor. Another alternative to evading mita labor was service to the church,

as Catholic priests could grant exemptions from mita service (Stern, 1993:98).

By the late 17th

century, the mining industry began to falter due to increasing costs and

competition from international markets. In the mid-1600s, the churches in Huamanga began to

command a huge share of the region’s properties and wealth (Stern, 1993:113). Additionally,

historical documents note Spanish reliance on “voluntary” indigenous labor, called wage labor

contracts or asiento contracts during the 17th century (Stern, 1993:147). Although often forced

into volunteering their services to survive in the Spanish wage economy, these individuals were

separate from the mita system. Two thirds of indigenous Andeans (excluding specialists such as

artisans, who entered into asiento contracts with Spaniards in the city of Huamanga) were from

rural provinces whereas less than 10% were from the city itself (Stern, 1993:147).

36

History of La Iglesia de la Compañía de Jesús de Huamanga

The Iglesia de la Compañía de Jesús de Huamanga (ICJH) is located in modern

Ayacucho, Peru. Construction began in AD 1605 and ended in AD 1640. The church still stands

today (Figure 2-2) and has a practicing congregation.

The ICJH is famous for its baroque style, its art and ornate wooden altar (Figure 2-3). In

2006-2007, the ICJH received an Architectural Conservation grant from the Getty Foundation.

The grant helped fund a restoration plan and a small archaeological excavation of the church

floors to assess their condition and that of the subfloor plumbing still in active use.

Because of concerns over water damage, 20 boxes of archaeological materials (ceramics,

textile fragments, pieces of glass and human and animal remains) were removed from 19 units

within the church in January 2008. The human remains and other archaeological artifacts

recovered from the ICJH were excavated in 1m x 1.5m and 1m x 2m units. However, within each

unit, recovered human remains were ostensibly comingled (i.e., upon analysis, multiple

individuals were found in each unit). Figure 2-4 is a simplified spatial representation of the

analyzed units from the ICJH. The church is a traditional cross shape with a single nave, with a

connecting side chapel and a deposito, or storage area, to the rear of the sacristy and anti-

sacristy.

In 2014, the author was granted permission to analyze the skeletal remains and associated

archaeological materials excavated from the church, currently stored at the Dirección

Desconcentrada de Ayacucho (the regional Ministry of Culture). After their analysis, small

amounts of bones and teeth from this collection were submitted to the national Ministry of

Culture in Lima for consideration for exportation for isotope analysis, following Peruvian

statutes, which require that samples weigh less than 5 grams and that if any part of the sample is

not consumed during destructive analysis, it will be returned to its Peruvian repository. The

37

application was accepted and the Ministry of Culture granted permission to export the samples to

the University of Florida Bone Chemistry Lab for isotope analysis under Resolución

Viceministerial #114-2014-VMPCIC-MC.

38

Figure 2-1. Location of the modern city of Ayacucho (historically known as Huamanga). Map

made by Michael Ahillen with ArcGIS using ESRI, DeLorme, GEBCO, NOAA

NGDC, and other contributors.

39

Figure 2-2. Exterior of La Iglesia de la Compañía de Jesús de Huamanga, in Ayacucho, Peru.

Photo credit: “Templo de La Compañía, Ayacucho” by Eduzam

(https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Templos_virreinales_de_Ayacucho#/media/File:Templ

o_de_La_Compa%C3%B1%C3%ADa,_Ayacucho.JPG) is used under CC BY-SA

4.0.

https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Templos_virreinales_de_Ayacucho%23/media/File:Templo_de_La_Compa%C3%B1%C3%ADa,_Ayacucho.JPG

https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Templos_virreinales_de_Ayacucho%23/media/File:Templo_de_La_Compa%C3%B1%C3%ADa,_Ayacucho.JPG

40

Figure 2-3. Ornate wooden altar inside La Iglesia de la Compañía de Jesús de Huamanga, in

Ayacucho, Peru. Photo taken before restoration in 2000. Photo credit: “La Compania”

(https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:LaCompania.jpg) is in the public domain.

https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:LaCompania.jpg

41

Figure 2-4. Simplified representation of La Iglesia de la Compañía de Jesús de Huamanga, in

Ayacucho, Peru. Numbers indicate units excavated in 2008 and mentioned in the

present investigation. Figure created by Ellen Lofaro.

42

CHAPTER 3

ISOTOPE ANALYSIS OVERVIEW

Isotope analyses provide a useful method to infer past patterns of diet and mobility using

various tissues independent of other archaeological evidence. Recent multi-isotopic studies

combining carbon (δ13

C), oxygen (δ18

O) and strontium (87

Sr/86

Sr) analysis from bulk samples of

tooth enamel have contributed much to our understanding of ancient diet, environment, and

mobility in the Andes (Knudson et al., 2014, 2012, 2009; Thornton et al., 2011; Turner et al.,

2009; Knudson & Price, 2007; Lofaro et al., In review). Lead (208

Pb, 207

Pb, and 206

Pb) isotope

analyses in the Andes have focused mostly on environmental pollution (Cooke et al., 2009,

2008) but can also document individual mobility patterns (Turner et al., 2009; Knudson, 2004).

Similarly, isotope studies of carbon and nitrogen explore broad consumption patterns, and have

added much to our understanding of ancient paleodiet in the Andes (Tomczak, 2003; Finucane et

al., 2006; Kellner, 2008; Slovak et al., 2009; Knudson et al., 2012; Williams & Murphy, 2013;

Santana Sagredo et al., 2015). As with many methods seated within bioarchaeology, these types

of analyses can situate individuals with isotopic proxies of environmental factors or personal

behaviors. These individuals and associated isotopic proxies can then be assessed at the group or

sub-group level to aid in reconstructing how social and physical bodies were enmeshed with

generalized behaviors, institutions and their respective forces.

Isotope analysis is a powerful tool for investigating life histories of individuals. The type

of tissue analyzed represents different times in an individual’s life, based on initial tissue

formation and turnover times. Tooth enamel apatite tracks early childhood signatures, as it is set

once formed and does not remodel. The enamel signature corresponds to a narrow window of

time in an individual’s life, often two to three years, depending on the tooth analyzed (Reid &

Dean, 2006; Hillson, 2005; Dean & Beynon, 1991). Unlike tooth enamel, bone remodels

43

throughout an individual’s life. Therefore, bone collagen and bone apatite signatures will track

approximately the last ten to fifteen years of life, with specific turnover rates varying depending

on the type of bone and individual physiology (Katzenberg, 2008; Manolagas, 2000; Parfitt,

1983; Libby et al., 1964). In bone and tooth enamel apatite (Ca5(PO4)3OH), the elements of

carbon (C) and oxygen (O) may be incorporated within the carbonate phase (CO3) and substitute

with the hydroxyl group (OH). Nitrogen (N) and carbon (C) are present in dietary amino acids,

which are incorporated into proteinaceous tissues such as bone collagen when consumed, and the

elements of strontium (Sr) and lead (Pb) substitute for calcium (Ca) in bone and tooth enamel

apatite.

A brief overview of the isotope analyses used in this dissertation follows. Diagenetic

concerns affecting bone preservation, particularly with respect to bone collagen, are also

addressed.

Carbon Isotope Analysis

Stable carbon isotope ratios are useful in the analysis of prehistoric foodwebs and human

subsistence since they provide a semi-quantitative measure of the contributions of C3 and C4

plants to diet. This isotopic analysis relies upon the fact that different plants synthesize carbon in

several different ways. The majority of land plants, such as trees, shrubs herbs and some grasses

use the C3 pathway, also known as the Calvin-Benson cycle. A few plants, mostly in tropical

areas, use the C4 pathway, also known as the Hatch-Slack cycle (Pollard & Heron, 2008; Hatch et

al., 1967; Hatch & Slack, 1996). Plants of economic importance that use C4 pathways include

maize, millet, sugarcane, sorghum and some amaranths. This distinction has allowed many

researchers to track the spread of maize agriculture throughout the world in a manner that

complements archaeobotanical evidence (Larson, 1997). Isotopically, C3 plants have δ13

C values

that fall between -22‰ and -36‰, averaging -26.5‰. C4 plants have δ13

C values that range from

44

-14‰ to -11‰, averaging -12.5‰ (van der Merwe, 1992; Vogel et al., 1978). The 13

C values of

most natural materials are negative because of fractionation, which causes the samples studied to

have less 13

C compared to the geologic VPDB (carbonate) standard (Pollard & Heron, 2008).

To interpret enamel 13

Capatite values in humans, an appropriate offset must be applied.

Again due to fractionation, a plant’s isotopic composition does not remain static as it goes up the

food chain, e.g., herbivore 13

Cap values are offset from the dietary plant δ13

C values. In the case

of primates, Harrrison and Katzenberg (2003) cite an offset of 12‰. However, Prowse and

colleagues (2004) argue for an offset value of 13‰ and Tykot and colleagues (2009) suggest that

different offsets correlated with different time periods and diets in Chile, ranging from 9.5‰ to

13‰.

A third pathway, known as CAM or crassuleacean acid metabolism, complicates matters

somewhat. The CAM cycle is the least understood of the three cycles. Plants that use this

photosynthetic pathway have δ13

C values that range from -13‰ to -33‰, and thus overlap in

δ13

C values with plants using both the C3 and C4 pathways (Pollard & Heron, 2008; Kellner &

Schoeninger, 2007; Ranson & Thomas, 1960). However, only a few plants such as cacti, orchids

and bromeliads use the CAM pathway and their values tend to overlap with those of C4 plants,

ranging between -12‰ and -16‰ (Pollard & Heron, 2008). Because these plants are normally

limited to extremes—very arid environments, such as deserts, and a few tropical rainforests—

they typically have little impact on archaeological isotope investigations. The Ayacucho Valley,

located in the central highlands of Peru, is dominated by C3 plants and the only CAM plant

currently consumed is tuna, or prickly pear fruit (Opuntia sp.), which is not a dietary staple

(Finucane et al., 2006).

45

The carbon isotope composition of tooth enamel apatite in humans is directly related to

the isotope composition of plants (or the animals that consume them) ingested (Kingston &

Harrison, 2007; Farquhar et al., 1989; Ambrose & DeNiro, 1986). Teeth are formed during

childhood, so 13

C values derived from tooth enamel reflect diet during the chronological years

associated with the development and mineralization of the tooth crown. In contrast, studies of

13

C bone apatite and collagen reflect diet during the last 10 to 15 years of life because of

constant bone remodeling processes (Katzenberg, 2008). Given known fractionation values,

13

Cap is used as an indicator of whole diet, whereas 13

Ccollagen is thought to reflect protein in the

diet (Ambrose & Norr, 1993; Tieszen & Fagre, 1993). Kellner and Schoeninger (2007) modify

this model slightly, arguing that experimental animal studies did not find these measures

diagnostic. Instead, they argue that a model, in which 13

Cco is plotted against 13

Cap using three

regression lines to indicate a C4, C3 or mixed diet provides the best overview of carbon isotope

data. While this supports the complexity inherent within diet and dietary analysis through

isotopic proxies, it also reaffirms the use and utility of multiple isotope proxies using different

tissues to understand dietary patterning at the individual and group level.

Similar to humans, tooth enamel in most other non-human mammalian species does not

remodel during life, so enamel δ13

C values reflect diet during an animal’s early years,

specifically the time of dental development. Thus, appropriate offsets should also be added to

faunal tooth enamel δ13

C values in order to interpret them properly. Tooth enamel apatite offset

values range between 8‰ to 10‰ for carnivores, with an average of 9.5‰, while offset values

for herbivores range from 12‰ to 14‰, with an average of 13.5‰ (Kellner & Schoeninger,

2007; Jim et al., 2006; Passey et al., 2005; Howland et al., 2003; Ambrose & Norr 1993; Lee

Thorp et al., 1989; Krueger & Sullivan, 1984; Tieszen & Fagre, 1993).

46

Nitrogen Isotope Analysis in Humans and Animals

Nitrogen isotope ratios are often used in concert with carbon isotope ratios to reconstruct

diet. Nitrogen isotope ratios track trophic level consumption, and in some cases can provide a

measure of the consumption of animal protein, as δ15

N values increase between trophic levels by

about 3‰ (Schoeninger & DeNiro, 1984). Nitrogen isotope ratios reflect distinct differences

between marine and terrestrial diets, with terrestrial agriculturists having δ15

N values generally

ranging from 6‰ to 12‰, and those consuming primarily marine resources, such as the Inuit of

North America, having elevated δ15

N values ranging from 17‰ to 20‰ (Pollard & Heron,

2008). The δ15

N values for samples are determined by comparing the ratio of 15

N to 14

N in the

sample tissue to that in the international standard (AIR). Some researchers have used nitrogen

isotopes to argue that high-status individuals with high δ15

N values consumed more animal

protein (Ambrose et al., 2003). As with carbon and oxygen isotope analysis, a weaning effect

can be seen with nitrogen isotopes. Infants fed breast milk show higher nitrogen values

compared to their mothers, since they effectively consume their mothers’ protein and are thus

ostensibly feeding at a higher trophic level (Fuller et al., 2006).

There are several caveats that apply to nitrogen isotope analysis in diet studies. The 15

N

trophic-level enrichment value for humans is unknown. Although assumed to be 3‰, some

studies have estimated a 5‰ increase (Hedges & Reynard, 2007:1241), which can significantly

affect dietary inferences. Also, it remains unclear how the δ15

N of a sample corresponds to the

diet, as other factors such as pathogens, disease, or use of N2 fertilizers such as guano, may

influence the δ15

N values of consumer tissue (Poulson et al., 2013). Further, the impacts of

freshwater fish consumption (as opposed to salt water marine fish consumption) are not yet

ascertained, and present a problem similar to intermediate δ13

C values in CAM plants. Recent

research investigated the effects of starvation (Robertson et al., 2014; Mekota et al., 2006) and

47

arid environments (Santana-Sagredo et al., 2014; Hartman, 2011) on δ15

N values, as well as the

presence of bromine and elevated δ15

N values as indicators of a marine diet (Dolphin et al.,

2013). More laboratory research is needed to clarify how δ15

N values may be used to infer diet.

Oxygen Isotope Analysis in Humans and Animals

Oxygen is tightly bound within the crystalline apatite lattice of tooth enamel and, once

formed, mineralized tooth enamel is never replaced—a fundamental strength in using tooth

enamel apatite for isotope analysis (Kohn et al., 1998: 97). The dense, large crystal size of

enamel apatite is non-porous which makes it resistant to diagenesis (Hillson, 2005; Sponheimer

& Lee-Thorp, 1999).

Oxygen isotopes in tooth enamel serve as proxies for climate, particularly evaporation,

precipitation, aridity and evapotranspiration (Buzon et al., 2011; Kingston, 2011; Bowen et al.,

2007; Gat, 1996; Kohn et al., 1996; Dansgaard, 1964). The 18

O values in tooth enamel apatite

reflects the 18

O values in body water, which is impacted by numerous variables including

altitude, water sources, wind, physiology and behavior, though drinking water is thought to have

the dominant impact on the 18

O values in mammals (Kingston, 2011; Kingston & Harrison,

2007). In addition, Kohn and colleagues (1998, 1996) found that intra-tooth 18

O values vary in

herbivores by 0.25‰ to 2.9‰, likely because of differential growth rates and seasonality of food

and water sources rather than physiology. While only small amounts of tooth enamel (15-25mg)

were analyzed for this project using the multi-collector inductively-coupled plasma mass

spectrometer (MC ICP-MS), bigger vertical sections of tooth enamel (20-50mg) were cleaned

and homogenized during the sample preparation process to procure an aggregate ‘bulk’ sample

rather than target serial samples that would reflect seasonal 18

O values of enamel apatite.

48

Interpretation of 18

O values is difficult because multiple factors influence the

measurement. Humans and animals that live in the same areas do not necessarily exhibit the

same 18

O values. The water economy index, or expended energy compared to daily water intake

and outtake, has an effect on 18

O values (Kohn et al., 1996). While humans drink water every

day, some animals drink water only occasionally. Obligate water drinkers including humans tend

to reflect meteoric water 18

O values, whereas occasional water-drinking animals that obtain

most of their water from food seem to track humidity levels (Kingston & Harrison, 2007;

Sponheimer & Lee-Thorp, 1999, Kohn et al., 1996). Herbivores generally have water fluxes

three times greater than those of carnivores, and omnivores are intermediate between the two

(Nagy & Peterson, 1988); thus carnivores tend to be more 18

O depleted relative to herbivores

(Sponheimer & Lee-Thorp, 1999). Additionally, wild herbivores receive 35-50% of their dietary

oxygen from plants. C4 plants such as maize preferentially evapo-transpire in the (drier) late

afternoons and evenings, which elevates their 18

O values in comparison with those of C3 plants.

In moist, cooler settings, the difference in C4-C3 18

O values of plant water is less than 1‰, but

in arid settings it can be as large as 10‰, echoing the 13

C enrichment of C4 plants, though the

causes are not the same (Kohn et al., 1996). Levin (2006) developed a terrestrial aridity index

using 18

O values of mammalian tooth enamel, in which differences between obligate drinkers

and animals that extract the majority of their water from food increase with greater

environmental aridity, though this index is unlikely to be useful in the central highlands of Peru.

Knudson (2009) noted that water from a single river in the Andes can display a large range of

18

O values because of evaporation, so much so that it might exceed the range of variation

measured between regions. Boiling and brewing water for beverages such as mate tea and chicha

(a local fermented beer) may also affect 18

O values consumed (Turner et al., 2009).

49

Overview of Strontium Isotope Analysis

Strontium isotope analysis can be used by investigators to determine the mobility or

locality of humans and other animals in the landscape. Other methods that examine migration

and movement patterns of human populations in the past are generally indirect; however,

strontium is incorporated directly into biological tissues based on local foods and waters

consumed. As bedrock ages, strontium (87

Sr) is produced by the decay of the rubidium (87

Rb)

contained in the bedrock. The age and composition of the bedrock determine its strontium ratio.

Ratios of 87

Sr/86

Sr range from 0.702 to 0.750 in modern bedrock. Modern mass spectrometers

can measure strontium isotope ratios with high accuracy and precision (to 0.00001 or better), so

local 87

Sr/86

Sr variations are relatively easy to detect (Bentley, 2006). Strontium from the

bedrock ultimately makes its way into the water supply, soils, and plant and animal tissues. As

humans and animals eat and drink, strontium replaces some calcium in developing bone and

tooth enamel apatite. Heavy elements such as strontium exhibit negligible fractionation (Bentley,

2006; Stille & Shields, 1997), and thus the 87

Sr/86

Sr ratio in teeth and bone generally reflects the

materials ingested.

Bulk soil and rock samples can, however, differ in 87

Sr/86

Sr values from humans living in

the area because of weathering and micro-variations in the local geology (Bentley, 2006; Sillen

et al., 1998; Sillen & Sealy, 1995). Therefore, when discussing the 87

Sr/86

Sr values of humans

and animals, the term “biologically available strontium” is used to differentiate it from

geological substrate strontium (Price et al., 2002:119). Some researchers, e.g. Hodell and

colleagues (2004) used plant, water, rock and soil samples to characterize baseline biologically

available strontium. Others like Price and colleagues (2002) prefer to use archaeological fauna

with small distributional ranges, suggesting they are most useful for determining the biological

50

strontium available to humans in an area. When possible, both approaches should be used to

identify the local 87

Sr/86

Sr baseline for the studied environment.

A variety of factors may alter 87

Sr/ 86

Sr ratios, particularly for individuals with access to

marine resources. The 87

Sr/ 86

Sr of the ocean is a constant 0.7092 (Knudson et al., 2004;

McArthur & Howarth, 2004; Veizer, 1989), and eating marine plants and animals adds this

ocean strontium signal into the mix that composes biologically available strontium. In addition,

long distance trade and consumption of sea salt was hypothesized as a factor that might have

influenced the Sr ratios of individuals who lived and died in the Maya region (Wright, 2005).

Taphonomic processes including groundwater contact with human remains can also alter Sr

ratios in individuals (Jørgensen et al., 1999). This alteration is called diagenesis, or post-

depositional chemical change in a tissue. Tooth enamel is less prone to diagenesis than bone, the

latter having smaller crystalline structures (equaling greater surface area), higher organic content

and greater porosity (Bentley, 2006; Hillson, 2005; Budd et al., 2000).

Tooth enamel reflects the Sr ratios from the area in which the individual spent their

childhood, i.e. the time when their enamel was deposited, from birth to age 12, depending on the

specific tooth assayed. Bone collagen reflects an individual’s location during the last 10-15 years

of life because of remodeling and bone turnover rates similar to light isotope ratios discussed

above. Clearly, use of this analysis is predicated on the assumption that the studied individual

consumed local food. Although Sr ratios may be confounded if applied to modern individuals

(though modern food itself can sometimes be sourced, e.g., Kelly et al., 2005), it is believed that

the majority of food was produced and consumed locally during the early colonial period in Peru,

particularly by native Andeans. Thus, by studying an individual’s tooth enamel and bone Sr

ratios, it is possible to decipher whether they lived their childhood and their last ten years locally.

51

In this analysis, the “local” area may be determined by considering the geology of the area, the

bioavailable strontium values from archaeological fauna from this study and previous isotopic

research 10km outside of Ayacucho (Tung & Knudson, 2011, 2008).

Overview of Lead Isotope Analysis

Like strontium, lead isotopes exhibit negligible fractionation, and thus their isotope ratios

remain largely the same from when they are in bedrock to when they are incorporated into

human tissue. Additionally, just as rubidium (87

Rb) decays into strontium (87

Sr), radioactive

isotopes of uranium and thorium (238

U, 235

U, and 232

Th) decay into 208

Pb, 207

Pb, and 206

Pb,

respectively (referred to as 20N

Pb for brevity). Consequently, rocks have different Pb ratios

depending on the time elapsed since bedrock formation and the initial quantities of uranium and

thorium.

Similar to strontium isotope analysis, Pb ratios in a sample can be compared to those

from geological sources, from which it can be determined if the sampled individual came from

the area. However, people and animals acquire their isotope signatures from multiple sources,

and bulk samples of bone and teeth will record isotopic input from initial mineralization,

remodeling (bone only), and post-mortem contamination or alteration (Bentley, 2006;

Montgomery, 2002). Additionally, environments often display significant isotopic variation, and

even different minerals within the same rock can have widely different isotope values (Fullagar

et al., 1971), just as different parts of the same plant can show a wide variety of isotope ratios

(Reynolds et al., 2012; Klaminder et al., 2008). Lead is less mobile than strontium in the

environment, and relatively little lead from soil is incorporated into plants (Klaminder et al.,

2005), thus the lead isotope ratios in people and animals are more strongly influenced by the

inhalation and ingestion of dust than by ingested food (Kohn et al., 2013; McBride, 1994; Elias

et al., 1982).

52

Again, similar to strontium isotope analysis, the use of archaeological fauna provides the

best estimate of biologically available lead for a region. Because of global modern lead

contamination, modern animals and plants should not be used to create an isotopic baseline map

for Pb ratios in the archaeological past (Bindler, 2011; Klaminder et al., 2011). In addition,

aeolian deposits from non-local areas can influence regional isotope ratios (Evans et al., 2010;

Komarek et al., 2008; Whipkey et al., 2000). Anthropogenic lead contamination in individuals is

impacted by inhalation of Pb-contaminated soils, hand-to-mouth activity, occupational lead

exposure (particularly the transport of leaded dust from metallurgical work to domestic settings

(Roscoe et al., 1999)) as well as cultural practices such as the use of leaded cosmetics, which

have been linked to elevated concentrations of lead in the blood in some modern individuals

(Zahran et al., 2013; Qu et al., 2012; Gorospe et al., 2008; Kadir et al., 2008; Gogte et al., 1991;

Parry & Eaton, 1991). Archaeologically, lead contamination can be identified through

convergence towards a single value for the lead isotope ratios and high lead concentrations

among individuals in a burial population (Montgomery et al., 2006).

Overview of Regional Geology

Wise and Noble (2008) and Wise (2004) reviewed geologic research throughout the

Ayacucho Valley, noting that the geology of the central highlands is quite complex. Located

within the Mantaro River drainage basin, the city of Ayacucho is situated between the Western

and Eastern Cordilleras, in an area called the Ayacucho intermontane basin, as seen in Figure 3-

1. The city itself (and the ICJH) is located directly on Huari lavas, surrounded by the Ayacucho

Formation. The Huari lavas, which consist of lava from latitic to low-silica latitic composition as

well as pyroclastic rocks, erupted in several isolated areas after the Ayacucho Formation was

deposited. In addition to the city of Ayacucho, the archaeological site of Huari, capitol of the

Wari polity circa AD 600 - AD1000, is located on the Huari lavas. Noble and colleagues (1975)

53

presented a potassium-argon date (K-Ar) on a sample of low-silica latite lava that was 3.8±0.4

million years old (Ma). However, Wise and Noble (2008) dated a petrographically similar

sample of groundmass feldspar from exposed lava about ~55km away, which yielded a 40

Ar/39

Ar

age of about 5.65±0.17 Ma and a total-gas age of 12.78±0.03 Ma, showing that the excess argon

in the sample increased its apparent age by more than seven million years. It is possible that there

was also excess argon in the previously dated Huari lava sample, and that the true age is

significantly younger than the 3.8 Ma measured.

The Ayacucho Formation surrounds the modern city of Ayacucho. Wise and Noble

(2008) noted that it is a markedly heterogeneous unit that was deposited in the midst of the

Miocene epoch, around 8.7 Ma. Within the central basin area, it contains a mix of volcanic

sandstone, ash-flow tuff, conglomerate, reworked tuff and lacustrine sediments. To the southeast,

within 10km of the city, there is a Pleistocene alluvial fan that contains granitic rock debris,

while to the southwest, within 20km of the city, the older Atunsulla Tuff dates to the upper

Pliocene, circa 2.45 Ma. The latter is a composite ash-flow sheet containing quartz, sanidine and

biotite as well as pumice and phenocryst of sodic plagioclase (Wise and Noble 2008). The city of

Ayacucho is also within 30 km of the Cachi formation, which is composed of lacustrine and

fluvial sedimentary rocks dating to 2.76±0.03 Ma (Wise & Noble, 2008).

Although the geology of the region is diverse, the combination of Sr ratios derived from

geological samples and archaeological faunal samples provide an estimate of the biologically

available strontium that would affect the Sr ratios of humans within the study area.

54

Figure 3-1. A generalized geological map of the Ayacucho region, with the city of Ayacucho

highlighted within a white oval. Figure credit: Figure 2 from Wise and Noble (2008):

Revista de la Sociedad Geológica de España, 21(1-2): 73-91.

55

CHAPTER 4

MATERIALS AND METHODS

This investigation measures light and heavy isotope ratios in human and animal bones

and teeth to infer past patterns of diet and mobility of individuals interred beneath the church

floor of La Iglesia de la Compañía de Jesús de Huamanga (ICJH), a Jesuit church in Ayacucho,

Peru. Generally, heavy element isotopes such as strontium and lead provide geographical

context, while isotopes of lighter elements such as carbon, oxygen and nitrogen inform dietary

and environmental conditions of the individuals sampled.

Materials

All samples analyzed for this dissertation were recovered from La Iglesia de la Compañía

de Jesús de Huamanga (ICJH), in Ayacucho, Peru, and date to circa AD 1605 to AD 1767.

Excavation history and a site description are found in Chapter 3. There are no radiocarbon dates

for this site, but construction records document the church’s erection in AD 1605, and

archaeological excavations in 2008 hit sterile soil at 60cm, implying there was no occupation

underneath the current church (or that such a site is much deeper and capped with a layer of

sterile soil) (Talavera de la Vega & Benoki 2008). The end date is taken from the Papal edict that

banned the Jesuit organization in AD 1763 (Dominus ac Redemptor – 21 July 1773), which

essentially removed the members of that Roman Catholic religious order from Peru by AD 1767.

Additionally, results of lead isotope analysis demonstrate that the individuals tested at the ICJH

cluster strongly before the 19th

century’s industrial pollution, which will be discussed further in

Chapter 6).

Field Methods

Once skeletal analysis of the human and faunal remains was completed, bone and tooth

enamel samples were selected at the collections facility of La Dirección Regional de Cultura de

56

Ayacucho during the summer and fall of 2014. Prior to processing, all elements were fully

documented with photographs and notes before and after the sample was removed. A total of 29

teeth (6 faunal) and 48 bones (19 faunal) were processed. Three samples of soil (less than 2g

each) were taken from the bottom of the original excavation bags, and used to provide

preliminary environmental baseline values. Samples were catalogued and cross referenced using

Microsoft Excel. Data will be uploaded to an archive website for general access once they are

published.

Exportation Process

All requisite paperwork was completed and samples were successfully exported from

Peru with the permission of the national Ministry of Culture in November 2014, under the public

notice entitled “Resolución Viceministerial 114-2014-VMPCIC-MC.” Samples were hand-

carried by the author to the Bone Chemistry Lab, Department of Anthropology, University of

Florida, in Gainesville, Florida. As per the agreement, the remaining fragments of all samples

were returned to La Dirección Regional de Cultura de Ayacucho, Peru, in June 2016. A technical

analysis report was also submitted to the national Ministry of Culture in June 2016, and a future

publication in Spanish is planned.

Bone and Tooth Samples

Care was taken to minimize damage during the sampling procedure at the collections

facility of La Dirección Regional de Cultura de Ayacucho. Samples were cleaned by hand using

a toothbrush to aid identification. Sample preference was for preserved long bone shafts with

cortical integrity and teeth with well-preserved tooth enamel, and individual bone and tooth pairs

were prioritized in an effort to address questions pertaining to the beginning and end of life.

Adults were preferentially selected, though one child was included for comparison. That child

shows the expected weaning effect, with correspondingly higher isotope ratios (as discussed in

57

Chapter 3). Faunal samples were selected to avoid duplicate analyses (i.e. different individuals

were selected), and tooth sample selection was based on association (still in the socket) and

availability. Bone was selected based on its associated nature and non-diagnostic features.

Environmental Baseline Samples

To obtain a general baseline for strontium and lead isotope data, three environmental soil

samples were collected from the units underneath the floor of the ICJH. As the church is still

standing and is part of a modern, urban community, associated bedrock and water samples were

not available and/or are impacted by modern facilities.

Laboratory Methods

All samples were processed at the University of Florida Bone Chemistry Lab in the

Department of Anthropology and each sample was assigned a unique BCL lab number. Bone

collagen and apatite preparation procedures were based on Lee Thorp’s dissertation (1989) with

modifications made by the Bone Chemistry Laboratory. Sample processing for strontium and

lead analyses of precleaned tooth enamel sections and soil samples took place in the clean lab

facilities at the University of Florida Department of Geological Sciences. All bone and tooth

enamel samples were analyzed in the Stable Isotope Laboratory and the ICP-MS Laboratory in

the Department of Geological Sciences, University of Florida.

The δ13

C and δ15

N values were obtained from bone collagen, and δ13

C and δ18

O values

were obtained from bone apatite samples. The protocols for preparing, extracting, and analyzing

these tissues are discussed below.

Bone Collagen and Bone Apatite Pretreatment

About 2g of bone per sample was manually cleaned. The cortical surface was cleaned

using a soft toothbrush and scraped clean of visible impurities with a scalpel (blade #10).

Cleaned bone was placed in a labeled beaker, which was then filled with double-deionized,

58

distilled water (2x dH2O) and then sonicated for 10 minutes. Dirty dH2O was decanted and fresh

dH2O was added to the sample beaker and sonicated for another 5 minutes until the dH2O was

clean/clear after sonication. Tweezers were used to transfer the cleaned sample to a drying tray,

and tweezers were cleaned with dH2O between each sample to avoid contamination. Samples

were air-dried for at least 24 hours.

Samples were then reduced either by hand, using an acid-cleaned ceramic mortar and

pestle to crush the sample, or mechanically using a liquid nitrogen (LN2) SPEX mill. The

reduced samples were then sieved through 0.50mm and 0.25mm mesh, with the finest powder

produced (at the bottom) reserved for the apatite fraction (<0.25mm) and the larger homogenized

sample (0.25-0.50mm) reserved for the collagen fraction. Samples were stored in labeled glass

scintillation vials prior to chemical pretreatment.

Bone Collagen

A 15mL test tube was labeled, weighed (without its lid), and recorded for each sample.

About 0.5g of the 0.25mm to 0.50mm bone fraction was added to each tube, weighed, and

recorded. Then 12mL of 0.5 M HCl was added to each tube and agitated thoroughly. Afterwards,

the tubes were placed in a foam holder, with the lids slightly unscrewed to allow gas produced by

the demineralization reaction to escape. The acid was changed every 24 hours. To change the

acid, tubes were centrifuged for 10 minutes. The old acid was carefully decanted and the sample

tubes were refilled with new, clean 0.5 M HCl and gently agitated. The acid was changed until

only collagen flake pseudomorphs were visible, with the flakes suspended or slowly falling,

which occurred after about 6 to 7 days. Afterwards, the samples were rinsed to neutral pH. To

rinse to neutral, the old acid was carefully decanted and the sample tubes were filled with new

dH2O, and gently agitated, after which the tubes centrifuged for 10 minutes. After decanting the

rinsate, new dH2O was added to the tubes and gently agitated. This process was repeated 4 to 5

59

times, and several tubes were checked for pH to ensure that neutrality was achieved. Once all the

samples achieved neutrality, about 12mL of 0.125 M NaOH was added to the tubes and they

were gently agitated. After 16 hours, all tubes were again rinsed to neutral pH following the

process described above. A glass scintillation vial (20mL) was then labeled, weighed (without its

lid) and recorded for each sample. Once the samples achieved neutrality, about 10mL of 10-3

M

HCl was added to the tubes. The tube contents were then carefully transferred to their proper

glass vial, ensuring that no collagen flakes were stuck to the wall of the tube. The vials were

loosely capped and placed in an oven at 95°C for 4 to 5 hours. The tubes were cleaned with

dH2O. About 100µL of 1 M HCl was then added to each sample vial to aid in the dissolution of

the collagen, and the vials were returned to the oven at 95°C for another 4 to 5 hours. Afterward,

the contents of the vials were carefully transferred back to the “cleaned” tubes, which were

centrifuged for 20 minutes. The tubes were loosely capped to avoid pressure build-up from the

warm solution (which could cause the tubes to explode). The 20mL vials were cleaned with

dH2O and only the solution in each tube was carefully transferred back to its respective

“cleaned” vial. The vials (without lids) were placed in the oven at 65°C until the solution

condensed to about 2mL. Once condensed to the proper amount, the vials were removed from

the oven, allowed to cool, and then capped with the lid. The vials were then placed in the

freezer. Once completely frozen, the lids were slightly loosened and the vials were placed in the

freezer dryer in the Department of Geological Sciences for a minimum of 72 hours.

After removing the vials from the freeze dryer, the vials were weighed (without lids) to

calculate collagen yields. Then each collagen sample was loaded in a tin capsule and run on the

Finnigan-MAT 252 isotope ratio mass spectrometer.

60

Analytical precision for isotope analyses was 0.12‰ for δ13C and 0.17‰ for δ15

N (1σ of

standards run concurrently with samples) against the USGS-40 standard (n= 5) for the first run of

samples. For the second run of samples, analytical precision for isotope analyses was 0.061‰ for

δ13C and 0.13‰ for δ15

N (1σ of standards run concurrently with samples) against the USGS-40

standard (n= 5).

Bone Apatite

A 15mL test tube was labeled, weighed (without its lid), and recorded for each sample.

About 0.25g of the <0.25mm bone fraction was added to each tube, weighed, and recorded. Then

12mL of 50% NaOCl (sodium hypochlorite/bleach) was added to each tube and agitated

thoroughly. Afterwards, the tubes were placed in a foam holder, with the lids slightly unscrewed

to allow the gas produced to escape. The bleach was changed after 24 hours. To change the

bleach, the tubes were centrifuged and run for 10 minutes. The old bleach was carefully decanted

and the tubes were refilled with new, clean 50% NaOCl and gently agitated. After an additional

24 hours, all samples were rinsed to neutral pH (following procedures detailed above) and

checked to ensure no bleach smell remained. Once the samples achieved neutrality, about 12mL

of 0.2 M acetic acid (CH3COOH) was added to the tubes, and they were agitated thoroughly.

After 16 hours, the samples were rinsed to neutral and checked with pH strips. Once the samples

achieved neutrality, they were centrifuged one last time and then the excess dH2O was discarded.

The samples were then placed in the freezer. Once completely frozen, the lids were slightly

loosened and the tubes were placed in the freeze dryer in the Department of Geological Sciences

for a minimum of 48 hours.

After removing the vials from the freeze dryer, the tubes were weighed (without lids) to

calculate the apatite yield. Then each apatite sample was loaded in a tin capsule and run on the

Finnigan-MAT 252 isotope ratio mass spectrometer. Analytical precision for isotope analyses

61

was 0.015‰ for δ13C and 0.036‰ for δ18

O (1σ of standards run concurrently with samples)

against the NBS-19 standard (n= 8) for the first run of samples. For the second run of samples,

analytical precision for isotope analyses was 0.024‰ for δ13C and 0.047‰ for δ18

O (1σ of

standards run concurrently with samples) against the NBS-19 standard (n= 6).

Tooth Enamel – Strontium and Lead Isotope Analysis

Enamel samples were sectioned vertically using a high speed dental drill and cleaned of

surface contaminants and dentin using a high speed Brasseler NSK UM50TM dental drill with a

diamond tip under 10X magnification. Cleaned samples weighing between 40 and 60 mg were

placed in labeled 1.5ml microcentrifuge tubes with locking lids and transported from the

University of Florida Bone Chemistry Laboratory to the University of Florida Department of

Geological Sciences clean lab facility, where they were weighed using a high-precision

analytical balance.

Once in the clean lab facility and weighed, the tooth enamel samples were placed in pre-

cleaned Teflon vials, dissolved in 8 M nitric acid (HNO3) optima for 24 hours and then

evaporated in a laminar flow hood.

Samples were then dissolved in 3 mL of Re-Rh 5% HNO3. Vials were capped and placed

on a hot plate at 100°C for 4 hours to dissolve the residue. Depending on the sample weight,

amounts of sample from 0.08 to 0.12 mL were transferred to new, cleaned, and labelled Teflon

vials. Three mL of Re-Rh 5% HNO3 was added to the vials, which were capped tightly and

stored for trace element analysis.

Solutions remaining in the original vials were evaporated overnight in a laminar flow

hood in preparation for ion chromatography.

Ion chromatography was used to separate lead from strontium within a single sample.

Using conventional hydrobromic (HBr) procedures, lead was purified using columns packed

62

with Dowex 1X-8 resin. As this resin does not collect strontium, column washes were collected

for strontium separation. The collected lead samples were evaporated overnight in a laminar flow

hood prior to analysis on the mass spectrometer. The collected washes were dissolved overnight

in 2mL of 8N nitric acid, which produced bromine gas, eliminating any residual HBr (which

interferes with strontium separation). Afterwards, the samples were evaporated in a laminar flow

hood, and once dried, were redissolved in 3.5mL of 50% 3.5 N HNO3 optima.

Cation exchange columns with a resin bed volume of ~100 µl were then packed with Sr

Spec resin (EI Chrom Part #SR-B100-S). Columns were washed with 2.5mL of double de-

ionized, double-distilled water (4x dH2O) and then equilibrated with 2mL of 3.5 N HNO3

optima. The samples were redissolved in nitric acid and were loaded into the columns, following

procedures outlined by Pin and Bassin (1992). Four washes of 100 µl of 3.5 N HNO3 optima

took place over several hours. A final wash of 1mL of 3.5 N HNO3 optima occurred, and then

1.5mL of 4x dH2O was used to collect the strontium. The Sr solution was completely evaporated

overnight in a laminar flow hood.

Strontium and lead samples were analyzed at the ICP-MS Laboratory at the University of

Florida Department of Geological Sciences using a Nu Plasma multi-collector inductively-

coupled-plasma mass spectrometer (MC-ICP-MS). Lead was measured using Kamenov and

colleagues’ (2004) thallium-normalization technique. Strontium was measured using Kamenov

and colleagues’ (2006) time-resolved analysis (TRA) method. Long term reproducibility of the

87Sr/

86Sr NBS 987 using Kamenov and colleagues’ (2006) TRA was 0.710246 (2σ = 0.000030).

Trace elements were analyzed using an Element II (Thermo-Finnegan) ICP-MS (inductively

coupled plasma mass spectrometer) in the University of Florida Department of Geological

Sciences.

63

Sediments – Strontium and Lead Isotope Analysis

Three sediment samples homogenized using mortar and pestle and smapled for Pb and Sr

leachates in the UF Department of Geological Sciences clean lab facility. For each sample,

approximately 100mg of sediment was leached in pre-cleaned Teflon vials for two hours, using 4

mL of 0.1N acetic acid. The leachate was pipetted out and the sample was evaporated to dryness

in a laminar flow hood. Once dry, an additional 4mL of 2N hydrochloric acid was added, and the

leachate was pipetted off again. Both leachates were evaporated to dryness in a laminar flow

hood and then subjected to ion chromatography to separate lead and strontium in conjunction

with the ion chromatography of the tooth enamel apatite samples.

Standard Reference Materials

Oxygen and carbon values are reported relative to VPDB (Vienna Pee Dee Belemnite)

using NBS-19 as the standard reference material. Carbon and nitrogen values are reported

relative to USGS-40, and nitrogen is referenced to the international standard (AIR), which is

zero. Strontium ratios are reported relative to standard reference material NBS 987. Lead ratios

are reported relative to the standard reference material NBS 981.

64

CHAPTER 5

RESULTS OF ISOTOPE ANALYSES

The methodologies described in the previous chapter were used to analyze the remains of

the individuals buried in the ICJH. Results are presented in standard conventional delta notation

(Figure 5-1). In brief, strontium and lead isotope analysis of tooth enamel reveals that 35.3% (n=

6) of the 17 individuals sampled were not born locally, aligning well with historical

documentation of in-migration to the city of Ayacucho. Oxygen isotope analysis of bone apatite,

however, shows that all were living locally in Ayacucho for approximately the last ten years of

their lives, or in areas with similarly 18

O depleted water. Carbon isotope analysis of bone

collagen and bone apatite reveals a range of dietary practices among individuals, consisting of a

mixture of C3 and C4 plants. Nitrogen isotope analysis of bone collagen reveals varying levels of

protein consumption among ICJH individuals, or different nitrogen-enriched food sources, such

as quinoa, indicating that these individuals had access to wide variety of food sources. Animal

remains were found in the deposito, or storage area, and in all of the units within the ICJH that

contained human burials. Isotope analysis explores diet and mobility patterns of these fauna,

which include caprines (sheep/goats), chickens, cows, a pig and non-human mammals.

Collectively, the fauna show a variety of foddering habits, with carbon isotope analysis

indicating that most consumed high amounts of C3 plants, and several showed elevated nitrogen

values, indicating the consumption of nitrogen enriched food.

Heavy Isotope Results

Tooth enamel apatite was sampled from 23 human teeth and six faunal teeth. The 23

human teeth come from 17 different individuals found in Units 6, 7, 8, 14 and 17 in the ICJH.

The six faunal teeth come from six different fauna, identified to Family or Subfamily: one Suidae

(pig) and five Caprinae. Four of the caprine samples are from the deposito, or storage units

65

(Units 10 and 11). The fifth caprine sampled was found with human burials in Unit 17, and

likewise the suid sample was found with human burials in Unit 6. Three soil samples, with two

leachates each, were analyzed from three of the units excavated within the ICJH. Results of

strontium and lead isotope analyses are presented in Table 5-1.

Strontium Isotope Results

The 87

Sr/86

Sr ratios for the humans sampled ranged from 0.706045 to 0.709574. The

87Sr/

86Sr ratios for the fauna ranged from 0.705470 to 0.709336. Soil leachates from three units

within the ICJH were also tested and had 87

Sr/86

Sr ratios ranging from 0.705725 to 0.706604,

with an average of 0.706246 and a standard deviation of 0.000322. Simply examining the

human, faunal and soil data in Figure 5-2 shows that the soil samples (in green) bracket 16 of the

human samples.

Following the standard practice of using archaeological fauna to help establish an

environmental baseline for interpreting the human isotope results, the six faunal teeth were

examined. BCL-3351 appears to be an outlier, with an 87

Sr/86

Sr ratio of 0.709336. This outlier

individual was removed for baseline creation purposes, leaving the remaining five local fauna

with 87

Sr/86

Sr ratios ranging from 0.705470 to 0.706805, with an average of 0.705882 and a

standard deviation of 0.000576. To create a faunal isotope baseline (Price et al. 2002), one

common convention to delineate a range of two standard deviations above and below the

average, which for this study results in a baseline that ranges from 0.704730 to 0.707034,

indicated on Figure F using dashed black lines. Again, this range covers the same 16 human

strontium values as the soil leachates bracket. Those 16 samples have 87

Sr/86

Sr ratios ranging

from 0.706045 to 0.706598, with an average of 0.706403 and a standard deviation of 0.000187.

Individual 7 (BCL-3319), has an 87

Sr/86

Sr ratio of 0.70708, which is close to the upper 2σ cutoff

of 0.707033. The 6 non-local human 87

Sr/86

Sr ratios range from 0.708311 to 0.709574.

66

Strontium Concentration Results

Strontium concentrations (88

Sr ppm) in sampled humans and fauna are compared to their

respective strontium isotope ratios in Figure 5-3 (data listed in Table 5-1). Human strontium

concentrations range from 84ppm to 373ppm, while animal strontium concentrations are notably

higher, ranging from 554ppm to 1790ppm. There is no correlation between strontium isotope

ratios and strontium concentrations, even when the human and faunal values are examined

separately (Figure 5-4).

Strontium Isotopes Compared with Lead Isotope Results

Plotting 87

Sr/86

Sr ratios with 206

Pb/204

Pb isotope ratios shows a clear medial demarcation,

with local modern soil leachate samples and presumed local archaeological fauna and human

tooth enamel displaying 87

Sr/86

Sr ratios less than 0.707 (Figure 5-5). Six human samples (from 5

individuals) and one faunal sample (enamel from a pig canine) exhibit non-local values. As

discussed above, a seventh sample, from Individual 7 (BCL-3319), marginally misses the upper

2σ baseline cutoff of 0.707033. When the human and faunal data are compared further (Figure 5-

6), there also is clustering above and below the 206

Pb/204

Pb ratio of 18.6, at least for the

individuals whose values fall in the local 87

Sr/86

Sr range. This clustering is emphasized when the

human data are examined alone (due to a change in the scale of the graph’s lead units; Figure 5-

7).

Lead Isotope Results

When examined together, the multiple lead isotope results paint a more complicated

picture (Figure 5-8) than the strontium isotope results for the human individuals, fauna and soils

from the ICJH.

The 208

Pb/204

Pb ratios for the humans range from 38.517 to 38.666, and are bookended by

the fauna and soil samples. The 208

Pb/204

Pb ratios for the fauna overlap, but are slightly higher

67

than the human Pb ratios, ranging from 38.564 to 38.693. The 208

Pb/204

Pb ratios for the soil

leachates also overlap, but are slightly lower than those of the humans, ranging from 38.457 to

38.629.

The 207

Pb/204

Pb ratios are more complicated, with the data points much more scattered.

Human 207

Pb/204

Pb ratios range from 15.633 to 15.651. Faunal 207

Pb/204

Pb ratios range from

15.618 to 15.652, bookending both the human and soil samples. The fauna with the highest and

lowest 207

Pb/204

Pb ratios all exhibit “local” Sr ratios. The 207

Pb/204

Pb ratios for the soil leachates

range from 15.632 to 15.648, covering all but the three highest human 207

Pb/204

Pb ratios.

The 206

Pb/204

Pb ratios echo the 208

Pb/204

Pb ratios for all groups. Human 206

Pb/204

Pb ratios

range from 18.564 to 18.652, and are bookended by the fauna and soil samples. The 206

Pb/204

Pb

ratios for the fauna overlap, but are slightly higher than those of the humans, ranging from

18.574 to 18.702. The 206

Pb/204

Pb ratios for the soil leachates also overlap, but are slightly lower

than the human ratios, ranging from 18.481 to 18.639.

Table 5-2 below reports the mean, standard deviation and range for the human samples,

while Table 5-3 reports the same descriptive statistics for the faunal samples and Table 5-4

shows ratios for the soil samples.

Descriptive statistics were rerun on the human and faunal samples, after removing the

individuals with non-local strontium ratios (Tables 5-5 and 5-6). The suid (BCL-3351) with a

non-local strontium ratio does not have a high or low value for any of the lead ratios. However,

the human Individual 14 (BCL-3332) with a non-local strontium ratio does have the highest

206Pb/

204Pb ratio and the highest

208Pb/

204Pb ratio, though their

207Pb/

204Pb ratio is close to the

average. The rest of the human individuals with non-local strontium ratios did not have extreme

values for any of the lead ratios, as seen in Figure 5-9 below. Although some individuals with

68

non-local strontium ratios are visible on the fringes of the plots in Figure 5-9, the rest cluster

centrally by individuals with local strontium ratios.

Identifying a lead baseline from these results is complicated. Turner and colleagues

(2009) simply used the lead ratios from three faunal samples (excluding a 4th

faunal individual

that was a strontium outlier) to determine a local range for the site of Machu Picchu. Applying

the same methods to the present study, the local range for 206

Pb/204

Pb is 18.57 to 18.70; the local

range for 207

Pb/204

Pb is 15.618 to 15.65; and the local range for 208

Pb/204

Pb is 38.56 to 38.69.

Arguably, however, this is not the best method, as it shows that: 1) three soil samples and two

human samples have 206

Pb/204

Pb ratios lower than the faunal range; 2) the 207

Pb/204

Pb range

covers all observed study ratios; and 3) four soil samples and nine individuals (only one with a

non-local strontium ratio) have 208

Pb/204

Pb ratios lower than the faunal range.

Although the faunal lead ratios are generally higher than those of the humans, the soil

samples are generally lower (Figure 5-2; Table 5-7). If the soil samples are used in the same way

as the fauna to produce a baseline, all of the local ranges produced have human and faunal val

ratios ues above the top end of the range. The 206

Pb/204

Pb soil baseline range is 18.481 to 18.639,

with four people and four animals outside the range. The local range for 207

Pb/204

Pb is 15.632 to

15.648, with three people and one animal outside the range. The local range for 208

Pb/204

Pb is

38.457 to 38.629, with three people and four animals outside the range. The same individuals are

not outside the projected local ratios, and only one individual (BCL-3332) has a non-local

strontium ratio.

Lead Concentration Results

Lead concentrations (208

Pb ppm) were also evaluated during this study to explore lead

exposure among the individuals interred in the ICJH. Lead concentrations and their

corresponding 206

Pb/204

Pb ratios are plotted in Figure 5-10 and presented in Table 5-8.

69

Human lead concentrations ranged from 0.192ppm to 4.687ppm, whereas animal lead

concentrations ranged from 0.152ppm to 0.903ppm. There is no correlation between lead isotope

ratios and lead concentrations (Figure 5-10). The individual with the highest lead concentration

has a local 87

Sr/86

Sr ratio. There does not appear to be a correlation between non-local strontium

isotope ratios and lead concentration levels (Figure 5-11). The six individuals and one faunal

sample with non-local strontium ratios have lead concentrations ranging from 0.422ppm to

3.055ppm.

Tooth Enamel Trace Element Concentrations

Twenty eight trace element concentrations were run for each tooth enamel sample (n=

23) on an Element 2 ICP-MS. The results are presented in the Appendix. The rare earth elements

(La, Ce, Pr, Nd, SM, Eu, Gd, Tb, Dy, Ho, Er, Tm, Yb and U) all consistently have fairly low

values, indicating no diagenetic alteration in the samples. There is some exposure to metals,

however, as indicated by higher levels of copper (Cu), zinc (Zn), and lead (Pb).

Light Isotope Results

Bone collagen and bone apatite were sampled from 26 human bones and 22 faunal bones.

The 26 human bones come from 26 different individuals, and 12 have corresponding tooth pairs.

Three of the human bones sampled exhibited high C:N ratios that demonstrate poor preservation

due to diagenesis. These samples (BCL-3307, BCL-3310 and BCL-3342) were excluded from

analysis, leaving 23 human individuals analyzed, 11 with corresponding tooth pairs. These

human samples come from Units 6, 7, 8, 14, 16, 17, 18 and 19 in the ICJH. One of the samples,

BCL-3337, comes from a small child, age 3±1 year, and is excluded from most group analyses

due to the potential weaning effect on its isotope ratios.

The 22 faunal bones analyzed come from 22 different faunal individuals: two Gallus

gallus, two Bovidae, one Suidae, ten Caprinae, one cf. Caprinae and six non-human Mammalia.

70

One caprine (BCL-3357) has a matching tooth pair (BCL-3359). All have C:N values that were

in the acceptable range of 2.9 to 3.6 (Ambrose 1990). Values outside this range are thought to

have undergone diagenetic contamination and are excluded from analysis. Ten of the faunal

samples analyzed were recovered from the deposito, or storage area (Units 10 and 11). The

remaining 12 samples were found in association with human burials in Units 6, 7, 14, 16, 17 and

18.

Results of carbon, nitrogen and oxygen isotope analyses from bone collagen and bone

apatite are listed in Table 5-9.

Of the 23 individuals analyzed for light isotopes, 22 are adults. The last sample, BCL-

3337, comes from a small child, age 3±1 year, and as mentioned above, is excluded from most

group analyses due to the weaning effect influencing its isootpic values (18

O= -5.8‰; 15

N=

12.3‰) (cf. Fuller et al. 2006, White et al. 2004; Wright and Schwarcz 1998), as noted in Tables

5-10 and 5-11 below. For the remaining group of 22 adult samples, while the 13

Cco values show

little change, the standard deviation of the 13

Cap increases slightly, from 1.5 to 1.6, though the

range stays the same. The oxygen and nitrogen results all shift slightly. The 18

Oap range and

standard deviation both decrease, from -8.9‰ to -5.8‰ (SD= 0.8), to -8.9‰ to -6.5‰ (SD= 0.6).

Similarly, the 15

N range and standard deviation both decrease, from 8.6‰ to 12.3‰ (SD= 0.8),

to 8.6‰ to 10.7‰ (SD= 0.5).

Carbon Isotope Results

Adult human 13

Cap values range from -11.6‰ to -4.6‰, with an average of -9.2‰ (SD=

1.6; n= 22). The child, BCL-3337, has a 13

Cap value of -8.2‰. The six individuals with local

strontium ratios (as determined by their corresponding tooth pair) have 13

Cap values with a

smaller range, -10.4‰ to -8.3‰, and a slightly more negative average of -9.7‰ (SD= 0.8; n= 6),

71

as seen in Table 5-12. When the five individuals with outlier strontium ratios are considered

together (Table 5-13), their 13

Cap values shift more negatively, with a range of -11.6‰

to -8.2‰, and an average of -10.0‰ (SD= 1.3, n= 5). Two individuals with outlier strontium

ratios, BCL-3324 and BCL-3333, have the two most negative 13

Cap values, -11.6‰

and -10.7‰, respectively.

Faunal 13

Cap values range from -13.1‰ to -6.6‰, with an average of -10.6‰ (SD= 1.4;

n= 22), as seen in Table 5-14. Specifically, for the ten caprines (and one cf. caprine), 13

Cap

values range from -12.7‰ to -9.5‰, with an average of -11.1‰ (SD = 1.1; n= 11) (Table 5-15).

The two chickens (Gallus gallus) have very different 13

Cap values. The first, BCL-3368, has a

13

Cap value of -11.1‰, similar to the caprine average, while the second, BCL-3362, has a 13

Cap

value of -6.6‰, the highest of all the faunal samples. The two bovid samples did not differ as

much as the chickens. The first, BCL-3365, has a 13

Cap value of -13.1‰, the lowest of the

faunal samples, while the second, BCL-3378, has a 13

Cap value of -10.6‰. The suid sample has

a 13

Cap value of -9.7‰. Six samples were identified only as non-human mammals, and were

analyzed to provide data from as many units as possible within the ICJH. Their 13

Cap values

range from -11.7‰ to -9.6‰, similar to the caprines, with a slightly less negative average

of -10.1‰ (SD= 0.8; n= 6).

Human 13

Cco values range from -17.1‰ to -11.8‰, with an average of -14.8‰ (SD=

1.2; n=22). The child, BCL-3337, has a 13

Cco value of -14.1‰. The six individuals with local

strontium ratios (as determined by their corresponding tooth pair) have 13

Cco values ranging

from -15.6‰ to -13.7‰, with a more negative average of -15.1‰ (SD= 0.7; n= 6). When the

five individuals with outlier strontium ratios are considered together, their 13

Cco values have a

wider range, -17.1‰ to -13.8‰, and an even more negative average of -15.5‰ (SD= 1.3; n= 5).

72

Two of the individuals with outlier strontium ratios, BCL-3324 and BCL-3333, have the lowest

13

Cco values, -17.1‰ and -16.3‰, respectively.

Faunal 13

Cco values range from -19.5‰ to -13.6‰, with an average of -18.6‰ (SD= 1.3;

n= 22). When examined separately, the ten caprines (and one cf. caprine) have 13

Cco values

ranging from -19.5‰ to -17.2‰, with an average of -18.9‰ (SD= 0.7; N= 11). The two

chickens (Gallus gallus) have very different 13

Cco values, paralleling their bone apatite values.

The first, BCL-3368, has a 13

Cco value of -19.1‰, while the second, BCL-3362, has a 13

Cco

value of -13.6‰, which is highest of all the faunal samples. The two bovid samples did not differ

quite as much as the chickens. The first, BCL-3365, has a 13

Cco value of -19.5‰, the lowest of

the faunal samples, whereas the second, BCL-3378, has a 13

Cco value of -18.6‰. Their standard

deviation, 0.65, is much smaller than the corresponding standard deviation for their bone apatite

values, 1.8. The solitary suid sample has a 13

Cco value of -18.9‰. The 13

Cco values of the six

non-human mammals range from -19.1‰ to -17.3‰, with an average of -18.5‰ (SD= 0.7; n=

6), again similar to the caprines.

Nitrogen Isotope Results

Adult human 15

N bone collagen values range from 8.6‰ to 10.7‰, with an average of

9.7‰ (SD= 0.5; n= 22). The child, BCL-3337, age 3 ± 1 year, has a 15

N value of 12.3‰, the

highest in this study, and is potentially enriched in 15

N due to the weaning effect. The six

individuals with local strontium ratios (as determined by their corresponding tooth pair) have

15

N values ranging from 8.6‰ to 10.3‰, with the same average as the group, 9.7‰ (SD= 0.6;

n= 6). None of the individuals with outlier strontium ratios had outlier 15

N values, and when

those individuals are considered together, their 15

N values are quite similar, with a range of

9.1‰ to 10.7‰, and the same average, 9.7‰ (SD= 0.6; n= 5).

73

Faunal 15

N values range from 4.9‰ to 9.8‰, with an average of 6.3‰ (SD= 1.4; N=

22). The ten caprines (and one cf. caprine) have 15

N values ranging from 5.0‰ to 9.8‰, with

an average of 6.4‰ (SD= 1.5; n= 11). The two chickens (Gallus gallus) have high 15

N values.


N value of 7.9‰, while the second, BCL-3362, has a 15

N value

of 9.3‰, which is second highest of all the faunal samples. The faunal sample, BCL-3363, with

the highest 15

N bone collagen value, 9.8‰, is a caprine. The two bovid samples are quite

similar. The first, BCL-3365, has a 15

N value of 5.4‰, while the second, BCL-3378, has a 15

N

value of 5.3‰ (SD= 0.05; n= 2). The suid sample has a 15

N value of 7.1‰. The 15

N values of

the six non-human mammals range from 4.9‰ to 6.8‰, with an average of 5.7‰ (SD= 0.8; n=

6), an average similar to, but slightly less lower than that of the caprines.

Oxygen Isotope Results

Adult human 18

Oap values range from -8.9‰ to -6.5‰, with an average of -7.9‰ (SD=

0.6; n= 22). The child, BCL-3337, age 3± 1 year, has a 18

Oap value of -5.8‰, the highest of the

entire study, again likely due to a weaning effect. The six individuals with local strontium ratios

(as determined by their corresponding tooth pair) have 18

Oap values ranging from -8.9‰

to -7.8‰, with a slightly more negative average of -8.2‰ (SD= 0.5, n= 6). None of the

individuals with outlier strontium ratios had outlier 18

Oap values, and when those individuals are

considered together, their 18

Oap values are slightly higher, with the range decreasing

from -8.4‰ to -6.7‰, and a slightly less negative average of -7.7‰ (SD= 0.6, n=5 ).

Faunal 18

Oap values range from -9.4‰ to -1.5‰, with an average of -6.0‰ (SD= 2.2; n=

22). Specifically, for the ten caprines (and one cf. caprine), 18

Oap values have the same

range, -9.4‰ to -1.5‰, and same average, -6.0‰ (SD= 2.0; n= 11), containing the highest and

lowest 18

Oap values in this study. The two chickens (Gallus gallus) have different 18

Oap values.

74


Oap value of -9.1‰, while the second, BCL-3362, has a 18

Oap

value of -6.1‰. The two bovid samples differed more than the chickens, with the first, BCL-

3365, having a 18

Oap value of -5.4‰, and the second, BCL-3378, having a 18

Oap value of -

9.2‰. The suid sample has a 18

Oap value of -8.5‰. The 18

Oap values of the six non-human

mammals range from -7.2‰ to -2.2‰, with an average of -4.4‰ (SD= 1.9; n= 6).

Faunal Light Isotope Results Organized by ICJH Location

Twelve of the faunal samples came from Units 10 and 11 of the ICJH, which are

considered the deposito, or storage area. The other ten come from Units 6, 7, 8, 14, 16, 17 and

18, which are inside the church proper and contain human burials. The results of the deposito

fauna are listed in Table 5-16, while the results of the church burial fauna are listed in Table 5-

17. The combined faunal data are found in Table 5-14. The deposito fauna have slightly negative

13

Cap and 18

Oap values and slightly higher 13

Cco and 15

N values when compared to the group

data overall, and display the same range of values except for one 15

N value. The church burial

fauna have higher 13

Cap, 18

Oap and 15

N values, as compared to the group data overall (and

match the 13

Cco group average).

75

Figure 5-1. Conventional delta notation.

76

Figure 5-2.

87Sr/

86Sr ratios for humans, animals and soils, ICJH, Ayacucho, Peru. Solid black line indicates the faunal average and

dashed black lines indicate the upper and lower range of a 2σ baseline for local ratios. Individuals with more than one tooth

sample are identified by number and teeth sampled.

77

Figure 5-3.

87Sr/

86Sr ratios versus Sr concentrations (

88Sr ppm) for humans and fauna from the

ICJH, Ayacucho, Peru.

78

Figure 5-4.

87Sr/

86Sr ratios versus Sr concentrations (

88Sr ppm) for humans only from the ICJH,

Ayacucho, Peru, with the upper range of the 2σ local baseline indicated with a dashed

black line. The lower 2σ local baseline range, 07.70473 87

Sr/86

Sr, is off the scale of

this figure.

79

Figure 5-5.

87Sr/

86Sr ratios versus

206Pb/

204Pb ratops for humans, animals and soils, ICJH,

Ayacucho, Peru. The black dashed line indicates the upper 2σ local baseline for local 87

Sr/86

Sr ratios. The lower 2σ local baseline range, 0.770473 87

Sr/86

Sr, is off the scale

of this figure.

Figure 5-6.

87Sr/

86Sr ratios versus

206Pb/

204Pb ratiosfor humans and animals, ICJH, Ayacucho,

Peru.

80

Figure 5-7.

87Sr/

86Sr ratios versus

206Pb/

204Pb ratios for humans, ICJH, Ayacucho, Peru

81

Figure 5-8.

206Pb/

204Pb,

207Pb/

204Pb and

208Pb/

204Pb ratios for humans, fauna and soil from the

ICJH, Ayacucho, Peru.

82

Figure 5-9.

206Pb/

204Pb,

207Pb/

204Pb and

208Pb/

204Pb ratios for humans, fauna and soil from the

ICJH, Ayacucho, Peru. Individuals with non-local 87

Sr/86

Sr ratios are outlined in

black.

83

Figure 5-10.

206Pb/

204Pb ratios versus lead concentrations (

208Pb ppm) from the ICJH, Ayacucho,

Peru.

Figure 5-11. Lead concentrations (

208Pb ppm) versus

206Pb/

204Pb ratios from the ICJH,

Ayacucho, Peru. Individuals with non-local 87

Sr/86

Sr ratios are indicated within black

rectangles.

84

Table 5-1. Strontium and lead results from the ICJH, Ayacucho, Peru. Sample

#

Individual

# Type Unit Tooth

87Sr/

86Sr

88Sr ppm

208Pb

/204

Pb

207Pb

/204

Pb

206Pb

/204

Pb 208

Pb ppm

BCL-

3302 1 human 6

R PM4

Max 0.706087 239 38.546 15.6328 18.585 0.612

BCL-

3303 1 human 6

R PM3

Max 0.706081 239 38.569 15.6369 18.594 0.727

BCL-

3304 1 human 6 R C Max 0.706045 201 38.530 15.6344 18.564 1.088

BCL-

3306 2 human 6

R M2

Mand 0.70649 230 38.630 15.6487 18.642 3.022

BCL-

3309 3 human 6

R M2

Max 0.70624 179 38.517 15.64 18.569 0.191

BCL-

3311 4 human 6

R M1

Mand 0.706464 83.9 38.582 15.6438 18.580 4.693

BCL-

3312 4 human 6

R PM4

Mand 0.706437 112. 38.545 15.6366 18.587 1.755

BCL-

3313 4 human 6

R PM3

Mand 0.706422 113 38.553 15.6395 18.588 2.336

BCL-

3315 5 human 6

L PM3

Mand 0.708311 373 38.518 15.6351 18.570 0.422

BCL-

3317 6 human 6

R M2

Max 0.70654 239 38.607 15.6508 18.638 3.698

BCL-

3319 7 human 6

L M1

Mand 0.70708 115 38.622 15.6397 18.640 0.693

BCL-

3321 8 human 7

R M2

Mand 0.706501 228 38.632 15.6476 18.646 2.888

BCL-

3323 9 human 8

L M2

Max 0.706487 203 38.520 15.641 18.571 2.843

BCL-

3325 10 human 14 L C Max 0.708968 139 38.624 15.6443 18.630 3.055

BCL-

3326 11 human 14

L M1

Max 0.708318 102 38.586 15.6416 18.594 2.464

BCL-

3327 12 human 17

R M3

Mand 0.706563 156 38.611 15.644 18.632 2.042

85

Table 5-1. cont.

Sample

#

Individual

# Type Unit Tooth

87Sr/

86Sr

88Sr ppm

208Pb

/204

Pb

207Pb

/204

Pb

206Pb

/204

Pb 208

Pb ppm

BCL-

3329 13 human 17

L M2

Mand 0.70927 160 38.597 15.635 18.614 0.909

BCL-

3332 14 human 17

R M3

Mand 0.709321 162 38.666 15.645 18.652 2.846

BCL-

3334 15 human 17

L M3

Max 0.706362 247 38.552 15.639 18.583 2.853

BCL-

3344 16 human 7

R PM4

Max 0.706532 193 38.598 15.641 18.625 2.557

BCL-

3346 17 human 7

R M1

Max 0.706596 150 38.555 15.646 18.581 2.330

BCL

3348 14 human 17

R PM3

Mand 0.709574 159 38.598 15.641 18.574 1.968

BCL

3349 6 human 6

R PM3

Max 0.706598 249 38.604 15.649 18.635 3.715

BCL

3351 A1 Suidae 6

IncisorL

I2? 0.709336 777 38.644 15.644 18.648 0.747

BCL

3359 A2 Caprinae 11

L M3

Mand 0.70547 1230 38.615 15.618 18.640 0.264

BCL

3360 A3 Caprinae 10

L M2

Max 0.706094 700 38.693 15.634 18.702 0.688

BCL

3366 A4 Caprinae 11

R dPM1

Max 0.705537 879 38.564 15.635 18.574 0.410

BCL

3367 A5 Caprinae 11

L PM3

Max 0.705506 1790 38.646 15.624 18.681 0.903

BCL

3371 A6 Caprinae 17

R M2

max 0.706805 552 38.648 15.652 18.661 0.152

BCL

3381

0.1N

S1.1 Soil 0.1N 11 n/a 0.706604 n/a 38.457 15.632 18.481 n/a

86

Table 5-1. cont.

Sample

#

Individual

# Type Unit Tooth

87Sr/

86Sr

88Sr ppm

208Pb

/204

Pb

207Pb

/204

Pb

206Pb

/204

Pb 208

Pb ppm

BCL

3381 2N S1.2 Soil 2N 11 n/a 0.706455 n/a 38.494 15.637 18.516 n/a

BCL

3382

0.1N

S2.1 Soil 0.1N 6 n/a 0.706277 n/a 38.497 15.634 18.547 n/a

BCL

3382 2N S2.2 Soil 2N 6 n/a 0.705725 n/a 38.535 15.639 18.580 n/a

BCL

3383

0.1N

S3.1 Soil 0.1N 19 n/a 0.706394 n/a 38.629 15.646 18.639 n/a

BCL

3383 2N S3.2 Soil 2N 19 n/a 0.706018 n/a 38.621 15.648 18.636 n/a

87

Table 5-2. Descriptive statistics for 87

Sr/86

Sr, 206

Pb/204

Pb, 207

Pb/204

Pb, 208

Pb/204

Pb human tooth

enamel from the ICJH, Ayacucho, Peru.

N= 23 87

Sr/86

Sr 206

Pb/204

Pb 207

Pb/204

Pb 208

Pb/204

Pb 88

Sr ppm 208

Pb ppm

Mean 0.707099 18.604 15.641 38.581 185 2.161

Standard

Deviation

0.001178 0.0299 0.00505 0.0416 65 1.195

Range 0.706045 to

0.709574

18.564 to

18.652

15.633 to

15.651

38.517 to

38.666

84 to 372 0.192 to

4.687


Sr/86

Sr, 206

Pb/204

Pb, 207

Pb/204

Pb, 208

Pb/204

Pb faunal tooth

enamel from the ICJH, Ayacucho, Peru.

N= 6 87

Sr/86

Sr 206

Pb/204

Pb 207

Pb/204

Pb 208

Pb/204

Pb 88

Sr ppm 208

Pb ppm

Mean 0.706458 18.651 15.635 38.635 987 0.528

Standard

Deviation

0.001501 0.0442 0.0123 0.0430 454 0.296

Range 0.70547 to

0.709336

18.574 to

18.702

15.618 to

15.652

38.564 to

38.693

552 to

1790

0.152 to

0.903


Sr/86

Sr, 206

Pb/204

Pb, 207

Pb/204

Pb, 208

Pb/204

Pb soil samples

from the ICJH, Ayacucho, Peru.

N= 6 87

Sr/86

Sr 206

Pb/204

Pb 207

Pb/204

Pb 208

Pb/204

Pb

Mean 0.7062455 18.566 15.639 38.539

Standard

Deviation

0.0003219 0.0639 0.00631 0.0712

Range 0.705725 to

0.706604

18.481 to

18.639

15.632 to

15.648

38.457 to

38.629


Sr/86

Sr, 206

Pb/204

Pb, 207

Pb/204

Pb, 208

Pb/204

Pb human tooth


Sr/86

Sr from the ICJH, Ayacucho, Peru.

N= 16 87

Sr/86

Sr 206

Pb/204

Pb 207

Pb/204

Pb 208

Pb/204

Pb 88

Sr ppm 208

Pb ppm

Mean 0.706403 18.601 15.642 38.572 191 2.334

Standard

Deviation

0.000187 0.0294 0.00546 0.0378 54 1.232

Range 0.706045 to

0.706598

18.564 to

18.646

15.633 to

15.651

38.517 to

38.632

84 to 249 0.192 to

4.687

88


Sr/86

Sr, 206

Pb/204

Pb, 207

Pb/204

Pb, 208

Pb/204

Pb faunal tooth


Sr/86

Sr from the ICJH, Ayacucho, Peru.

N= 5 87

Sr/86

Sr 206

Pb/204

Pb 207

Pb/204

Pb 208

Pb/204

Pb 88

Sr ppm 208

Pb ppm

Mean 0.705882 18.652 15.633 38.633 1030 0.484

Standard

Deviation

0.000576 0.0494 0.0128 0.0478 494 0.309

Range 0.70547 to

0.706805

18.574 to

18.702

15.618 to

15.652

38.564 to

38.693

552 to

1790

0.152 to

0.903

Table 5-7. “Local” ranges for 206

Pb/204

Pb, 207

Pb/204

Pb and 208

Pb/204

Pb from the ICJH, Ayacucho,

Peru.

Baseline data source 206

Pb/204

Pb 207

Pb/204

Pb 208

Pb/204

Pb

Fauna 18.57 to 18.70 15.618 to 15.65 38.56 to 38.69

Soils 18.481 to 18.639 15.632 to 15.648 38.457 to 38.629

89

Table 5-8. Lead concentrations (208

Pb ppm) compared to 206

Pb/204

Pb ratios from the ICJH,

Ayacucho, Peru.

Sample # Type Non-local Sr ratio? 206

Pb/204

Pb 208

Pb ppm

BoneAsh

1400 Standard n/a n/a 8.746

3302 Human local 18.585 0.612

3303 Human local 18.594 0.727

3304 Human local 18.564 1.088

3306 Human local 18.642 3.022

3309 Human local 18.569 0.192

3311 Human local 18.580 4.687

3312 Human local 18.587 1.755

3313 Human local 18.588 2.336

3315 Human non-local 18.570 0.422

3317 Human local 18.638 3.698

3319 Human non-local 18.640 0.693

3321 Human local 18.646 2.888

3323 Human local 18.571 2.843

3325 Human non-local 18.630 3.055

3326 Human non-local 18.594 2.464

3327 Human local 18.632 2.042

3329 Human non-local 18.614 0.909

3332 Human non-local 18.652 2.846

3334 Human local 18.583 2.853

3344 Human local 18.625 2.557

3346 Human local 18.581 2.330

3348 Human non-local 18.574 1.968

3349 Human local 18.635 3.715

3351 Animal non-local 18.648 0.747

3359 Animal local 18.641 0.264

3360 Animal local 18.702 0.688

3366 Animal local 18.574 0.410

3367 Animal local 18.681 0.903

3371 Animal local 18.661 0.152

90

Table 5-9. Results of 13

C and 15

N on bone collagen and 13

C and 18

O on bone apatite from ICJH, Ayacucho, Peru. BCL # Taxon Element Unit 13

Cap

(‰,

VPDB)

18Oap

(‰,

VPDB)

15Nco

(‰,

AIR)

13Cco

(‰,

VPDB)

wt %N wt %C C:N 13Cap-co

(‰,

VPDB)

3301 human R max 6 -8.3 -8.2 9.6 -13.7 14.82 41.67 3.3 5.40

3305 human Max 6 -10.5 -7.0 9.9 -15.3 14.98 41.59 3.2 4.75

3308 human L max 6 -9.3 -8.7 9.5 -15.0 13.90 39.05 3.3 5.71

3314 human R mand 6 -9.1 -6.7 9.2 -14.7 15.35 42.98 3.3 5.62

3316 human R zygomatic 6 -10.2 -8.7 8.6 -15.1 12.53 36.38 3.4 5.45

3318 human L mand 6 -8.2 -7.8 9.8 -13.8 14.30 39.91 3.3 5.63

3320 human R mand 7 -10.1 -7.8 10.3 -15.3 14.36 40.80 3.3 5.24

3322 human Cranial 8 -10.1 -8.9 9.7 -15.5 14.78 41.83 3.3 5.37

3324 human Occipital 14 -11.6 -8.4 9.1 -17.1 14.92 42.04 3.3 5.45

3328 human Mand 17 -9.0 -7.9 9.7 -14.6 14.89 41.22 3.2 5.66

3330 human L mand 17 -10.4 -8.1 9.7 -15.8 15.13 41.74 3.2 5.41

3331 human L mand 17 -8.0 -8.2 9.3 -13.6 14.57 40.36 3.2 5.58

3333 human R mand 17 -10.7 -7.6 10.7 -16.3 15.17 41.69 3.2 5.60

3335 human L femur 19 -8.1 -8.7 9.4 -14.2 13.92 39.01 3.3 6.09

3336 human Ulna 19 -4.6 -7.3 9.2 -11.8 14.87 41.03 3.2 7.11

3337* human L humerus 19 -8.2* -5.8* 12.3* -14.1* 15.22 41.75 3.2 5.87

3338 human L metatarsal 18 -7.6 -7.4 9.0 -13.5 15.40 42.11 3.2 5.89

3339 human R ulna 18 -8.9 -7.4 9.3 -14.5 15.18 41.52 3.2 5.53

3340 human Mand 18 -7.0 -8.5 9.7 -13.2 11.45 32.41 3.3 6.16

3341 human L rib 16 -10.6 -7.6 10.7 -15.7 15.04 41.54 3.2 5.16

3343 human Meta-tarsal 3 7 -10.5 -6.5 10.1 -15.4 15.51 42.35 3.2 4.92

3345 human R max 7 -10.4 -7.9 10.2 -15.6 13.94 39.16 3.3 5.29

3347 human Mand 17 -10.0 -7.8 10.1 -15.9 14.37 39.06 3.2 5.89

3353 Caprinae L scapula 6 -11.4 -6.6 5.9 -18.2 14.90 40.86 3.2 6.78

3354 Suidae Metapodial 6 -9.7 -8.5 7.1 -18.9 14.95 40.71 3.2 9.19

3355 Mammalia long bone

frag

7 -9.6 -3.3 5.2 -17.3 15.25 41.45 3.2 7.71

3356 Mammalia long bone

frag 8 -9.9 -2.2 4.9 -19.1 15.01 41.07 3.2 9.19

3357 Caprinae Mand 11 -9.5 -7.5 7.3 -18.9 14.13 38.71 3.2 9.45

91

Table 5-9. cont. BCL # Taxon Element Unit 13

Cap

(‰,

VPDB)

18Oap

(‰,

VPDB)

15Nco

(‰,

AIR)

13Cco

(‰,

VPDB)

wt %N wt %C C:N 13Cap-co

(‰,

VPDB)

3358 cf.

Caprinae

R scapula 11 -12.3 -5.0 5.4 -19.4 15.20 40.97 3.1 7.10

3361 Caprinae 2nd phalanx,

unfused

10 -10.4 -9.4 5.5 -19.4 14.16 38.97 3.2 8.96

3362 Gallus

gallus

R tarso-

metatarsus

10 -6.6 -6.1 9.3 -13.6 14.85 41.21 3.2 7.00

3363 Caprinae R scapula 10 -11.9 -1.5 9.8 -19.0 14.98 42.24 3.3 7.11

3364 Caprinae Phalanx,

2nd, unfused

11 -11.0 -7.1 6.3 -19.4 14.44 37.28 3.0 8.42

3365 Bovidae R scapula 11 -13.1 -5.4 5.4 -19.5 15.30 42.10 3.2 6.34

3368 Gallus

gallus

L femur 11 -11.1 -9.1 7.9 -19.1 15.15 41.71 3.2 8.00

3369 Caprinae Mand 11 -9.5 -7.1 5.0 -17.2 15.59 42.54 3.2 7.65

3370 Caprinae Phalanx, 2nd 11 -12.7 -5.5 8.0 -19.5 15.51 42.19 3.2 6.88

3372 Mammalia Shaft frag,

metapodial?

17 -9.6 -7.2 5.7 -19.1 13.94 38.16 3.2 9.50

3373 Caprinae R

calcaneous,

fused

18 -10.2 -6.6 6.7 -18.9 15.28 42.07 3.2 8.75

3374 Mammalia calcaneous 16 -10.1 -4.9 6.8 -18.4 15.46 41.98 3.2 8.25

3375 Mammalia Rib 16 -9.8 -2.8 5.0 -18.3 15.14 41.34 3.2 8.58

3376 Caprinae R meta-

carpal

14 -11.4 -5.2 5.0 -19.3 15.78 43.72 3.2 7.85

3377 Mammalia Metapodial 14 -11.7 -5.8 6.4 -18.8 15.33 41.79 3.2 7.12

3378 Bovidae Femur 11 -10.6 -9.2 5.3 -18.6 15.17 42.51 3.3 8.01

3379 Caprinae R Rib 10 -11.9 -5.0 5.5 -18.4 15.43 41.85 3.2 6.47

*child

92


Cap, 18

O, 13

Cco and 15

N of all human bone samples

from ICJH, Ayacucho, Peru.

N= 23

13Cap

(‰, VPDB)

18

Oap

(‰, VPDB)

15

Nco

(‰, AIR)

13

Cco

(‰, VPDB)

Mean -9.2 -7.8 9.8 -14.8

Standard

Deviation 1.5 0.8 0.8 1.2

Range -11.6 to -4.6 -8.9 to -5.8 8.6 to 12.3 -17.1 to -11.8


Cap, 18

O, 13


ICJH, Ayacucho, Peru; adults only.

N= 22

13Cap

(‰, VPDB)

18

Oap

(‰, VPDB)

15

Nco

(‰, AIR)

13

Cco

(‰, VPDB)

Mean -9.2 -7.9 9.7 -14.8

Standard

Deviation 1.6 0.6 0.5 1.2

Range -11.6 to -4.6 -8.9 to -6.5 8.6 to 10.7 -17.1 to -11.8


Cap, 18

O, 13


ICJH, Ayacucho, Peru with “local” 87

Sr/86

Sr ratios.

N= 6

13Cap

(‰, VPDB)

18

Oap

(‰, VPDB)

15

Nco

(‰, AIR)

13

Cco

(‰, VPDB)

Mean -9.7 -8.2 9.7 -15.1

Standard

Deviation 0.8 0.5 0.6 0.7

Range -10.4 to -8.3 -8.9 to -7.8 8.6 to 10.3 -15.6 to -13.7


Cap, 18

O, 13


ICJH, Ayacucho, Peru with “non-local” 87

Sr/86

Sr ratios.

N= 5

13Cap

(‰, VPDB)

18

Oap

(‰, VPDB)

15

Nco

(‰, AIR)

13

Cco

(‰, VPDB)

Mean -10.0 -7.7 9.7 -15.5

Standard

Deviation 1.3 0.6 0.6 1.3

Range -11.6 to -8.2 -8.4 to -6.7 9.1 to 10.7 -17.1 to -13.8

93


Cap, 18

O, 13


from ICJH, Ayacucho, Peru.

N= 22

13Cap

(‰, VPDB)

18

Oap

(‰, VPDB)

15

Nco

(‰, AIR)

13

Cco

(‰, VPDB)

Mean -10.6 -6.0 6.3 -18.6

Standard

Deviation 1.4 2.2 1.4 1.3

Range -13.1 to -6.6 -9.4 to -1.5 4.9 to 9.8 -19.5 to -13.6


Cap, 18

O, 13


separated by taxa from ICJH, Ayacucho, Peru. Taxon Statistic

13Cap

(‰, VPDB)

18

Oap

(‰, VPDB)

15

Nco

(‰, AIR)

13

Cco

(‰,VPDB)

Caprinae

N= 10 &

cf. Caprinae

N=1

Mean -11.1 -6.0 6.4 -18.9

Standard

Deviation 1.1 2.0 1.5 0.7

Range -12.7 to -9.5 -9.4 to -1.5 5.0 to 9.8 -19.5 to -17.2

Non-human

Mammalia

N= 6

Mean -10.1 -4.4 5.7 -18.5

Standard

Deviation 0.8 1.9 0.8 0.7

Range -11.7 to -9.6 -7.2 to -2.2 4.9 to 6.8 -19.1 to -17.3

Bovidae

N= 2

Mean -11.8 -7.3 5.4 -19.0

Standard

Deviation 1.8 2.7 0.05 0.65

Range -13.1 to -10.6 -9.2 to -5.4 5.3 to 5.4 -19.5 to -18.6

Suidae

N= 1 N/A; -9.7 -8.5 7.1 -18.9

Gallus gallus

N= 2

N/A;

BCL-3368 -11.1 -9.1 7.9 -19.1

N/A;

BCL-3362 -6.6 -6.1 9.3 -13.6

94


Cap, 18

O, 13

Cco and 15of deposito faunal bone

samples from units 10 and 11 of the ICJH, Ayacucho, Peru.

N= 12

13Cap

(‰, VPDB)

18

Oap

(‰, VPDB)

15

Nco

(‰, AIR)

13

Cco

(‰, VPDB)

Mean -10.9 -6.5 6.7 -18.5

Standard

Deviation 1.8 2.3 1.7 1.7

Range -13.1 to -6.6 -9.4 to -1.5 5.0 to 9.8 -19.3 to -13.6


Cap, 18

O, 13

Cco and 15of the church burial faunal

bone samples from units 6, 7, 8, 14, 16, 17 and 18 of the ICJH, Ayacucho, Peru.

N= 10

13Cap

(‰, VPDB)

18

Oap

(‰, VPDB)

15

Nco

(‰, AIR)

13

Cco

(‰, VPDB)

Mean -10.3 -5.3 5.9 -18.6

Standard

Deviation 0.8 2.0 0.8 0.6

Range -11.7 to -9.6 -8.5 to -2.2 4.9 to 7.1 -19.3 to -17.3

95

CHAPTER 6

DISCUSSION

The research described above provides important stepping-stones towards a greater

understanding of the individuals buried beneath the ICJH, which in turn cumulatively provide a

starting point for future investigations using this community as a baseline. The data derived fit

well within the construct that Brumfield (2000) synthesizes to attempt to form a consensus on

agency, which stresses the need to confront ethnocententrism and present well-supported

arguments. What becomes clear from this case study, however, is that the people studied in this

dissertation made intentional choices and actions to better their lives under Spanish dominion,

that they have came together on some level as a socially constituted group within the Catholic

church, that they utilized the then present-day structures of both religion and Spanish law to

achieve their goals, and that the physical structure of the church serves as an on-going mortuary

site and as a monument to their collective achievements.

The discussion which follows underscores the value of the present isotopic approach to

begin to document the lifeways, deathways, and culture of these native individuals using

strontium, strontium concentration, lead, lead concentration, carbon, oxygen and nitrogen isotope

analysis. These findings are then linked to other bioarchaeological, geological, and historical

studies to further develop the profile and agency of these indigenous people as they resist and

adapt to the strictures and structures imposed by their Spanish colonizers.

Strontium Ratios

Because of the staggering cost in lives caused by mita labor and the sheer number of

individuals engaging in contract labor during the 17th

and 18th

centuries, as documented in

historical records, it is likely that some of the individuals buried underneath the ICJH were not

born locally. Strontium and lead isotope analyses are useful tools for examining mobility in the

96

past, and can shed light on this hypothesized migration. While local individuals were certainly

involved in the life of the church and buried underneath the ICJH, if census accounts

documenting high numbers of rural individuals coming to the city of Ayacucho are correct, then

we would expect to discover non-local individuals underneath the church floor, as revealed

through strontium and lead isotope analyses. Their existence would support the argument that

indigenous people used mobility as a strategy to evade and avoid labor in the mines. Conversely,

individuals could have moved for other reasons than escaping the forced mita labor system,

when considering them as independent agents. While such complexity raises more questions than

it answers, it also is a strength of agency-based analysis, in which people are not passive but are

complex actors making complex decisions affecting their lives while negotiating the current

structures.

Seven of the strontium ratios from individuals are non-local, while 16 fall within the local

range (Table 5-1 and Figure 5-2). The 16 local strontium ratios come from 11 individuals, with a

range of 87

Sr/86

Sr from 0.706045 to 0.706598 and an average 87

Sr/86

Sr of 0.70643. The seven

non-local strontium ratios come from six individuals. Thus, of the 17 individuals sampled, 35.3%

(n= 6/17) have non-local ratios, indicating that at some point after their tooth enamel was

formed, they moved to Ayacucho and were ultimately buried in the ICJH. This mobility makes

sense in the context of the historical in-migration of rural workers and artisans to Ayacucho, and

is perhaps even underestimated. It is possible that some of the “local” individuals are not from

Ayacucho but are from areas with similar biologically available strontium ratios, as previous

studies identified other regions in the Andes with similar strontium averages. The Chen Chen site

in the Moquegua Valley of southern Peru, for example, has a range of 87

Sr/86

Sr from 0.7059 to

0.7067 and an 87

Sr/86

Sr average of 0.7062, based upon the analysis of three modern guinea pigs

97

(Knudson et al., 2004). Similarly, sites from the Nasca region of Peru on the southern coast have

a range of 87

Sr/86

Sr ratios from 0.7056 to 0.7073, with an average of 0.7063 (Conlee et al., 2009).

The range and average strontium ratios from this study in Ayacucho are only slightly higher than

the ratios identified at Conchopata, an earlier archaeological site 10km north of Ayacucho. Tung

and Knudson (2011) found the range of 87

Sr/86

Sr at Conchopata to be 0.70548 to 0.70610. While

these statistics may muddy the waters more than clarify them, it is clear that indigenous

Peruvians were on the move during the early colonial period.

With respect to the six individuals buried at the ICJH in Ayacucho who were not born

locally, it is difficult to determine their initial place of residence (i.e., where their tooth enamel

formed during childhood). As noted in Chapter 3 (Overview of Regional Geology) and seen in

Figure 3-1, the central highlands are quite heterogeneous geologically (Wise & Noble, 2008).

The burial site in this study, located in the Ayacucho Valley, is situated between the Western and

Eastern Cordillera mountain ranges. The Western Cordilleras contain mostly Cenozoic volcanic

rocks located on top of Mesozoic sediments, whereas the Eastern Cordilleras, which contain the

sites of Cuzco and Machu Picchu, are composed mainly of Paleozoic sediments. Because

volcanic rock is relatively less radiogenic than Paleozoic rock formations in the Eastern

Cordilleras, the corresponding 87

Sr/86

Sr isotope ratios of individuals who grew up in Ayacucho

should be lower than those of individuals born and raised near Machu Picchu, and indeed, they

are. The local range of 87

Sr/86

Sr ratios for Machu Picchu is from 0.7125 to 0.7152 (Turner et al.,

2009). However, as Wise and Noble (2008) note, the geology of the south central Andes is

complex. Mesozoic and Cenozoic granite rocks, among others, are found in both mountain

ranges and complicate the use of strontium isotopes for inferring mobility patterns.

98

Although Ayacucho sits on Huari lavas, it is surrounded by the older Ayacucho formation

and several other geological features. The low human and faunal local 87

Sr/86

Sr averages

(0.706403 and 0.705882, respectively) match the surrounding local volcanic geology and its

expected lower strontium ratios. However, as the geological formations change spatially within

the region, it is possible that the non-local individuals were born not far from Ayacucho, in areas

with higher geological strontium signatures. It is also possible that they migrated from areas in

the Andes much farther away, with geological and biologically available 87

Sr/86

Sr ratios ranging

from 0.708 to 0.709. These higher strontium ratios overlap with those from individuals buried at

archaeological sites such as Chokepukio in the Cuzco highlands (Andrushko et al., 2009); and

Tiwanaku in the Lake Titicaca highlands (Knudson et al., 2004).

There is a strong local 87

Sr/86

Sr signal for the individuals and fauna buried underneath the

ICJH (Table 5-1 and Figure 5-2. The soil leachate samples bracket the 16 local human samples.

The baseline 87

Sr/86

Sr signal created from the average of the archaeological fauna results and its

range of two standard deviations also indicates the same 16 samples are local. Five of the

archaeological fauna samples exhibited local ratios, while the sixth was clearly non-local (and

excluded from baseline calculations, following the precedent of Tung and Knudson (2008) at the

nearby site of Conchopata).

The non-local suid sample’s 87

Sr/86

Sr ratio of 0.709336 is similar to those obtained from

Individual 14 (BCL-3332: 0.709321; BCL-3348= 0.709574), though they were not buried in the

same units in the church. The Suidae incisor was found in Unit 6, whereas Individual 14 was

found in Unit 17. Perhaps pigs were brought in from other areas for specific church rituals,

though the inclusion of a pig incisor with human remains is not part of Catholic tradition.

Perhaps it was part of a syncretic blending of beliefs, or even a pluralism of beliefs, combining

99

animal offerings with human burials underneath the floor of a Catholic church, again a sign of

active indigenous agency, and potentially actions of resistance and self-empowerment.

Strontium Concentrations

Strontium concentrations in sampled fauna were notably higher than those in sampled

humans (Figure 5-3). This was expected, since plants contain high concentrations of strontium

and the fauna likely ate more plants than did the humans. Faunal strontium concentrations range

from 552ppm to 1790ppm, while the human strontium concentrations range from 84ppm to

373ppm. There is no correlation between strontium isotope ratios and strontium concentrations

(Figure 5-4). A correlation would suggest a distinct mixing line between two endmembers. The

random scatter of the ICJH data, however, could be caused by a relatively homogenized

geochemical environment and similar strontium ratios, or it could suggest substantial dietary

differences among individuals, leading to high variability in strontium concentrations. Even

within specific individuals, though, strontium concentrations may differ among teeth, lending

credence to the latter theory of dietary difference, as a changing childhood diet could be captured

at different points in time by the staggered enamel formation of an individual’s teeth. This also

sheds light on how framing, or Hodder’s (2000) narrative windows, can change or impact an

argument, as combining things can often minimize complexity.

Lead Ratios

Whereas the strontium results are fairly straightforward, the lead results are not; it is a

complicated process even to calculate an environmental baseline. Research by Mamami and

colleagues (2008) found that the general 206

Pb/204

Pb range for the region is between18.38 and

18.9. This is much broader than the 206

Pb/204

Pb ranges found at the ICJH, which are 18.56 to

18.65 for the humans, 18.57 to 18.7 for the fauna and 18.48 to 18.64 for the soil leachates.

100

Although several baseline calculations were crafted in efforts to determine a local signal,

none were completely satisfactory. When the 87

Sr/86

Sr results are plotted against the 206

Pb/204

Pb

results (Figure 5-5), it is clear that the individuals with non-local strontium ratios do not have

outlier lead ratios. When 206

Pb/204

Pb valu ratios es are plotted against 208

Pb/204

Pb ratios (Figure

5-8), the soil samples from the ICJH and the faunal samples bracket the human samples. The

206Pb/

204Pb versus

207Pb/

204Pb plot is more scattered but nevertheless reveals the same bookend

effect.

This variability in lead ratios could be a consequence of several factors, including

heterogeneity of lead deposits in the area. Additionally, point-source exposure to different lead

sources, from leaded paint and cosmetics to artisanal mining, could influence an individual’s

lead values. Modern studies show that small children often have higher lead concentration values

because of their tendency to crawl and then put their hands in their mouths, leading to more lead

particulate exposure, particularly if one of more household members works in a metallurgical

occupation, and transports lead-bearing dust home on their clothing or by other means (Qu et al.,

2012; Roscoe et al., 1999; Zahran et al., 2013).

Ultimately, the close clustering of lead isotope ratios for all individuals, which do not

reflect the variation seen in the strontium isotope results, suggest what Montgomery and

colleagues (2010) call “cultural focusing.” That is, tight clustering of individual lead isotope

values (moreso than suggested by the local geology) and an increase in lead concentrations

(discussed below) argue strongly for in-vivo exposure to anthropogenic lead. This tight

clustering is obvious when compared with Turner and colleagues’ (2009) lead isotope results

from the earlier site of Machu Picchu, as seen in Figure 6-1.

101

In addition, the range of lead isotope ratios seen in the individuals buried underneath the

ICJH support their historical nature. Lead ratios shift significantly worldwide in the late 19th

and

20th

century, with research documenting much less radiogenic 206

Pb/204

Pb ratios in South

America that consistently fall below 18.0 (Kamenov & Gulson, 2014). The 206

Pb/204

Pb ratios

from this study range from 18.56 to 18.65 for the humans and 18.57 to 18.7 for the fauna,

indicating their historical, as opposed to modern, origin.

Lead Concentrations

Lead concentrations (208

Pb ppm) for the humans in this study range from 0.1916ppm to

4.6873ppm, while animal lead concentrations range from 0.1524ppm to 0.9034ppm (Tables 5-2

and 5-3). There is no significant correlation between lead isotope ratios and lead concentrations

(Figure 5-10). Nor does there appear to be a correlation between non-local strontium ratios and

lead concentrations (Table 5-8, Figure 5-11). Individuals and one animal with non-local

strontium ratios have lead concentrations ranging from 0.422ppm to 3.055ppm.

The individuals buried in the ICJH appear to have elevated lead levels due to lead

exposure. Studies of lead concentrations in tooth enamel from prehistoric populations in Europe

before the widespread development of mining show low lead concentration values ranging

between 0.003ppm to 0.68ppm, while studies of historic mining populations in Europe have

higher lead concentration values ranging between 0.02ppm to 30.1ppm (Kamenov & Gulson,

2014; Montgomery et al., 2010; Budd et al., 2004).

Although elevated lead exposure often comes from mining, individuals buried underneath

the church were unlikely to have been miners. Although the provinces that included modern

Ayacucho were among those ordered by Viceroy Toledo to send mita labor to the mercury mines

in Huancavelica, already collectively known as las minas de la muerte (the mines of death)

(Brown, 2001), those in service to the church were exempt from mita labor (Stern, 1993).

102

Additionally, ongoing bioarchaeological analysis of the skeletons from the ICJH by the author

(not presented in this dissertation) shows very low levels of arthritis, few markers of stress or

malnutrition and no evidence of disease. Working at mines such as Huancavelica was quite

hazardous to one’s health, and many workers died. In fact, while normal mita laborers served at

the Potosi mines for one year, the mita laborers at Huancavelica generally worked only two

month shifts (Brown, 2001). Despite the shorter timeframe, workers at Huancavelica suffered

from malnutrition, silicosis of the lungs and tuberculosis, as well as the constant threat of cave-

ins, carbon monoxide poisoning and, of course, mercury poisoning (Brown, 2001). Additionally,

the miners used heavy crowbars and axes to break away chunks of ore that weighed up to 25lbs,

and the individuals who carried the ore to the surface carried 100lb packs (Fisher, 1977). If

individuals who survived this arduous labor returned to Ayacucho, ultimately to be buried at the

ICJH, they would likely have visible skeletal markers of stress and disease. None of the

individuals buried under the ICJH show indications of such heavy manual labor, suggesting that

they somehow evaded such dangerous occupations.

While it is unlikely that the individuals buried in the ICJH were miners, the source of

their lead exposure is unclear. Perhaps it came from ambient environmental lead pollution from

silver mining at Potosi and other metallurgical sites in the Andes, like Cerro de Pasco, Oruro or

Castrovirreina (Cooke et al., 2008). Or perhaps it was from point-source exposure, which can

occur through contact with leaded objects or artisanal mining, particularly if household members

work in metallurgical contexts. It is unclear to what extent leaded religious objects or leaded

cosmetics were used during the 17th

and 18th

centuries in Ayacucho. However, their use is

possible. Cinnabar, a natural mineral, is mainly composed of mercuric sulfide (HgS) but also

contains lead. Cinnabar was mined at Huancavelica and throughout the Andes for several

103

thousand years before Spanish contact (Cooke et al., 2009). It is found in the graves of high-

status individuals and is used as paint on ceremonial artifacts and funerary masks unearthed at

archaeology sites (Cooke et al., 2013). Additionally, the chronicler Cobo noted that Incan and

elite women used cinnabar for cosmetic purposes (Cobo 1990 [1653]:176). Such cosmetic use

could potentially cause elevated mercury and lead levels in users, as evidenced by modern

studies of lead poisoning from cinnabar consumption in Korea (Ye et al., 2013) and

neurotoxicity in rats and their offspring exposed to low doses of cinnabar (Huang et al., 2012).

Four of the individuals in this study had multiple teeth tested (Table 6-1), which enabled

the author to examine potential changes in lead exposure over their lifetimes, using lead

concentration and isotope values. Three of these individuals (1, 4 and 6) have local strontium

ratios, and all show a decrease in 208

Pb concentration values as they get older. Conversely, the

fourth individual (14) exhibits a non-local strontium ratio, and shows an increase in 208

Pb

concentration values with age. Unlike the first three individuals, Individual 14 clearly had an

increase in exposure to lead particulates as he or she got older, though whether that was a

consequence of mining, cosmetics, leaded paint and objects or other sources of lead particulate

exposure remains unclear. Lead exposure experienced by individuals, and their specific teeth, is

explored visually in Figure 6-2.

Individual 14 is intriguing in that the two sampled teeth sampled have very different

206Pb/

204Pb ratios (18.57 and 18.65) but similar

87Sr/

86Sr ratios (0.709574 and 0.709321). This

individual’s range of 206

Pb/204

Pb ratios is almost as broad as the entire site range for this study

(18.56 to 18.65). These results raise important questions and suggest that at different points

during their childhood, individuals buried under the ICJH in Ayacucho had different exposure to

104

various sources of lead, leading to a wide range of lead isotope values and lead concentrations in

their tooth enamel.

Carbon and Nitrogen Bone Collagen

The 13

Cap and 13

Cco data suggest broad dietary patterns for sampled fauna and

individuals, specifically with respect to the consumption of C3 versus C4 plants, while results of

15

N track consumption of N2 enriched food. Standard bulk samples of bone reflect, on average,

the last 10-15 years of an individual’s life. Comparing 13

Cco and 15

N values from bone

collagen samples enables explorations of plant and protein inputs to the diets of the fauna and

human individuals buried underneath the ICJH.

The fauna buried under the ICJH were probably not consumed by the individuals buried

there, but the ICJH fauna are a good starting point from which to explore the isotope values of

fauna during the early colonial period, and potentially what people ate during the same time. The

overall faunal 13

Cco average is -18.6‰ (SD= 1.3; n= 22), which indicates they mainly ate C3

plants. When separated by taxa, the 13

Cco values do not reveal great differences, except for one

outlier chicken with a 13

Cco value of -13.6‰ that clearly had greater access to C4 plants than the

rest of the fauna sampled in this study (Table 6-2). The overall 13

Cco range for the fauna

sampled, minus the outlier chicken, is -19.5‰ to -17.2‰.

There is a wider spread among the 15

N values when separated by taxon, which indicates

differing consumption patterns of N2 enriched food amongst species. The average 15

N value for

all fauna is 6.3‰ (SD= 1.4; n= 22), with sampled values ranging from 4.9‰ to 9.8‰. These

relatively low 15

N values indicate that there was no marine influence on these faunal diets. The

lack of marine input is logical, given that Ayacucho is located in the central highlands of Peru,

not on the coast. Research cited in Kellner and Schoeninger (2008) shows that coastal camelids

105

have an average 15

N of ~11‰ (SD= ~4), whereas modern Chilean marine resources have an

average 15

N value of ~18.5‰ (SD= ~0.5). The two fauna samples with the highest 15

N values,

9.8‰ (BCL-3363) and 9.3‰ (BCL-3362) are a caprine and a chicken, respectively (Table 5-15).

There are several potential explanations for their elevated 15

N values, which are similar to the

adult human 15

N average of 9.7‰. It is possible these animals, regardless of whether they were

fed or foraged for themselves, simply consumed more protein than the other fauna sampled,

including the pig. On the other hand, it is also possible that these animals ate food enriched by

fertilizer, which would also result in elevated 15

N values. When compared with all faunal

samples analyzed by Kellner and Schoeninger (2008), it is clear that one of the chickens in the

present study, BCL-3362, is an outlier (Figure 6-3) in both its 15

N and 13

Cco values from bone

collagen. Both the overall faunal average and the caprine average for 13

Cco and 15

N from the

ICJH almost exactly match the results of Nasca deer and highland camelid samples (Kellner &

Schoeninger, 2008). However, the outlier chicken, BCL-3362, clearly consumed more protein or

N2 enriched foods, as well as more C4 plants than the rest of the fauna tested from the ICJH.

If the individuals buried underneath the ICJH ate animals similar to the fauna sampled

above, I would expect to see that reflected in their isotope values. The human 13

Cco average

is -14.8‰ (SD= 1.2; n= 22). The human 13

Cco average falls between the ranges for C3 and C4

plants, though it is much closer to the C4 range (~ -13‰ to -8‰) than the C3 range (~ -26‰

to -18‰). It is likely that the humans buried at the ICJH ate a wide variety of foods, including a

large amount of C4 plants, but also included C3 and potentially CAM plants into their diet as

well. Because the animals studied have values firmly showing C3 plant consumption, the less

negative human 13

Cco values likely came from significant C4 plant consumption, such as maize

and amaranths, rather than from consumption of animals foddered with C4 plants. However,

106

compared to individuals from the sites of Conchopata and Nasca, as well as Georgia and Pecos

Pueblo agriculturalists (Kellner & Schoeninger, 2008), the ICJH individuals consumed far fewer

C4 plants (Figure 6-4). Yet, the ICJH individuals ate many more C4 plants than Georgia hunter-

gatherers known to have consumed almost entirely C3 plants (~ -19‰; SD= ~1; Kellner &

Schoeninger, 2008). The evidence for a varied, mixed diet among ICHJ individuals suggests that

by simply living in the city of Ayacucho; there they had access to a wide variety of consumables,

more so than earlier individuals who had strong agricultural traditions.

The faunal 15

N average is 6.3‰ (SD= 1.4; n= 22) and values range from 4.9‰ to 9.8‰.

It is possible that individuals with the highest values ate marine resources or foods that were

significantly fertilized. BCL-3363, a caprine from the deposito, not only has the highest 15

N

value of 9.8‰, comparable to the human 15

N average, but also has the highest 18

Oap

value, -1.5‰, adding weight to the idea it was raised on the coast and fed marine resources, then

brought to Ayacucho. The outlier chicken, BCL-3362, also from the deposito, has the second

highest 15

N value, 9.3‰, but its 18

Oap value, -6.1‰, is much lower than the 18

Oap value of the

caprine discussed above. The other chicken, BCL-3368, has a 15

N value of 7.9‰, and the

Suidae sample has a 15

N value of 7.9‰, both fairly high as well. However, their 18

Oap values, -

9.1‰ and -8.5‰, comparable to that of local humans, argues against a marine input in diet. They

either ate more protein or more N2 enriched foods, such as quinoa (15

N= 7.9 ± 1.3 (Szpak et al.,

2013), than did the other fauna. The overall caprine 15

N average, 6.4‰, is lower (SD= 1.5; n=

11; ranging from 5.0‰ to 9.8‰). The non-human mammal 15

N average, 5.7‰, is even lower

(SD= 0.8; n= 6; ranging from 4.9‰ to 6.8‰). The two cows have a 15

N average of 5.4‰ (SD=

0.1; n= 2; ranging from 5.3‰ to 5.4‰). The faunal individual with the overall lowest 15

N

107

value, 4.9‰ (BCL-3356), also has a very low 18

Oap, -2.2‰. Interestingly, BCL-3356 is a non-

human mammal from Unit 8, located just in front of the main altar of the ICJH.

The adult human 15

N average is 9.7‰ (SD= 0.5; n= 22), which shows that the

individuals buried under the ICJH ate a fair amount of N2 enriched foods such as protein but with

little marine input. The average 15

N value for the people buried beneath the ICJH is much lower

than that of southern California coastal fisher-foragers, whose 15

N values average ~16‰ (SD=

~2; Kellner and Schoeninger 2008). The ICHJ individuals consumed, on average, less protein (or

less N2 enriched food sources) than individuals buried at Conchopata (~ 10.5‰; SD= ~1.5), but

more than the individuals buried in the Nasca region (8.8‰, SD= 1.2; Kellner & Schoeninger,

2008) (Figure 6-4). To reiterate, the individuals buried under the ICJH consumed a variety of

foods, again perhaps because they lived in the Ayacucho urban area where they likely had

greater access to a wider variety of food resources.

The five ICJH individuals with outlier strontium ratios have an average 13

Cco value

of -15.5‰, whereas the six ICJH individuals with local strontium ratios have a less negative

average 13

Cco value of -15.1‰, indicating that individuals born in other areas ate more C3 plants

and/or animals foddered on C3 plants at the end of their lives than the individuals born locally in

Ayacucho. The average 15

N value is the same, 9.7‰, for both local and non-local individuals,

as well as the entire adult study sample (n=22). The one child sampled (BCL-3337), age 3 ± 1

year, exhibits the highest 15

N value in the present study, 12.3‰. Its value was excluded from

most analyses because of the potential enrichment from the weaning effect, as opposed to diet

alone.

108

Carbon and Oxygen Bone Apatite

Although 13

Cco is thought to track the protein component of diet, 13

Cap is thought to

track the “whole” diet. Faunal 13

Cap values range from -13.1‰ to -6.6‰, with an average

of -10.6‰ (SD= 1.4; n= 22). The caprines have slightly more negative 13

Cap values, with a

mean of -11.1‰ (SD= 1.1; n= 11; ranging from -12.7‰ to -9.5‰). The bovid samples are also

fairly negative, with a 13

Cap average value of -11.8‰ (SD= 1.8; n= 2; ranging from -13.1‰

to -10.6‰). The non-human mammals are slightly less negative, with a mean 13

Cap value

of -10.1‰ (SD= 0.8; n= 6; ranging from -11.7‰ to -9.6‰). The suid individual exhibits a

slightly less negative 13

Cap value, -9.7‰. The two chickens have widely divergent 13

Cap

values. BCL 3368 has the more negative 13

Cap value of -11.1‰, while BCL-3362 has the least

negative 13

Cap value in the entire present study, -6.6‰. The latter chicken, which also has the

least negative 13

Cco value and the second highest 15

N value, ate a diet with more C4 plants and

more protein or nitrogen enriched food than the other sampled animals from the ICJH.

Adult human 13

Cap values range from -11.6‰ to -4.6‰, with an average of -9.2‰ (SD=

1.6; n= 22). This spread of values, 7‰, is almost 2‰ broader than that of the adult human 13

Cco

values, 5.3‰ (ranging from -17.1‰ to -11.8‰, with an average of -14.8‰). Controlled diet

experiments show a robust and predictable relationship between 13

Cap and 13

C of “whole” diet,

more so than between apatite and dietary energy, collagen and “whole” diet, or collagen and

protein (Kellner & Schoeninger, 2007). To translate 13

Cap values into 13

C “whole” diet values,

a factor of +12‰ (Harrison & Katzenberg, 2003) was used in this study (Table 6-3), although

other researchers have posited other models, including +9.5‰ (Tykot et al., 2014; Ambrose &

Norr, 1993; Tieszen & Fagre, 1993) as well as +13‰ (Prowse et al., 2004).

109

Using the +12‰ enrichment factor, the ICJH adult human 13

Cap values average -21.2‰

(SD= 1.6; n= 22; ranging from -16.6‰ to -23.6‰). The majority of these values falls within

the -26‰ to -18‰ range for C3 plants in the Andes, and none are negative enough to plot in

the -13‰ to -8‰ range for C4 plants (Tieszen & Chapman, 1993; +1.5‰ added to modern plant

values to account for recent atmospheric depletion of 13

C from combustion of fossil fuels).

Compared to the 13

Cco values, the 13

Cap values of the adult individuals buried underneath the

ICJH suggest that they ate fewer C4 plants. If bone collagen truly does track the protein

component in the diet, then ICJH individuals, who have higher 13

Cco values than 13

Cap values,

consumed protein enriched in 13

C, which does not align with the more negative 13

C values of

the ICJH fauna. So, the ICJH individuals appear to have been eating animals foddered with more

C4 plants than were the animals found in the ICJH.

Exceptions to this are two human individuals with outlier strontium values, who also

have the most negative 13

Cap values, -11.6‰ and -10.7‰ (BCL-3324 and BCL-3333,

respectively). Correspondingly, they also have the most negative 13

Cco values, -17.1‰

and -16.3‰, and relatively high 15

N values, 9.1‰ and 10.7‰, respectively. During the last ten

years of their life, these two individuals ate more C3 plants and animals grazed on mainly C3

plants than their counterparts buried beneath the ICJH. This conclusion is supported by

comparison of the 13

Cap average for non-locals, -10.0 (SD= 1.3; n= 5), with the local

average, -9.7 (SD= 0.8; n= 6). These interpretations also suggest that the ICJH individuals ate a

varied diet, likely due to their urban location and access to multiple food resources.

Just as the strontium data indicate that some of the fauna at the ICJH were not born

locally, the wide range of faunal 18

Oap values,-9.4‰ to -1.5‰ (Average= -6.0‰; SD= 2.2; n=

22) also suggest that some of the ICJH fauna were not born locally, but in areas with more 18

O

110

enriched drinking water. This observation appears to hold true for the caprines, which parallel

the group 18

Oap values, with an average 18

Oap value of -6.0‰ (SD = 2; n= 11; ranging from -

9.4‰ to -1.5‰). The caprine with the most elevated 18

Oap value of the study, -1.5‰ (BCL-

3363), also had the highest 15

N value, 9.8‰, of all of the fauna, and was recovered from the

storage unit, not in the church proper, indicating it was more likely used for quotidian food rather

than ritual purposes. On the other hand, the non-human mammal with the lowest 15

N value of

all the fauna, 4.9‰ (BCL-3356), also had a very high 18

Oap value, -2.2‰, and was recovered

from Unit 8, located in front of the main altar, which argues for a ritual purpose over a quotidian

one. It appears that local and non-locally raised animals were used for both daily consumption

and ritual purposes at the ICJH.

Several of the non-human mammals also appear to have lived in areas with drinking

water enriched in 18

O, with a group 18

Oap average of -4.4‰ (SD = 1.9; n= 6; ranging

from -7.2‰ to -2.2‰). The pig has a lower 18

Oap value of -8.5‰, which is several parts per mil

below the group average. Interestingly, the two cows have different 18

Oap values, with the first

cow, BCL-3378, having a quite negative 18

Oap value of -9.2‰, whereas the second cow, BCL-

3365, has a higher 18

Oap value of -5.4‰. Similarly, the first chicken, BCL-3368, has a fairly

negative 18

Oap value of -9.1‰, while the second chicken, BCL-3362, has a higher 18

Oap value

of -6.1‰. Some of these faunal remains came from the storage area (and some of those not

sampled had butchering marks), and so were likely used for food. However, some of the ICJH

faunal remains were found in units with human remains, and may have been offerings.

Regardless, it is clear that despite their function, both local and non-local animals were used and

buried at the ICJH.

111

The ICJH humans have a much smaller range of oxygen values and a more negative

average than that of the ICJH fauna. The adult human 18

Oap values range from -8.9‰ to -6.5‰,

with an average of -7.9‰ (SD= 0.6; n= 22), while the fauna range from -9.4‰ to -1.5‰, with an

average of -6.0‰ (SD= 2.2; n= 22). The five individuals with outsider strontium values have a

slightly higher average 18

Oap value of -7.7‰ (SD= 0.6; ranging from -8.4‰ to -6.7‰), whereas

the six individuals with local strontium values have a slightly lower average 18

Oap value of -

8.2‰ (SD= 0.5; ranging from -8.9‰ to -7.8‰).

While the individual with the lowest 18

Oap value (BCL-3322; -8.9‰) does have a tooth

pair with a local strontium ratio (BCL-3323; 0.706487), the individual with the highest 18

Oap

value (BCL-3337; -5.8‰) does not have a corresponding tooth pair. This individual, age 3± 1

year, was the only child sampled in this study, and likely displays 18

O enrichment from breast

feeding, reflecting their mothers’ 18

Oap values. It is also possible this child lived non-locally

during their short life, or their mother did, in an area with less depleted environmental 18

O, such

as at lower elevations close to the coast, as opposed to in the mountain highlands of Ayacucho,

where there tend to be more depleted environmental 18

O in the water. The weaning effect makes

it difficult to discern whether the child lived locally or not. This child also had the highest 15

N

value, 12.3‰, again, potentially N2 enriched due to the weaning effect. It is possible that after

this child passed away, someone made the decision to bury the child’s body in the ICJH. This

child was found in Unit 19 of the ICJH, which contained both human and faunal remains. Sadly,

none of the faunal remains in that unit were of suitable testing quality, yet their presence

reasonably suggests their uses as potential offerings, a traditional Andean practice, one here

melded with a Catholic church burial for this young child as well as with other adults. This

intentional hybridity is an example of indigenous action and agency, showing how at a group

112

level some individuals impacted and modified the religious routines and structures in their local

Catholic church.

Figure 6-1. Lead isoscape of the Andes. Figure created by John Krigbaum and adapted from

Krigbaum and Kamenov (In preparation) with Machu Picchu data from Turner et al.,

2009. The ICJH data point is this study’s mean with its small radiating lines

indicating 1σ.

113

Figure 6-2.

206Pb/

204Pb ratios versus lead concentrations (

208Pb ppm) for the four individuals with

multiple teeth sampled. Note that Individual 14 has non-local strontium ratios and the

widest range of 206

Pb/204

Pb ratios, while the other three have local strontium ratios.

114

Figure 6-3. Results of caprine

13Cco and

15N from the ICJH, outlined in red, as well as the

outlier chicken (BCL-3362, red triangle), plotted against other sites (Figure modified

from Kellner and Schoeninger 2008).

115

Figure 6-4. Results of 13

Cco and15

N from the ICJH, in red, plotted against data from other sites

(Figure modified from Kellner and Schoeninger 2008).

116

Table 6-1. Four individuals from ICJH, Ayacucho, Peru, with multiple teeth tested for 87

Sr/86

Sr, 206

Pb/204

Pb, 207

Pb/204

Pb, 208

Pb/204

Pb on

human tooth enamel

Individual

#

BCL # Tooth Years of tooth

formation

208Pb

/204

Pb

207Pb

/204

Pb

206Pb

/204

Pb

208Pb ppm

87Sr/

86Sr

88Sr ppm

1

3304 R C Max 0.3 – 7.0 38.530 15.634 18.564 1.088 0.706045 200

3303 R PM3

Max 1.0 – 7.5 38.569 15.637 18.594 0.727 0.706081 239

3302 R PM4

Max 2.0 – 8.5 38.546 15.633 18.585 0.612 0.706087 239

4

3313 R PM3

Mand 1.0 – 7.5 38.553 15.640 18.588 2.336 0.706422 113

3312 R PM4

Mand 2.0 – 8.5 38.545 15.637 18.587 1.755 0.706437 112

3311 R M1

Mand 0.0 – 3.5 38.582 15.644 18.580 4.687 0.706464 84

6

3349 R PM3

Max 1.0 – 7.5 38.604 15.649 18.635 3.715 0.706598 249

3317 R M2

Max 2.5 – 8.0 38.607 15.651 18.638 3.698 0.70654 239

14

3348 R PM3

Mand 1.0 – 7.5 38.598 15.641 18.574 1.968 0.709574 159

3332 R M3

Mand 8.0 – 15.0 38.666 15.645 18.652 2.846 0.709321 162

117

Table 6-2. Average 13

C and 15

N of faunal bone collagen, from the ICJH, Ayacucho, Peru.

Average

13Cco

(‰, VPDB)

Standard

deviation

Average 15

Nco

(‰, AIR)

Standard

deviation

Number of

fauna

All fauna

-18.6 1.3 6.3 1.4 22

Caprinae

-18.9 0.7 6.4 1.5 11

Mammalia

-18.5 0.7 5.7 0.8 6

Bovidae

-19.1 0.65 5.4 0.05 2

Suidae

-18.9 n/a 7.1 n/a 1

BCL-3368,

Gallus gallus -19.1 n/a 7.9 n/a 1

BCL-3362,

Gallus gallus -13.6 n/a 9.3 n/a 1

118

Table 6-3. Adult human 13

Cap and 13

Cco values from the ICHJ, Ayacucho, Peru, with original

and modified values with enrichment factors for comparative purposes. Individuals

with * have tooth pairs with outlier 87

Sr/86

Sr ratios.

BCL #

13Cap

(‰, VPDB)

13

Cap

+12‰

(‰, VPDB)

13

Cco

+5.1‰

(‰, VPDB)

13

Cco

(‰, VPDB)

BC-15-3324* -11.6 -23.60 -22.15 -17.05

BC-15-3333* -10.7 -22.68 -21.36 -16.26

BC-15-3341 -10.6 -22.57 -20.83 -15.73

BC-15-3305 -10.5 -22.54 -20.39 -15.29

BC-15-3343 -10.5 -22.45 -20.48 -15.38

BC-15-3330* -10.4 -22.40 -20.91 -15.81

BC-15-3345 -10.4 -22.36 -20.72 -15.62

BC-15-3316 -10.2 -22.16 -20.71 -15.61

BC-15-3320 -10.1 -22.10 -20.44 -15.34

BC-15-3322 -10.1 -22.10 -20.56 -15.46

BC-15-3347 -10.0 -22.00 -20.99 -15.89

BC-15-3308 -9.3 -21.29 -20.11 -15.01

BC-15-3314* -9.1 -21.06 -19.78 -14.68

BC-15-3328 -9.0 -20.97 -19.73 -14.63

BC-15-3339 -8.9 -20.94 -19.57 -14.5

BC-15-3301 -8.3 -20.34 -19.20 -14.10

BC-15-3318* -8.2 -20.21 -18.94 -13.84

BC-15-3335 -8.1 -20.10 -19.29 -14.19

BC-15-3331 -8.0 -19.99 -18.66 -13.56

BC-15-3338 -7.6 -19.59 -18.58 -13.48

BC-15-3340 -7.0 -19.05 -18.31 -13.21

BC-15-3336 -4.6 -16.64 -16.85 -11.75

Mean -9.2 -21.2 -19.9 -14.8

Standard Deviation

N= 22

1.6 1.6 1.2 1.2

119

CHAPTER 7

CONCLUSION

In investigating indigenous lifeways during the early colonial period in Peru, it is clear

that the complexity of the situation requires a holistic approach. Several lines of evidence were,

therefore, combined to explore the lives and deaths of the individuals buried underneath the

Iglesia de la Compañía de Jesús de Huamanga (ICJH), in the south central highlands of Peru.

The isotopic, archeological, and historical records testify to a far more nuanced society than that

of the stereotypical colonial master and native slave dichotomy. And indeed, this type of agency-

centered study, as Brumfield (2000) argues, can produce stories about the past that are more

relevant and interesting than stories where people are passive victims, and also make the past

actors themselves more relatable, as they also struggled with the complexities of everyday life.

Historical evidence documents the high toll that mining and forced labor took on the

native inhabitants of Peru during the colonial period, Census records reflect the massive

migrations from rural areas to the city of Ayacucho during the 17th

century, often for contract

labor purposes and in attempts to avoid forced mita labor in the mercury mines of Huancavelica

and the silver mines of Potosi, among others.

Ongoing bioarchaeological analysis of the individuals buried beneath the ICJH shows

only the presence of indigenous people, an interesting fact in itself, given the Catholic practice of

reserving such burial for the powerful and influential. Both native children and adults were

buried under the church floors. The skeletal evidence suggests that the adults were not miners

nor were they involved in heavy, repetitive labor that normally affects the skeleton. A reasonable

conjecture is that these individuals donated their time or wealth to the church.

Isotopic analysis of the ICJH individuals reveals both expected and intriguing mobility

and dietary patterns. Strontium isotope analysis of tooth enamel reveals that 35.3% (n= 6/17) of

120

the individuals sampled were not born locally, aligning well with historical documentation of in-

migration to the city of Ayacucho, perhaps to avoid the Spanish mita system of forced labor.

This theory is borne out by archival and textual research, which verifies that indigenous

Peruvians used the Spanish legal and religious systems to avoid work in the mines, including

lawsuits and contract labor agreements, some of which, particularly for skilled artisans and

church retainers, provided exemptions from the mita forced labor system. Oxygen isotope

analysis of bone apatite, which tracks on average the last ten years of an individual’s life

(depending on the specific bone sampled), shows that all of the individuals lived locally in

Ayacucho, or in areas with similarly 18

O depleted water, before they died and were buried in the

ICJH. The fact that those buried in the church, both those born locally and migrants, remained in

this city for the last years of their lives, may also indicate that these individuals had attained

some status in the community and/or were important to the church..

Carbon isotope analysis of bone collagen and bone apatite reveal a range of dietary

inputs among individuals sampled, which in general consist of a mixture of C3 and C4 plants and

their consumers. Nitrogen isotope analysis of bone collagen reveals different levels of protein

consumption among ICJH individuals, or different consumption of N2 enriched food sources,

such as quinoa. These mixed dietary signals indicate that by living in the urban area of

Ayacucho, these individuals had access to wide variety of food sources, potentially due to their

higher status.

Animal remains were found in the deposito, or storage area, directly behind the ICJH, but

were also found in all of the units within the ICJH that contained human burials. Isotope analysis

explored diet and mobility patterns of these fauna, which include caprines, chickens, cows, a pig

and non-human mammals. Collectively, the fauna show a variety of foddering habits, with

121

carbon isotope analysis indicating that most consumed high amounts of C3 plants. Several

showed elevated nitrogen values, indicating the consumption of N2 enriched food. One chicken

had a distinct isotopic profile, and apparently consumed the most C4 plants of any faunal

individual in this study, as well as a high amount of N2 enriched foods.

Ongoing zooarchaeological analysis shows butchering marks on a few remains from the

deposito area, and oxygen isotope analysis shows that while most of these animals lived locally,

several were brought in from areas with 18

O enriched water (which is typically found at lower

elevations than that of Ayacucho). Similarly, oxygen isotope analysis of animals from the church

burial areas also show that while many lived locally, several were brought in from areas with 18

O

enriched water. Strontium isotope analysis was conducted on six faunal teeth, and one, a pig

incisor from a church burial unit, was likely born non-locally. It appears that local and non-local

animals were used in both daily food contexts and ritual burial contexts, with the latter being a

traditional Andean practice, and contrary to normative Catholic practice at the time.

Erected in 1605 and still continuing as an active church today, the ICJH occupies a

unique position in history. In and of itself, it is a community, a place of faith and ritual, a

meeting place, and a stew rather than a melting pot, where indigenous 17th

and 18th

century

Andeans and Spaniards likely interacted on a daily basis. Data from isotope analysis,

archaeology and historical documents hints at this complexity, and although the data have raised

many more questions, they provide insights into the life and death of indigenous Andeans

connected to the ICJH during the early colonial period.

As a case study, this dissertation produces lines of evidence that in and of themselves

present a formidable argument for the need for a widespread re-assessment of indigenous and

Spanish colonial relationships. This investigation demonstrates the likelihood that many of the

122

native citizens of Huamanga used the Spanish legal and religious systems to avoid the harshest

occupations forced upon them, and that they possibly retained tradition rituals of animal

offerings in human burial spaces. As such, through its isotope and related investigations, this

study presents strong, new evidence for native agency and resistance framed within a religious

context, a power that allowed them to literally reduce colonial impact upon their bodies, and

likely their spirit.

In the broadest sense, this study presents an alternative to the stereotypical view of

Spanish and native Andean relations as masters and conquered, oppressed pawns. Instead, it

reveals that the indigenous population, represented by those buried beneath La Iglesia de la

Compañía de Jesús de Huamanga, moved well beyond such a monolithic view. They actively

engaged and shaped their lives and surroundings while simultaneously being shaped by an

emerging and co-joined Andean and Spanish post-contact social, political and environmental

world.

123

APPENDIX

TRACE ELEMENT CONCENTRATION RESULTS

Sample # Type Mg24 Ca44 V51 Cr52 Mn55 Fe56 Ni60 Cu63 Zn66 Sr88

BoneAsh Standard 6273 376516 0.720977 0.770518 17.6896 624.6069 6.118052 2.259801 181 244

3302 Human 2329 379575 0.185547 0.431166 17.92239 7.798906 0.451005 0.253719 128 239

3303 Human 2193 377413 0.012278 0.02073 4.080988 3.972816 0.326138 0.280351 126 239

3304 Human 2450 396363 0.159195 0.034677 9.283984 4.93934 0.45715 1.071874 168 201

3306 Human 2533 387147 -0.00486 0.151795 1.413241 4.840395 0.292495 1.436425 199 230

3309 Human 2123 399466 0.123688 0.024797 27.22697 3.80751 0.214136 0.087745 77 179

3311 Human 2016 388048 0.085571 0.027593 12.0965 9.438395 0.051182 0.07209 148 84

3312 Human 2252 389929 0.055337 0.023195 21.16443 9.539312 0.030491 -0.08911 180 112

3313 Human 2123 391420 0.058904 0.032622 15.188 12.69496 0.19701 0.04434 237 113

3315 Human 2145 374259 0.193891 0.034603 26.00492 5.128708 0.914322 0.302233 146 373

3317 Human 2127 395840 0.052422 0.02254 6.074802 5.478488 0.019164 -0.01966 168 239

3319 Human 2229 369324 0.04856 0.022065 4.04035 5.142468 -0.05964 -0.12666 126 115

3321 Human 2412 386471 -0.00332 0.029923 1.228077 4.539743 0.052754 1.018935 228 228

3323 Human 1800 321900 1.199153 0.043471 4.807468 3.113562 0.247395 1.677557 76 203

3325 Human 2240 384514 -0.00255 0.020001 2.314125 5.982997 0.031213 -0.13243 233 139

3326 Human 2012 362045 -0.00863 0.020042 2.913857 4.6819 0.045398 -0.14794 142 102

3327 Human 2386 381493 0.074014 0.029617 5.953087 9.477478 0.287081 0.046749 193 156

3329 Human 2316 383888 0.149194 0.026885 16.95418 7.99536 0.028667 -0.09979 144 160

3332 Human 2270 376416 0.007957 0.021199 9.429041 6.266056 0.112513 -0.20251 151 162

3334 Human 1960 392309 0.165225 0.02277 55.61893 7.425454 0.180036 0.033201 173 247

3344 Human 2128 389023 -0.02222 0.015775 5.929972 5.839114 -0.08216 -0.2169 146 193

3346 Human 2591 383718 0.0645 0.018066 1.663565 6.797227 0.040635 -0.02939 122 150

3348 Human 2533 389917 0.038811 0.024386 8.162572 9.350633 0.054269 -0.04374 200 159

3349 Human 2683 405192 0.028261 0.036933 4.99855 7.158273 0.428234 0.057801 152 249

3351 Animal 3324 657622 0.560656 0.03552 33.05531 10.42621 6.708084 1.552742 149 777

3359 Animal 3232 506372 0.107787 0.03229 10.64021 8.602928 0.039976 0.187953 58 1230

3360 Animal 2446 333268 0.384144 0.048 5.918993 3.266227 0.05215 -0.03473 65 700

3366 Animal 2422 344567 0.84869 0.069084 10.62365 7.04713 -0.02994 -0.02505 49 879

3367 Animal 3349 566014 0.652743 0.052952 16.62001 4.797588 0.118869 -0.09157 86 1790

3371 Animal 2294 344297 0.155649 0.030097 2.58523 2.29473 0.036916 -0.13403 38 552

124

Appendix, cont. Sample # Type Ba137 La139 Ce140 Pr141 Nd143 Sm149 Eu153 Gd157 Tb159 Dy163

BoneAsh Standard 239.034 0.309561 0.662065 0.067547 0.251407 0.047296 0.045001 0.051554 0.008182 0.046345

3302 Human 5.994577 0.01415 0.02467 0.00306 0.01472 0.001328 0.001864 0.003871 0.001089 0.001315

3303 Human 5.18322 0.013224 0.030136 0.002688 0.010378 0.002135 0.001874 0.001413 0.00054 0.002383

3304 Human 8.271514 0.024027 0.048591 0.004417 0.013078 0.003607 0.00263 0.002481 0.000708 0.002153

3306 Human 3.121166 0.009007 0.013803 0.002217 0.006221 0.001722 0.000615 0.001235 0.000523 0.001431

3309 Human 11.43001 0.008584 0.013949 0.00152 0.007312 0.000731 0.001622 0.000378 0.000336 0.000457

3311 Human 2.068868 0.037739 0.104417 0.005123 0.016828 0.004328 0.001196 0.003658 0.000601 0.001881

3312 Human 1.479981 0.05841 0.21168 0.010015 0.040205 0.007596 0.001741 0.006313 0.001274 0.006784

3313 Human 1.765929 0.086194 0.26895 0.014648 0.055268 0.008396 0.002022 0.009223 0.001411 0.006329

3315 Human 5.966587 0.010484 0.031736 0.001528 0.005898 0.001502 0.001245 0.000003 0.00037 0.001163

3317 Human 3.598377 0.016427 0.05474 0.002361 0.013691 0.001915 0.0006 0.001148 0.000401 0.002151

3319 Human 4.870585 0.02916 0.096241 0.006408 0.023254 0.005589 0.001276 0.004345 0.000713 0.002429

3321 Human 2.764968 0.00675 0.008991 0.001558 0.005444 0.000536 -0.00008 -0.00135 0.00042 0.000898

3323 Human 14.05253 0.015469 0.027009 0.002115 0.009017 0.006076 0.002578 -0.00014 0.000255 0.00114

3325 Human 3.115886 0.034225 0.077923 0.006479 0.025283 0.004946 0.000866 0.003403 0.000767 0.003585

3326 Human 4.921098 0.010317 0.015803 0.00185 0.009584 0.001982 -3E-06 -0.00027 0.000641 0.001211

3327 Human 1.517954 0.049136 0.218196 0.009187 0.040781 0.006643 0.001757 0.00539 0.001024 0.00542

3329 Human 2.007575 0.030897 0.124942 0.006741 0.025364 0.004235 0.001296 0.003265 0.000833 0.004355

3332 Human 1.491939 0.011873 0.050965 0.002896 0.007828 0.003482 0.000683 0.001689 0.000796 0.00183

3334 Human 5.111671 0.031302 0.155378 0.00613 0.0254 0.004869 0.00179 0.003089 0.001085 0.003299

3344 Human 2.426458 0.028509 0.022852 0.002078 0.006152 0.00147 0.0003 -0.00046 0.000603 0.000811

3346 Human 3.276061 0.002892 0.008944 0.000751 0.002118 0.000657 0.000326 -0.00043 0.000407 0.000491

3348 Human 1.511721 0.031221 0.128879 0.00672 0.022342 0.004855 0.000748 0.00303 0.000869 0.004078

3349 Human 5.635689 0.019732 0.074513 0.004261 0.013794 0.002479 0.000636 0.000493 0.000474 0.002303

3351 Animal 55.78616 0.038869 0.099453 0.007637 0.033659 0.006014 0.007447 0.003372 0.000716 0.004183

3359 Animal 494.6097 0.00605 0.002902 0.000507 0.000416 0.00324 0.070448 0.003497 0.000297 0.000398

3360 Animal 263.928 0.006712 0.009098 0.001235 0.00407 0.002652 0.036628 0.007484 0.000927 0.001462

3366 Animal 340.9875 0.0099 0.013234 0.002004 0.007314 0.001469 0.044902 0.005276 0.000535 0.001578

3367 Animal 608.1871 0.008761 0.007182 0.001039 0.003517 0.00206 0.080465 0.012366 0.000352 0.000663

3371 Animal 578.8151 0.007655 0.003803 0.000303 0.000901 0.004228 0.081276 0.015687 0.000162 0.000159

125

Appendix, cont. Sample # Type Ho165 Er166 Tm169 Yb172 Lu175 Pb208 Th232 U238

BoneAsh Standard 0.008972 0.029307 0.004036 0.019731 0.003192 8.746076 0.038453 0.063602

3302 Human 0.000575 0.00059 0.000222 0.000295 0.000298 0.611682 0.003427 0.002156

3303 Human 0.0007 0.000711 0.00036 0.001653 0.000196 0.726703 0.003245 0.002477

3304 Human 0.000574 0.001643 0.000207 0.00113 0.000209 1.087537 0.002894 0.003968

3306 Human 0.000079 0.000664 0.000029 0.000594 0.000068 3.021938 0.002549 0.003167

3309 Human 0.000086 0.000281 0.000083 0.000345 0.000046 0.191615 0.002928 0.001214

3311 Human 0.000522 0.001295 0.000168 0.001307 0.000087 4.687283 0.003222 0.003736

3312 Human 0.000804 0.003116 0.00058 0.002461 0.000535 1.7554 0.002707 0.004213

3313 Human 0.001922 0.002812 0.000784 0.003604 0.000307 2.336266 0.003501 0.00608

3315 Human 0.000171 0.00053 0.00007 0.000576 0.000094 0.422016 0.002857 0.024536

3317 Human 0.00021 0.000975 0.000131 0.000836 0.000153 3.697913 0.002933 0.001985

3319 Human 0.000784 0.001501 0.000287 0.001347 0.000241 0.693123 0.003148 0.002632

3321 Human 0.000133 0.000237 0.000112 0.000129 0.000039 2.887524 0.00258 0.002435

3323 Human 0.000259 0.000872 0.000181 0.000751 0.00012 2.842896 0.002822 0.11047

3325 Human 0.000429 0.00166 0.000205 0.002323 0.00022 3.055261 0.003472 0.007438

3326 Human 0.000405 0.00067 0.000062 0.001296 0.00016 2.464033 0.0026 0.002076

3327 Human 0.001235 0.002602 0.000498 0.003339 0.00047 2.042498 0.003126 0.010244

3329 Human 0.000875 0.002657 0.000453 0.002707 0.000282 0.909313 0.00447 0.008145

3332 Human 0.000318 0.000665 0.000052 0.001279 0.000115 2.845649 0.00331 0.002734

3334 Human 0.000622 0.001359 0.000139 0.001913 0.000327 2.852694 0.00325 0.00484

3344 Human 0.000118 0.00034 0.000017 0.000456 0.000018 2.55682 0.002831 0.000245

3346 Human 0.000016 0.000885 0 0.000659 0.000076 2.329725 0.002596 0.002308

3348 Human 0.000798 0.002861 0.000276 0.001951 0.000422 1.968011 0.003892 0.008493

3349 Human 0.000512 0.001467 0.000164 0.001472 0.000166 3.715045 0.00278 0.002396

3351 Animal 0.000531 0.001562 0.000429 0.001485 0.000152 0.746836 0.003836 0.021851

3359 Animal 0 0.000139 0 0.000099 0.000036 0.263671 0.002679 0.005298

3360 Animal 0.000426 0.000407 0.000054 0.000595 -1.5E-05 0.68828 0.002771 0.010876

3366 Animal 0.000174 0.000669 0.000063 0.00029 0.000049 0.410222 0.002876 0.008679

3367 Animal 0.000085 0.000063 0.000076 0.00032 -1E-06 0.903388 0.002964 0.022596

3371 Animal 0.000018 -4E-06 0 0.000327 0.000032 0.152378 0.002779 0.028169

126

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BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCH

Ellen Lofaro received her B.A. in Anthropology in 2009 from Vanderbilt University

where her passion for bioarcheology and Peruvian studies was first ignited. She pursued her

M.A. in anthropology with concentrations in biological anthropology and archaeology at the

University of Florida, receiving her M.A. in 2011 and Ph.D. in 2016.

University of Floridaufdcimages.uflib.ufl.edu/UF/E0/05/02/14/00001/LOFARO_E.pdf4 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS I...

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