UNITED NATIONS ENVIRONMENT PROGRAMME...United Nations Environment Programme, and writing one of her...

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UNITED NATIONS ENVIRONMENT PROGRAMME STUDY GUIDE Raffles Model United Nations 2018 Sapere Aude – Dare to Know

Transcript of UNITED NATIONS ENVIRONMENT PROGRAMME...United Nations Environment Programme, and writing one of her...

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UNITED NATIONS ENVIRONMENT

PROGRAMME

STUDY GUIDE

Raffles Model United Nations 2018 Sapere Aude – Dare to Know

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

WELCOME LETTER FROM THE DAIS 2

Introduction to the Committee 6

Mandate of the Committee 7

TOPIC A: THE AFRICAN WATER CRISIS 8

Statement Of Problem 8

Past International Action 18

Proposed Solutions 20

Key Guiding Questions 23

Suggestions for Further Research 23

Bibliography 24

TOPIC B: EFFECTS OF CLIMATE CHANGE ON AGRICULTURE 28

Introduction to the Issue 28

Historical Background 30

Current Situation 33

Case Studies 36

Past UN Action 41

Major Bloc Positions 42

Key Areas of Concern 44

Proposed Solutions 46

Key Guiding Questions 46

Suggestions for Further Research 47

Bibliography 48

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WELCOME LETTER FROM THE DAIS

Dearest delegates,

Welcome to the United Nations Environment Programme at Raffles Model United Nations 2018!

It is a pleasure for me and my two lovely co-chairs, Audity and Sadia, to be chairing this

committee and we look forward to the invigorating debate on two extremely pertinent issues that

the Committee has been tasked with addressing.

The United Nations Environment Programme is the global environmental authority responsible

for setting the global environmental agenda, promoting the coherent implementation of

sustainable development, and serving as an authoritative advocate for the global environment.

This year, the UNEP will discuss the African Water Crisis and the Effects of Climate Change on

Agriculture. In the former issue, the African continent has long been plagued with the curse of

water scarcity and lack of access to sanitation, which may even culminate in potential conflict

over shared aquifers or water bodies. Delegates will have to ponder over the implementation of

novel and innovative solutions to address a problem that has been surfaced for long, but has yet

to be adequately resolved. The second issue concerns the fate of agriculture, that is very much

reliant on environmental conditions that are getting more volatile by the second. If the

agricultural industry falters, there may be implications on food security and the economic

livelihoods of rural communities in developing countries. At the same time, the volatile climate

may instead present new frontiers for other countries in the temperate region, thus worsening the

unevenness of economic development between the More Economically Developed Countries

(MEDCs) and Less Economically Developed Countries (LEDCs).

The Dais of the Committee hope that delegates would take the time and effort to understand the

intricacies and complexities in both issues. By understanding their country’s stance and struggles

with the issues and their wide-ranging consequence , delegates will learn to think critically in a

bid to devise insightful solutions to address both topics.

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Environmental problems put the lives and livelihoods of millions of people at risk each day.

Should we choose to forgo our commitment to taking care of the planet, we implicitly choose to

forgo our commitment to our own survival and prosperity.

Last but not least, we hope you enjoy your 3 days at RMUN 2018! Should you have any queries,

do feel free to drop us an email at [email protected].

Warmest regards,

Calista Chong

Head Chair, United Nations Environment Programme, RMUN 2018

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CHAIR BIOGRAPHIES

Head Chairperson: Calista Chong Jia Ning

Calista is a Y6 student in the Humanities Programme. Besides vetting study guides in the

capacity of Deputy Secretary-General, Calista is also pleased to be doubling up as chair of the

United Nations Environment Programme, and writing one of her own in the process. Besides

being a member of the History and Strategic Affairs Society, she also writes for the school’s

journalism society, Raffles Press. In the free time that she finds by procrastinating on school

work, she sustains herself by watching adorable baby and animal clips on Instagram, or listening

to jazz and pop. She hopes that delegates take a meaningful interest in the affairs that the

committee will discuss, and most importantly, leave the conference having made at least a new

friend.

Deputy Chairperson: Audity Binta Tareq

Audity (was) a student in Raffles Institution. Having graduated last year, she has since been

enjoying her new found freedom by adhering to a very rigorous netflix schedule and doing a

plethora of important things such as (procrastinating) learning driving and coming back to help

out at RMUN because who can say no to the angelic faces of her HSTA juniors? Having

attended an X number of conferences (she has lost count), both as a delegate and a chair, she is

excited to be able to step into the MUN scene once again after a hiatus. She hopes that she will

be able to make RMUN 2018 an enjoyable conference for all delegates in the council.

Deputy Chairperson: Sadia Tasneem

Sadia Tasneem (was also) a student in Raffles Institution. After graduation, she has been

spending most of her time working a part time job (and spending her pay immediately after she

gets it). She enjoys reminiscing about the plethora of activities she was involved in before

graduation (MUN being one of them) and wondering why she has not done anything productive

since. She is thus eager to return and even postponed her basic theory test for driving so as to

comfortably fulfill her chairing duties at RMUN 2018. Having attended a number of conferences

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(that she cannot remember as well) in various capacities, she wishes to impart some of the

knowledge she has gained along the way to the younger generation.

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THE COMMITTEE

Introduction to the Committee

The United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) is the leading global environmental

authority that sets the global environment agenda, promotes the coherent implementation of

sustainable development, and serves as the authoritative advocate for the global environment.

The UNEP is involved in a myriad of issues relating to environmental sustainability.

The Third Session of the UN Environment Assembly was recently concluded in December 2017,

where Permanent Representatives to the UNEP convened to discuss the strategies to achieving a

pollution-free planet.1 Some issues discussed include pollution mitigation and control in areas

affected by armed conflict or terrorism and addressing water pollution to restore water-related

ecosystems. The UNEP has also been involved in advocacy work: the #CleanSeas campaign was

launched to combat marine litter, and by extension, it has also offered support to the Flipflopi

Project in Kenya, which aims to advocate for the same cause.

Although many of its initiatives and projects have gained some traction, UN Environment has

been criticised for the failure to see the translation of policy implementation to favourable

outcomes. The effects of the onslaught of climate change are felt now more than ever, and Cape

Town – renowned for its deft water management – is also coming under the imminent threat of

Day Zero. Some critics also point to the conflicting objectives of UN Environment and its other

UN counterparts, such as the International Monetary Fund and the World Bank – which have

been criticised for failing to achieve a sustainable outlook in the policies they pursue.2 The

mantle thus fall on your shoulders, delegates of the UNEP, to capitalise on existing platforms of

the UNEP to attain sustainable living for future generations.

1 Proceedings, Report, Ministerial Declaration Resolutions and Decisions of the Third Session of the UN

Environment Assembly (2017). Retrieved from https://papersmart.unon.org/resolution/unea3 2 BBC News. (2000). UN’s green corps tries hard. Retrieved from http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/906660.stm

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Mandate of the Committee

The role of UN Environment is to provide leadership and encourage partnership in caring for the

environment, by inspiring, informing and enabling nations and peoples to improve their quality

of life in a sustainable manner, without infringing upon the right of future generations to attain

that standard of living as well. It assesses global, regional and national environmental conditions

and trends, develops international and national environmental instruments, and strengthens the

capacity of institutions to manage the environment wisely.

The work of UN Environment can be categorised into seven broad themes, which include

climate change, environmental governance and resource efficiency. The Programme aims to

honour its overarching commitment to sustainability through its partnerships with Member

States, representatives from civil society, businesses and local communities.

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TOPIC A: THE AFRICAN WATER CRISIS

Statement Of Problem

Water is an essential resource for human life – without which, one can only survive for a matter

of days. Water can also be harnessed for a myriad of uses, such as in agriculture, hydroelectricity

and transportation. Yet, regions around the world are deprived of such an invaluable resource.

The situation in Africa is most acute, combining high water usage pressures, rampant poverty

and conflict with low water resource development.

Supporting 15% of the global population with only 9% of its fresh water is a difficult task, which

is compounded by climate change in recent years.3 In late 2017, Cape Town – a city renowned

for its world class water resource planning – became the first major city in the world at risk of

running out of potable water.4 When water levels in its reserve dams fell to 13.5%, authorities

introduced level 6B water rationing measures which allocated a mere 50 litres to each person per

day.5,6 There was a very real threat that Day Zero would arrive, a time where the city would be

forced to turn off all non-essential water supplies, and the police would be deployed to rationing

pipes to monitor the usage of potable water. Imminent crisis was only averted when water was

released from upstream reserves and city residents worked to reduce water consumption to a

record low of 506 million litres per day.7

A week later, water consumption increased to 565 million litres from the record low, failing to

reach the target 450 million litres.8 As time ticks by, the city races to construct four new

3 UNEP. (2010). “Africa Water Atlas”. Division of Early Warning and Assessment (DEWA). United Nations

Environment Programme (UNEP). Nairobi, Kenya. 4 Mulligan, G. (2018). Will Cape Town be the first city to run out of water?. BBC News. Retrieved 2 May 2018,

from http://www.bbc.com/news/business-42626790 5 Level 6B Water Restrictions. (2018). Resource.capetown.gov.za. Retrieved 2 May 2018, from

http://resource.capetown.gov.za/documentcentre/Documents/Procedures,%20guidelines%20and%20regulations/Lev

el%206B%20Water%20restriction%20guidelines-%20eng.pdf 6 Head, T. (2018). Level 6B water restrictions have started: Here's what they mean for Cape Town:. The South

African. Retrieved 2 May 2018, from https://www.thesouthafrican.com/level-6b-water-restrictions-cape-town/ 7 Palm, K. (2018). CT authorities commend water-saving efforts. Ewn.co.za. Retrieved 2 May 2018, from

http://ewn.co.za/2018/04/23/ct-authorities-commend-water-saving-efforts 8 Evans, J. (2018). Cape Town's water consumption figures go up again. News24. Retrieved 2 May 2018, from

https://www.news24.com/SouthAfrica/News/cape-towns-water-consumption-figures-go-up-again-20180320

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desalination plants, which could each produce up to 2000 cubic metres of water a day.9 However,

disaster still looms elsewhere. South Africa must brace itself for a prolonged water shortage

should the levels in Lesotho’s Katse Dam – currently at their 10th percentile – not rise.10 The

crisis of Day Zero is still not completely averted – merely postponed – to 2019.11,12

Thousands of Africans each day suffer from the lack of access to potable and sanitary water,

badly-planned and executed water security programmes, and conflict over transboundary water

sources. It is time for the international community to recognise the pressing situation in Africa

and work towards alleviating the crisis.

Water and Poverty

Safe Drinking Water

Endemic poverty in Africa correlates closely with water scarcity and problems of access. 15% of

Africans in urban areas and 49% of those in rural areas do not have access to improved sources

of drinking water.13 This means residents have to obtain water from community-dug open wells,

nearby streams and rivers, or even purchase bottled water for daily use. Many of these

unimproved, unprotected water sources are vectors for contamination and disease: they may

contain water fleas infected with guinea worm larvae, for instance, leaving communities

susceptible to Guinea-worm disease. Often, water sources are also few and far between, found in

locations so remote and inconvenient that people – mostly women and girls – spend up to 16

9 Zyl, W. V. (2018, May 02). Desalination: Global examples show how Cape Town could up its game. Retrieved

May 2, 2018, from https://theconversation.com/desalination-global-examples-show-how-cape-town-could-up-its-

game-90949 10 Stoddard, E., & Antonie, V. (2018). South Africa's water crisis spreads from Cape Town. U.S.. Retrieved 2 May

2018, from https://www.reuters.com/article/us-safrica-drought-lesotho/south-africas-water-crisis-spreads-from-cape-

town-idUSKBN1FK27A 11 Cape Town’s ‘Day Zero’ pushed back to 2019. (2018). Businesstech.co.za. Retrieved 1 May 2018, from

https://businesstech.co.za/news/business/235413/cape-towns-day-zero-pushed-back-to-2019/ 12 Stoddard, E. (2018). Cape Town 'Day Zero' pushed back to 2019 as dams fill up in South.... U.S.. Retrieved 10

April 2018, from https://www.reuters.com/article/us-safrica-drought/cape-town-day-zero-pushed-back-to-2019-as-

dams-fill-up-in-south-africa-idUSKCN1HA1LN 13 UNEP. (2010). “Africa Water Atlas”. Division of Early Warning and Assessment (DEWA). United Nations

Environment Programme (UNEP). Nairobi, Kenya.

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million man-hours collecting water each day, according to a UNICEF study on 25 countries in

sub-Saharan Africa.14,15,16

The worst of these situations is observed in Sub-Saharan Africa, where up to 40% of the

population has no access to safe water – although the region receives over half of the continent’s

annual rainfall.17 In more arid regions of Africa, these problems are further compounded because

of irregular rainfall patterns and a lack of development of water catchment areas.18 Many

Africans are thus forced to use the little, and unsanitized, water they can find. These sources are

often inadequate or unsafe for human consumption.

Numerous development programmes have sought to improve access to safe drinking water in a

variety of ways, which include building water pumps that enable rural communities to access the

water supplied by aquifers. For instance, in 2006, Tanzania launched a national water strategy to

improve the water access of 65% and 90% of its rural and urban populations respectively.

Although they received over US $1 billion in funding, with US $200 million in direct budget

support from the World Bank, the plan still fell far short of its targets.. Only 54% of Tanzanians

had access to a so-called improved water source in 2007, and this percentage even decreased to

53% in 2012, according to World Bank figures.19,20 It is estimated that over 40% of the pumps in

some parts of rural Africa do not function properly, due to a lack of spare parts and regular

servicing.21 Without committed support or adequate capacity, even renowned programmes like

14 UNICEF. (2009, May). “UNICEF Water, Sanitation and Hygiene Annual report 2008”. UNICEF WASH section.

United Nations International Children’s Emergency Fund (UNICEF). New York, USA. 15 Plan Uk. (2013, May 23) “The Problems and Solutions to Safe Water in Africa” [Blog Post]. Published on Triple

Pundit. Retrived May 02, 2018, from

https://www.triplepundit.com/podium/problems-solutions-safe-water-africa/ 16 Caruso, B. (2018, May 06). Women still carry most of the world's water. Retrieved May 02, 2018, from

https://theconversation.com/women-still-carry-most-of-the-worlds-water-81054 17 UNEP. (2010). “Africa Water Atlas”. Division of Early Warning and Assessment (DEWA). United Nations

Environment Programme (UNEP). Nairobi, Kenya. 18 Gommes, R., & Petrassi, F. (1996, May). Rainfall Variability and Drought in Sub-Saharan Africa. Published

United Nations Food and Agriculture Organisation. Retrieved May 02, 2018, from

http://www.fao.org/nr/climpag/pub/EIan0004_en.asp 19 Murphy, T. (2014, December 24). How Tanzania failed to fix its water access problem. Retrieved May 02, 2018,

from http://www.humanosphere.org/world-politics/2014/12/tanzania-failed-fix-water-access-problem/ 20Kushner, J. (2014). The World Bank's water failure in Tanzania. Retrieved from https://www.pri.org/stories/2014-

11-24/world-banks-water-failure-tanzania 21 Resources - RWSN Library. (2009). Retrieved from http://www.rural-water-supply.net/en/resources/details/203

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the PlayPump, which encourages children to play on a merry-go-round to pump water, have

charted failure, in the long run.22,23

The overall situation in Africa is grim. Although the percentage of Africans who lack access to

sanitized water has seemingly decreased – from 44% in 2000 to 38% presently – the absolute

numbers of people who lack sanitary water has actually increased, due to growing populations.24

Even urban, comparatively developed areas like Cape Town, as illustrated above, increasingly

come under the threat of water scarcity due to climate change. A serious re-evaluation of national

and regional water policies is of paramount importance to alleviate the water crisis afflicting the

continent today.

Sanitation

22 Stellar, D. (2010). The PlayPump: What Went Wrong?. Retrieved from

http://blogs.ei.columbia.edu/2010/07/01/the-playpump-what-went-wrong/ 23 Chambers, A. (2009). Africa's not-so-magic roundabout | Andrew Chambers. Retrieved from

https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2009/nov/24/africa-charity-water-pumps-roundabouts 24 UNEP. (2010). “Africa Water Atlas”. Division of Early Warning and Assessment (DEWA). United Nations

Environment Programme (UNEP). Nairobi, Kenya.

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Fig. 1: Map showing the degree of access to sanitation facilities25

Despite measures undertaken to improve the accessibility to sanitation facilities in North Africa,

Central and West Africa still suffer from a dire lack of access - as evidenced by Fig. 1, where

less than a quarter of the populations of countries in these regions are able to use improved

sanitation facilities. . In Sub-Saharan Africa overall, only 69% of the population has access to

proper sanitation facilities, with many in rural areas still at risk of diseases spread via

groundwater pollution, open defecation and solid waste disposal.26,27 Waste treatment facilities

are non-existent in many areas and most citizens lack access to adequate toilet facilities.

Hence, what ensues is the widespread contamination of water sources. As there are few

personnel with the expertise and tools to treat water, waste is discharged into potable water,

rendering even these sources unsafe. Sub-Saharan Africa bears the brunt of waterborne diseases

such as cholera, which spread even more rampantly during the monsoon season, with the

consumption of contaminated groundwater.28 According to the WWF, over 50% of Africans

suffer from 6 major water-related diseases.29

The problems caused by sanitation spell even greater trouble for families who are living in abject

poverty. As of 2012, 43% of the population on the continent lives below the poverty line.30,31

Even if there were medical treatment available in these poverty-stricken regions, the cost of such

medical treatments would be prohibitive for many families. Hence, curable diseases like cholera

25 Africa | International Decade for Action 'Water for Life' 2005-2015. (2005). Retrieved from

http://www.un.org/waterforlifedecade/africa.shtml 26 Ibid. 27 Lewis, L. (2010). Water In Crisis - Spotlight Africa: Rural and Urban Issues. Retrieved from

https://thewaterproject.org/water-crisis/water-in-crisis-rural-urban-africa 28 Ibid. 29 World Wildlife Fund. The Facts on Water in Africa. 30 While Poverty in Africa Has Declined, Number of Poor Has Increased. (2016). Retrieved from

http://www.worldbank.org/en/region/afr/publication/poverty-rising-africa-poverty-report 31 Poverty is on the retreat in Africa. (2012). Retrieved from https://www.afdb.org/en/blogs/afdb-championing-

inclusive-growth-across-africa/post/poverty-is-on-the-retreat-in-africa-8996/

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– that can be treated with rehydration therapy – remain the deadliest diseases in Africa,

responsible for approximately 643,000 deaths in 2015 alone.32

Social Inequality

Besides fulfilling the primordial needs of human life, the utility of Africa’s major rivers and

waterbodies also extends to many other spheres. For instance, major water bodies like the Niger

River and Nile River have traditionally been routes of transportation, facilitating trade between

rural populations. Presently, the economic functions they serve often come into conflict with

their hydroelectric potential, as rivers must be dammed in order to provide renewable electrical

power for developing countries.

Undeveloped water systems are also a major cause of social inequality. The need to ferry and

transport water from distant sources, for instance, is extremely time-consuming and thus spells

significant opportunity cost. Children, who are instructed to fetch water, could have spent their

time more productively in school; women, on the other hand, could have involved themselves

with income-generating activities that will help augment the household income.33,34

Finally, the inequality in access to water also manifests itself in urban inequality. Many rapidly

urbanizing populations in Africa show stark social inequality as the rich have access to ample

water sources and protection against drought, while the poor lack such sources and have to rely

on communal or unimproved outlets. In the recent Cape Town water crisis, this was exemplified

by poorer segments of the population being disproportionately at risk of chronic water shortages,

even while their wealthier neighbours were able to stockpile water and acquire access to

filtration and/or storage systems.

32 Vuuren, P. (2017). FACTSHEET: Africa’s leading causes of death | Africa Check. Retrieved from

https://africacheck.org/factsheets/factsheet-africas-leading-causes-death/ 33 Lewis, L. (2010). Water In Crisis - Spotlight Africa: Rural and Urban Issues. Retrieved from

https://thewaterproject.org/water-crisis/water-in-crisis-rural-urban-africa 34 Sorenson, S. B., Morssink, C., & Abril Campos, P. (2011). Safe Access to Safe Water in Low Income Countries:

Water Fetching in Current Times. Retrieved from h p://repository.upenn.edu/spp_papers/166

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Water and Politics

The Potential for Transboundary Conflict: Colonialism and Geographical Scarcity

“The only matter that could take Egypt to war again is water”

President Anwar Sadat of Egypt, 1979

As water scarcity and pressures mount, Africa’s numerous interstate aquifers and water bodies

increasingly become flashpoints for conflicts. Owing to this confluence of pressures, Africa has

been cited as the continent most likely to become involved in a water-related conflict in the near

future.

Africa has the highest number of transboundary aquifers of any continent, boasting 66 of over

200 of the world’s transboundary aquifers. Some of the larger and more important aquifers, such

as the Niger, Okangavo, Orange and Nile rivers, are afflicted with multilateral conflicts – the

conflict on the River Nile, for example, involves no less than ten states.

The scenario illustrated above is compounded by the scarcity of other freshwater sources.

Groundwater is an unreliable water source and is being rapidly depleted in arid regions of the

continent, while high-technology desalination and filtration systems have yet to be introduced in

these countries because of prohibitive high costs. As a result, states rely on large aquifers, or

“water towers” – highland areas which naturally have increased condensation and rainfall – for a

stable water supply.

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Fig. 2: Map showing the distribution of Africa’s “water towers”

Furthermore, the competition for scarce water gives way to the “Tragedy of The Commons” by

British economist William Forster Lloyd and later popularized by Garrett Hardin. It refers to the

phenomenon that takes place when the lack of ownership over a common but finite pool of

resources – such as water – incentivises maximum exploitation, rather than sustainable use. This

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is indeed exemplified by the overexploitation of aquifers, such as through the indiscriminate

digging of wells as part of rural water supply schemes.35

Zero Sum Game: Harnessing Water as Political Leverage

As the quantity of water resources is finite, and can even be on the decline due to unsustainable

uses by states, water allocation is often viewed as a zero-sum game.Because water naturally

flows downstream, this allows for upstream communities to place political leverage on their

downstream counterparts. As shown in Figure 2, the heavy reliance on such major aquifers

implies that states have few alternatives to turn to, and are compelled to compete for the same

water sources in the region.

Consequently, many African states are willing to go to great lengths to lay their claims on

limited water supplies. For instance, the Grand Ethiopian Renaissance Dam – also referred to as

the Millennium Dam, or Hidase Dam – promises abundant energy and an opportunity to rise

from the lowest rungs of the Human Development Index.36 Yet, harkening back to the zero-sum

quality of water resources, this poses an almost existential threat to Egypt, as the Nile River is

responsible for 95% of the country’s water supply. The dire consequences Egypt could be made

to bear include crop failure and power cuts, and are severe enough to cripple the nation.37

Despite repeated assurances from Ethiopian authorities that the Nile dam will not harm Egypt,

then-President Mohamed Morsi has engaged in warmongering, threatening the sacrifice of

“blood” to ensure that “not one drop” of the Nile River is lost.38,39

However, such critical situations also present an avenue for deep interstate collaboration, which

bring about mutual benefits, and also allows for the sustainable use of the limited resource.

35 Mahen, G. (2015). Retrieved from https://gizmodo.com/digging-new-wells-in-africa-could-run-its-aquifers-dry-

1739132928 36 Witte, G. (2018). Egypt sees Ethiopian dam as risk to water supply. Retrieved from

https://www.theguardian.com/world/2013/jun/18/egypt-ethiopia-dam-blue-nile 37 Ibid. 38 Nile dam won't harm Egypt, says new Ethiopian leader | Africanews. (2018). Retrieved from

http://www.africanews.com/2018/05/04/nile-dam-won-t-harm-egypt-says-new-ethiopian-leader// 39 Witte, G. (2018). Egypt sees Ethiopian dam as risk to water supply. Retrieved from

https://www.theguardian.com/world/2013/jun/18/egypt-ethiopia-dam-blue-nile

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Delegates are encouraged to conceive of possibilities for collaboration, and devise measures that

may facilitate this process of interstate collaboration – turning enmity into cooperation. One such

example of interstate collaboration will be expounded on in the next section.

Internal Conflict

Apart from emanating tensions on a regional scale, it is also important to note that there are a

large number of non-government actors who rely on these sources, including indigenous groups,

local rural communities, and the ecosystem itself. Due to power imbalances between

governments and such actors, the latter’s concerns and wishes regarding aquifer use have often

been sidelined, sometimes to the immense detriment of these populations and the aquifers

themselves. Although access to water does depend on geography, groups that have been

historically marginalised are also the ones with least access to the resource. WaterAid has

published a report stating that in sub-Saharan Africa, rich people are more than twice as likely to

have access to safe water, and five times as likely to have access to sanitation. Spatial

inequalities existing within countries are also significant in contributing the disparities in access

to resources – communities in rural areas or slum-dwellers in urban areas suffer

disproportionately.40 Delegates should consider how disenfranchised communities are ensured

access to sanitation, keeping in mind the context in which they are discriminated against, and

denied of resources.

Water and Ecology

Africa is rich in biodiversity, and many of these natural habitats are centered around sources of

water. Sustainable use of water sources is a goal not yet met in many parts of the continent, and

wetland/riverine habitats continue to be degraded quickly, by a combination of

pollution,overfishing, groundwater depletion and rapid development. These changes affect local

populations which rely on the environment as well.

40 WaterAid (2015). WASH and inequalities Retrieved from:

https://webcache.googleusercontent.com/search?q=cache:aeBoFknQq6YJ:https://sustainabledevelopment.un.org/get

WSDoc.php%3Fid%3D2433+&cd=2&hl=en&ct=clnk&gl=sg&client=safari

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Lake Victoria is one good example of such environmental degradation. Invasive species like the

Water Hyacinth and the Nile Carp have caused multiple indigenous species to become extinct.

Continuous water pollution further threatens fish stocks and biodiversity in the area, mainly

coming from untreated water sewage being discharged directly into the lake. Overfishing has

also further depleted fish stocks. To compound this problem, Lake Victoria is a transnational

aquifer bordering Tanzania, Kenya and Uganda, all of which have different priorities for the

lake, and are unable to agree on a common strategy for transnational governance.

As with the above issues of transnational aquifers, climate change and population growth as

stated above naturally increase the pressures on states to solve these issues, while compounding

the difficulties faced in doing so.

Past International Action

The international community has made concerted efforts thus far in ensuring the protection and

use of water sources. The United Nations Economic Commission for Europe (UNECE) Water

Convention is the first legal instrument conceived to regulate water sources, and was entered into

force in 1996. It was originally a legally binding regional agreement for member states within the

Economic Commission for Europe, to regulate and manage water quality issues affecting

international waters.41 However most recently, in February 2018, Chad became the first African

country to accede to the Water Convention, which had transformed into a global

intergovernmental framework in 2016.42 Chad’s accession to the Water Convention can be

attributed to the fact that it shares significant water basins with several neighbouring countries –

the Nubian sandstone aquifer system, for instance, is shared between Chad, Libya, Sudan and

Egypt. Chad’s Minister of Environment, Sidick A. Haggar, hence cited the need to rely on a

coherent framework for cooperation at the regional and international level, to avoid potential

disputes.43 Furthermore, in 2008, the Sixth Committee of the United Nations General Assembly

41 Matlala, M. (2017). Retrieved from

https://www.iwra.org/member/congress/resource/ABSID503_ABSID503_Second_Revision__Geohydrology_of__T

ransboundary_Confined_Aquifers_and__International_Water_Law.pdf 42 Chad becomes the first African country to join the Water Convention. (2018). Retrieved from

https://www.unece.org/info/media/presscurrent-press-h/environment/2018/chad-becomes-the-first-african-country-

to-join-the-water-convention/doc.html 43 Ibid.

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produced draft articles for the Law of Transboundary Aquifers (GA/RES/63/124) to institute

legal norms and policies for the management of transboundary aquifers.44 Yet, the regulation of

transboundary water aquifers is still in its infancy – as evident from the 6 international

agreements signed on 608 aquifers, compared to the 3,600 agreements signed on 279

transboundary surface waters.

Additionally, on World Water Day 2018, the United Nations also launched a decade-long

initiative – the International Decade for Action: Water for Sustainable Development 2018-2028

– in response to the ambitious 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development. Previously, the

“Water for Life” Decade that lasted from 2005 to 2015 had also sought to advance integrated

water management.45 This time, this particular Decade sought to accelerate efforts to improve

access to safe water and sanitation, alleviating the increasing pressure on water resources and

ecosystems, and reducing the risk of droughts and floods.46

Although there has been a renewed emphasis on the importance of discerning water

management, much is left to be desired in terms of the implementation and execution of such

water-related policies. Delegates should capitalise on the platforms available on the international

fora to design policies that will guide the integrated management of water resources.

A Case in Study: Lesotho Highlands Water Project

The Lesotho Highlands Water Project is the largest binational infrastructure project between

Lesotho and South Africa, and involves the construction of an intricate network of tunnels and

dams to divert water from the mountains of Lesotho to South Africa.47 Lesotho has abundant

water resources that far exceed the requirements for possible future irrigation projects. The total

water consumption in Lesotho is about 2m³/s, while its total availability stands at a sizeable

44 Eckstein, G., & Sindico, F. (2014). The Law of Transboundary Aquifers: Many Ways of Going Forward, but

Only One Way of Standing Still. 45 Launch of the International Decade of Water for Sustainable Development 2018 – 2028 | General Assembly of

the United Nations. (2018). Retrieved from https://www.un.org/pga/72/event-latest/launch-of-the-international-

decade-of-water-for-sustainable-development-2018-2028/ 46Water. (2018). Retrieved from http://www.un.org/en/sections/issues-depth/water/ 47 Lesotho Highlands Water Project. (2018). Retrieved from https://www.water-technology.net/projects/lesotho-

highlands/

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figure of 150m³/s.48 The Lesotho Highlands Water Project provides Lesotho with a stable source

of revenue, and also supplies the country with hydroelectric power – till date, Lesotho supplies

South Africa with 70 cubic metres of water per second.49 At the same time, South Africa benefits

from quality water with low sediment cost, saving on hefty treatment costs.

This project is a stellar example of how interstate collaboration can be fostered in times of crisis.

However, Lesotho – once regarded as a resource-rich nation – has increasingly come under strain

after having to divert its water resources to South Africa. In early 2016, Lesotho suffered from its

worst drought in 35 years, largely attributed to the El Nino weather phenomenon. Although there

exists a vast and vital water reserve in the country, it still remains out of reach – destined for

export to South Africa.50

Thus, although the Lesotho Highlands Water Project is a positive demonstration of how a

symbiotic relationship can be formed between two states with complementary needs, this also

shows how their needs may conflict at times, and can potentially result in animosity.

Proposed Solutions

Encouraging Local Entrepreneurship and Concessions in Privatisation Schemes

In spite of the dismal situation and formidable challenges plaguing the accessibility of clean

water and sanitation in Africa, not all hope is lost. Some African countries have demonstrated

progress in improving the accessibility of water and sanitation services, and the strongest

performers in piped water-service expansion are Burkina Faso, Chad, Ethiopia and Mali, all

reflecting growth rates of 4 to 8% per year.51

A viable solution would be to encourage local ingenuity in revolutionising simple tools and

mechanisms to improve access to safe drinking water. For instance, a Swiss-pioneered water

48 Ibid. 49 Mathibeli, N. (2016). The beauty of Lesotho's water crisis. Retrieved from

https://www.news24.com/MyNews24/the-beauty-of-lesothos-water-crisis-20160111 50 Drought-stricken Lesotho exports water to South Africa. (2018). Retrieved from

https://www.thenational.ae/world/drought-stricken-lesotho-exports-water-to-south-africa-1.166395 51 UNEP. (2010). “Africa Water Atlas”. Division of Early Warning and Assessment (DEWA). United Nations

Environment Programme (UNEP). Nairobi, Kenya.

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disinfection programme, Swiss Fresh Water (SFW) has produced a low-cost and decentralised

water treatment system to provide water for 4 million people.52 There is now a sizeable market

for water purifiers and many entrepreneurs are inventing more affordable models to bring safe

water to the poor.53 Governments of these African states can possibly issue subsidies to

incentivise the development of innovative approaches to water sanitation.

Moreover, governments can consider more public-private sector collaboration to facilitate the

implementation of water sanitation programmes started by private corporations, as private

investment by domestic and foreign companies that assume responsibility for financing and

operating water systems can improve efficiency and enlarge coverage. For instance, PAGER, a

national rural water supply programme devised in 2004, required public participation in the

simple use of technologies and the participation in all stages of the project, from needs design to

implementation, to evaluation. Access to drinking water increased from 14% in 1995 to 61% in

2004, to 77% to 2006.

Employment of Inexpensive Irrigation Technologies

52 SWISS FRESH WATER. (2008). Retrieved from http://www.swissfreshwater.com 53 UNEP. (2010). “Africa Water Atlas”. Division of Early Warning and Assessment (DEWA). United Nations

Environment Programme (UNEP). Nairobi, Kenya.

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Fig 3: Diagram showing the disparity between actual and potential levels of water that can be

used

Parts of sub-Saharan Africa have large untapped reserves of groundwater, and there is great

potential for harvesting runoff and for farming lowlands and valley bottoms that catch it

naturally. Governments can consider investing in small-scale irrigation projects, such as the

construction of small dams, wells and canals. Once built in villages, this can help increase

agricultural productivity and generate greater income for rural communities.54 While this

solution offers the best advantage for increasing irrigation for food production, they must be

managed carefully in order not to cause more extensive environmental damage, or facilitate the

spread of waterborne diseases.55

54 UNEP. (2010). “Africa Water Atlas”. Division of Early Warning and Assessment (DEWA). United Nations

Environment Programme (UNEP). Nairobi, Kenya. 55 Ibid.

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Key Guiding Questions

● What has contributed to, or precipitated the African Water Crisis?

● How should relevant member states improve on the current modus operandi of water

supply schemes or programmes in their countries?

● By extension, what role can other member states or international organisations play in

aiding the aforementioned process?

● How can international frameworks be improved upon to alleviate the scarcity of water in

the region and deter the emergence of transboundary water conflicts?

● How should member states champion the sustainable use of scarce water resources?

Suggestions for Further Research

Balch, O. (2016). Africa droughts prompt calls to start pumping untapped groundwater.

Retrieved from https://www.theguardian.com/sustainable-business/2016/aug/18/africa-drought-

untapped-groundwater-aquifers-water-stress-ngo-partnership-ethiopia

Duah, A., & Xu, Y. (2013). Retrieved from http://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/41996/InTech-

Sustainable_utilisation_of_groundwater_resources_under_climate_change_a_case_study_of_the

_table_mountain_group_aquifer_of_south_africa.pdf

HOME. (2018). Retrieved from https://www.waterscarcitysolutions.org

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1.166395

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16. Lewis, L. (2010). Water In Crisis - Spotlight Africa: Rural and Urban Issues. Retrieved

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17. Mahen, G. (2015). Retrieved from https://gizmodo.com/digging-new-wells-in-africa-

could-run-its-aquifers-dry-1739132928

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19. Matlala, M. (2017). Retrieved from

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22. Palm, K. (2018). CT authorities commend water-saving efforts. Ewn.co.za. Retrieved 2

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23. Plan Uk. (2013, May 23) “The Problems and Solutions to Safe Water in Africa” [Blog

Post]. Published on Triple Pundit. Retrived May 02, 2018, from

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24. Poverty is on the retreat in Africa. (2012). Retrieved from

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africa/post/poverty-is-on-the-retreat-in-africa-8996/

25. Resources - RWSN Library. (2009). Retrieved from http://www.rural-water-

supply.net/en/resources/details/203

26. Sorenson, S. B., Morssink, C., & Abril Campos, P. (2011). Safe Access to Safe Water in

Low Income Countries: Water Fetching in Current Times. Retrieved from h

p://repository.upenn.edu/spp_papers/166

27. Stellar, D. (2010). The PlayPump: What Went Wrong?. Retrieved from

http://blogs.ei.columbia.edu/2010/07/01/the-playpump-what-went-wrong/

28. Stoddard, E., & Antonie, V. (2018). South Africa's water crisis spreads from Cape Town.

U.S.. Retrieved 2 May 2018, from https://www.reuters.com/article/us-safrica-drought-

lesotho/south-africas-water-crisis-spreads-from-cape-town-idUSKBN1FK27A

29. Stoddard, E. (2018). Cape Town 'Day Zero' pushed back to 2019 as dams fill up in

South.... U.S.. Retrieved 10 April 2018, from https://www.reuters.com/article/us-safrica-

drought/cape-town-day-zero-pushed-back-to-2019-as-dams-fill-up-in-south-africa-

idUSKCN1HA1LN

30. SWISS FRESH WATER. (2008). Retrieved from http://www.swissfreshwater.com

31. UNEP. (2010). “Africa Water Atlas”. Division of Early Warning and Assessment

(DEWA). United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP). Nairobi, Kenya.

32. UNICEF. (2009, May). “UNICEF Water, Sanitation and Hygiene Annual report 2008”.

UNICEF WASH section. United Nations International Children’s Emergency Fund

(UNICEF). New York, USA.

33. Vuuren, P. (2017). FACTSHEET: Africa’s leading causes of death | Africa Check.

Retrieved from https://africacheck.org/factsheets/factsheet-africas-leading-causes-death/

34. Water. (2018). Retrieved from http://www.un.org/en/sections/issues-depth/water/

35. WaterAid (2015). WASH and inequalities Retrieved from:

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bledevelopment.un.org/getWSDoc.php%3Fid%3D2433+&cd=2&hl=en&ct=clnk&gl=sg

&client=safari

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37. Witte, G. (2018). Egypt sees Ethiopian dam as risk to water supply. Retrieved from

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TOPIC B: EFFECTS OF CLIMATE CHANGE ON

AGRICULTURE

Introduction to the Issue

United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) has a specialised focus on environment-led

issues since its inception in 1972, galvanising and facilitating the sustainable development of

global resources. This brings UNEP at the forefront of combatting one of the Earth’s deadliest

but yet most intractable problems: climate change. The spillover effects of climate change impact

various areas and sectors – one of the most pertinent being agriculture. Agriculture still

constitutes a significant share of the global economy and has far-reaching impact on the

livelihood of millions, including first world economies such as the United States of America,

making it both an economic and humanitarian issue.

Climate Change

Climate change refers to the rise in average temperature of the planet’s surfaces.56 Scientific

consensus indicates that global warming is accelerated by human led activities – institutions such

as the National Aeronautics and Space Administration, and the National Oceanic and

Atmospheric Administration concur that climate change is occurring and is almost certainly due

to human activity.57 Human activities, mainly the burning of fossil fuels such as oil and coal,

emit greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide and carbon monoxide, methane and nitrous oxide,

and chemically manufactured greenhouse gases such as halocarbons into the earth’s

atmosphere.58 These greenhouse gases amplify the greenhouse effect, increasing the earth’s

surface temperature. Anthropological activities increase the concentration of aerosols, where

these aerosols reflect incoming sunlight.

Agriculture

56 What is climate change?. (2017). BBC News. Retrieved from http://www.bbc.com/news/science-environment-

24021772 57 What is climate change?. (n.d.) Takepart. Retrieved from http://www.takepart.com/flashcards/what-is-climate-

change/ 58 What is climate change? (n.d.) Australian Academy of Science. Retrieved from

https://www.science.org.au/learning/general-audience/science-booklets-0/science-climate-change/1-what-climate-

change

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Agriculture broadly known as ‘’the process of producing food, feed, fiber and many other

desired products by the cultivation of certain plants and the raising of domesticated animals

(livestock)’’. Today agriculture is about more than just the production of food. Other

agricultural production goods include ‘’timber, fertilizers, animal hides, leather, industrial

chemicals (starch, sugar, alcohols and resins), fibers (cotton, wool, hemp, silk and flax), fuels

(methane from biomass, ethanol, biodiesel), cut flowers, ornamental and nursery plants, tropical

fish and birds for the pet trade, and both legal and illegal drugs (biopharmaceuticals, tobacco,

marijuana, opium, cocaine).’’59

Agriculture and the Climate

Access to sufficient, nutritious food is a basic human right and this right can only be safeguarded

if there is an adequate production of food.60 Agriculture and fisheries, the two most important

food sources, tend to be significantly dependent on the climate, sensitive to the smallest changes

– hence climate change influences food security at both the local and international level.

Climate change and agriculture are closely interrelated and interdependent. Climate change

impacts agriculture in a multitude ways: a minute change in temperatures, precipitation patterns,

concentrations of atmospheric carbon dioxide can affect the quality of crops and crop yield –

climate extremes such as heat waves and storms do even more irreversible damage.61 In turn, it

threatens food security, as the accessibility and affordability of food are compromised. Water for

example, is an essential component of agricultural productivity. Yet, changes in temperature,

rainfall patterns and extreme weather conditions directly influence the hydrological cycle, which

in turn disrupt the chain of agricultural processes. Changes in the supply of produce then

influence global food prices and global food distribution.

The impact of such climatic changes is invariably asymmetrical – developing countries are often

faced with magnified challenges due to the lack of capacity or necessary mechanisms for damage

59 Agriculture. (n.d.) ScienceDaily. Retrieved from https://www.sciencedaily.com/terms/agriculture.htm 60 Wood, S. (2017). Trade and the equitability of global food nutrient distribution. Nature Sustainability. 1, 34-37.

Retrieved from https://www.nature.com/articles/s41893-017-0008-6 61 Wake up before it is too late: Make agriculture truly sustainable now for food security in a changing climate.

(2013). Trade and Environment Review 2013. Retrieved from

http://unctad.org/en/pages/PublicationWebflyer.aspx?publicationid=666

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mitigation that developed countries have access to, and this includes sophisticated crop-

management technology and enhanced irrigation methods. Furthermore, global warming and the

rise in temperatures may actually benefit farmers in some countries, predominantly More

Economically Developed Countries (MEDCs) in the northern latitudes. Denmark, for instance,

will be able to diversify the crops grown with warmer temperatures – such as sweet-corn, wheat

and grass.62 Hence, projecting into the future, the long term trends of climate change is likely to

have a disproportionate impact on the poor rural communities in the Third World.

Historical Background

Scientists have revealed that carbon dioxide and climate moved in lock-step during the

Pleistocene ice ages, which are made of glacial phases and interglacial phases.63 Glacial phases,

by definition, are “any period of time during which glaciers covered a large part of the earth's

surface”64, while interglacial phases refer to periods of time when the temperature was relatively

warmer compared to the former.65 These changes were brought about by wobbles in the Earth’s

orbit around the sun, a process known as the Milankovitch cycle. When the orbit reduced the

intensity of sunlight in the northern hemisphere, a glacial phase occurred, and when the orbit

increased the intensity of insolation in the northern hemisphere, ice sheets melted and the earth

was plunged into an interglacial phase66. These changes were gradual, and took hundreds of

thousands of years to complete. The figure below demonstrates how the climate has changed in

the past.

62 Brix, L. (2014). Global warming may benefit some farmers. Retrieved from http://sciencenordic.com/global-

warming-may-benefit-some-farmers 63 What does past climate change tell us about global warming? (n.d.) Skeptical Science. Retrieved from

https://www.skepticalscience.com/climate-change-little-ice-age-medieval-warm-period-intermediate.htm 64 glacial period. (n.d.) The Free Dictionary. Retrieved from https://www.thefreedictionary.com/glacial+period 65 What were the glacial and interglacial periods in the last Ice Age? (n.d.) Ebrary.net. Retrieved from

https://ebrary.net/5825/education/glacial_interglacial_periods_last_ice_age 66 Ibid.

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Fig. 1: Climate in the past 450,000 years (Source:https://climate.nasa.gov/evidence/)

The increase in temperature currently is of significance because there is a great possibility that it

has been caused by human activity, since the rate of increase is unprecedented. The global

temperature rise, warming oceans, shrinking ice sheets, glacial retreats, decreased snow cover

and the occurrence of extreme weather related events are some of the pieces of evidence that

point towards the existence of rapid climate change.67 The figure below demonstrates the

existence of rapid climate change.

67 Climate change evidence: How do we know?. (2018). The National Aeronautics and Space Administration.

Retrieved from https://climate.nasa.gov/evidence/

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Fig. 2: Magnitude of current Climate Change compared to the past (Source:

https://royalsociety.org/topics-policy/projects/climate-change-evidence-causes/question-6/)

Approximations of the increase in average global temperature since the end of the last Ice Age

are 4 to 5 °C. Putting this information in perspective, this magnitude of change occured over a

period of about 7000 years, with the start of the change in global temperatures occurring 18000

years ago. However, the level of carbon dioxide has risen by 40% in just the last 200 years,

causing the Earth to increase in temperature by 0.8 °C. If this process continues unchecked, the

same increase of temperature by 4 to 5 °C can be expected by the end of this century, leading to

the speed of temperature increase to be ten times more than that of the end of an Ice Age.68

The impact on agriculture with regards to the magnitude, rate and pattern of climate change has

been studied for decades. Various studies have concluded that there is ample reason to be

concerned about the effect of climate change on agriculture. Many regions in the world are

68 Climate is always changing. Why is climate change of concern now?. (n.d.) The Royal Society. Retrieved from

https://royalsociety.org/topics-policy/projects/climate-change-evidence-causes/question-6/

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projected to experience a reduction in crop yields due to climate change, as approximated by a

climate-scenario-crop model ensemble.69 An example would be the drought in 2012 in the

United States, which caused a reduction of maize yields by 25%, leading to other consequences

such as a reduce in their maize exports and a shortage of crops for domestic consumption as well.

Current Situation

As mentioned before, various regions in the world are suffering from a decline in their

agricultural output. The key concerns of this issue will be explored in the examination of the

situation in Africa and Europe. Even with recent urbanization, Africa is still largely an

agricultural-producing continent, accounting for 32% of the continent’s Gross Domestic Product

(GDP) and employing 65% of its labour force.70 It goes without saying that the proper

management of water resources is vital for agriculture, and in turn, ensures a reliable stream of

income. However, flooding and drought make it difficult for the country to bank on their

agricultural sector. Flooding is the most prevalent disaster in North Africa, the second most

common in East, South and Central Africa, and the third most common in West Africa. These

floods include the flood in 2001 in northern Algeria, and the flood in 2000 in Mozambique,

which caused unimaginable economic loss to the countries, with a large number of lives being

taken as well. Droughts, such as the one between July 2011 and June 2012 in the East African

region also lead to great repercussions in similar ways. The figure below shows another

occurrence of drought in the region, in Sahel and Sudan. Compared to the rest of the continent,

these two areas have been suffering from a lack of rainfall, leading to a prolonged drought since

the 1960s.

69 Rosenzweig, C. (2014). Assessing agricultural risks of climate change in the 21st century in a global gridded crop

model intercomparison. Retrieved from http://www.pnas.org/content/111/9/3268.full 70 Gbekide, H. (2015). Climate change is hitting African farmers the hardest of all. Retrieved from

https://theconversation.com/climate-change-is-hitting-african-farmers-the-hardest-of-all-40845

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71

Fig. 3: Rainfall Index in Sahel and Sudan (Source: Food and Agriculture Organization)

Yet, most of Africa’s agricultural developments are rainwater-fed, relying on the continent’s

irregular rain patterns to deliver water. Those in arid regions mainly draw water from major

rivers and deltas, for example the Nile (Nile Delta), Orange River (Gotland Province) and Niger

River (Niger Delta). With increasingly unstable rain patterns due to global warming (as depicted

in Figure 3), such an arrangement is becoming more difficult as water pressures rise. The figure

below (Figure 4) exhibits the changes of surface area in Lake Chad from 1963 to 2001.

Malawi has also experienced widespread crop failures due to a devastatingly strong El Niño. Its

production of maize is estimated at just over 2.5 million tonnes in 2016 – 16% lower than the

reduced harvest in 2015, and 34% below the previous five-year average, leaving 39% of the

population dependent on international food aid to survive.72

71 Home. (n.d.) Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. Retrieved from

http://www.fao.org/home/en/ 72 Kalibata, A. (2017). Africa’s Smallholder Farmers Among the Most Hurt by Climate Change. Retrieved from

https://agra.org/africas-smallholder-farmers-among-the-most-hurt-by-climate-change/

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Fig. 4: The rapid decline of Lake Chad (Source: Brookings)73

Lake Chad demonstrates increasing depletion since the 1970s and 1980s because of severe

drought and intensive irrigation use. Due to global warming, trends show that these irregularities

are only going to increase and threaten the livelihoods of resident farmers more severely.74

Yet, the African continent remains largely ill-equipped to manage the onslaught of challenges

posed by climate change, despite gradual improvements made to protect smallholder farmers

from the climate shocks. The international community should devise solutions to strengthen the

resilience of communities most adversely affected by the effects of climate change and ensure

that food security is attained.

A closer examination of the European continent suggests the lack of uniformity of climate

change’s effect on agricultural productivity. Warming is expected to lead to a northward

73 Sow, M. (2017). Figure of the week: The shrinking Lake Chad. Retrieved from

https://www.brookings.edu/blog/africa-in-focus/2017/02/09/figure-of-the-week-the-shrinking-lake-chad/ 74 UNEP. (2010). “Africa Water Atlas”. Division of Early Warning and Assessment (DEWA). United Nations

Environment Programme (UNEP). Nairobi, Kenya.

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expansion of suitable cropping areas, a reduction of the growing period of crops. The increasing

atmospheric concentrations of carbon dioxide will directly enhance plant productivity, and

increase resource use efficiencies.75 However, there are downsides to the phenomenon as well:

European farmers run the risk of nutrient leaching and the turnover of soil organic matter, and

the risk of soil erosion in mountainous areas.76,77 The European Commission published a report

on the issue, introducing measures to adjust the schedule of farming operations and adapting

crops with the help of genetic diversity and new possibilities offered by biotechnology.78

Delegates can explore greater collaboration between the MEDCs and LEDCs to facilitate the

sharing of the relevant technology and expertise in improving agricultural productivity, in spite

of the changing climate.

Case Studies

Effects of Climate Change on Agriculture in the Democratic People’s Republic of Korea

(DPRK)

Agricultural success of postwar DPRK

Following the temporary halting of the Korean War through the Korean Armistice Agreement,

the DPRK started to rebuild their economy through agricultural endeavours that brought their

country short lived prosperity. The “Three Year Plan” and the “Five Year Plan” were launched in

order to achieve agricultural and industrial expansion, and this was a success to a certain degree,

with the inflow of aid from socialist countries.79,80 However, the DPRK was not reliant on the aid

for long, with one of the examples being the output of grain increasing enough for the country to

be self sufficient on their grain81. The government of the United States of America even

75 Olesen, J.E. (2002). Consequences of climate change for European agricultural productivity, land use and policy.

Retrieved from https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1161030102000047 76 Ibid. 77 EU Agriculture and Climate Change. (2015). European Commission. Retrieved from

https://ec.europa.eu/agriculture/sites/agriculture/files/climate-change/factsheet_en.pdf 78 Ibid. 79 North Korean Intentions and Capabilities With Respect to South Korea. (1967). Central Intelligence Agency.

Retrieved from https://www.cia.gov/library/readingroom/docs/DOC_0001218147.pdf 80Armstrong, C. (2006). ‘Fraternal Socialism’: The International Reconstruction of North Korea, 1953–62.

Retrieved from

https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/1462740500061160?src=recsys&journalCode=fcwh20 81 Kuark, Y. (1963). North Korea's Agricultural Development during the Post-War Period. The China Quarterly, 14,

82-93. doi: 10.1017/s0305741000021032

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approximated in 1978 that grain production had expanded at a faster rate in the DPRK than the

Republic of Korea (ROK), and that standard of livings had improved quicker in the former than

the latter82. DPRK could thus, by the end of the 1950s, claim that it was “self-reliant” and the

general agricultural success of the country was acknowledged.

Primary effects of Climate Change

“We need yields to grow to meet growing demand, but already, climate change is slowing those

yields.” noted Michael Oppenheimer in the fifth report by the Intergovernmental Panel on

Climate Change.83

This statement resonates particularly with the DPRK, where population has been increasing

steadily, as shown the figure below (Figure 5).

Fig. 5: Rising trend in DPRK population over the past five decades (Source: World Bank)84

82 North Korea - THE POST-WAR ECONOMY. (2018). Retrieved from http://countrystudies.us/north-

korea/16.htm 83 Perrone, T. (2018). How agriculture and climate change are related: causes and effects. LifeGate. Retrieved from

https://www.lifegate.com/people/news/agriculture-and-climate-change-causes-effects-impacts 84 Population, total | Data. (2018). Retrieved from

https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SP.POP.TOTL?locations=KP

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However, climate change, coupled with the corrupt political system and the reduced support

from the Soviets, stood in the way of producing sufficient yield for the growing population,

leading to widespread hunger from 1994-1998. This event has since been dubbed the “North

Korean famine”, or “The March of Suffering”, among other names. In this section, specifically

the contribution of climate change towards this event will be explored.

According to the United Nations Department of Humanitarian Affairs’ recount of the event,

“torrential rains caused devastating floods in the Democratic People’s Republic of Korea

(DPRK) [between 30 July and 18 August 1995]”85. The DPRK Bureau of Hydro Meteorological

Service recorded a total 23 inches of rain in 10 days, with 18 inches of rain falling in one day in

certain areas. The subsequent floods were considered, by them, to be the worst in a

century.86Crop lands, harvests and even 1.5 million tons of emergency grain reserves were said

to have been destroyed, leading to repercussions such as the shortage of harvest by

approximately 2 million tons of grain87. This cycle of floods (coupled with extended droughts)88,

as demonstrated above, had an adverse effect on agriculture.

85 OCHA. (2018). Retrieved from http://www.reliefweb.int/ocha_ol/pub/appeals/96appeals/dprk/prk_atxl.html#top 86 Woo-Cumings, M. (2018). The Political Ecology of Famine: The North Korean Catastrophe and Its Lessons.

ADBI Research Paper Series, No. 31. 87 Ibid. 88 Famine in North Korea. (2018). Retrieved from https://asiasociety.org/famine-north-korea

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Fig. 6: The extent of damage caused by the floods during The March of Suffering (Source:

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention) 89

Recent Situation

A recent look into North Korea’s current environmental state revealed ruin beyond belief. When

ecologists Palmer and Van der Kamp visited the country to attend a conference on ecological

restoration in the country, they witnessed barren landscapes which were destroyed by decades of

environmental degradation90. Although land reform has been established on a smaller scale

whereby individual households are allowed to maintain their own private gardens, this has

spiralled into a bigger problem where majority of the land is being farmed, stripping the land of

the much needed ecosystem services that would help to reverse the effects of environmental

degradation91.

89 Status of Public Health --Democratic People's Republic of Korea, April 1997. Retrieved from

https://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/preview/mmwrhtml/00048030.htm 90 McKenna, P., contributor, O., Eck, A., & Eck, A. (2018). Inside North Korea's Environmental Collapse —

NOVA Next | PBS. Retrieved from http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/next/nature/inside-north-koreas-environmental-

collapse/ 91Ibid.

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Climate change also continues to exacerbate the destruction of the agricultural climate and

reserves in the country. Rising temperatures, heavier precipitation and the continued occurrence

of natural disasters are some of the repercussions of climate change that effect such destruction.

The Hydro-Meteorological Service in North Korea’s stated that the country’s average annual

temperature has risen by 1.9 degrees Celsius over the past decade92, and seasonal rains continue

to cause major floods, such as the one in August 201593. The Food and Agriculture Organization

projected that DPRK would only be able to produce 3.7 million tons of rice and corn in 2015, a

14 percent decrease from the previous year, due to a severe drought caused by climate change.

Thus, it is clear that the effects of climate change have had an adverse effect on agriculture in the

past and present.

Government’s Approach to the Issue

Perhaps one of the most crucial initiatives taken by the government of DPRK is the setting up of

the “economic reform group” in the ruling Workers’ Party, which aims to examine agricultural

and economic reforms. This department will take pointers from neighbouring country China to

tackle the above mentioned issues. This initiative solidifies the DPRK’s commitment in

reversing the harmful effects climate change has had on agriculture, and is definitely a step in the

right direction.

Another initiative the government has taken is one that is deemed as unfathomable. The DPRK is

known to be a Hermit Kingdom, one that is completely closed off to the public eye. However,

the intensity of environmental degradation in North Korea left them no choice but to seek help

from the outside world. A group of five Americans was invited to Pyongang to discuss

restoration and food security, with the team instructing North Koreans about ecological basics94.

Besides that, it is a well known fact that the image the country attempts to present is one of a

pristine country with the most updated technology. However, North Korean leader Kim Jong Un

acknowledged that the state of technology with regards to weather forecasting was outdated and

92 Eunjee, Kim. (2015, November 23). Experts: N. Korea Especially Vulnerable to Effects of Climate Change. Voa

News. Retrieved from https://www.voanews.com/a/north-korea-climate-change-impact/3071180.html 93 Ibid. 94 Hudson, John. (2012, April 3). The Environment is So Bad in North Korea, They’ll Even Let Americans Help.

The Atlantic. Retrieved from https://www.theatlantic.com/international/archive/2012/04/environment-so-bad-north-

korea-theyll-even-let-americans-help/329758/

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called for the standards to be raised while he was conducting his field guidance trip to the Hydro-

Meteorological Service95. It is thus apparent, through these initiatives, that the country is

attempting to seek help in order to tackle climate change. While these initiatives have done little

to produce visible results, the country is headed in the right direction.

Past UN Action

Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change

The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) was primarily set up to assess

scientifically the impacts of climate change, providing ‘’an objective, scientific view of climate

change and its political and economic impacts.’’96 it also covers "the scientific, technical and

socio-economic information relevant to understanding the scientific basis of risk of human-

induced climate change, its potential impacts and options for adaptation and mitigation."97 It

works in conjunction with the World Meteorological Organization (WMO) and the United

Nations Environment Programme (UNEP). Its annual reports and assessments support the United

Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) which till today remains a

hallmark treaty in the fight against climate change.

The IPCC for example, has shed some light on the asymmetrical impacts of climate change. A

report published in 2001 has suggested clearly that the poorest countries will be the hardest hit.

In regions such as Africa and Latin America, many crops are naturally near their maximum

temperature tolerance and the productivity is projected to fall up to 30% over the next few

decades.

Agricultural technology for sustainable development

Though with no specific focus on the impacts of climate change itself, The General Assembly

outlined the role of technology in ensuring the sustainability of agriculture in the 2030 Agenda

95 Ibid. 96 Weart, Spencer. (December 2011). International Cooperation: Democracy and Policy Advice (1980s). The

Discovery of Global Warming. American Institute of Physics. Retrieved from

https://history.aip.org/climate/internat.htm 97 Principles Governing IPCC Work. (2013, October 18). Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. Retrieved

from https://www.ipcc.ch/pdf/ipcc-principles/ipcc-principles.pdf

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for Sustainable Development. Titled “Agricultural technology for sustainable development”, a

draft resolution was passed with the aims of developing sustainable practices and facilitating the

transfer of knowledge between various stakeholders. Some of the suggested approaches include a

focus on youth based groups and agricultural projects.98 Member states are called upon to

integrate sustainability into their current national policies.

Sustainable Development Goals

The Sustainable Development Goal or SDG2 with its goals to “End hunger, achieve food

security and improved nutrition and promote sustainable agriculture” (SDG2) recognizes the

links between “supporting sustainable agriculture, empowering small farmers, promoting gender

equality, ending rural poverty, ensuring healthy lifestyles, tackling climate change’’99.

Major Bloc Positions

The US and Russia

While most of the developed word does not dispute the existence of climate change, the Trump

administration has made its stance clear on the issue, calling climate change a “hoax perpetuated

by and for the Chinese in order to make U.S. manufacturing noncompetitive.” 100 suggesting that

climate change is the “newest excuse to take control of our lives by left-leaning intellectuals.”

Conservative broadcaster Rush Limbaugh called it “one of the most preposterous hoaxes in the

history of the planet.’’ Through subsistence farming is still relevant to a large part of the

American population, the US still continually denies its existence making it unlikely that they

will support major recommendations.

98 Agricultural Technology for Sustainable Development among Eight Texts Approved by Second Committee.

(2015, December 4). United Nations General Assembly Meetings Coverage. Retrieved from

https://www.un.org/press/en/2015/gaef3442.doc.htm 99 Food security and nutrition and sustainable agriculture. (n.d.) United Nations Sustainable Development

Knowledge Platform. Retrieved from https://sustainabledevelopment.un.org/topics/foodagriculture 100 Erickson, Amanda. (2017, November 17). The U.S. has more climate skeptics than anywhere else on earth.

Blame the GOP. The Washington Post. Retrieved from

https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/worldviews/wp/2017/11/17/the-u-s-has-more-climate-skeptics-than-

anywhere-else-on-earth-blame-the-gop/?noredirect=on&utm_term=.9c9e85c9e235

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Putin has declared in an interview in 2017 that ‘’Russia stands to benefit from global warming

since it creates favorable conditions for national economic improvement. ‘’ emphasising as well

how the US’s exit from the Paris Agreement is ‘’no big deal’’ 101. While Russia did ratify to the

agreement eventually and has announced plans to reduce emissions by 2020, much of Russia’s

efforts do not reflect urgency and has been regarded rather inconsequential and inconsistent.

However, agriculture remains a part of Russia economy and it is in their vested interest to

forward solutions that improves agricultural productivity.

Africa and East Asia

A large part of the African continent is still largely agrarian and lacking relevant technology and

innovation, hence the African bloc would have a vested interest in forwarding resolutions that

favour solutions such as the sharing of the relevant expertise to improve on its agricultural

practices.

China

Since the advent of the 1997 Kyoto Protocol itself, the Chinese government has been active in

terms of increasing methods to reduce the emission of greenhouse gases. China’s geography and

demography played a huge role in forcing China to take actions to combat climate change. 102

Furthermore, agriculture forms a key part of China’s economy - consisting of over 300 million

farmers, making up 35% of China’s labour force. It ranks first ‘’ first in worldwide farm output,

primarily producing rice, wheat, potatoes, tomato, sorghum, peanuts, tea, millet, barley, cotton,

oilseed and soybeans.’’103 Hence, protecting the agricultural sector will remain a top priority for

China.

101 Jurcova, Alzbeta. (2017, July 10). The Consequences of Climate Change - Will Russia Emerge as an Unlikely

Winner from Lack of Action? Europeum. Retrieved from https://europeum.blogactiv.eu/2017/07/10/the-

consequences-of-climate-change-will-russia-emerge-as-an-unlikely-winner-from-lack-of-action/ 102 Brzoska, Michael. (2012, March). Climate change and the military in China, Russia, the United Kingdom, and

the United States. Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists, 68(2), 43-54. Retrieved from

https://www.researchgate.net/publication/254080126_Climate_change_and_the_military_in_China_Russia_the_Uni

ted_Kingdom_and_the_United_States 103 Hays, Jeffrey. (2013, January). Agriculture in China: Challenges, Shortages, Imports and Organic Farming.

Facts and Details. Retrieved from http://factsanddetails.com/china/cat9/sub63/item348.html

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Europe

For the last 50 years, the EU Common Agricultural Policy (CAP) has been regulating and

supporting Europe’s agricultural sector. The sector is modernized with high intensification of

growth - responding to global needs and changes in patterns. Europe is looking to support its

farmers in the rural areas. 104

The European Union has been proactive in pressing ahead with strong armed efforts - shifting to

a low carbon economy and reducing their dependence on fossil fuels. Both China and Europe

will ramp up their efforts in the face of the US withdrawing from the Paris agreement. 105

Key Areas of Concern

Impact On Crop Production

Though scientific advancements have seen improved varieties such as genetically modified crops

which are more resistant to changes in the climate, weather changes still remain an integral

element of agricultural productivity. The impacts on crop production are often localised,

influenced by variabilities in local climates. Hence localised assessments are key to

understanding location based impacts on crop production. 106 For example, studies indicate that

"southern Africa could lose more than 30% of its main crop, maize, by 2030. In South Asia

losses of many regional staples, such as rice, millet and maize could top 10%".

It is important to clarify that the rising carbon dioxide concentrations – considered a key driver

of climate change – could actually lead to an increase production of important crops such as rice,

soybean and wheat. On the other hand, both the length and quality of the growing season will be

impacted and natural occurrences such as fires, hurricanes and droughts remain a massive and

104 Agriculture. (2016, June 3). European Environment Agency. Retrieved from

https://www.eea.europa.eu/themes/agriculture/intro 105 EU, China step up efforts to combat climate change. (2017, September 19). The Straits Times. Retrieved from

https://www.straitstimes.com/world/europe/eu-china-step-up-efforts-to-combat-climate-change 106 Lobell DB, Burke MB, Tebaldi C, Mastrandrea MD, Falcon WP, Naylor RL. (2008). Prioritizing climate change

adaptation needs for food security in 2030. Science. 319(5863), 607-610. Retrieved from

http://science.sciencemag.org/content/319/5863/607

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increasingly unpredictable threat to crops and farmers. 107 Recent droughts have had a severe

impact on USA and China, hampering global cereal production. A recent Stanford University

study found that ‘’that increases in global production of maize and wheat since 1980 would have

been about 5% higher were it not for climate change.’’108

Agricultural Trade

Given the changes in produce patterns, agricultural trade remains a top priority - redistributing

food and providing income for countries. Hence, the council should look into how trade can be

improved through bilateral relations to improve the distribution of agricultural produce in order

combat the changes in produce patterns. This should take into account the crops which grow in

special altitudes such as barley and as well as those which are perishable (and hence cannot be

transported across long distances).

Impacts On Local Farmers

The exact impact of climate change on food security still remains uncharted. One of the key

stakeholders - local and small scale farmers are at the frontline in the battle against climate

change. The role and behavior of the farmer is modelled poorly current crop climate models. In

order to ‘’nurture their crops and sustain their livestock, family farmers depend on soil, water

and air–resources’’, resources which are all greatly impacted by the changing climate. For

example, severe droughts in the US have pushed farming businesses to almost the brink.

Water security

Water is vital to farming, becoming increasingly scare. Hence, planning of future water supplies

especially with regards to agriculture is extremely crucial. This could require more localised and

individual approaches on top of global approaches. The Mediterranean and southern Africa will

be two regions that will suffer the most based on future trends on global warming. 109

107 Clark, Duncan. (2012, September 19). How will climate change affect food production? The Guardian.

Retrieved from https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2012/sep/19/climate-change-affect-food-production 108 Ibid. 109 Mcintyre, Neil. (2012, December 21). How will climate change impact on fresh water security? The Guardian.

Retrieved from https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2012/nov/30/climate-change-water

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Proposed Solutions

Delegates of the UNEP are strongly encouraged to consider measures that will bolster the

resilience of communities vulnerable to climate change, alongside re-evaluating agricultural

practices that will help slow down or temper the effects of climate change. Often, these solutions

are mutually reinforcing.

Develop Soil Health

Climate-smart agricultural practices treat the soil as if it were a crop, as it is one of the largest

carbon sinks in the world – the degradation of soil has released billions of tons of carbon in the

atmosphere due to unsustainable agriculture practices.110 Farmers should be encouraged to

practise soil conversation, such as contour planting, or no-till farming to reduce soil erosion and

prevent the oxidation of carbon upon exposure to the air.111

Planting Shelterbelts

Shelterbelts consist of one or more rows of strategically planted trees and/or bushes. They can be

used between fields to reduce wind, limit nutrient loss, and also conserve water.112 These trees

physically protect young saplings and reduce moisture losses. A 20% yield increase was

observed for alfalfa planted beside a shelterbelt.113

Key Guiding Questions

1. How do we improve food security for millions around the world by enhancing the

capacity of smallholder farmers?

2. How can the sharing of good agricultural practices and relevant technological expertise

be facilitated?

110 Schwartz, J. (2014). Soil as Carbon Storehouse: New Weapon in Climate Fight? Retrieved from

https://e360.yale.edu/features/soil_as_carbon_storehouse_new_weapon_in_climate_fight 111 5 Ways Farmers Can Combat Climate Change (2016). Global Citizen. Retrieved from

https://www.globalcitizen.org/en/content/5-ways-farmers-can-work-around-climate-change/ 112 Farming in a Changing Climate in Manitoba (2013). Climate Change Connection. Retrieved from

http://climatechangeconnection.org/wp-content/uploads/2014/08/CCC_Crop_Guide_2013.pdf 113 Ibid.

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3. Are the effects of climate change on agriculture asymmetrical? If so, how should we

account for the asymmetry in our solutions?

Suggestions for Further Research

Farming in a Changing Climate in Manitoba (2013). Climate Change Connection. Retrieved

from http://climatechangeconnection.org/wp-

content/uploads/2014/08/CCC_Crop_Guide_2013.pdf

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