UNITED NATIONS ENVIRONMENT PROGRAMME...United Nations Environment Programme, and writing one of her...
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UNITED NATIONS ENVIRONMENT PROGRAMME STUDY GUIDE Raffles Model United Nations 2018 Sapere Aude – Dare to Know
Transcript of UNITED NATIONS ENVIRONMENT PROGRAMME...United Nations Environment Programme, and writing one of her...
UNITED NATIONS ENVIRONMENT
PROGRAMME
STUDY GUIDE
Raffles Model United Nations 2018 Sapere Aude – Dare to Know
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
WELCOME LETTER FROM THE DAIS 2
Introduction to the Committee 6
Mandate of the Committee 7
TOPIC A: THE AFRICAN WATER CRISIS 8
Statement Of Problem 8
Past International Action 18
Proposed Solutions 20
Key Guiding Questions 23
Suggestions for Further Research 23
Bibliography 24
TOPIC B: EFFECTS OF CLIMATE CHANGE ON AGRICULTURE 28
Introduction to the Issue 28
Historical Background 30
Current Situation 33
Case Studies 36
Past UN Action 41
Major Bloc Positions 42
Key Areas of Concern 44
Proposed Solutions 46
Key Guiding Questions 46
Suggestions for Further Research 47
Bibliography 48
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WELCOME LETTER FROM THE DAIS
Dearest delegates,
Welcome to the United Nations Environment Programme at Raffles Model United Nations 2018!
It is a pleasure for me and my two lovely co-chairs, Audity and Sadia, to be chairing this
committee and we look forward to the invigorating debate on two extremely pertinent issues that
the Committee has been tasked with addressing.
The United Nations Environment Programme is the global environmental authority responsible
for setting the global environmental agenda, promoting the coherent implementation of
sustainable development, and serving as an authoritative advocate for the global environment.
This year, the UNEP will discuss the African Water Crisis and the Effects of Climate Change on
Agriculture. In the former issue, the African continent has long been plagued with the curse of
water scarcity and lack of access to sanitation, which may even culminate in potential conflict
over shared aquifers or water bodies. Delegates will have to ponder over the implementation of
novel and innovative solutions to address a problem that has been surfaced for long, but has yet
to be adequately resolved. The second issue concerns the fate of agriculture, that is very much
reliant on environmental conditions that are getting more volatile by the second. If the
agricultural industry falters, there may be implications on food security and the economic
livelihoods of rural communities in developing countries. At the same time, the volatile climate
may instead present new frontiers for other countries in the temperate region, thus worsening the
unevenness of economic development between the More Economically Developed Countries
(MEDCs) and Less Economically Developed Countries (LEDCs).
The Dais of the Committee hope that delegates would take the time and effort to understand the
intricacies and complexities in both issues. By understanding their country’s stance and struggles
with the issues and their wide-ranging consequence , delegates will learn to think critically in a
bid to devise insightful solutions to address both topics.
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Environmental problems put the lives and livelihoods of millions of people at risk each day.
Should we choose to forgo our commitment to taking care of the planet, we implicitly choose to
forgo our commitment to our own survival and prosperity.
Last but not least, we hope you enjoy your 3 days at RMUN 2018! Should you have any queries,
do feel free to drop us an email at [email protected].
Warmest regards,
Calista Chong
Head Chair, United Nations Environment Programme, RMUN 2018
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CHAIR BIOGRAPHIES
Head Chairperson: Calista Chong Jia Ning
Calista is a Y6 student in the Humanities Programme. Besides vetting study guides in the
capacity of Deputy Secretary-General, Calista is also pleased to be doubling up as chair of the
United Nations Environment Programme, and writing one of her own in the process. Besides
being a member of the History and Strategic Affairs Society, she also writes for the school’s
journalism society, Raffles Press. In the free time that she finds by procrastinating on school
work, she sustains herself by watching adorable baby and animal clips on Instagram, or listening
to jazz and pop. She hopes that delegates take a meaningful interest in the affairs that the
committee will discuss, and most importantly, leave the conference having made at least a new
friend.
Deputy Chairperson: Audity Binta Tareq
Audity (was) a student in Raffles Institution. Having graduated last year, she has since been
enjoying her new found freedom by adhering to a very rigorous netflix schedule and doing a
plethora of important things such as (procrastinating) learning driving and coming back to help
out at RMUN because who can say no to the angelic faces of her HSTA juniors? Having
attended an X number of conferences (she has lost count), both as a delegate and a chair, she is
excited to be able to step into the MUN scene once again after a hiatus. She hopes that she will
be able to make RMUN 2018 an enjoyable conference for all delegates in the council.
Deputy Chairperson: Sadia Tasneem
Sadia Tasneem (was also) a student in Raffles Institution. After graduation, she has been
spending most of her time working a part time job (and spending her pay immediately after she
gets it). She enjoys reminiscing about the plethora of activities she was involved in before
graduation (MUN being one of them) and wondering why she has not done anything productive
since. She is thus eager to return and even postponed her basic theory test for driving so as to
comfortably fulfill her chairing duties at RMUN 2018. Having attended a number of conferences
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(that she cannot remember as well) in various capacities, she wishes to impart some of the
knowledge she has gained along the way to the younger generation.
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THE COMMITTEE
Introduction to the Committee
The United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) is the leading global environmental
authority that sets the global environment agenda, promotes the coherent implementation of
sustainable development, and serves as the authoritative advocate for the global environment.
The UNEP is involved in a myriad of issues relating to environmental sustainability.
The Third Session of the UN Environment Assembly was recently concluded in December 2017,
where Permanent Representatives to the UNEP convened to discuss the strategies to achieving a
pollution-free planet.1 Some issues discussed include pollution mitigation and control in areas
affected by armed conflict or terrorism and addressing water pollution to restore water-related
ecosystems. The UNEP has also been involved in advocacy work: the #CleanSeas campaign was
launched to combat marine litter, and by extension, it has also offered support to the Flipflopi
Project in Kenya, which aims to advocate for the same cause.
Although many of its initiatives and projects have gained some traction, UN Environment has
been criticised for the failure to see the translation of policy implementation to favourable
outcomes. The effects of the onslaught of climate change are felt now more than ever, and Cape
Town – renowned for its deft water management – is also coming under the imminent threat of
Day Zero. Some critics also point to the conflicting objectives of UN Environment and its other
UN counterparts, such as the International Monetary Fund and the World Bank – which have
been criticised for failing to achieve a sustainable outlook in the policies they pursue.2 The
mantle thus fall on your shoulders, delegates of the UNEP, to capitalise on existing platforms of
the UNEP to attain sustainable living for future generations.
1 Proceedings, Report, Ministerial Declaration Resolutions and Decisions of the Third Session of the UN
Environment Assembly (2017). Retrieved from https://papersmart.unon.org/resolution/unea3 2 BBC News. (2000). UN’s green corps tries hard. Retrieved from http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/906660.stm
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Mandate of the Committee
The role of UN Environment is to provide leadership and encourage partnership in caring for the
environment, by inspiring, informing and enabling nations and peoples to improve their quality
of life in a sustainable manner, without infringing upon the right of future generations to attain
that standard of living as well. It assesses global, regional and national environmental conditions
and trends, develops international and national environmental instruments, and strengthens the
capacity of institutions to manage the environment wisely.
The work of UN Environment can be categorised into seven broad themes, which include
climate change, environmental governance and resource efficiency. The Programme aims to
honour its overarching commitment to sustainability through its partnerships with Member
States, representatives from civil society, businesses and local communities.
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TOPIC A: THE AFRICAN WATER CRISIS
Statement Of Problem
Water is an essential resource for human life – without which, one can only survive for a matter
of days. Water can also be harnessed for a myriad of uses, such as in agriculture, hydroelectricity
and transportation. Yet, regions around the world are deprived of such an invaluable resource.
The situation in Africa is most acute, combining high water usage pressures, rampant poverty
and conflict with low water resource development.
Supporting 15% of the global population with only 9% of its fresh water is a difficult task, which
is compounded by climate change in recent years.3 In late 2017, Cape Town – a city renowned
for its world class water resource planning – became the first major city in the world at risk of
running out of potable water.4 When water levels in its reserve dams fell to 13.5%, authorities
introduced level 6B water rationing measures which allocated a mere 50 litres to each person per
day.5,6 There was a very real threat that Day Zero would arrive, a time where the city would be
forced to turn off all non-essential water supplies, and the police would be deployed to rationing
pipes to monitor the usage of potable water. Imminent crisis was only averted when water was
released from upstream reserves and city residents worked to reduce water consumption to a
record low of 506 million litres per day.7
A week later, water consumption increased to 565 million litres from the record low, failing to
reach the target 450 million litres.8 As time ticks by, the city races to construct four new
3 UNEP. (2010). “Africa Water Atlas”. Division of Early Warning and Assessment (DEWA). United Nations
Environment Programme (UNEP). Nairobi, Kenya. 4 Mulligan, G. (2018). Will Cape Town be the first city to run out of water?. BBC News. Retrieved 2 May 2018,
from http://www.bbc.com/news/business-42626790 5 Level 6B Water Restrictions. (2018). Resource.capetown.gov.za. Retrieved 2 May 2018, from
http://resource.capetown.gov.za/documentcentre/Documents/Procedures,%20guidelines%20and%20regulations/Lev
el%206B%20Water%20restriction%20guidelines-%20eng.pdf 6 Head, T. (2018). Level 6B water restrictions have started: Here's what they mean for Cape Town:. The South
African. Retrieved 2 May 2018, from https://www.thesouthafrican.com/level-6b-water-restrictions-cape-town/ 7 Palm, K. (2018). CT authorities commend water-saving efforts. Ewn.co.za. Retrieved 2 May 2018, from
http://ewn.co.za/2018/04/23/ct-authorities-commend-water-saving-efforts 8 Evans, J. (2018). Cape Town's water consumption figures go up again. News24. Retrieved 2 May 2018, from
https://www.news24.com/SouthAfrica/News/cape-towns-water-consumption-figures-go-up-again-20180320
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desalination plants, which could each produce up to 2000 cubic metres of water a day.9 However,
disaster still looms elsewhere. South Africa must brace itself for a prolonged water shortage
should the levels in Lesotho’s Katse Dam – currently at their 10th percentile – not rise.10 The
crisis of Day Zero is still not completely averted – merely postponed – to 2019.11,12
Thousands of Africans each day suffer from the lack of access to potable and sanitary water,
badly-planned and executed water security programmes, and conflict over transboundary water
sources. It is time for the international community to recognise the pressing situation in Africa
and work towards alleviating the crisis.
Water and Poverty
Safe Drinking Water
Endemic poverty in Africa correlates closely with water scarcity and problems of access. 15% of
Africans in urban areas and 49% of those in rural areas do not have access to improved sources
of drinking water.13 This means residents have to obtain water from community-dug open wells,
nearby streams and rivers, or even purchase bottled water for daily use. Many of these
unimproved, unprotected water sources are vectors for contamination and disease: they may
contain water fleas infected with guinea worm larvae, for instance, leaving communities
susceptible to Guinea-worm disease. Often, water sources are also few and far between, found in
locations so remote and inconvenient that people – mostly women and girls – spend up to 16
9 Zyl, W. V. (2018, May 02). Desalination: Global examples show how Cape Town could up its game. Retrieved
May 2, 2018, from https://theconversation.com/desalination-global-examples-show-how-cape-town-could-up-its-
game-90949 10 Stoddard, E., & Antonie, V. (2018). South Africa's water crisis spreads from Cape Town. U.S.. Retrieved 2 May
2018, from https://www.reuters.com/article/us-safrica-drought-lesotho/south-africas-water-crisis-spreads-from-cape-
town-idUSKBN1FK27A 11 Cape Town’s ‘Day Zero’ pushed back to 2019. (2018). Businesstech.co.za. Retrieved 1 May 2018, from
https://businesstech.co.za/news/business/235413/cape-towns-day-zero-pushed-back-to-2019/ 12 Stoddard, E. (2018). Cape Town 'Day Zero' pushed back to 2019 as dams fill up in South.... U.S.. Retrieved 10
April 2018, from https://www.reuters.com/article/us-safrica-drought/cape-town-day-zero-pushed-back-to-2019-as-
dams-fill-up-in-south-africa-idUSKCN1HA1LN 13 UNEP. (2010). “Africa Water Atlas”. Division of Early Warning and Assessment (DEWA). United Nations
Environment Programme (UNEP). Nairobi, Kenya.
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million man-hours collecting water each day, according to a UNICEF study on 25 countries in
sub-Saharan Africa.14,15,16
The worst of these situations is observed in Sub-Saharan Africa, where up to 40% of the
population has no access to safe water – although the region receives over half of the continent’s
annual rainfall.17 In more arid regions of Africa, these problems are further compounded because
of irregular rainfall patterns and a lack of development of water catchment areas.18 Many
Africans are thus forced to use the little, and unsanitized, water they can find. These sources are
often inadequate or unsafe for human consumption.
Numerous development programmes have sought to improve access to safe drinking water in a
variety of ways, which include building water pumps that enable rural communities to access the
water supplied by aquifers. For instance, in 2006, Tanzania launched a national water strategy to
improve the water access of 65% and 90% of its rural and urban populations respectively.
Although they received over US $1 billion in funding, with US $200 million in direct budget
support from the World Bank, the plan still fell far short of its targets.. Only 54% of Tanzanians
had access to a so-called improved water source in 2007, and this percentage even decreased to
53% in 2012, according to World Bank figures.19,20 It is estimated that over 40% of the pumps in
some parts of rural Africa do not function properly, due to a lack of spare parts and regular
servicing.21 Without committed support or adequate capacity, even renowned programmes like
14 UNICEF. (2009, May). “UNICEF Water, Sanitation and Hygiene Annual report 2008”. UNICEF WASH section.
United Nations International Children’s Emergency Fund (UNICEF). New York, USA. 15 Plan Uk. (2013, May 23) “The Problems and Solutions to Safe Water in Africa” [Blog Post]. Published on Triple
Pundit. Retrived May 02, 2018, from
https://www.triplepundit.com/podium/problems-solutions-safe-water-africa/ 16 Caruso, B. (2018, May 06). Women still carry most of the world's water. Retrieved May 02, 2018, from
https://theconversation.com/women-still-carry-most-of-the-worlds-water-81054 17 UNEP. (2010). “Africa Water Atlas”. Division of Early Warning and Assessment (DEWA). United Nations
Environment Programme (UNEP). Nairobi, Kenya. 18 Gommes, R., & Petrassi, F. (1996, May). Rainfall Variability and Drought in Sub-Saharan Africa. Published
United Nations Food and Agriculture Organisation. Retrieved May 02, 2018, from
http://www.fao.org/nr/climpag/pub/EIan0004_en.asp 19 Murphy, T. (2014, December 24). How Tanzania failed to fix its water access problem. Retrieved May 02, 2018,
from http://www.humanosphere.org/world-politics/2014/12/tanzania-failed-fix-water-access-problem/ 20Kushner, J. (2014). The World Bank's water failure in Tanzania. Retrieved from https://www.pri.org/stories/2014-
11-24/world-banks-water-failure-tanzania 21 Resources - RWSN Library. (2009). Retrieved from http://www.rural-water-supply.net/en/resources/details/203
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the PlayPump, which encourages children to play on a merry-go-round to pump water, have
charted failure, in the long run.22,23
The overall situation in Africa is grim. Although the percentage of Africans who lack access to
sanitized water has seemingly decreased – from 44% in 2000 to 38% presently – the absolute
numbers of people who lack sanitary water has actually increased, due to growing populations.24
Even urban, comparatively developed areas like Cape Town, as illustrated above, increasingly
come under the threat of water scarcity due to climate change. A serious re-evaluation of national
and regional water policies is of paramount importance to alleviate the water crisis afflicting the
continent today.
Sanitation
22 Stellar, D. (2010). The PlayPump: What Went Wrong?. Retrieved from
http://blogs.ei.columbia.edu/2010/07/01/the-playpump-what-went-wrong/ 23 Chambers, A. (2009). Africa's not-so-magic roundabout | Andrew Chambers. Retrieved from
https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2009/nov/24/africa-charity-water-pumps-roundabouts 24 UNEP. (2010). “Africa Water Atlas”. Division of Early Warning and Assessment (DEWA). United Nations
Environment Programme (UNEP). Nairobi, Kenya.
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Fig. 1: Map showing the degree of access to sanitation facilities25
Despite measures undertaken to improve the accessibility to sanitation facilities in North Africa,
Central and West Africa still suffer from a dire lack of access - as evidenced by Fig. 1, where
less than a quarter of the populations of countries in these regions are able to use improved
sanitation facilities. . In Sub-Saharan Africa overall, only 69% of the population has access to
proper sanitation facilities, with many in rural areas still at risk of diseases spread via
groundwater pollution, open defecation and solid waste disposal.26,27 Waste treatment facilities
are non-existent in many areas and most citizens lack access to adequate toilet facilities.
Hence, what ensues is the widespread contamination of water sources. As there are few
personnel with the expertise and tools to treat water, waste is discharged into potable water,
rendering even these sources unsafe. Sub-Saharan Africa bears the brunt of waterborne diseases
such as cholera, which spread even more rampantly during the monsoon season, with the
consumption of contaminated groundwater.28 According to the WWF, over 50% of Africans
suffer from 6 major water-related diseases.29
The problems caused by sanitation spell even greater trouble for families who are living in abject
poverty. As of 2012, 43% of the population on the continent lives below the poverty line.30,31
Even if there were medical treatment available in these poverty-stricken regions, the cost of such
medical treatments would be prohibitive for many families. Hence, curable diseases like cholera
25 Africa | International Decade for Action 'Water for Life' 2005-2015. (2005). Retrieved from
http://www.un.org/waterforlifedecade/africa.shtml 26 Ibid. 27 Lewis, L. (2010). Water In Crisis - Spotlight Africa: Rural and Urban Issues. Retrieved from
https://thewaterproject.org/water-crisis/water-in-crisis-rural-urban-africa 28 Ibid. 29 World Wildlife Fund. The Facts on Water in Africa. 30 While Poverty in Africa Has Declined, Number of Poor Has Increased. (2016). Retrieved from
http://www.worldbank.org/en/region/afr/publication/poverty-rising-africa-poverty-report 31 Poverty is on the retreat in Africa. (2012). Retrieved from https://www.afdb.org/en/blogs/afdb-championing-
inclusive-growth-across-africa/post/poverty-is-on-the-retreat-in-africa-8996/
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– that can be treated with rehydration therapy – remain the deadliest diseases in Africa,
responsible for approximately 643,000 deaths in 2015 alone.32
Social Inequality
Besides fulfilling the primordial needs of human life, the utility of Africa’s major rivers and
waterbodies also extends to many other spheres. For instance, major water bodies like the Niger
River and Nile River have traditionally been routes of transportation, facilitating trade between
rural populations. Presently, the economic functions they serve often come into conflict with
their hydroelectric potential, as rivers must be dammed in order to provide renewable electrical
power for developing countries.
Undeveloped water systems are also a major cause of social inequality. The need to ferry and
transport water from distant sources, for instance, is extremely time-consuming and thus spells
significant opportunity cost. Children, who are instructed to fetch water, could have spent their
time more productively in school; women, on the other hand, could have involved themselves
with income-generating activities that will help augment the household income.33,34
Finally, the inequality in access to water also manifests itself in urban inequality. Many rapidly
urbanizing populations in Africa show stark social inequality as the rich have access to ample
water sources and protection against drought, while the poor lack such sources and have to rely
on communal or unimproved outlets. In the recent Cape Town water crisis, this was exemplified
by poorer segments of the population being disproportionately at risk of chronic water shortages,
even while their wealthier neighbours were able to stockpile water and acquire access to
filtration and/or storage systems.
32 Vuuren, P. (2017). FACTSHEET: Africa’s leading causes of death | Africa Check. Retrieved from
https://africacheck.org/factsheets/factsheet-africas-leading-causes-death/ 33 Lewis, L. (2010). Water In Crisis - Spotlight Africa: Rural and Urban Issues. Retrieved from
https://thewaterproject.org/water-crisis/water-in-crisis-rural-urban-africa 34 Sorenson, S. B., Morssink, C., & Abril Campos, P. (2011). Safe Access to Safe Water in Low Income Countries:
Water Fetching in Current Times. Retrieved from h p://repository.upenn.edu/spp_papers/166
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Water and Politics
The Potential for Transboundary Conflict: Colonialism and Geographical Scarcity
“The only matter that could take Egypt to war again is water”
President Anwar Sadat of Egypt, 1979
As water scarcity and pressures mount, Africa’s numerous interstate aquifers and water bodies
increasingly become flashpoints for conflicts. Owing to this confluence of pressures, Africa has
been cited as the continent most likely to become involved in a water-related conflict in the near
future.
Africa has the highest number of transboundary aquifers of any continent, boasting 66 of over
200 of the world’s transboundary aquifers. Some of the larger and more important aquifers, such
as the Niger, Okangavo, Orange and Nile rivers, are afflicted with multilateral conflicts – the
conflict on the River Nile, for example, involves no less than ten states.
The scenario illustrated above is compounded by the scarcity of other freshwater sources.
Groundwater is an unreliable water source and is being rapidly depleted in arid regions of the
continent, while high-technology desalination and filtration systems have yet to be introduced in
these countries because of prohibitive high costs. As a result, states rely on large aquifers, or
“water towers” – highland areas which naturally have increased condensation and rainfall – for a
stable water supply.
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Fig. 2: Map showing the distribution of Africa’s “water towers”
Furthermore, the competition for scarce water gives way to the “Tragedy of The Commons” by
British economist William Forster Lloyd and later popularized by Garrett Hardin. It refers to the
phenomenon that takes place when the lack of ownership over a common but finite pool of
resources – such as water – incentivises maximum exploitation, rather than sustainable use. This
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is indeed exemplified by the overexploitation of aquifers, such as through the indiscriminate
digging of wells as part of rural water supply schemes.35
Zero Sum Game: Harnessing Water as Political Leverage
As the quantity of water resources is finite, and can even be on the decline due to unsustainable
uses by states, water allocation is often viewed as a zero-sum game.Because water naturally
flows downstream, this allows for upstream communities to place political leverage on their
downstream counterparts. As shown in Figure 2, the heavy reliance on such major aquifers
implies that states have few alternatives to turn to, and are compelled to compete for the same
water sources in the region.
Consequently, many African states are willing to go to great lengths to lay their claims on
limited water supplies. For instance, the Grand Ethiopian Renaissance Dam – also referred to as
the Millennium Dam, or Hidase Dam – promises abundant energy and an opportunity to rise
from the lowest rungs of the Human Development Index.36 Yet, harkening back to the zero-sum
quality of water resources, this poses an almost existential threat to Egypt, as the Nile River is
responsible for 95% of the country’s water supply. The dire consequences Egypt could be made
to bear include crop failure and power cuts, and are severe enough to cripple the nation.37
Despite repeated assurances from Ethiopian authorities that the Nile dam will not harm Egypt,
then-President Mohamed Morsi has engaged in warmongering, threatening the sacrifice of
“blood” to ensure that “not one drop” of the Nile River is lost.38,39
However, such critical situations also present an avenue for deep interstate collaboration, which
bring about mutual benefits, and also allows for the sustainable use of the limited resource.
35 Mahen, G. (2015). Retrieved from https://gizmodo.com/digging-new-wells-in-africa-could-run-its-aquifers-dry-
1739132928 36 Witte, G. (2018). Egypt sees Ethiopian dam as risk to water supply. Retrieved from
https://www.theguardian.com/world/2013/jun/18/egypt-ethiopia-dam-blue-nile 37 Ibid. 38 Nile dam won't harm Egypt, says new Ethiopian leader | Africanews. (2018). Retrieved from
http://www.africanews.com/2018/05/04/nile-dam-won-t-harm-egypt-says-new-ethiopian-leader// 39 Witte, G. (2018). Egypt sees Ethiopian dam as risk to water supply. Retrieved from
https://www.theguardian.com/world/2013/jun/18/egypt-ethiopia-dam-blue-nile
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Delegates are encouraged to conceive of possibilities for collaboration, and devise measures that
may facilitate this process of interstate collaboration – turning enmity into cooperation. One such
example of interstate collaboration will be expounded on in the next section.
Internal Conflict
Apart from emanating tensions on a regional scale, it is also important to note that there are a
large number of non-government actors who rely on these sources, including indigenous groups,
local rural communities, and the ecosystem itself. Due to power imbalances between
governments and such actors, the latter’s concerns and wishes regarding aquifer use have often
been sidelined, sometimes to the immense detriment of these populations and the aquifers
themselves. Although access to water does depend on geography, groups that have been
historically marginalised are also the ones with least access to the resource. WaterAid has
published a report stating that in sub-Saharan Africa, rich people are more than twice as likely to
have access to safe water, and five times as likely to have access to sanitation. Spatial
inequalities existing within countries are also significant in contributing the disparities in access
to resources – communities in rural areas or slum-dwellers in urban areas suffer
disproportionately.40 Delegates should consider how disenfranchised communities are ensured
access to sanitation, keeping in mind the context in which they are discriminated against, and
denied of resources.
Water and Ecology
Africa is rich in biodiversity, and many of these natural habitats are centered around sources of
water. Sustainable use of water sources is a goal not yet met in many parts of the continent, and
wetland/riverine habitats continue to be degraded quickly, by a combination of
pollution,overfishing, groundwater depletion and rapid development. These changes affect local
populations which rely on the environment as well.
40 WaterAid (2015). WASH and inequalities Retrieved from:
https://webcache.googleusercontent.com/search?q=cache:aeBoFknQq6YJ:https://sustainabledevelopment.un.org/get
WSDoc.php%3Fid%3D2433+&cd=2&hl=en&ct=clnk&gl=sg&client=safari
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Lake Victoria is one good example of such environmental degradation. Invasive species like the
Water Hyacinth and the Nile Carp have caused multiple indigenous species to become extinct.
Continuous water pollution further threatens fish stocks and biodiversity in the area, mainly
coming from untreated water sewage being discharged directly into the lake. Overfishing has
also further depleted fish stocks. To compound this problem, Lake Victoria is a transnational
aquifer bordering Tanzania, Kenya and Uganda, all of which have different priorities for the
lake, and are unable to agree on a common strategy for transnational governance.
As with the above issues of transnational aquifers, climate change and population growth as
stated above naturally increase the pressures on states to solve these issues, while compounding
the difficulties faced in doing so.
Past International Action
The international community has made concerted efforts thus far in ensuring the protection and
use of water sources. The United Nations Economic Commission for Europe (UNECE) Water
Convention is the first legal instrument conceived to regulate water sources, and was entered into
force in 1996. It was originally a legally binding regional agreement for member states within the
Economic Commission for Europe, to regulate and manage water quality issues affecting
international waters.41 However most recently, in February 2018, Chad became the first African
country to accede to the Water Convention, which had transformed into a global
intergovernmental framework in 2016.42 Chad’s accession to the Water Convention can be
attributed to the fact that it shares significant water basins with several neighbouring countries –
the Nubian sandstone aquifer system, for instance, is shared between Chad, Libya, Sudan and
Egypt. Chad’s Minister of Environment, Sidick A. Haggar, hence cited the need to rely on a
coherent framework for cooperation at the regional and international level, to avoid potential
disputes.43 Furthermore, in 2008, the Sixth Committee of the United Nations General Assembly
41 Matlala, M. (2017). Retrieved from
https://www.iwra.org/member/congress/resource/ABSID503_ABSID503_Second_Revision__Geohydrology_of__T
ransboundary_Confined_Aquifers_and__International_Water_Law.pdf 42 Chad becomes the first African country to join the Water Convention. (2018). Retrieved from
https://www.unece.org/info/media/presscurrent-press-h/environment/2018/chad-becomes-the-first-african-country-
to-join-the-water-convention/doc.html 43 Ibid.
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produced draft articles for the Law of Transboundary Aquifers (GA/RES/63/124) to institute
legal norms and policies for the management of transboundary aquifers.44 Yet, the regulation of
transboundary water aquifers is still in its infancy – as evident from the 6 international
agreements signed on 608 aquifers, compared to the 3,600 agreements signed on 279
transboundary surface waters.
Additionally, on World Water Day 2018, the United Nations also launched a decade-long
initiative – the International Decade for Action: Water for Sustainable Development 2018-2028
– in response to the ambitious 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development. Previously, the
“Water for Life” Decade that lasted from 2005 to 2015 had also sought to advance integrated
water management.45 This time, this particular Decade sought to accelerate efforts to improve
access to safe water and sanitation, alleviating the increasing pressure on water resources and
ecosystems, and reducing the risk of droughts and floods.46
Although there has been a renewed emphasis on the importance of discerning water
management, much is left to be desired in terms of the implementation and execution of such
water-related policies. Delegates should capitalise on the platforms available on the international
fora to design policies that will guide the integrated management of water resources.
A Case in Study: Lesotho Highlands Water Project
The Lesotho Highlands Water Project is the largest binational infrastructure project between
Lesotho and South Africa, and involves the construction of an intricate network of tunnels and
dams to divert water from the mountains of Lesotho to South Africa.47 Lesotho has abundant
water resources that far exceed the requirements for possible future irrigation projects. The total
water consumption in Lesotho is about 2m³/s, while its total availability stands at a sizeable
44 Eckstein, G., & Sindico, F. (2014). The Law of Transboundary Aquifers: Many Ways of Going Forward, but
Only One Way of Standing Still. 45 Launch of the International Decade of Water for Sustainable Development 2018 – 2028 | General Assembly of
the United Nations. (2018). Retrieved from https://www.un.org/pga/72/event-latest/launch-of-the-international-
decade-of-water-for-sustainable-development-2018-2028/ 46Water. (2018). Retrieved from http://www.un.org/en/sections/issues-depth/water/ 47 Lesotho Highlands Water Project. (2018). Retrieved from https://www.water-technology.net/projects/lesotho-
highlands/
20
figure of 150m³/s.48 The Lesotho Highlands Water Project provides Lesotho with a stable source
of revenue, and also supplies the country with hydroelectric power – till date, Lesotho supplies
South Africa with 70 cubic metres of water per second.49 At the same time, South Africa benefits
from quality water with low sediment cost, saving on hefty treatment costs.
This project is a stellar example of how interstate collaboration can be fostered in times of crisis.
However, Lesotho – once regarded as a resource-rich nation – has increasingly come under strain
after having to divert its water resources to South Africa. In early 2016, Lesotho suffered from its
worst drought in 35 years, largely attributed to the El Nino weather phenomenon. Although there
exists a vast and vital water reserve in the country, it still remains out of reach – destined for
export to South Africa.50
Thus, although the Lesotho Highlands Water Project is a positive demonstration of how a
symbiotic relationship can be formed between two states with complementary needs, this also
shows how their needs may conflict at times, and can potentially result in animosity.
Proposed Solutions
Encouraging Local Entrepreneurship and Concessions in Privatisation Schemes
In spite of the dismal situation and formidable challenges plaguing the accessibility of clean
water and sanitation in Africa, not all hope is lost. Some African countries have demonstrated
progress in improving the accessibility of water and sanitation services, and the strongest
performers in piped water-service expansion are Burkina Faso, Chad, Ethiopia and Mali, all
reflecting growth rates of 4 to 8% per year.51
A viable solution would be to encourage local ingenuity in revolutionising simple tools and
mechanisms to improve access to safe drinking water. For instance, a Swiss-pioneered water
48 Ibid. 49 Mathibeli, N. (2016). The beauty of Lesotho's water crisis. Retrieved from
https://www.news24.com/MyNews24/the-beauty-of-lesothos-water-crisis-20160111 50 Drought-stricken Lesotho exports water to South Africa. (2018). Retrieved from
https://www.thenational.ae/world/drought-stricken-lesotho-exports-water-to-south-africa-1.166395 51 UNEP. (2010). “Africa Water Atlas”. Division of Early Warning and Assessment (DEWA). United Nations
Environment Programme (UNEP). Nairobi, Kenya.
21
disinfection programme, Swiss Fresh Water (SFW) has produced a low-cost and decentralised
water treatment system to provide water for 4 million people.52 There is now a sizeable market
for water purifiers and many entrepreneurs are inventing more affordable models to bring safe
water to the poor.53 Governments of these African states can possibly issue subsidies to
incentivise the development of innovative approaches to water sanitation.
Moreover, governments can consider more public-private sector collaboration to facilitate the
implementation of water sanitation programmes started by private corporations, as private
investment by domestic and foreign companies that assume responsibility for financing and
operating water systems can improve efficiency and enlarge coverage. For instance, PAGER, a
national rural water supply programme devised in 2004, required public participation in the
simple use of technologies and the participation in all stages of the project, from needs design to
implementation, to evaluation. Access to drinking water increased from 14% in 1995 to 61% in
2004, to 77% to 2006.
Employment of Inexpensive Irrigation Technologies
52 SWISS FRESH WATER. (2008). Retrieved from http://www.swissfreshwater.com 53 UNEP. (2010). “Africa Water Atlas”. Division of Early Warning and Assessment (DEWA). United Nations
Environment Programme (UNEP). Nairobi, Kenya.
22
Fig 3: Diagram showing the disparity between actual and potential levels of water that can be
used
Parts of sub-Saharan Africa have large untapped reserves of groundwater, and there is great
potential for harvesting runoff and for farming lowlands and valley bottoms that catch it
naturally. Governments can consider investing in small-scale irrigation projects, such as the
construction of small dams, wells and canals. Once built in villages, this can help increase
agricultural productivity and generate greater income for rural communities.54 While this
solution offers the best advantage for increasing irrigation for food production, they must be
managed carefully in order not to cause more extensive environmental damage, or facilitate the
spread of waterborne diseases.55
54 UNEP. (2010). “Africa Water Atlas”. Division of Early Warning and Assessment (DEWA). United Nations
Environment Programme (UNEP). Nairobi, Kenya. 55 Ibid.
23
Key Guiding Questions
● What has contributed to, or precipitated the African Water Crisis?
● How should relevant member states improve on the current modus operandi of water
supply schemes or programmes in their countries?
● By extension, what role can other member states or international organisations play in
aiding the aforementioned process?
● How can international frameworks be improved upon to alleviate the scarcity of water in
the region and deter the emergence of transboundary water conflicts?
● How should member states champion the sustainable use of scarce water resources?
Suggestions for Further Research
Balch, O. (2016). Africa droughts prompt calls to start pumping untapped groundwater.
Retrieved from https://www.theguardian.com/sustainable-business/2016/aug/18/africa-drought-
untapped-groundwater-aquifers-water-stress-ngo-partnership-ethiopia
Duah, A., & Xu, Y. (2013). Retrieved from http://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/41996/InTech-
Sustainable_utilisation_of_groundwater_resources_under_climate_change_a_case_study_of_the
_table_mountain_group_aquifer_of_south_africa.pdf
HOME. (2018). Retrieved from https://www.waterscarcitysolutions.org
24
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lesotho/south-africas-water-crisis-spreads-from-cape-town-idUSKBN1FK27A
29. Stoddard, E. (2018). Cape Town 'Day Zero' pushed back to 2019 as dams fill up in
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idUSKCN1HA1LN
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35. WaterAid (2015). WASH and inequalities Retrieved from:
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27
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up its game. Retrieved May 2, 2018, from https://theconversation.com/desalination-
global-examples-show-how-cape-town-could-up-its-game-90949
28
TOPIC B: EFFECTS OF CLIMATE CHANGE ON
AGRICULTURE
Introduction to the Issue
United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) has a specialised focus on environment-led
issues since its inception in 1972, galvanising and facilitating the sustainable development of
global resources. This brings UNEP at the forefront of combatting one of the Earth’s deadliest
but yet most intractable problems: climate change. The spillover effects of climate change impact
various areas and sectors – one of the most pertinent being agriculture. Agriculture still
constitutes a significant share of the global economy and has far-reaching impact on the
livelihood of millions, including first world economies such as the United States of America,
making it both an economic and humanitarian issue.
Climate Change
Climate change refers to the rise in average temperature of the planet’s surfaces.56 Scientific
consensus indicates that global warming is accelerated by human led activities – institutions such
as the National Aeronautics and Space Administration, and the National Oceanic and
Atmospheric Administration concur that climate change is occurring and is almost certainly due
to human activity.57 Human activities, mainly the burning of fossil fuels such as oil and coal,
emit greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide and carbon monoxide, methane and nitrous oxide,
and chemically manufactured greenhouse gases such as halocarbons into the earth’s
atmosphere.58 These greenhouse gases amplify the greenhouse effect, increasing the earth’s
surface temperature. Anthropological activities increase the concentration of aerosols, where
these aerosols reflect incoming sunlight.
Agriculture
56 What is climate change?. (2017). BBC News. Retrieved from http://www.bbc.com/news/science-environment-
24021772 57 What is climate change?. (n.d.) Takepart. Retrieved from http://www.takepart.com/flashcards/what-is-climate-
change/ 58 What is climate change? (n.d.) Australian Academy of Science. Retrieved from
https://www.science.org.au/learning/general-audience/science-booklets-0/science-climate-change/1-what-climate-
change
29
Agriculture broadly known as ‘’the process of producing food, feed, fiber and many other
desired products by the cultivation of certain plants and the raising of domesticated animals
(livestock)’’. Today agriculture is about more than just the production of food. Other
agricultural production goods include ‘’timber, fertilizers, animal hides, leather, industrial
chemicals (starch, sugar, alcohols and resins), fibers (cotton, wool, hemp, silk and flax), fuels
(methane from biomass, ethanol, biodiesel), cut flowers, ornamental and nursery plants, tropical
fish and birds for the pet trade, and both legal and illegal drugs (biopharmaceuticals, tobacco,
marijuana, opium, cocaine).’’59
Agriculture and the Climate
Access to sufficient, nutritious food is a basic human right and this right can only be safeguarded
if there is an adequate production of food.60 Agriculture and fisheries, the two most important
food sources, tend to be significantly dependent on the climate, sensitive to the smallest changes
– hence climate change influences food security at both the local and international level.
Climate change and agriculture are closely interrelated and interdependent. Climate change
impacts agriculture in a multitude ways: a minute change in temperatures, precipitation patterns,
concentrations of atmospheric carbon dioxide can affect the quality of crops and crop yield –
climate extremes such as heat waves and storms do even more irreversible damage.61 In turn, it
threatens food security, as the accessibility and affordability of food are compromised. Water for
example, is an essential component of agricultural productivity. Yet, changes in temperature,
rainfall patterns and extreme weather conditions directly influence the hydrological cycle, which
in turn disrupt the chain of agricultural processes. Changes in the supply of produce then
influence global food prices and global food distribution.
The impact of such climatic changes is invariably asymmetrical – developing countries are often
faced with magnified challenges due to the lack of capacity or necessary mechanisms for damage
59 Agriculture. (n.d.) ScienceDaily. Retrieved from https://www.sciencedaily.com/terms/agriculture.htm 60 Wood, S. (2017). Trade and the equitability of global food nutrient distribution. Nature Sustainability. 1, 34-37.
Retrieved from https://www.nature.com/articles/s41893-017-0008-6 61 Wake up before it is too late: Make agriculture truly sustainable now for food security in a changing climate.
(2013). Trade and Environment Review 2013. Retrieved from
http://unctad.org/en/pages/PublicationWebflyer.aspx?publicationid=666
30
mitigation that developed countries have access to, and this includes sophisticated crop-
management technology and enhanced irrigation methods. Furthermore, global warming and the
rise in temperatures may actually benefit farmers in some countries, predominantly More
Economically Developed Countries (MEDCs) in the northern latitudes. Denmark, for instance,
will be able to diversify the crops grown with warmer temperatures – such as sweet-corn, wheat
and grass.62 Hence, projecting into the future, the long term trends of climate change is likely to
have a disproportionate impact on the poor rural communities in the Third World.
Historical Background
Scientists have revealed that carbon dioxide and climate moved in lock-step during the
Pleistocene ice ages, which are made of glacial phases and interglacial phases.63 Glacial phases,
by definition, are “any period of time during which glaciers covered a large part of the earth's
surface”64, while interglacial phases refer to periods of time when the temperature was relatively
warmer compared to the former.65 These changes were brought about by wobbles in the Earth’s
orbit around the sun, a process known as the Milankovitch cycle. When the orbit reduced the
intensity of sunlight in the northern hemisphere, a glacial phase occurred, and when the orbit
increased the intensity of insolation in the northern hemisphere, ice sheets melted and the earth
was plunged into an interglacial phase66. These changes were gradual, and took hundreds of
thousands of years to complete. The figure below demonstrates how the climate has changed in
the past.
62 Brix, L. (2014). Global warming may benefit some farmers. Retrieved from http://sciencenordic.com/global-
warming-may-benefit-some-farmers 63 What does past climate change tell us about global warming? (n.d.) Skeptical Science. Retrieved from
https://www.skepticalscience.com/climate-change-little-ice-age-medieval-warm-period-intermediate.htm 64 glacial period. (n.d.) The Free Dictionary. Retrieved from https://www.thefreedictionary.com/glacial+period 65 What were the glacial and interglacial periods in the last Ice Age? (n.d.) Ebrary.net. Retrieved from
https://ebrary.net/5825/education/glacial_interglacial_periods_last_ice_age 66 Ibid.
31
Fig. 1: Climate in the past 450,000 years (Source:https://climate.nasa.gov/evidence/)
The increase in temperature currently is of significance because there is a great possibility that it
has been caused by human activity, since the rate of increase is unprecedented. The global
temperature rise, warming oceans, shrinking ice sheets, glacial retreats, decreased snow cover
and the occurrence of extreme weather related events are some of the pieces of evidence that
point towards the existence of rapid climate change.67 The figure below demonstrates the
existence of rapid climate change.
67 Climate change evidence: How do we know?. (2018). The National Aeronautics and Space Administration.
Retrieved from https://climate.nasa.gov/evidence/
32
Fig. 2: Magnitude of current Climate Change compared to the past (Source:
https://royalsociety.org/topics-policy/projects/climate-change-evidence-causes/question-6/)
Approximations of the increase in average global temperature since the end of the last Ice Age
are 4 to 5 °C. Putting this information in perspective, this magnitude of change occured over a
period of about 7000 years, with the start of the change in global temperatures occurring 18000
years ago. However, the level of carbon dioxide has risen by 40% in just the last 200 years,
causing the Earth to increase in temperature by 0.8 °C. If this process continues unchecked, the
same increase of temperature by 4 to 5 °C can be expected by the end of this century, leading to
the speed of temperature increase to be ten times more than that of the end of an Ice Age.68
The impact on agriculture with regards to the magnitude, rate and pattern of climate change has
been studied for decades. Various studies have concluded that there is ample reason to be
concerned about the effect of climate change on agriculture. Many regions in the world are
68 Climate is always changing. Why is climate change of concern now?. (n.d.) The Royal Society. Retrieved from
https://royalsociety.org/topics-policy/projects/climate-change-evidence-causes/question-6/
33
projected to experience a reduction in crop yields due to climate change, as approximated by a
climate-scenario-crop model ensemble.69 An example would be the drought in 2012 in the
United States, which caused a reduction of maize yields by 25%, leading to other consequences
such as a reduce in their maize exports and a shortage of crops for domestic consumption as well.
Current Situation
As mentioned before, various regions in the world are suffering from a decline in their
agricultural output. The key concerns of this issue will be explored in the examination of the
situation in Africa and Europe. Even with recent urbanization, Africa is still largely an
agricultural-producing continent, accounting for 32% of the continent’s Gross Domestic Product
(GDP) and employing 65% of its labour force.70 It goes without saying that the proper
management of water resources is vital for agriculture, and in turn, ensures a reliable stream of
income. However, flooding and drought make it difficult for the country to bank on their
agricultural sector. Flooding is the most prevalent disaster in North Africa, the second most
common in East, South and Central Africa, and the third most common in West Africa. These
floods include the flood in 2001 in northern Algeria, and the flood in 2000 in Mozambique,
which caused unimaginable economic loss to the countries, with a large number of lives being
taken as well. Droughts, such as the one between July 2011 and June 2012 in the East African
region also lead to great repercussions in similar ways. The figure below shows another
occurrence of drought in the region, in Sahel and Sudan. Compared to the rest of the continent,
these two areas have been suffering from a lack of rainfall, leading to a prolonged drought since
the 1960s.
69 Rosenzweig, C. (2014). Assessing agricultural risks of climate change in the 21st century in a global gridded crop
model intercomparison. Retrieved from http://www.pnas.org/content/111/9/3268.full 70 Gbekide, H. (2015). Climate change is hitting African farmers the hardest of all. Retrieved from
https://theconversation.com/climate-change-is-hitting-african-farmers-the-hardest-of-all-40845
34
71
Fig. 3: Rainfall Index in Sahel and Sudan (Source: Food and Agriculture Organization)
Yet, most of Africa’s agricultural developments are rainwater-fed, relying on the continent’s
irregular rain patterns to deliver water. Those in arid regions mainly draw water from major
rivers and deltas, for example the Nile (Nile Delta), Orange River (Gotland Province) and Niger
River (Niger Delta). With increasingly unstable rain patterns due to global warming (as depicted
in Figure 3), such an arrangement is becoming more difficult as water pressures rise. The figure
below (Figure 4) exhibits the changes of surface area in Lake Chad from 1963 to 2001.
Malawi has also experienced widespread crop failures due to a devastatingly strong El Niño. Its
production of maize is estimated at just over 2.5 million tonnes in 2016 – 16% lower than the
reduced harvest in 2015, and 34% below the previous five-year average, leaving 39% of the
population dependent on international food aid to survive.72
71 Home. (n.d.) Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. Retrieved from
http://www.fao.org/home/en/ 72 Kalibata, A. (2017). Africa’s Smallholder Farmers Among the Most Hurt by Climate Change. Retrieved from
https://agra.org/africas-smallholder-farmers-among-the-most-hurt-by-climate-change/
35
Fig. 4: The rapid decline of Lake Chad (Source: Brookings)73
Lake Chad demonstrates increasing depletion since the 1970s and 1980s because of severe
drought and intensive irrigation use. Due to global warming, trends show that these irregularities
are only going to increase and threaten the livelihoods of resident farmers more severely.74
Yet, the African continent remains largely ill-equipped to manage the onslaught of challenges
posed by climate change, despite gradual improvements made to protect smallholder farmers
from the climate shocks. The international community should devise solutions to strengthen the
resilience of communities most adversely affected by the effects of climate change and ensure
that food security is attained.
A closer examination of the European continent suggests the lack of uniformity of climate
change’s effect on agricultural productivity. Warming is expected to lead to a northward
73 Sow, M. (2017). Figure of the week: The shrinking Lake Chad. Retrieved from
https://www.brookings.edu/blog/africa-in-focus/2017/02/09/figure-of-the-week-the-shrinking-lake-chad/ 74 UNEP. (2010). “Africa Water Atlas”. Division of Early Warning and Assessment (DEWA). United Nations
Environment Programme (UNEP). Nairobi, Kenya.
36
expansion of suitable cropping areas, a reduction of the growing period of crops. The increasing
atmospheric concentrations of carbon dioxide will directly enhance plant productivity, and
increase resource use efficiencies.75 However, there are downsides to the phenomenon as well:
European farmers run the risk of nutrient leaching and the turnover of soil organic matter, and
the risk of soil erosion in mountainous areas.76,77 The European Commission published a report
on the issue, introducing measures to adjust the schedule of farming operations and adapting
crops with the help of genetic diversity and new possibilities offered by biotechnology.78
Delegates can explore greater collaboration between the MEDCs and LEDCs to facilitate the
sharing of the relevant technology and expertise in improving agricultural productivity, in spite
of the changing climate.
Case Studies
Effects of Climate Change on Agriculture in the Democratic People’s Republic of Korea
(DPRK)
Agricultural success of postwar DPRK
Following the temporary halting of the Korean War through the Korean Armistice Agreement,
the DPRK started to rebuild their economy through agricultural endeavours that brought their
country short lived prosperity. The “Three Year Plan” and the “Five Year Plan” were launched in
order to achieve agricultural and industrial expansion, and this was a success to a certain degree,
with the inflow of aid from socialist countries.79,80 However, the DPRK was not reliant on the aid
for long, with one of the examples being the output of grain increasing enough for the country to
be self sufficient on their grain81. The government of the United States of America even
75 Olesen, J.E. (2002). Consequences of climate change for European agricultural productivity, land use and policy.
Retrieved from https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1161030102000047 76 Ibid. 77 EU Agriculture and Climate Change. (2015). European Commission. Retrieved from
https://ec.europa.eu/agriculture/sites/agriculture/files/climate-change/factsheet_en.pdf 78 Ibid. 79 North Korean Intentions and Capabilities With Respect to South Korea. (1967). Central Intelligence Agency.
Retrieved from https://www.cia.gov/library/readingroom/docs/DOC_0001218147.pdf 80Armstrong, C. (2006). ‘Fraternal Socialism’: The International Reconstruction of North Korea, 1953–62.
Retrieved from
https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/1462740500061160?src=recsys&journalCode=fcwh20 81 Kuark, Y. (1963). North Korea's Agricultural Development during the Post-War Period. The China Quarterly, 14,
82-93. doi: 10.1017/s0305741000021032
37
approximated in 1978 that grain production had expanded at a faster rate in the DPRK than the
Republic of Korea (ROK), and that standard of livings had improved quicker in the former than
the latter82. DPRK could thus, by the end of the 1950s, claim that it was “self-reliant” and the
general agricultural success of the country was acknowledged.
Primary effects of Climate Change
“We need yields to grow to meet growing demand, but already, climate change is slowing those
yields.” noted Michael Oppenheimer in the fifth report by the Intergovernmental Panel on
Climate Change.83
This statement resonates particularly with the DPRK, where population has been increasing
steadily, as shown the figure below (Figure 5).
Fig. 5: Rising trend in DPRK population over the past five decades (Source: World Bank)84
82 North Korea - THE POST-WAR ECONOMY. (2018). Retrieved from http://countrystudies.us/north-
korea/16.htm 83 Perrone, T. (2018). How agriculture and climate change are related: causes and effects. LifeGate. Retrieved from
https://www.lifegate.com/people/news/agriculture-and-climate-change-causes-effects-impacts 84 Population, total | Data. (2018). Retrieved from
https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SP.POP.TOTL?locations=KP
38
However, climate change, coupled with the corrupt political system and the reduced support
from the Soviets, stood in the way of producing sufficient yield for the growing population,
leading to widespread hunger from 1994-1998. This event has since been dubbed the “North
Korean famine”, or “The March of Suffering”, among other names. In this section, specifically
the contribution of climate change towards this event will be explored.
According to the United Nations Department of Humanitarian Affairs’ recount of the event,
“torrential rains caused devastating floods in the Democratic People’s Republic of Korea
(DPRK) [between 30 July and 18 August 1995]”85. The DPRK Bureau of Hydro Meteorological
Service recorded a total 23 inches of rain in 10 days, with 18 inches of rain falling in one day in
certain areas. The subsequent floods were considered, by them, to be the worst in a
century.86Crop lands, harvests and even 1.5 million tons of emergency grain reserves were said
to have been destroyed, leading to repercussions such as the shortage of harvest by
approximately 2 million tons of grain87. This cycle of floods (coupled with extended droughts)88,
as demonstrated above, had an adverse effect on agriculture.
85 OCHA. (2018). Retrieved from http://www.reliefweb.int/ocha_ol/pub/appeals/96appeals/dprk/prk_atxl.html#top 86 Woo-Cumings, M. (2018). The Political Ecology of Famine: The North Korean Catastrophe and Its Lessons.
ADBI Research Paper Series, No. 31. 87 Ibid. 88 Famine in North Korea. (2018). Retrieved from https://asiasociety.org/famine-north-korea
39
Fig. 6: The extent of damage caused by the floods during The March of Suffering (Source:
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention) 89
Recent Situation
A recent look into North Korea’s current environmental state revealed ruin beyond belief. When
ecologists Palmer and Van der Kamp visited the country to attend a conference on ecological
restoration in the country, they witnessed barren landscapes which were destroyed by decades of
environmental degradation90. Although land reform has been established on a smaller scale
whereby individual households are allowed to maintain their own private gardens, this has
spiralled into a bigger problem where majority of the land is being farmed, stripping the land of
the much needed ecosystem services that would help to reverse the effects of environmental
degradation91.
89 Status of Public Health --Democratic People's Republic of Korea, April 1997. Retrieved from
https://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/preview/mmwrhtml/00048030.htm 90 McKenna, P., contributor, O., Eck, A., & Eck, A. (2018). Inside North Korea's Environmental Collapse —
NOVA Next | PBS. Retrieved from http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/next/nature/inside-north-koreas-environmental-
collapse/ 91Ibid.
40
Climate change also continues to exacerbate the destruction of the agricultural climate and
reserves in the country. Rising temperatures, heavier precipitation and the continued occurrence
of natural disasters are some of the repercussions of climate change that effect such destruction.
The Hydro-Meteorological Service in North Korea’s stated that the country’s average annual
temperature has risen by 1.9 degrees Celsius over the past decade92, and seasonal rains continue
to cause major floods, such as the one in August 201593. The Food and Agriculture Organization
projected that DPRK would only be able to produce 3.7 million tons of rice and corn in 2015, a
14 percent decrease from the previous year, due to a severe drought caused by climate change.
Thus, it is clear that the effects of climate change have had an adverse effect on agriculture in the
past and present.
Government’s Approach to the Issue
Perhaps one of the most crucial initiatives taken by the government of DPRK is the setting up of
the “economic reform group” in the ruling Workers’ Party, which aims to examine agricultural
and economic reforms. This department will take pointers from neighbouring country China to
tackle the above mentioned issues. This initiative solidifies the DPRK’s commitment in
reversing the harmful effects climate change has had on agriculture, and is definitely a step in the
right direction.
Another initiative the government has taken is one that is deemed as unfathomable. The DPRK is
known to be a Hermit Kingdom, one that is completely closed off to the public eye. However,
the intensity of environmental degradation in North Korea left them no choice but to seek help
from the outside world. A group of five Americans was invited to Pyongang to discuss
restoration and food security, with the team instructing North Koreans about ecological basics94.
Besides that, it is a well known fact that the image the country attempts to present is one of a
pristine country with the most updated technology. However, North Korean leader Kim Jong Un
acknowledged that the state of technology with regards to weather forecasting was outdated and
92 Eunjee, Kim. (2015, November 23). Experts: N. Korea Especially Vulnerable to Effects of Climate Change. Voa
News. Retrieved from https://www.voanews.com/a/north-korea-climate-change-impact/3071180.html 93 Ibid. 94 Hudson, John. (2012, April 3). The Environment is So Bad in North Korea, They’ll Even Let Americans Help.
The Atlantic. Retrieved from https://www.theatlantic.com/international/archive/2012/04/environment-so-bad-north-
korea-theyll-even-let-americans-help/329758/
41
called for the standards to be raised while he was conducting his field guidance trip to the Hydro-
Meteorological Service95. It is thus apparent, through these initiatives, that the country is
attempting to seek help in order to tackle climate change. While these initiatives have done little
to produce visible results, the country is headed in the right direction.
Past UN Action
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change
The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) was primarily set up to assess
scientifically the impacts of climate change, providing ‘’an objective, scientific view of climate
change and its political and economic impacts.’’96 it also covers "the scientific, technical and
socio-economic information relevant to understanding the scientific basis of risk of human-
induced climate change, its potential impacts and options for adaptation and mitigation."97 It
works in conjunction with the World Meteorological Organization (WMO) and the United
Nations Environment Programme (UNEP). Its annual reports and assessments support the United
Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) which till today remains a
hallmark treaty in the fight against climate change.
The IPCC for example, has shed some light on the asymmetrical impacts of climate change. A
report published in 2001 has suggested clearly that the poorest countries will be the hardest hit.
In regions such as Africa and Latin America, many crops are naturally near their maximum
temperature tolerance and the productivity is projected to fall up to 30% over the next few
decades.
Agricultural technology for sustainable development
Though with no specific focus on the impacts of climate change itself, The General Assembly
outlined the role of technology in ensuring the sustainability of agriculture in the 2030 Agenda
95 Ibid. 96 Weart, Spencer. (December 2011). International Cooperation: Democracy and Policy Advice (1980s). The
Discovery of Global Warming. American Institute of Physics. Retrieved from
https://history.aip.org/climate/internat.htm 97 Principles Governing IPCC Work. (2013, October 18). Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. Retrieved
from https://www.ipcc.ch/pdf/ipcc-principles/ipcc-principles.pdf
42
for Sustainable Development. Titled “Agricultural technology for sustainable development”, a
draft resolution was passed with the aims of developing sustainable practices and facilitating the
transfer of knowledge between various stakeholders. Some of the suggested approaches include a
focus on youth based groups and agricultural projects.98 Member states are called upon to
integrate sustainability into their current national policies.
Sustainable Development Goals
The Sustainable Development Goal or SDG2 with its goals to “End hunger, achieve food
security and improved nutrition and promote sustainable agriculture” (SDG2) recognizes the
links between “supporting sustainable agriculture, empowering small farmers, promoting gender
equality, ending rural poverty, ensuring healthy lifestyles, tackling climate change’’99.
Major Bloc Positions
The US and Russia
While most of the developed word does not dispute the existence of climate change, the Trump
administration has made its stance clear on the issue, calling climate change a “hoax perpetuated
by and for the Chinese in order to make U.S. manufacturing noncompetitive.” 100 suggesting that
climate change is the “newest excuse to take control of our lives by left-leaning intellectuals.”
Conservative broadcaster Rush Limbaugh called it “one of the most preposterous hoaxes in the
history of the planet.’’ Through subsistence farming is still relevant to a large part of the
American population, the US still continually denies its existence making it unlikely that they
will support major recommendations.
98 Agricultural Technology for Sustainable Development among Eight Texts Approved by Second Committee.
(2015, December 4). United Nations General Assembly Meetings Coverage. Retrieved from
https://www.un.org/press/en/2015/gaef3442.doc.htm 99 Food security and nutrition and sustainable agriculture. (n.d.) United Nations Sustainable Development
Knowledge Platform. Retrieved from https://sustainabledevelopment.un.org/topics/foodagriculture 100 Erickson, Amanda. (2017, November 17). The U.S. has more climate skeptics than anywhere else on earth.
Blame the GOP. The Washington Post. Retrieved from
https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/worldviews/wp/2017/11/17/the-u-s-has-more-climate-skeptics-than-
anywhere-else-on-earth-blame-the-gop/?noredirect=on&utm_term=.9c9e85c9e235
43
Putin has declared in an interview in 2017 that ‘’Russia stands to benefit from global warming
since it creates favorable conditions for national economic improvement. ‘’ emphasising as well
how the US’s exit from the Paris Agreement is ‘’no big deal’’ 101. While Russia did ratify to the
agreement eventually and has announced plans to reduce emissions by 2020, much of Russia’s
efforts do not reflect urgency and has been regarded rather inconsequential and inconsistent.
However, agriculture remains a part of Russia economy and it is in their vested interest to
forward solutions that improves agricultural productivity.
Africa and East Asia
A large part of the African continent is still largely agrarian and lacking relevant technology and
innovation, hence the African bloc would have a vested interest in forwarding resolutions that
favour solutions such as the sharing of the relevant expertise to improve on its agricultural
practices.
China
Since the advent of the 1997 Kyoto Protocol itself, the Chinese government has been active in
terms of increasing methods to reduce the emission of greenhouse gases. China’s geography and
demography played a huge role in forcing China to take actions to combat climate change. 102
Furthermore, agriculture forms a key part of China’s economy - consisting of over 300 million
farmers, making up 35% of China’s labour force. It ranks first ‘’ first in worldwide farm output,
primarily producing rice, wheat, potatoes, tomato, sorghum, peanuts, tea, millet, barley, cotton,
oilseed and soybeans.’’103 Hence, protecting the agricultural sector will remain a top priority for
China.
101 Jurcova, Alzbeta. (2017, July 10). The Consequences of Climate Change - Will Russia Emerge as an Unlikely
Winner from Lack of Action? Europeum. Retrieved from https://europeum.blogactiv.eu/2017/07/10/the-
consequences-of-climate-change-will-russia-emerge-as-an-unlikely-winner-from-lack-of-action/ 102 Brzoska, Michael. (2012, March). Climate change and the military in China, Russia, the United Kingdom, and
the United States. Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists, 68(2), 43-54. Retrieved from
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/254080126_Climate_change_and_the_military_in_China_Russia_the_Uni
ted_Kingdom_and_the_United_States 103 Hays, Jeffrey. (2013, January). Agriculture in China: Challenges, Shortages, Imports and Organic Farming.
Facts and Details. Retrieved from http://factsanddetails.com/china/cat9/sub63/item348.html
44
Europe
For the last 50 years, the EU Common Agricultural Policy (CAP) has been regulating and
supporting Europe’s agricultural sector. The sector is modernized with high intensification of
growth - responding to global needs and changes in patterns. Europe is looking to support its
farmers in the rural areas. 104
The European Union has been proactive in pressing ahead with strong armed efforts - shifting to
a low carbon economy and reducing their dependence on fossil fuels. Both China and Europe
will ramp up their efforts in the face of the US withdrawing from the Paris agreement. 105
Key Areas of Concern
Impact On Crop Production
Though scientific advancements have seen improved varieties such as genetically modified crops
which are more resistant to changes in the climate, weather changes still remain an integral
element of agricultural productivity. The impacts on crop production are often localised,
influenced by variabilities in local climates. Hence localised assessments are key to
understanding location based impacts on crop production. 106 For example, studies indicate that
"southern Africa could lose more than 30% of its main crop, maize, by 2030. In South Asia
losses of many regional staples, such as rice, millet and maize could top 10%".
It is important to clarify that the rising carbon dioxide concentrations – considered a key driver
of climate change – could actually lead to an increase production of important crops such as rice,
soybean and wheat. On the other hand, both the length and quality of the growing season will be
impacted and natural occurrences such as fires, hurricanes and droughts remain a massive and
104 Agriculture. (2016, June 3). European Environment Agency. Retrieved from
https://www.eea.europa.eu/themes/agriculture/intro 105 EU, China step up efforts to combat climate change. (2017, September 19). The Straits Times. Retrieved from
https://www.straitstimes.com/world/europe/eu-china-step-up-efforts-to-combat-climate-change 106 Lobell DB, Burke MB, Tebaldi C, Mastrandrea MD, Falcon WP, Naylor RL. (2008). Prioritizing climate change
adaptation needs for food security in 2030. Science. 319(5863), 607-610. Retrieved from
http://science.sciencemag.org/content/319/5863/607
45
increasingly unpredictable threat to crops and farmers. 107 Recent droughts have had a severe
impact on USA and China, hampering global cereal production. A recent Stanford University
study found that ‘’that increases in global production of maize and wheat since 1980 would have
been about 5% higher were it not for climate change.’’108
Agricultural Trade
Given the changes in produce patterns, agricultural trade remains a top priority - redistributing
food and providing income for countries. Hence, the council should look into how trade can be
improved through bilateral relations to improve the distribution of agricultural produce in order
combat the changes in produce patterns. This should take into account the crops which grow in
special altitudes such as barley and as well as those which are perishable (and hence cannot be
transported across long distances).
Impacts On Local Farmers
The exact impact of climate change on food security still remains uncharted. One of the key
stakeholders - local and small scale farmers are at the frontline in the battle against climate
change. The role and behavior of the farmer is modelled poorly current crop climate models. In
order to ‘’nurture their crops and sustain their livestock, family farmers depend on soil, water
and air–resources’’, resources which are all greatly impacted by the changing climate. For
example, severe droughts in the US have pushed farming businesses to almost the brink.
Water security
Water is vital to farming, becoming increasingly scare. Hence, planning of future water supplies
especially with regards to agriculture is extremely crucial. This could require more localised and
individual approaches on top of global approaches. The Mediterranean and southern Africa will
be two regions that will suffer the most based on future trends on global warming. 109
107 Clark, Duncan. (2012, September 19). How will climate change affect food production? The Guardian.
Retrieved from https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2012/sep/19/climate-change-affect-food-production 108 Ibid. 109 Mcintyre, Neil. (2012, December 21). How will climate change impact on fresh water security? The Guardian.
Retrieved from https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2012/nov/30/climate-change-water
46
Proposed Solutions
Delegates of the UNEP are strongly encouraged to consider measures that will bolster the
resilience of communities vulnerable to climate change, alongside re-evaluating agricultural
practices that will help slow down or temper the effects of climate change. Often, these solutions
are mutually reinforcing.
Develop Soil Health
Climate-smart agricultural practices treat the soil as if it were a crop, as it is one of the largest
carbon sinks in the world – the degradation of soil has released billions of tons of carbon in the
atmosphere due to unsustainable agriculture practices.110 Farmers should be encouraged to
practise soil conversation, such as contour planting, or no-till farming to reduce soil erosion and
prevent the oxidation of carbon upon exposure to the air.111
Planting Shelterbelts
Shelterbelts consist of one or more rows of strategically planted trees and/or bushes. They can be
used between fields to reduce wind, limit nutrient loss, and also conserve water.112 These trees
physically protect young saplings and reduce moisture losses. A 20% yield increase was
observed for alfalfa planted beside a shelterbelt.113
Key Guiding Questions
1. How do we improve food security for millions around the world by enhancing the
capacity of smallholder farmers?
2. How can the sharing of good agricultural practices and relevant technological expertise
be facilitated?
110 Schwartz, J. (2014). Soil as Carbon Storehouse: New Weapon in Climate Fight? Retrieved from
https://e360.yale.edu/features/soil_as_carbon_storehouse_new_weapon_in_climate_fight 111 5 Ways Farmers Can Combat Climate Change (2016). Global Citizen. Retrieved from
https://www.globalcitizen.org/en/content/5-ways-farmers-can-work-around-climate-change/ 112 Farming in a Changing Climate in Manitoba (2013). Climate Change Connection. Retrieved from
http://climatechangeconnection.org/wp-content/uploads/2014/08/CCC_Crop_Guide_2013.pdf 113 Ibid.
47
3. Are the effects of climate change on agriculture asymmetrical? If so, how should we
account for the asymmetry in our solutions?
Suggestions for Further Research
Farming in a Changing Climate in Manitoba (2013). Climate Change Connection. Retrieved
from http://climatechangeconnection.org/wp-
content/uploads/2014/08/CCC_Crop_Guide_2013.pdf
48
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