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UNIVERSITI PUTRA MALAYSIA
ENHANCEMENT OF PHOSPHORUS SOLUBILIZATION FROM PHOSPHATE ROCKS AND PLANT NUTRIENT AVAILABILITY
THROUGH VERMICOMPOSTING
TENGKU SABRINA DJUNITA
T FP 2007 10
ENHANCEMENT OF PHOSPHORUS SOLUBILIZATION FROM PHOSPHATE ROCKS AND PLANT NUTRIENT AVAILABILITY
THROUGH VERMICOMPOSTING
By
TENGKU SABRINA DJUNITA
Thesis Submitted to the School of Graduate Studies, Universiti Putra Malaysia,
in Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy
April 2007
ii
Abstract of thesis presented to the Senate of Universiti Putra Malaysia in fulfilment of the requirement for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy
ENHANCEMENT OF PHOSPHORUS SOLUBILIZATION FROM PHOSPHATE ROCKS AND PLANT NUTRIENT AVAILABILITY
THROUGH VERMICOMPOSTING
By
TENGKU SABRINA DJUNITA
April 2007
Chairman : Professor Mohamed Hanafi Musa, PhD, AMIC
Faculty : Agriculture
Large amount of organic materials (OM), from oil palm by-products produced by
plantations in Malaysia creates potential pollutants and habitat for certain parasitic
insects and pathogen. Incorporation of these materials with phosphate rock (PR) and
earthworm through vermicomposting process would promote the dissolution and
plant availability of phosphorus (P) from PR. This study investigated the effect of oil
palm by-products and earthworms in dissolution different types of PRs for
production of vermiphosphocompost (VPC) in fulfilling the P requirement of Setaria
splendida in comparison to the using of arbuscular mycorrhiza (AM) in a glasshouse.
The potential of earthworm in using oil palm by-products was investigated by
surveying the population and diversity of earthworms in oil palm plantation with
different types of soils and palm tree ages. Only exotic endogeic Pontoscolex
corethrurus was found in oil palm plantation with low population (0 - 42 individual
m-2). Heterogeneity of earthworm population in oil palm plantation attributed to
food and soil physical habitat as determined by a principal component analysis
(PCA). Vermicomposting of PR mixed EFB using Eisenia fetida in the laboratory
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gave a higher dissolution of P with morocco PR (MPR) >gafsa PR (GPR) > togo PR
(TPR) than that of normal compost system. The corresponding values for frond were
165, 52, and 30%. This was attributed to higher humic acid content in VPC (0.07 g),
the population of bacteria, extractable Ca, and enzymes phosphomonoesterase in the
gut of earthworm. The bacteria in EFB-earthworm intestine was identified as
Pseudomonas nitroreducens, and P. citronellolis, and Cellulomonas flavigena in
frond-reared earthworm. Fresh EFB contain a significant value of total extractable
phenol (10 g GAE 100 g-1 extract) at the beginning of composting process and
decreased gradually after 4 weeks decomposition. The compound identified in fresh
EFB was 2,4-bis(1,1-dimethyl)phenol, composted and field composted EFB was 2,6-
bis(1,1-dimethyl) phenol. In contrast, there was no phenol detected in
vermicomposted EFB. The direct application of 3 types earthworms in the
glasshouse study using Setaria grass did not gave a significant difference on P
availability, total nutrients in soil, nutrient-uptake and dry matter (DM) yield of
grass. The VPC showed better growth of Setaria grass compared to EFB and
conventional compost. Setaria needed about 75 ton ha-1 VPC to achieve a maximum
DM for this experiment Inorganic fertilizer (GPR) mixed with EFB, AM and worm
enhanced Setaria grass yield (60%) compare to GPR only and by using VPC (79%).
The contribution of AM, earthworm of GPR on P uptake was varied depend on the
interaction among them. In conclusion, VPC is the best way to managing EFB. Its
nutrients content can support Setaria growth. Improvement of Setaria grass growth
and plant availability of P and other nutrients (N and K) as indicated by nutrients
uptake was obtained by mixing EFB with worm, AM, and inorganic fertilizers.
iv
Abstrak tesis yang dikemukakan kepada Senat Universiti Putra Malaysia sebagai memenuhi keperluan untuk ijazah Doktor Falsafah
PENINGKATAN PELARUTAN FOSFORUS DARI BATUAN FOSFAT DAN KETERSEDIAAN NUTRIEN BAGI TANAMAN
MELALUI VERMIKOMPOS
Oleh
TENGKU SABRINA DJUNITA
April 2007
Pengerusi : Profesor Mohamed Hanafi Musa, PhD, AMIC
Fakulti : Pertanian
Jumlah bahan organik (OM) yang banyak dari produk sampingan kelapa sawit yang
dikeluarkan oleh ladang di Malaysia berpotensi menjadi bahan cemar dan habitat
bagi serangga parasitik dan patogen tertentu. Pencampuran bahan-bahan tersebut
dengan batuan fosfat (PR) dan cacing tanah melalui proses vermikompos akan
meningkatkan pelarutan dan fosforus tersedia (P) bagi tanaman dari PR. Kajian ini
meneneliti pengaruh hasil sampingan kelapa sawit dan cacing tanah untuk
melarutkan berbagai jenis PRs untuk menghasilkan vermiphosphokompos (VPC)
bagi memenuhi keperluan P untuk Setaria splendida dibandingkan dengan
penggunaan arbuskular mikoriza (AM) di rumah kaca. Potensi menggunakan cacing
tanah pada hasil sampingan kelapa sawit diuji dengan tinjauan populasi dan
kepelbagaian cacing tanah di ladang kelapa sawit pada berberapa jenis tanah dan
umur pokok kelapa sawit yang berbeza. Hanya cacing endogeic eksotik Pontoscolex
corethrurus ditemui di ladang kelapa sawit dengan populasi yang rendah (0 – 42
individu m-2). Kepelbagaian populasi cacing tanah di ladang kelapa sawit
bergantung pada makanan dan sifat fizik habitat seperti yang ditentukan dengan
v
prinsip komponen analisis (PCA). Vermikompos dari PR dicampur dengan tandan
kelapa sawit kosong (EFB) menggunakan Eisenia fetida di makmal memberikan
pelarutan P yang tinggi dengan morocco PR (MPR) > gafsa PR (GPR) > togo PR
(TPR) dari sistem kompos biasa. Nilai yang sama bagi pelepah kelapa sawit adalah
165, 52 dan 30%. Ini disebabkan oleh kandungan asid humik yang tinggi pada VPC
(0.07g), populasi bakteria, Ca yang boleh diekstrak, dan enzim phosphomonoesterase
pada kotoran cacing tanah. Bakteria dalam sistem pencernaan cacing-EFB adalah
Pseudomonas nitroreducens dan P. citronellolis, dan Cellulomonas flavigena dalam
cacing menggunakan pelepah kelapa sawit. Jumlah phenol yang dapat diekstrak
sebanyak (10 g GAE 100 g-1 ekstrak) terdapat di awal proses pengkomposan EFB
dan menurun setelah 4 minggu proses penguraian. Jenis sebatian yang terdapat
dalam EFB segar adalah 2,4-bis(1,1-dimethyl)phenol, manakala yang telah di
kompos adalah 2,6-bis (1,1-dimethyl)phenol. Sebaliknya tiada phenol didapati di
dalam vermikompos EFB. Penggunaan terus 3 jenis cacing tanah di kajian rumah
kaca menggunakan rumput Setaria tidak menunjukkan perbezaan yang bererti
terhadap P tersedia, jumlah nutrient dalam tanah, pengambilan nutrient, dan hasil
berat kering (DM) rumput. Penggunaan VPC menunjukkan pertumbuhan yang lebih
baik bagi rumput Setaria berbanding EFB dan kompos konvensional. Setaria
memerlukan sebanyak 75 tan ha-1 VPC untuk mencapai hasil berat kering
maksimum. Penggunaan GPR dicampur dengan EFB, AM, dan cacing tanah
meningkatkan berat kering rumput Setaria sebanyak 60% berbanding dengan GPR
sahaja dan dengan menggunakan VPC (79%). Sumbangan AM, cacing tanah GPR
terhadap pengambilan berbeza dan bergantung pada interaksi antaranya. Sebagai
kesimpulannya, VPC adalah cara yang terbaik untuk menguruskan EFB. Kandungan
nutriennya boleh menyokong pertumbuhan Setaria. Peningkatkan pertumbuhan
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rumput Setaria dan ketersediaan P dan nutrien lain (N dan K) ditunjukkan dengan
kemampuan pengambilan nutrien yang diperolehi dengan mencampurkan EFB
dengan cacing tanah, AM dan baja inorganik.
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I would like to express my gratitude and appreciation to the following people for
their contributions towards the completion of this thesis:
Prof. Dr. Mohamed Hanafi Musa, for his supervision, continual guidance,
enthusiasm, encouragement, patience, and friendship during the course of my study.
Assoc.Prof. Dr.Mahmud Tengku Muda, for valuable discussion and constructive
criticism.
Dr. Nor Azwady Abd Aziz, for his supervision, valuable suggestions, patience and
friendship.
All staff in the Department of Land Management, for their assistance and friendship
throughout the course of my study.
All Indonesian friends at UPM, for their friendship.
Finally, but most important, my family, for their prayers, love and continual support.
viii
I certify that an Examination Committee has met on the April 4, 2007 to conduct the final examination of Tengku Sabrina Djunita on her Doctor of Philosophy thesis entitled “Enhancement of P Solubilization and Plant Nutrient Availability from Phosphate Rocks Through Vermicomposting and Arbuscular Mycorrhiza” in accordance with Universiti Pertanian Malaysia (Higher Degree)Act 1980 and Universiti Pertanian (Higher Degree) Regulations 1981. The Committee recommends that the candidate be awarded the relevant degree. Members of the Examination Committee are as follows: Syamsudin J., PhD Professor Faculty of Graduate Studies Universiti Putra Malaysia (Chairman) Radziah Othman, PhD Associate Professor Faculty of Graduate Studies Universiti Putra Malaysia (Internal Examiner) Halimi Abd. Saud, PhD Faculty of Graduate Studies Universiti Putra Malaysia (Internal Examiner) Iswandi Anas, PhD Professor Faculty of Graduate Studies Universiti Putra Malaysia (External Examiner)
───────────────────────── HASANAH MOHD. GHAZALI, PhD
Professor/Deputy Dean School of Graduate Studies Universiti Putra Malaysia Date: 2007
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This thesis submitted to the Senate of Universiti Putra Malaysia and has been accepted as fulfilment of the requirement for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy. The members of the Supervisory Committee are as follows: Mohamed Hanafi Musa, PhD, AMIC Professor Faculty of Agriculture Universiti Putra Malaysia (Chairman) Mahmud Tengku Muda Mohamed, PhD Associate Professor Faculty of Agriculture Universiti Putra Malaysia (Member) Nor Azwady Abd. Aziz, PhD Lecturer Faculty of Science Universiti Putra Malaysia (Member)
───────────────────────── AINI IDERIS, PhD Professor/Dean School of Graduate Studies Universiti Putra Malaysia Date: 14 June 2007
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DECLARATION
I hereby declare that the thesis is based on my original work except for the quotations and the citations which have been duly acknowledged. I also declare that it has not been previously or concurrently submitted for any other degree at UPM or other institutions.
───────────────────────── TENGKU SABRINA DJUNITA Date: 3 May 2007
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page ABSTRACT iiABSTRAK ivACKNOWLEDGEMENTS viiAPPROVAL SHEETS viiiDECLARATION xLIST OF TABLES xivLIST OF FIGURES xviiiLIST OF ABBREVIATIONS xxi CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION 1.1 2 LITERATURE REVIEW 2.1 2.1 Phosphate in Soil 2.1 2.2 Function of Phosphate in Agriculture 2.4 2.3 Dissolution of Phosphate Rock 2.7 2.3.1 Factors Affecting Phosphate Rock Dissolution 2.8 2.3.2 Availability of Dissolved P 2.16 2.4 Arbuscular Mycorrhiza 2.16 2.4.1 Carbon Metabolism and Movement 2.17 2.4.2 Benefit of AM Symbiosis to Plants 2.19 2.4.3 Factors Affecting AM Infection 2.20 2.5 Earthworm 2.20 2.5.1 The Morphology of Earthworm 2.20 2.5.2 The Biology of Earthworm 2.24 2.5.3 Factors Affecting Earthworm Distribution and
Abundance 2.26
2.5.4 Beneficial Effect of Earthworm on Soil Ecosystem 2.34 2.6 Vermicompost 2.35 2.7 Oil palm by-products 2.37 2.8 Summary 2.39 3 GENERAL MATERIALS AND METHODS 3.1 3.1 Preparation of Materials 3.1 3.2 Soil Analysis 3.4 3.3 Compost Analysis 3.5 3.4 Plant Analysis 3.5 4 THE INFLUENCE OF SOIL TYPE AND OIL PALM AGE ON
EARTHWORM POPULATIONS AND CAST PROPERTIES 4.1
4.1 Introduction 4.1 4.2 Materials and Methods 4.3 4.2.1 Survey Location 4.3 4.2.2 Sampling Technique 4.4
xii
4.2.3 Statistical Analysis 4.5 4.3 Result and Discussion 4.5 4.3.1 Distribution and Population of Earthworm 4.5 4.3.2 Soil Factors Affecting the Distribution of Earthworm
Population 4.9
4.3.3 Relationship between Soil Properties and Earthworm Cast
4.13
4.4 Conclusion 4.19 5 VERMIPHOSPHOCOMPOSTING USING OIL PALM BY-
PRODUCTS AND PHOSPHATE ROCKS 5.1
5.1 Introduction 5.1 5.2 Materials and Methods 5.3 5.2.1 Screening The Earthworms for Vermicomposting 5.3 5.2.2 Stocking Density on Vermicomposting of EFB 5.4 5.2.3 Effect of Pre-Composted Time and Size of EFB on
Earthworm Growth, Mortality and Vermicompost Quality
5.4
5.2.4 Dissolution of Phosphate Rocks in Vermicompost System
5.5
5.3 Result and Discussion 5.9 5.3.1 Screening Earthworm for Vermicomposting 5.9 5.3.2 Earthworm Stocking Density on Vermicompost of EFB 5.10 5.3.3 Effect of Pre-Composted Time and Size of Particle on
Vermicomposting of EFB 5.16
5.3.4 Dissolution of Phosphate Rocks and Chemical and Microbiological Content of Vermicompost
5.24
5.4 Conclusions 5.43 6 EFFECT OF EMPTY FRUIT BUNCH APPLICATION ON
EARTHWORM POPULATION AND PHENOL CONTENT IN FIELD CONDITION
6.1
6.1 Introduction 6.1 6.2 Materials and Methods 6.3 6.2.1 Total Extractable Polyphenolic Content of Decomposed
EFB 6.3
6.2.2 The Type of Phenol in Decomposed EFB 6.3 6.2.3 Effect of EFB on Earthworm Population under Field
Condition 6.5
6.3 Result and Discussion 6.7 6.3.1 Total Extractable Phenol in Composted EFB 6.7 6.3.2 The Type of Phenolic Compounds in Raw and
Decomposed EFB 6.9
6.3.3 Effect of EFB on Earthworm Population 6.13 6.4 Conclusion 6.15
xiii
7 EFFECT OF ORGANIC MATTER, EARTHWORM AND ARBUSCULAR MYCORRHIZA IN ENHANCING GROWTH, AND PHOSPHORUS UPTAKE BY SETARIA GRASS (Setaria splendida)
7.1
7.1 Introduction 7.1 7.2 Materials and Method 7.3 7.2.1 Effect of Rates and Types of EFB Preparation on
Growth and Nutrients Uptake by grass 7.3
7.2.2 Interaction of Earthworm, Arbuscular Mycorrhiza and Gafsa Phospate Rock on Plant Available P and P Uptake by Setaria Grass
7.5
7.2.3 Comparison Between Mixed Organic - Inorganic Fertilizers
7.8
7.2.4 Effect of Earthworm Type on Growth and P uptake by Grass
7.10
7.3 Results and Discussion 7.12 7.3.1 Effect of Rate and Type of EFB Preparation on
Growth and Nutrients Uptake by Grass 7.12
7.3.2 Interaction of Earthworm, Arbuscular Mycorrhiza and Gafsa Phospate Rock on Plant Available P and P uptake by Grass
7.26
7.3.3 Comparison Between Mixed Organic -Inorganic Fertilizers
7.41
7.3.4 Effect of Earthworm Types on Growth and P uptake by Grass
7.49
7.4 Conclusion 7.52 8 GENERAL DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION 8.1 REFERENCES APPENDICES
R.1A.1
BIODATA OF THE AUTHOR B.1
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LIST OF TABLES Table Page
3.1 Chemical composition of oven dry EFB and Frond 3.1 3.2 Chemical characteristics of PRs 3.2 3.3 Chemical characteristics of VPC and compost 3.3 4.1 Physico-chemical characteristics and classification of the soils used
in the study 4.3
4.2 Earthworm population and organic matter content under fronds
heap and open soil surface 4.9
4.3 Eigenvalues and proportions of variance to the total variance for
derived principal component 4.10
4.4 Factor pattern for the first four principal components 4.10 4.5 Dry weight of surface earthworm casts from oil palm plantation
under different soil types and oil palm tree ages 4.13
4.6 Relationships between soil and earthworm cast properties and its
relative percentage increase in value between cast and soil properties
4.14
4.7 Soil and earthworm cast particles components 4.15 5.1 Effect of earthworm stocking density on nutrients concentration of
vermicompost 5.15
5.2 Relationship between earthworm stocking density rate and
nutrients content in vermicompost 5.15
5.3 Mean of C/N, N, K, Mg and pH as influenced of size or pre-
composted of EFB particle 5.22
5.4 The effect of earthworm, PRs and oil palm by-products on Δ P,
ΔCa, Δ Pb, pH, bacteria, humic acid, acid PME, alkaline PME, organic C, total N, P, K, Ca and Mg
5.29
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5.5 The effect of dual interactions between oil palm by-products and
PRs, PRs and worm, oil palm by-products and worm on Δ P, ΔCa, Δ Pb, pH, bacteria, humic acid, acid PME, alkaline PME, organic C, total N, P, K, Ca and Mg
5.31
5.6 The effect of triple interactions between earthworm, PRs and oil
palm by-products on Δ P, ΔCa, Δ Pb, pH, bacteria, humic acid, acid and alkaline phoshomonoesterase, organic C, total N, P, K, Ca and Mg
5.32
6.1 GC-MS conditions 6.4 6.2 The effect of application of EFB on earthworm population, C, N
and total extractable phenol 6.14
7.1 Treatments of experiment comparison between mixed organic-
inorganic fertilizers 7.9
7.2 Effect of rates and types of organic matter on DM of Setaria grass
at 1st harvest 7.14
7.3 Effect of rates and types of organic matter on root volume of
Setaria grass 7.18
7.4 Effect of rates and types of organic matter on total N, P, K, Ca and
Mg in soil 7.21
7.5 effect of AM, worm and PR on dry matter yield 7.27 7.6 Effect of AM, worm and PR on total N, P, K, Ca, and Mg in soil at
the end of experiment 7.38
7.7 Effect of AM, worm and PR on changes in 0.5 M NaOH
extractable (ΔP), P uptake (ΔPs), and available P (ΔPb) in the soil 7.41
7.8 Comparison between mixed organic-inorganic fertilizers on DM yield
7.42
7.9 Comparison between mixed organic-inorganic fertilizers on P
uptake 7.43
7.10 Comparison between mixed organic-inorganic fertilizers on N
uptake 7.44
7.11 Comparison between mixed organic-inorganic fertilizers on K
uptake 7.44
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7.12 Comparison between mixed organic-inorganic fertilizers on Ca uptake
7.45
7.13 Comparison between mixed organic-inorganic fertilizers on Mg
uptake 7.45
7.14 Nutrients utilization efficiency of Setaria grass 7.46 7.15 Comparison between mixed organic-inorganic fertilizers on root
volume 7.47
7.16 Comparison between mixed organic-inorganic fertilizers on P
available in soil 7.48
7.17 Effect of mixed organic-inorganic fertilizers on changes in 0.5 M
NaOH extractable (ΔP), P uptake (ΔPs), and available P (ΔPb) in soil
7.49
7.18 Effect of different types of earthworm on cumulative N, P, K, Ca
and Mg uptake by grass Setaria 7.50
7.19 Effect of different types of earthworm on total N, P, K, Ca and Mg
uptake of soil 7.51
xvii
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure Page
2.1 Schematic diagram showing the rate-limiting factors (inside big box area) for phosphate rock dissolution in soils and the variables (boxes outside stippled area) which determine the magnitude and degree of interaction of the rate-limiting factors
2.8
2.2 Setae arrangements in section 2.21
2.3 Dorsal views of various forms of prostomium 2.22
2.4 Examples of typical earthworm arrangements 2.23
4.1 Pontoscolex corethrurus from palm oil plantation in Malaysia 4.6
4.2 Prostomium form of P. corethrurus 4.6
4.3 The pearls shape of P. corethrurus cocoons collected from the
palm oil plantation, Malaysia. White or pink cocoons indicate near hatching
4.7
4.4 Earthworm population in five soil types (Serdang, Rengam,
Jerangau, Bungor, and Munchong) and three different oil palm ages (<7, 7–14, >14)
4.8
4.2 Principal component analysis 1 (horizontal) and 2 (vertical) of
earthworm distribution pattern related to soil properties. 4.12
4.3 Principal component analysis 3 (horizontal) and 4 (vertical) of
earthworm distribution pattern related to soil properties 4.12
5.1 Effects of earthworm stocking density ratio on vermicomposting
of EFB on the weekly growth of earthworm 5.11
5.2 Effects of earthworm stocking density ratio on vermicomposting
of EFB on percentage of earthworm survival 5.12
5.3 Cumulative mortality of earthworm of different earthworm
stocking density 5.13
5.4 Effects of pre-composted and size on vermicomposting of EFB
on the weekly earthworm growth 5.17
xviii
5.5 Effects of pre-composted and size on vermicomposting of EFB on the cumulative mortality of earthworm
5.18
5.6 Effect of EFB size particle (fine and coarse) and pre-composted
on C content of vermicompost 5.19
5.7 Effect of size (fine and coarse) and pre-composted time on N, P,
K, Ca and Mg content of vermicompost 5.21
5.8 Effect of EFB size particle (fine and coarse) and pre-composted
on pH of vermicompost 5.23
5.9 Effects of incorporation of PR types into (i) vermicompost EFB
and (ii) vermicompost frond on earthworm weight 5.25
5.10 Numbers of cocoon produced in EFB and frond added with PRs 5.26
5.11 Mortality of earthworm duringvermicomposting of EFB and
frond with addition of PRs 5.27
5.12 pH of (i) EFB and (ii) frond during composting, and pH of (iii)
EFB and (iv) frond during vermicomposting 5.36
5.13 Weight per volume of vermicomposting and compost of EFB
and frond 5.39
6.1 Flow chart for the complete extraction and clean up process of
identifying phenolic compounds from compost sample 6.5
6.2 Earthworm caging used in the field experiment 6.6
6.3 Total extractable phenol in decomposed EFB 6.8
6.4 Chromatogram of the phenolic compounds (BSTFA derivatives)
of (i) fresh EFB, (ii) field composted EFB, (iii) composted EFB and (iv) vermicompost
6.10
6.5 Mass spectrum of (i) 2,4-bis(1,1-dimethylethyl)phenol of fresh
EFB, (ii) 2,6-bis(1,1-dimethylethyl)phenol of field composted EFB, (iii) 2,6-bis(1,1-dimethylethyl)phenol of composted EFB and (iv) vermicompost EFB (BSTFA derivative)
6.11
6.6 Fragmentation of phenol 6.12
6.7 Structure of (i) 2,6-bis(1,1-dimethylethyl)phenol found in field
composted and composted EFB, and (ii) 2,4-bis(1,1-dimethylethyl)phenol of fresh EFB
6.13
7.1 Pot containing AM, earthworm and EFB 7.6
xix
7.2 The performance of dry weight of S. splendida with addition of (a) fresh EFB, (b) compost EFB and (c) vermicompost EFB for every harvest time
7.13
7.3 Effect of fresh, compost and VPC of EFB and dosage on grass
DM 7.15
7.4 Roots of S. splendida treated with different organic matter types
at a rate of 18.75 ton ha-1 7.18
7.5 Effect of fresh, compost and VPC of EFB and dosage on N, P, K,
Ca, and Mg uptake by grass Setaria 7.20
7.6 Effect of fresh, compost and VPC of EFB and dosage on plant
available P 7.23
7.7 Effect of fresh, compost and VPC of EFB and dosage on residual
P 7.24
7.8 Effect of fresh, compost and VPC of EFB and dosage on pH 7.25
7.9 Effect of fresh, compost and VPC of EFB and dosage on CEC 7.26
7.10 Interaction effect of i) AM and PR, ii) worm and PR, and iii)
worm and PR on DM yield at the 4th harvest 7.27
7.11 The contribution of AM on monthly nutrients uptake by Setaria
grass for each worm and PR combination 7.29
7.12 The contribution of worm on monthly nutrients uptake by
Setaria grass for each AM and PR combination 7.31
7.13 The contribution of AM and worm on cumulative nutrients
uptake by Setaria grass 7.33
7.14 Phosphorus utilization efficiency by AM, worm and PR 7.36
7.15 Interaction effect of i) AM and PR, ii) AM and worm, and iii)
worm and PR on AM colonization on Setaria root 7.37
7.16 Interaction effect of i)worm and AM, ii)worm and PR, and iii)
AM and PR on total Ca in soil 7.39
7.17 Effect of interaction between AM, worm and PR on plant-available
P 7.40
7.18 Effect of earthworm type on DM of grass Setaria 7.50
xx
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS
AA Auto-analyzer
AAS Atomic absorption spectrophotometer
AM Arbuscular mycorrhiza
BSTFA N.O-bis(trimethyl-silyl)triflouroecetamide
DCM Dichloromethane
DM Dry matter
EFB Empty fruit bunch
ESDR Earthworm stocking density ratio
GAE Gallic acid equivalent
GC-MS Gas chromatography mass spectrometer
GPR Gafsa phosphate rock
MPR Morocco phosphate rock
PCA Principle component analysis
PR Phosphate rock
TPR Togo phosphate rock
TSP Triple super phosphate
UPM University Putra Malaysia
VPC Vermiphosphocompost
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
Phosphorus (P) is one of the key nutrients limiting plant growth. Its availability to
plants is controlled mainly by soil pH, soluble Al, Fe, Ca and organic matter content.
Most of soils in Malaysia are acidic, predominantly of Ultisols and Oxisols. These
soils showed greater capability to fix phosphate, through their Fe and Al contents.
Hence, added P fertilizer is strongly immobilized. Therefore, regular fertilizer
applications are required to maintain adequate supply of plant-available P. In this
situation the use of phosphate rock (PR) as a direct-application fertilizer could be the
most cost effective than a water-soluble P source. Moreover, the escalation in costs
of manufacturing and distribution of soluble P fertilizers made PR the cheapest and
important alternative source for P. The solubility of PR in the soil is affected by
several factors, such as the type of PR, soil factors (chemical, physical and
biological), and climatic condition. The types of PR and soil factors could be
modified, for example by adding lime into the soil to increase soil pH. Modification
of pH could shifted P form from non soluble into soluble form. Several alternatives
have been used to increase P availability from PRs including: (i) incorporation of
additives into PR, (ii) partial acidulation of PR, (iii) compaction of PR with water-
soluble P fertilizers, and (iv) microbial methods.
Many other materials including organic materials could be used to modify soils, and
subsequently increase solubility of P in soil. The organic materials and their
decomposition products can reduce P fixation in soils. These are attributed to the
reduction in P fixation due to the complexation of Al and Fe by organic acids,
1.2
competition between organic acids and orthophosphate for adsorption sites and
release of P by organic material during decomposition.
As a major crop in Malaysia, oil palm produces by products in large quantities.
Meanwhile, to maintain the production of fresh fruit bunch (FFB), oil palm trees
need to be fertilized intensively using chemical fertilizers. By considering the large
amount of these by-products they can be used to replace the nutrients lost by plant
uptake. The total oil palm plantations area is around 4,051,374 ha in 2005 and
expected to increase to 5.10 million ha in 2020 (Anonymous, 2005). For every tonne
of crude palm oil (CPO) produced, three tonnes of palm oil mill effluent (POME) is
generated. An average of 24 fronds is pruned every year, or equal to 11.7 tonnes ha-1
year-1 (Chan, 2000). About 18.88 tonnes ha-1 y-1 of FFB was produced in 2005 and
has generated 11.3 tonnes EFB ha-1 y-1 (Anonymous, 2005).
Thus, oil palm by-products are potential sources of nutrients. However, oil palm by-
products are decomposed slowly in the environment. Soil micro and macro-
organisms are required to enhance decomposition process. Soil macro-organisms,
such as earthworm have a great potential to increase the soil productivity in oil palm
plantation. Its role in P turnover is well known, about four to tenfold increase in P
content and availability in earthworm casts result from enhanced mineralization of
organic P (Sharpley and Syers, 1977). Inoculation of earthworms into the organic
wastes during composting helps to enhance the transformation of organic P into
mineral forms. In addition, they also keep the magnitude of fixation of released P
into insoluble inorganic forms at low levels, thus increasing the availability of P in
these compounds. Moreover, most of the additional P present in casts is held in more
1.3
physically sorbed than chemisorbed forms and a reduction in P sorption capacity of
soil by organic matter blockage. At the same time, the presence of earthworm will
enlarge the microorganism’s population in the soil.
Plant roots are the most important organ for nutrients and water absorption and
uptake by plants. In the case of abnormal roots growth, the nutrients uptake will
impede. Association of arbuscular mycorrhiza (AM) with roots would give plant
with vigorous growth of root systems, hence plant will able to absorb more nutrients
especially for immobile nutrient like P. Besides that, mycorrhizal infected plants are
expected to dissolve P from PR.
In view of the role of earthworms and the amount of agriculture by products produce
in oil palm plantation and the lack information about earthworm under oil palm tree
ecosystems, this research was carried out in several oil palm plantations in Malaysia,
to determine the suitability of using earthworm in decomposition of oil palm by-
products, such EFB. The aims of this study were (i) to characterize earthworm
populations and cast properties in different soil types and oil palm ages, and the
relationships among soil properties on earthworm populations in the oil palm
plantation, (ii) to evaluate the effect of vermicomposting on phosphate solubility of
different P sources, (iii) to investigate the effect of application of EFB on earthworm
population and activity under oil palm field condition, (iv) to evaluate the effect of
vermiphosphocompost as a source of P fertilizer in fulfilling P requirement for plant
growth compared to other sources, and (v) to evaluate the contribution of AM and
earthworm in increasing P uptake by plant.
CHAPTER 2
LITERATURE REVIEW 2.1. Phosphate in Soil
Phosphate is a critical element in natural and agricultural ecosystems throughout the
world. The concentration of P in the soils is in the range of 100-3,000 mg P kg-1 and
the solubility is less than 0.01 mg PL-1 (Brady and Weil, 2000) or around 0.1% of the
total P. Most of soils have low P availability and in order to fulfill the plants P
requirement, large quantities of P fertilizer and P-containing organic wastes have
frequently been added.
The main sources of P in soil are from inorganic and organic phosphates. About 150
minerals are known to contain at least 0.44% P (1% P2O5). The world’s supply of P
comes from mineral deposits. The important inorganic phosphate source minerals is
apatite group Ca10(PO4, CO3)6(F,OH)2-3 and it is the minable deposits. If this apatite-
bearing rock is high enough in P content to be used directly to make fertilizer or as a
furnace charge to make elemental P, it is called phosphate rock (Cathcart, 1980).
Based on their geological formation, the present phosphate rock mined can be
divided into sedimentary, igneous and metamorphic rocks origin (McCleellan and
Gremillion, 1980; Slansky, 1986).