UNIT 1 MOTIVATION Structure

1.0 Objectives 1.1 Introduction

1.2 Concept and Definition of Motivation

1.3 Motives Related to Employee Behaviour in Organisation

1.3.1 Primary Motives 1.3.2 General Motives 1.3.3 Secondary Motives

1.4 Theories of Motivation

1.4.1 The Content Theories of Work Motivation 1.4.2 The Process Theories of Work Motivation

1.5 Motivation of Employees 1.6 Management's Attitudes Towards Employees 1.7 Techniques to Motivate Employees

1.8 Benefits for Job Enrichment for Hospitals 1.9 Self-assessment Test 1.10 Let Us Sum Up

1.11 Key Words

1.12 Further Readings

1.0 OBJECTIVES After going through this unit, you should be able to:

,,define motivation;

list the important motives influencing employee behaviour; explain and compare the major content theories of work motivation; discuss the importance of theory "Y," in the present hospitals; and describe the job enrichment approach of job design as an applied area of work motivation.

1 . INTRODUCTION In the present unit, we would begin by discussing the concept and basic process of motivation and theoretical approaches to work motivation would be explained. And in the end, we would turn our attention to the application of these ideas to work setting by discussing the applied aspects of motivation by examining job design and job enrichment.

,Today the most important question troubling any manager or hospital administrator is 'How do you get employees to work to achieve organisational goals?.' The answer rests in an understanding of what motivation is all about, for it is motivated workers who ultimately get fhings done, and without them no organisation can hope to be effective. I

The Hospital administrator must be accomplished at planning and organising human and material resources, but unless employees work to achieve hospital goals, success will be elusive. The work of the administrator will be fruitless unless the various employees of

Human Resource Management their hospital willingly contribute their efforts to the achievement of commoh objectives. Therefore, the primary function of the administrator is to induce voluntary co-operation on the part of their subordinates and associates. It follows from this that the most important qualification of an administrator is (i) an understanding of why employees are willing to contribute their efforts and (ii) skill in obtaining co-operation from the members of an organisation in working towards planned objectives.

1.2 CONCEPT AND DEFINITION OF MOTIVATION Why do people behave as they do? How to make people work more or work better? How does one person obtain the cooperation of others? The major ingredient in answering all these questions is motivation. The first step in understanding motivation is to realise that it is a means of understanding the way people behave in organisations. In other words, these are 'Whys' of belhaviour, the concept of motivation is both simple and complex. It is simple because behaviour of individuals is goal directed and either externally or internally induced. It is complex because the mechanism that iliduces behaviour consists of the individual's needs, wants and desires and these are shaped, affected, and satisfied in different ways. The hospital administrator must have mastery over the concept of motivation and be ,able to identify employee's drives and needs so as to fully understand human behaviour and to channel the behaviour towards task performance.

Why does one employee work harder than another? Why is one employee more cooperative than the other? The answer to these questions can be traced to the fact that every individual has needs to satisfy and will act in certain ways in order to achieve satisfaction. In simple words, we can say that our needs cause us to undertake a pattern of behaviour. We can define m,otivation as a "process that starts with a physiological or psychological deficiency or need that activates behaviour or a drive that is aimed at a goal or incentive". In, more simpler terms, motivation is defined as "self or extremely induced behaviour h a t occurs in order to bring about or maintain need fulfilment." Thus, the key to understanding the process of motivation lies in the meaning of, and relationship between, meeds drives, and goals. Using this understanding, we can design a simple model of motivation process (see Fig. 1.1).

BLOCKAGE Activity

GOAL Behaviour I

FSU~T IN FRUSTRATION

Fig. 1 .l: Motivation Model

When we recognise behaviour pattenns that enable us to satisfy our needs, we repeat these patterns until they no longer contribute to need fulfilment. If we have a need for praise and recognition from our imm.ediate supervisor, the likely behaviour pattern would be exceptional job performanc:e. If praise and recognition occur, we can assume that continued performance will resu It in more praise. This learned behaviour pattern is presented as the lower loop in Fig.l.1. But this motivational process explains the behaviour of individuals conceptuall~r. Just imagine what would happen if you are blocked from fulfilling your needs? (3r what happens if you work extremely hard, putting your best efforts and there arc nlo rewards, and your needs are not fulfilled?

This phenomenon of behaviour at tilnes cannot be explained rationally. When a behaviour pattern perceived as leading to) need fulfillment is blocked, we often behave and react irrationally.

It is very important for the adminis,tratorllnanager to recognise and understand what kind of behaviour this frustration generateis as this would affect subordinate's behaviour, e.g. frustration may occur when an emplo~ree has a strong need for esteem and recognition but the job is not providing it o r when an employee who is turned down

for promotion because helshe lacks the requisite training for the new job. One form of behaviour, we often see in our organisations is absenteeism, questioning one's abilities, negativism or self-termination (quitting). Their reactions to frustrations are not selected consciously by us but are a product of unconscious learning. These unconscious reactions to the tension created by frustration are called defense mechanisms.

The following are some of the most common defense mechanisms that the manager must understand and recognise:

Withdrawal: Some people react by withdrawing from frustration situations resulting in physically leaving the scene.

Repression: Some times a person may react by repressing the frustrating situation. This leads to losing conscious awareness which minimises the frustration that would otherwise result.

Displacement: Some times it is not possible to react aggressively towards the person who has caused the frustration (e.g. toward the boss), in such situations the aggression is directed towards another person - a colleague, subordinate, spouse or child or even some object. Regression: Some times, in an attempt to avoid an unpleasant reality, some people revert to child like behaviour exhibited as horseplay in the work setting.

Compensation: Some times an employee would attempt to excel in one area of ability to offset deficiencies in another area.

Rationalisation: Often people are able to conduce themselves that the reasons for not fulfiling a need lie somewhere else e.g. a medical technologist may explain poor . laboratory work by blaming obsolete equipment rather than some personal deficiency.

Fixation: Fixation takes place when a person continue to exhibit the same behavioural pattern over and over again despite the fact that experience has shown such behaviour to be ineffective. In such cases frustration freezes old habitual responses and prevents the use of new and more effective ones.

1.3 MOTIVES RELATED TO EMPLOYEE BEHAVIOCTR IN ORGANISATION

Broadly three kinds of motives are identified such as: Primary Motives, General Motives and Secondary Motives. The secondary motives which are the motives related to employee behaviour in organisation would be the main focus of discussion in this section, but first let us understand the first two motives briefly.

1.3.1 Primary Motives Such motives are also called physiological, biological, unlearned. For a motive to be included in the primary classification, two criteria need to be met i.e. it must be unlearned and it must be physiologically based. Thus the most commonly recognised primary motives include hunger, thirst, sleep, avoidance of pain, sex and maternal concern. Since people have the basic physiological makeup, they all have essentially the same primary needs. This is very unlike the learned secondary motives.

1.3.2 General Motives There are a number of motives which lie in the gray area between the primary and secondary classification. To be included in this general category, a motive must be unlearned but not physiologically based. While the primary motives seek to reduce the tension or stimulation, these general needs induce the person to increase the amount of stimulation. The motives of curiosity, manipulation, activity and affection seem to meet the criteria for this classification of general motives. An understanding of these general motives is very important and relevant to organisational behaviour than are primary motives.

Motivation

Human Resource Management 1.3.3 Secondary Motives These are the most important motives which are related to employee behaviour in organisations. m e learning principle of reinforcement is conceptually and practically related to the secondary motives. A motive must be learned in order to be included in the secondary classification of motives. Number of important motives meet this criterion but the ones which influence the employee behaviour in any organisation merit a discussion in this category. Some of the more important ones are achievements, affiliation, power or as they are commonly referred as n Ach, n aff, and n power. In addition to this, the competence motive, as an important factor in current attempts to attain high quality serviceslcare are also included along with security and status motives in reference to organisational behaviour. Table 1.1 give!. examples of each of these important secondary motives.

i) The Achievement Motive The achievement motive can be expressed as a desire to perform in terms of a standard of excellence or to be successful in competitive situa'tions. This kind of motivation is a drive, some people have to overcome challenges and obstacles in the pursuit of goals. An employee with this drive wishes to develop and grow, and advance up the ladder of success. For such people accomplishment is important for its own sake, not for the rewards that accompanies it. A number of characteristics explain these achievement- oriented employees. They work harder when they know that they will receive personal credit for their efforts, when they receive positive feedback about their past performance, and when there is moderate risk of failure in the work situation. Once these high achievers select a goal, they tend to be totally preoccupied with !he task until it is successfully completed. They can never leave a job haif finished and are not satisfied with themselves until they have put their maximum efforts.

ii) The Affiliation Motivation This type of motivation is a drive to relate the people on a social basis. While employees with achievement-oriented motives work harder when their supervisor provides a detailed evaluation of their work behaviour, the employees with affiliation motives work better when they are complemented for their favourable attitudes and cooperation. Achievement motivated managers select subordinates who are technically capable, with little regard for personal feelings about them; but the ones with affiliation motivation tend to select friends to surround them as they get inner satisfaction from being with friends, and they also desire the job freedom to develop these relationships.

iii) The Power Motivation This particular motive is a drive to influence employees and to change situations. Power motivated people wish to create an impact on their organisations and willing to take risks to do so. Once this power is obtained, it may be used either constructively or destructively. If their drives are for institutional power rather than personal power than such managers are very beneficial for organisations because as these managers seek power through legitimate means, they rise to leadership positions through successful performance and are easily accepted by others. This institutional power is the need to influence other's behaviour for the welfare of the whole organisation.

iv) The Competence Motivation Another motive leading to organisational success is the competence drive to do high quality work. .The very nature of hospital work requires this kind of motive in its doctors and administratorslmanagers to achieve high quality of services and patient care. Competence motivated employees seek job mastery, develop problem-solving skills and strive to be innovative. These individuals perform good work to achieve inner satisfaction and to gain esteem from others. Competence motivated doctors also expect high-quality work from their associates and become impatient if others perform poorly.

Ei

Motivation v) The Security Motivation In today's fast-paced, highly technological society, security is a very intense motive. Job security, in particular has a great effect on organisational behaviour. On the surface, security appkars to be much simpler then other secondary motives, for it is based largely on fear and is avoidance oriented. To sum-up, people have a learned security motive to protect themselves from the contingencies of life and actively try to avoid situations which would prevent them from satisfying their prima~y, general and secondary motives.

vi) The Status Motivation This kind of a motive is basically a desire to be respected and treated with deference especially by others in the social and organisational environment. People high on this motive would hesitate to violate social norms and would do so only when they get the desired recognition positively. They run for offices, like to show authoritarian tendencies while working with others. They would also categorise people into status groups and interact with others selectively.

Table 1.1: Examples of Key Motives Influencing Employee Behaviour in Hospitals

Need for Achievement A concern for excellence. Doing better than competitors. Setting and attaining difficult goals. Solving a complex problem. Carrying out a challenging assignment successfully. Developing a better way to carry out jobs. Derive pleasure from doing difficult things.

Need for Competence A drive to do high quality work. Seek job mastery and strive to be innovative. Develop problem-solving skills. Gain inner satisfaction by performing high quality work.

Need for AflIiaiion Establishing warm and affectionate relations with others. Being accepted and liked by many people. Enjoy working with friendly people. Maintain harmonious relationships and avoid conflicts. Participate and organise social activities.

Need for Power Influencing people to change their attitude and behaviour. Gaining control over other people and their activities. Enjoy being in a position of authority over others. Argumentative and always wanting to be first. Gaining control over information and resources.

Need for SecuiLy Wish to have a secure job. To be sure of one's economic security. Having protection against illness and disability. Avoiding tasks or decisions involving risk of failure.

Need for Status A desire to be respected and to be treated with deference. Like to have a right car and right cloths. Like to run for offices and positions. Like to show authoritarian tendencies while working with others. Categorise other people into status groups.

The knowledge and relation of these above key motives, influencing employee behaviour, can certainly help the hospital administratorlmanager to understand the work attitudes of each employee. They can learn to deal with employees differently according to the strongest and dominant motivational drive in each. For example, an employee with high achievement motive can be assigned a job, accompanied by an explanation of its challenges. And the employee with high competence motive can be assigned a similar job with emphasis on its requirements for high-quality work. In this way the manager attempts to communicate with each employee according to that particular person's need.

Human Resource Management Activity 1 Motivation-Self-Test

Please complete this self-test before you proceed further.

A number of activities are presented below. You may like some of these and you may not like others. Please go through each item and mark those activities in which you like to be involved.

1) Setting difficult goals for myself 2) Competing with other colleagues for hetter performance 3) Doing something difficult to prove that I can do it 4) Doing things that would help me stand out uniquely 5 ) Taking up things with determination and working towards accomplishing them O! Meeting a lot of people

7 ) : );nine a social club or group Inviting people home for tea-parties and get-togethers

9) Having a lot of friends 10) Attending parties and social activities 11) Getting what I deserve even if I have to fight for it 12) Doing something that might provoke criticism 13) Arguing with a superior or subordinate i4) Teasing some one who is conceited 15) Annoying people I don't like 16) Helping someone in trouble even if I have to go out of my way 17) Taking personal care of workers and their problems 18) Fighting for national goals 19) Sacrificing things for the sake of others 20) Consoling someone who is disturbed 21) Doing tasks my superiors ask me to do 22) Pleasing my superiors 23) Observing the rules and regulations outlined for me very strictly 24) Checking things with superiors before I make decisions 25) Consulting people for most of the decisions 26) Having workers who do whatever I ask them to do 27) Getting people to accept my point of view 28) Framing rules and regulations 29) Demonstrating my knowledge and sharing it with others 30) ControlIing workers throrlph various techniques Directions for scoring and irlt&ptations of your responses to this self-test are provided later in this Unit.

Analysis of (Motivation) Self-Test In the self-test you took at the beginning of this unit (Activity), six motives were included: achievement, power, affiliation, dependence, extension and aggression. Each group of five items measures one motive. The first five items (1 to 5) deal with

achievement, the next five items (6 to 10) with affiliation, followed by aggression (items 11 to 15), extension (items 16 to 20), dependence (items 21 to 25) and control (items 26 to 30). The number of items you checked out of five gives your score on that motive. For example, if you have checked all the items from 1 to 5 you get a score of 5 indicating that you have a high achievement need. If you have checked only one or two items, then you get scores of 1 or 2, indicating a low level of achievement need. Similar interpretations may be given to other motives. You may like to plot your motive profile below on the basis of your self-test.

Your Motive P d l e

Very high 5 - - - - - -

nigh 4 - - - - - -

Low 2 L - - - - -

Very low I - - - - - -

1 Interpret Your Motive Profile You may like to reflect upon the implications of this motive profile for you as a manager. A few comments are made below to help you reflect on your motive profile. High scores on Achievement and Extension are desirable for your own effectiveness and the good of your organisation. A high score on extension is a welcome thing if you are in any service department or your work involves sewing others. The achievement motive is good if you are a manager or executive. A moderate degree of affiliation may be good but too much of it may indicate your tendency to value relationships more than tasks or work. A high dependency need or control need may be indicative of your preference for rules, regulations and control. These can have both positive and negative effects. You may reflect on these. Your scores on the self-test are only crude indicators of your motives. The self-test was meant to be used as a stimulant for your reflection and understanding about human motivation. You are not to take the scores as conclusive. Motives are complex and cannot be measured accurately with short instruments like the self-test given earlier. The test is meant only to give you a feel of how different motives operate.

1.4 THEORIES OF MOTIVATION so' far we have discussed motivation as a basic psychological process which consists of several motives, needs and drives and for an administrator to understand employee behaviour, the secondary motives have been highlighted here. But however, they serve as only background and foundation for the more directly relevant work-motivation approaches. This section would deliberate upon the thwries of motivation based upon work-motivation approaches mainly. These theories are divided into two broad categories i.e. Content Theories and Pracess Theories. Presently these two groups of content and process theories have b- explanation for work-motivation. Fig. 1.2 mentions the they content and process theories related to work mot+ .

Content Theories identify specificgtlly-"' environment, that initiates,/--- process theories e/

Human Resource Management

Fig. 1.2: Theoretical Development of Work Motivation

Scientific Management (Work Incentive)

1 Human Relations

(Economic Security, Working

cOnditir) Maslow)

(Hierarchy of Needs) 1

Mc Clelland &earned Need Theory)

1 Henberg

(Motivator's and Hygiene factors) 1

Alderfer (ERG Needs)

1

1.4.1 Content Theories of Work Motivation The content theories of work motivation attempts to determine what it is that motivates )people at work by identifying the needstdrives that people have and how these needs1 drives are prioritised. These theories focus on the type of incentivestgoals that people strive to attain in order to perform well and gain satisfaction. Earlier it was believed that money was the only incentive (Scientific Management), but a little later other scientists came up with the conclusions that incentives include working conditions. security and may be a democratic style of supervision (Human Relations). But significantly in the recent times the content of motivation has focused on the so-called "Higher Level" needstmotives, such as esteem and self-actualisation (Maslow); responsibility, recognition, achievement and advancement (Henberg); aGd the growth and personal development (Alderfer).

1900

I Present

1) Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs

-

Vroom (ExpectaneylPreference theory)

1 Porter and Lowler

(PerfonnanceSatisfaction)

1 CONTENT THEORIES

In the earlier part of this chapter we have examined the important primary, general and more particularly the secondary needs of people, but without relating them to any theoretical framework. Abraham H. Maslow, a psychologist formulated one of the most widely known content theories of motivation called the Need Hierarchy. First published in the early 1940' the theory stressed two fundamental premises. The first is that humans are wanting animals whose needs depend upon what they already have. Only needs not yet satisfied can influence behaviour; an adequately fulfilled need is not a motivator. The second premise is that people's needs are arranged in a hierarchy of importance. Once a particular need is fulfilled, another emerges and demands fulfilment. Fig.l.3 illustrates the Maslow's need hierarchy. Maslow identified five levels in his need hierarchy, which are briefly explained here:

PROCESS THEORIES

i) Physiological Needs: The most fundamental of all needs are physiological needs, which generally correspond to the unlearned primary needs discussed earlier. Some common examples are hunger, thirst, sleep, sex, rest etc. A person deprived of every thing would want to satisfy these basic needs first. Other needs in the hierarchy would be, at least for the moment, of secondary importance. Once these basic needs are satisfied, they no longer motivate.

WORK MOTIVATION

ii) Safety and Security Needs: Once the physiological needs are basically satisfied, safety needs replace them. First there is the need for survival and second is the need

for the security and this need has both physical and psychologicaVemotional dimensions. Once these needs are satisfied, they no longer motivate.

iii) Affection and Social Activity Needs: When physiological and safety needs are basically satisfied, this third level needs related to the social and gregarious nature of people become important motivators. This is something of a breaking point in the hierarchy in that it begins to get away from the physical or quasi-physical needs of the first two levels. They are seen in people's need for association or companionship, belonging to groups and for giving and receiving friendship and affections.

iv) Esteem and Status Needs: This esteem need is much more psychological in nature than the first three needs and these represent the higher needs for people. The needs for power, achievement and status can be considered part of this level. Maslow carefully pointed out that this esteem level represents both self-esteem and esteem from others.

V) Self-Actualization Needs: This highest level of human needs represents the culmination of all the lower, middle and higher needs of humans. This need includes achieving full development of one's potential. It is evidenced by the need to be creative and have the opportunity for self-expression.

Interpreting the Hierarchy of Needs with Work Motivation It can be interpreted from Maslow's need-hierarchy model that employees are more enthusiastically motivated by what they are seeking than by what they already have. Though Maslow did not intend that his need hierarchy be directly applied to work motivation and in fact did not delve into the motivating aspects of humans in organisations, the Maslow hierarchy of needs has had a powerful impact on contemporary managers by making a significant contribution in terms of making management aware of the diverse needs of employees at work and offers some useful tips for helping managers think about motivating their employees. If Maslow's

Higher Order Needs

Lower Order Needs

Self-actualisation Needs (Realisation of one's

potential, self development)

Esteem and Slalus Needs (Titles, Status, Symbols, Personal

(Recognition)

Affection and Social Activity Nee& (Fonning Associations with orhers, and

love and affection) 1

Safety an& Security Needs (Both Physical and Emotional Security)

Physiological Needs (Basic Needs: Food, Clothing and Shelter)

Fig. 13: Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs (Work Motivation)

estimates are applied to an organisation, e.g. the lower level needs of personnel would be generally satisfied (85% of the basic needs and 70% of the security needs), but only 50% of the social needs and 40% of the esteem needs, and a mere lC% of the self actualisation needs would be met. But despite these interpretations, the ElIaslow model has many limitations and unfortunately, the limited research lends little empirical support to the theory.

2) Learned Need Theory Another content theory, not unlike Maslow's has been developed by McClelland. In it, the concept of needs is more focused. He argues that people are motivated by only three types of needs: Achievement, Power and Affiliation or as they are commonly referred: n Ach, n Pow, and n Aff. More importantly McClelland argues that these needs and the behaviours associated with the efforts to satisfy thein can be lem~ed.

Motivation

Human Xrsailice Management For example, one who wishes to develop drive for achievement should strive to attain feedback from colleagues, seek models of achievement to emulate, and modify self- image by emulating some one who needs success and challenge.

3) Henberg's Two Factor Theory of Motivation In 1959 Herzberg extended the work of Maslow and developed a specific content theory of work motivation which was a direct result of research conducted by him and his associate on job satisfaction and productivity among 200 accountants and engineers. Each subject was asked to think of a time when he or she felt especially good about his or her job and a time when he or she felt particularly bad about the job and to describe the conditions that led to their feelings. The researchers found that the employees named different types of conditions for good and bad feelings. This led Herzberg to the conclusion that, motivation consists of two separate independent dimensions: Hygiene or maintenance (see Tqble 1.2).

Hygiene or Maintenance Dimension (Dissatisjiers) Absence of some job condition can serve to dissatisfy el~lployees. However, presence of these same conditions does not essentially lead to high degree of motivation. Herzberg called them maintenance or hygiene factors, since they are necessary to maintain a reasonable level of satisfaction. He also noted that many of these factors have been perceived by managers to be motivators, but that they are actually more potent as dissatisfiers (demotivators) when absent. He concluded that there were ten maintenancehygiene factors (see Table 1.2).

Motivational Dimension (Satisfiers) There are other job conditions that, if present, tend to build high levels of motivation and job satisfaction. However, if these conditions are not present, it does not prove to be highly dissatisfying. But he believed that these factors caused enhanced job performance. Herzberg described six of these factors as motivational factors or satisfiers (see Table 1.2).

Table 1.2: Herzberg's Classification of Maintenance and Motivational Factors Factors

Organisational Policy and Administration Technical Supervision Interpersonal Relations with Supervisors Interpersonal Relations with Peers Interpersonal Relations with Subordinates S a1 ary Job Security Personal Life Working Conditions Status

Motivational Factors (Satisfiers)

1) Achievement 2) Recognition 3) Advancement 4) The work itself 5 ) The possibility of growth 6) Responsibility

If we compare the Maslow and Herzberg models, it can be seen that they both emphasise the same set of relationships. Both are content theories; they look at what motivates human behaviour. Maslow looked at the human needs of the individual while Herzberg focussed on how job conditions affect the individual's basic needs. The main advantags of Herzberg's theory of motivation over the Maslow model of need priority is that Herzberg's theory shows the distribution between maintenance and motivational factors and, most importantly for the application of motivation theory in the work place, Herzberg shows that motivation tends to be derived from the work itself. He also draw attention to the importance of job content factors in work motivation, the job design technique of job enrichment is also one of Herzberg's contributions.

4) Alderfer's ERG Theory Building upon earlier need models and especially the Maslow's and seeking to

overcome some of their weaknesses, Clayton Alderfer proposed a modified need hierarchy with just three levels. Like Malsow and Herzberg he also felt the need to categorise needs by making a basic distinction between lower order needs and higher order needs.

Alderfer identified three groups of core needs: existence, relatedness, and growth, also called as ERG Theory.

i) The Existence Needs: He suggested that employees are initially interested in satisfying their existence needs, which combine physiological and security factors and concerned with basic survival. Salary, Physical working conditions, Job security address with need.

h

ii) The Relatedness Needs: The needs are at the neht level and the& involve being understood and accepted by people above, below. and around the employees at work and outside. These needs basically stress the importance of interpersonal and social relationships.

iii) The Growth Needs: These needs at the third category involve both the desire for self- esteem and self-actualisation and are concerned with the individual's intrinsic desire for personal dh~elo~ment.

, Alderfer's ERG Theo suggests more of a continuous of needs than hierarchical levels ky or two factors needs. Unlike Maslow and Herzberg, he does not contend that a lower- level need has to be fulfilled before a higher-level need is motivating or that deprivation is the only way to activate a need.

1.4.2 The Process Theories of Work Motivation . The content theories discussed above attempted to identify what motivates employees at work (e.g., responsibility, recognition, achievement, self-actualisation and growth), the process theories explain how behaviour is initiated. We shall examine here two that are based on the theo j of expectancy, which proposes what will generally be high performers if they believe (expect) that there is a good chance high performance will result in certain preferred outcomes, usually more positjve outcomes such as rewards rather than negative outcomes.

1) Vroom's Expectancy Theory of Motivation Victor H. Vroom developed a preference expectancy theory suggesting that motivation is a product of expectancy (what one thinks will- result from certain actions) and preference (what one would like to have resulted from certain actions or behaviour). The preference-expectancy theory is more an explanation of the motivation phenomenon than a description of what motivates (as in the content theories we have discussed earlier). Vroom's theory explains how preference and expectation variables determine motivation.

Preference: In Vroom's Mpdel, preference refers to outcomes an individual might experience & the result of certain behaviour. For example, a doctor in a hospital who operates upon ]nore patients than others may receive higher pay and a promotion, or may impress upon the seniors and make his colleagues jealous. Many other outcomes are possible, including the possibility that nothing will happen.. However, this doctor clearly has a preference.

Expectancy: The other part of the Vroom model is the individual's expectation' that certain'behaviour will produce a desired outcome. A person with a preference for an outcome must feel,-it.ean be achieved by doing certain things. Vroom's model's importance lies in its emphasis that motivation is individualistic and is dependent on the person having a specific preference coupled with a belief or expectation that certain activities or behaviour will bring about this outcome.

2) The 'Porter And Lower Model The second important process theory based on expectancy theory has been developed by Porter and Lower. According ta this theory, people are motivated by future expectations that arebased on previously learned experiences. This theory suggests that

Motivation

Human Resource Management performance cause satisfaction. This contrasts with the view held by other experts that satisfaction courses performance.

jome descriptions of the behaviour of some individuals are presented in column 1 below. Column 2 lists the possible motives that are indicated by the behaviours in column I. Enter the correct motive level from column 2 against each set of behaviours in column 1 . -

Behaviour descriptions Motives

- - - - - - - - - - - --

I ) Mr. M involves himself in very few activities. Whatever a) Aggression he does, he does it exceedingly well. He is always the first to amve at the office. As a school boy also he always strived to be first. (Motive

2) Mr. N likes friends. Whenever he has time he likes to b) Security visit friends. In the office he has a group of people round him during lunch hours and tea breaks. It is rare to see him alone while coming to or leaving the office. He is always with someone. (Motive is ).

3) Mr. 0 is a fighter. There is hardly any one in the office c) Activity who has not been hurt by his comments. Sometimes in the villages he has visited, he has been involved in physical fights. (Motive is w.

4) Recently Mr. P is very depressed. His productivity is d) Independence coming down. He is always worried about the future of his children. He is 35 years old with three children. He is looking for a permanent job. (Motive is

5 ) Mr. Q loves music. He works in a family planning e) Extension organisation. He brings his transistor radio to the office to listen to music during leisure hours and breaks. He has been insisting that the best way to disseminate family planning education is through audio-visual aids and particularly through movies. He has recently organised a series of dance programmes in his family planning campaigns. He is a very active person. He is doing something or the other all the time. In the office he never relaxes. (Motive is

6) Mr. R is considered a leader in the village where he lives. 0 Affiliation He is there to help any family in trouble. People keep consulting him. He also takes the needy to hospital, reads and writes letters for them, discusses political affairs and so on. He is also considered a leader in the organisation. He does more than what his job demands. (Motive is

7) Mr. S is argumentative. His standard response to any g) Achievement direction by his boss is "What is the use of this?'or "Can you give me more information?" He likes to explore and discover many things before he does anything. His superiors art: getting fed up with him because he tries to act like their boss. (Motive is ).

8) Mr. T likes to argue. But he is willing to listen. In h) Power meetings he puts forth his points clearly. His points are considered most influential and he has a knack of getting others do whatever he wants them to. (Motive is

1.5 MOTIVATION OF EMPLOYEES

We have, till now, discussed six motivation theories. All are different yet all are related; the common thread among them is that motivation is goal-directed behaviour. Earlier money was believed to be the main incentive. Maslow suggested a range of needs that are shared by d l human beings and which exist in a hierarchy. McClelland introduced the 'concept that people can learn to increase motivating forces. Herzberg's two-factor theory developed a distinction between mainttknce factors (necessary to avoid dissatisfaction) and motivational forces (necessary to motivate workers). Alderfer identified three groups of core needs: existence, relatedness and growth. Vroom, Porter and Lawfer suggest ways to understand the motivational process: individual preference as to desired outcome of activities and behaviour coupled with the expectation that it can be achieved.

1.6 MANAGEMENT'S ATTITUDES TOWARDS EMPLOYEES

The health services administrator is faced with the day-to-day operational necessity of motivating employees. An important factor contributing to the manager's success will be attitudes about employees. There is a great deal of evidence that people respond to leadership, it is clear that a leaderladministrator who can help others meet their needs as they perceive them will be followed. We have to realise that the way in which a manager tries to motivate the employees is directly influenced by the assumptions he or she makes about the employees. And the manner in which motivation is approached depends largely upon the manager's attitudes about the basic nature of people. Are they lazy or are they self-starters? Do they want loose or close control? Are the employees content with satisfying lower level needs or do they strive also for esteem and self-actualisation fulfilment? As managers begin to address these questions, they express their attitudes and assumptions about nature of the organisation's personnel. One of the finest summaries of these managerial assumptions has been provided by Douglas McGregor. He called these assumptions theory X and theory Y. According to McGregor, the traditional organisation with its centralised decision making, superior subordinate pyramid, and external control of work is based upon assumptions about human nature and human motivation.

Theory X: What is commonly called the autocratic or authoritarian style of management has arisen, in part, as an out growth of strong centralisation of control. In its extreme form, such a management style begins to closely resemble the classic theory X of McGregor. Theory X assumptions hold that people are basically lazy and that in order to get them to work it is often necessary to use coercion and threats of punishment. These assumptions drawn by McGregor are summarised in Table 1.3.

From this summary of their attitudes, we can arrive at two conclusions regarding theory X managers. First, they like to control their subordinates because they feel such control is in the best interests of both the organisation and its personnel. Second, they believe that people work to satis'fy their lower-level needs (security above all else) and that upper-level need satisfaction is not very important.

Behavioural Sciences research has clearly demonstrated that management based on theory X is definitely not effective over a long period of time, especially in the health sector. Employees subjected to management based upon these assumptions take little initiative, make few innovations, and enjoy no sense of achievement or job satisfaction. Most health sector employees will not function under the stringent, centralised direction and control implicit in the theory X approach to management (Table 1.3).

Human Resource Management Table 1.3: List of Theory X and Theory Y Assumptions about Human Nature

Theory Y: McGregor felt that management needed practices based on a more accurate understanding of human nature and motivation. As a result, McGregor developed an alternate theory of human behaviour called Theory Y, which is highly applicable in the health sector. It is based on the belief that the most effective way to get results is to work with people rather than to use them. If employees are lazy, in-different, unwilling to take responsibility or are uncooperative, theory Y implies that the causes lie in management's methods of organisation and control. thus theory Y places the problems squarely in the lap of management. The theory Y assumptions drawn by McGregor are summarised in Table 1.3.

Theory X 1) People by their very nature, dislike work

and will avoid it when possible. 2) Most people are not ambitious, have

little desire for responsibility, and prefer to be directed.

3) Most people have little capacity for creativity in solving organisational problems.

4) Motivation occurs only at the physiological and security levels.

-

5 ) M O S ~ people must be clearly controlled and often coerced to achieve organisational objectives.

Theory X and Theory Y are attitudes or pre-dispositions management has towards employees. They are important concepts and are related to motivation because they represent a dichotomy of how the manager may approach the task of motivating others. The hospital administrator who operates under Theory Y assumptions will see the task as creation of an organisational climate in which the health services worker can find satisfaction and, therefore, fulfil ne* while performing the job.

~\

Theory Y

1) Work is as natural as play, if the conditions are favourable.

2) Self-control is often indispensable in achieving organisational goals.

3) The capacity for creativity in solving organisational problems is widely distributed in the population.

4) Motivation occurs at the social, esteem, and self-actualisation levels, as well as at the physiological and security levels.

5 ) People can be self-directed and creative at work if properly motivated.

6) Under conditions of modern life, the intellectual potentialities of the average human being are only partly utilised.

1.7 TECHNIQUES TO-MQT~~~+TE EMPLOYEES ' \

Job design has emerged as an important'applica$on area for work motivation. It refers to any activities involving work changes.'w4th the purpose of increasing the quality of the employee's job experience or improving he empIoyee7s productivity. Now with quality of work life (QWL) becoming major societal issue all over the world, the job design has taken a broader perspective. Job design can employ techniques such as job rotation, job traction, and job enlargement and job enrichment. Since job enrichment dominates the other techniques of job design, this technique is going to be discussed in detail here.

Job Enrichment Since job enrichment represents an extension of other techniques of job design in a more behaviourally sophisticated manner which attempts to build psychological motivators. ~he%erm job enrichment was originally coined by Frederick Henberg, based on his two factor theory of motivators and maintenance factors, with the assumption that in order to motivate employees, the job must be designed to provide opportunities for achievement, recognition, responsibility, advancement and growth. The technique entails "enriching" job so that these factors are included. In particular job enrichment is concerned with designing jobs that include a greater variety of work

content; require a higher level of knowledge, and skill; give employees more autonomy and responsibility in terms of planning, directing, and controlling their own performance; and provide the opportunity for personal growth and a meaningful work experience. Job enrichment brings many benefits which includes motivating employees for growth and self-actualisation. The job is built in such a way that intrinsic motivation is encouraged, with an aim to improve performance.

Research has found that c k a i n dimensions can be built with the work that will bring about highet gutput, lower absenteeism, higher quality and greater internal work motivation. Hackman and Oldham have identified five core dimensions that especially provide enrichment for jobs. Its desirable for jobs to have all five of these dimensions (see Table 1.4 for five core dimensions of jobs). If one is perceived to be missing, employees are psychologically deprived and motivation tends to be reduced. These core dimensions tend to improve motivation, satisfaction and quality of work and to reduce turnover and absenteeism.

Table 1.4: Five Core Dimensions that Enrich Jobs 1) Skill variety: The Degree to which the job requires a variety of different activities so the

worker can use a number of different skills and talents. 2) Task Identity: The degree of which the job requires completion of a whole and

identifiable piece of work. 3) Task Significance: The degree to which the job has a substantial impact on the lives or

work of other people. 4) Autonomy: The degree to which the job provides substantial freedom, independence and

discretion to the individual in scheduling the work and in determining the procedures to be used in carrying it out.

5) Feedback: The degree to which canying out the work activities required by the job results in the individual obtaining direct and clear information about the effectiveness of his or her performance.

1.8 BENEFITS FOR JOB ENRICHMENT FOR HOSPITALS

When there is a positive match between job environment efforts and employees who are desirous of holding more challenging jobs, job enrichment can offer several benefits for the professionals. These benefits are for both the Job holders and for Organisations as such:

A) Benefits for Individual Employees More job satisfaction = Greater responsibility and authority The opportunity to experience more growth and development

A greater sense of achievement

More job autonomy A greater diversity of job experiences More practice at making decisions

B) Benefits for the Organisation Higher level of job performance Increased quality of patient care and services

Improvement in quality of decisions

Employee's loyalty and commitment to organisation increased

Fewer absenteeism

Lower turnover rate

Motivation

Human Resource Management 1.9 SELF-ASSESSMENT TEST 1) Motives are the "whys" of behaviour. What does this statement mean? 2) What are the common defense mechanisms people use when they are frustrated. 3) Briefly define the three classification of motives. 4) Explain Maslow's theory of motivation and relate it to work motivation anb

Herzberg's two-factor theory.

5) Identify the key situations in your hospitalhealth sector where you think the administrator/nlanager should be more of a Theory Y person and why.

1.10 LET US SUM UP The first step in understanding motivation is to realise that it is a means of understanding the way people behave in organisations. Further, a comprehensive understanding of motivation is provided through the process sharing relationship between needs, drives and goals. The key motives related to employee behaviour, especially the secondary motives are explained. The knowledge and relation of these key motives, influencing employees behaviour can certainly help the hospital administrator to understand the work attitude of each employee. With this background, theories of motivation based upon work motivation approaches have been discussed in detail under two headings of content and process theories. Next the relevance of management's attitudes towards employees in relation to motivation, have been discussed based upon the theory X and theory Y and finally the last section discussed the more applied areas of motivating employees performance through Job Design and Job Enrichment in order to enhance quality of work life.

1.11 KEY WORDS Frustrations - : The thwarting or blocking of an attempt at need satisfaction. Hygiene factors : Identified by Herzberg, are factors that will not motivate

people by their-preserve but will cause dissatisfaction by their - -

absence.

Job Enrichment : A job redesign technique that attempts to build psychological , motivators into job.

Motivation : A psychological drive or force that directs someone toward objectives.

Motive : An internal or external force consisting of needs, drives and .

wants that impels people towards certain goals in life.

Needs : Internal biological and learned states within people that help to initiate, guide and direct behaviours towards certain goals.

1.12 FURTHER READINGS Hodgetts, R.M. and Cascio, D.M. (1983), Modem Health Care Administration,

Academic Press, INC. New York. Luthans, F. (1989), Organisational Behaviour, 5th ed., Mc Graw-Hill Series in

Management.

Rakich, J.S., et al. (1985), Managing Health Services Organisations, 2nd ed., W.B. Sounders Company.