UNIT-IV

PSYCHOLOGICAL VARIABLES & COMMUNICATION TECHNOLOGY

LEARNINGCONCEPT “IS A PROCESS BY WHICH NEW BEHAVIOURS

ARE ACQUIRED & IT INVOLVES CHANGES IN BEHAVIOUR, PRACTISING NEW BEHAVIOURS AND ESTABLISHING PERMANANCY IN THE CHANGE BY EXPERIENCE.” MITCHELL

NATURE• INVOLVES CHANGE IN BEHAVIOUR WHICH GENERALLY IS

FOR IMPROVEMENT BUT MAY BE OTHERWISE;• CHANGE IN BEHVIOUR IS RELATIVELY PERMANENT;• CHANGE IS ALSO BASED ON SOME EXPERIENCE OR

PRACTICE & NOT ON PHYSICAL MATURATION; AND• PRACTICE OR EXPERIENCE MUST BE RE-INFORCED.

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CONCEPT & NATURE OF LEARNING

STIMULUS EVENTS

NEGATIVE

BEHAVIOURAL RESPONSE

NEW BEHAVIOURAL RESPONSE

POSITIVE REINFORCEMENT

CONSEQUENCES OF BEHAVIOURAL

RESPONSE

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LEARNING THEORIES

• BEHAVIOURISTIC /CONDITIONING THEORY• CLASSICAL CONDITIONING• OPERANT CONDITIONING

• COGNITIVE LEARNING THEORY

• SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY

• INTEGRATING VARIOUS LEARNING THEORIES4

CLASSICAL CONDITIONING THEORY

• BASED ON THE ASSUMPTION THAT BEHAVIOR IS LEARNT BY REPETITVE ASSOCIATION BETWEEN A STIMULUS(S) & ITS RESPONSE(R) i.e. (S-R).

• EXAMPLE

BEFORE CONDITIONING MEAT (US) SALIVATION (UR) BELL (NEUTRAL) NO RESPONSE

DURING CONDITIONING MEAT (US) + BELL (CS) SALIVATION (UR)

AFTER CONDITIONING BELL (CS) SALIVATION (CR) (BLACK SQUARE)US - UNCONDITIONED STIMULUS CS – CONDITIONED STIMULUSUR - UNCONDITIONED RESPONSE CR – CONDITIONED RESPONSE

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OPERANT CONDITIONING

(R) (S) RESPONSE STIMULUS

THE INDIVIDUAL:

• WORKS • IS PAID•ENTERS A LIBRARY • FINDS A BOOK

• INCREASES PRODUCTIVITY

• RECEIVES PRAISE AND A PROMOTION

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BASED ON THE ASSUMPTION THAT PEOPLE GENERALLY GIVE THOSE RESPONSES WHICH ARE REWARDED AND NOT THOSE WHICH ARE PUNISHED OR ARE NOT REWARDED.EXAMPLE:

COGNITIVE LEARNING THEORY(TOLMAN)• BASED ON AN INDIVIDUAL’S IDEAS, THOUGHTS, KNOWLEDGE,

INTERPRETATIONS & UNDERSTANDING ABOUT HIMSELF & HIS ENVIRONMENT.

• EXAMPLE – • GOING TO A PLACE.

• IMPLICATIONS• STIMULUS LEADS TO ANOTHER STIMULUS “S-S” RATHER

THAN ‘S-R’ OR ‘R-S’.• LEARNING CONSISTS OF ENVIRONMENT CUES, EXPECTATIONS.

HOWEVER BEHAVIOUR IS NORMALLY GOAL ORIENTED.

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SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY• COMBINES BOTH CONDITIONING & COGNITIVE CONCEPTS, EMPHASISING

THAT LEARNING ALSO TAKES PLACE BY OBSERVING OR IMITATING OTHERS. • LEARNING OCCURS IN TWO STEPS:-1. A PERSON OBSERVES HOW OTHERS ACT & THEN FORMS A MENTAL

PICTURE OF IT AS WELL AS ITS CONSEQUENCES.2. THE PERSON ACTS AS PER THE ACQUIRED PICTURE IF CONSEQUENCES ARE

POSITIVE AND NOT IF THEY ARE NEGATIVE.

APPLICATIONS OF LEARNING IN ORGANISATIONS• DEFINE THE GOAL/TARGET BEHAVIOUR THAT LEADS TO IMPROVEMENT IN

PERFORMANCE.• SELECT APPROPRIATE MODEL (DEMO, FILMS & EMPLOYEE) TO MEET

TECHNICAL SKILLS OF BEHAVIOUR & STRUCTURE A FAVOURABLE LEARNING ENVIRONMENT.

• GIVE POSITIVE RE-INFORCEMENT TO STRENGTHEN POSITIVE BEHAVIOUR IN TRAINING & JOB.

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HUMAN VALUES IN MANAGEMENTINDIAN PERSPECTIVE

• THESE RELATE TO EMPLOYER-EMPLOYEE RELATIONSHIP TO INCLUDE:-• NO DISCRIMINATION ON THE BASIS OF CASTE, CREED, RELIGION,

AGE, GENDER & DISABILITIES;

• RESPECT PRIVACY OF EMPLOYEES & EMPLOYER;

• FAIRNESS OF EMPLOYMENT CONTRACT ;&

• PROVIDING OCCUPATIONAL SAFETY & HEALTH

• FROM INDIAN PERSPECTIVE IMPORTANT VALUES ARE:1. SATHYA (TRUTH)

2. DHARMA (RIGHTOUS CONDUCT)

3. SANTHI (PEACE)

4. PREM (LOVE); &

5. AHINSA (NON-VIOLENCE)

THERE IS NEED TO DEVELOP FOLLOWING VALUES BY INDIANS:1. OPTIMUM UTILISATION OF RESOURCES

2. POSITIVE ATTITUDE TOWARDS WORK

3. COMMITMENT TO UPHOLD VALUES.

4. CLEAR VISION, MISSION & GOALS

ATTITUDEA T T I T U D E 1 + 20 + 20 + 9 + 20 + 21 + 4 + 5

“POSITIVE ATTITUDE HAS SOLUTION TO EVERY PROBLEM”

BUT“NEGATIVE ATTITUDE HAS PROBLEM

IN EVERY SOLUTION”

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ATTITUDEIS THE PERSISTENT TENDENCY TO FEEL AND BEHAVE IN A FAVOURABLE – UNFAVOURABLE WAY TOWARDS SOME OBJECT, PERSON OR IDEA.

CONCEPT• ATTITUDES CHARACTERISED BY – 1. THEY PERSIST UNLESS SOMETHING IS DONE TO CHANGE THEM.2.ATTITUDES CAN FALL ANYWHERE ALONG A CONTINUM FROM VERY FAVOURABLE TO VERY UNFAVOURABLE. (THEY ARE EVALUATIVE STATEMENT).3. ATTITUDE ARE DIRECTED TOWARDS SOME OBJECT, PERSON OR IDEA.

FEATURES1. ATTITUDE AFFECTS BEHAVIOUR OF PERSONS IN ORGANISATIONS.2. CAN BE ACQUIRED THROUGH LEARNING OVER TIME.3. ARE INVISIBLE BUT BEHAVIOUR CAN BE OBSERVED.4. ARE PREVASIVE & EVERY INDIVIDUAL HAS.5. IN CONTRAST TO VALUES, ATTITUDES ARE LESS STABLE.

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PROCESS OF ATTITUDE

ATTITUDE TOWARDSOBJECT, PERSON OR IDEA

OBJECT, PERSON OR IDEA

BEHAVIOUR TOWARDS OBJECT, PERSON OR IDEA

OTHER INFLUENCES* ON BEHAVIOUR TOWARDS OBJECT PERSON OR IDEA

* (PERSONALITY, PERCEPTION,

MOTIVATION)

ATTITUDES SERVE :-1.INSTRUMENTAL – TO REACH A DESIRED GOAL2.EGO DEFENSIVE – TO PROTECT FROM EXTERNAL THREATS.3.VALUE ORIENTATION – ENHANCE SELF – IDENTITY4.KNOWLEDGE – ABOUT WORLD

S – SITUATION O – ORGANISATION B – BEHAVIOUR C - CONSEQUENCES12

MOTIVATIONIS A PROCESS WHICH STARTS WITH A PHYSIOLOGICAL OR PSYCHOLOGICAL DEFICIENCY OR NEED, THAT ACTIVATES A BEHAVIOUr OR A DRIVE, AIMED AT A GOAL OR INCENTIVE.

PROCESS ACCOUNTS FOR AN INDIVIDUAL’S:-I)INTENSITY II) DIRECTION III) PERSISTENCE

DEFICIENCY, SETS UP BEHAVIOUR AIMED AT GOAL OR TENSION OR SEARCH OR NEED DRIVE INCENTIVE

THEORIES OF MOTIVATION

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MASLOW’S HIERARCHY THEORY OF NEEDS

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SELF ACTUALISATION

MASLOW’S HIERARCHY THEORY CONTD……..

• SELF ACTUALISATION - SELF FULFILLED ONE’S POTENTIAL & GROWTH

• ESTEEM – POWER, ACHIEVEMENT, STATUS, SELF RESPECT RECOGNITION• SOCIAL – AFFILIATION, SECURITY• SAFETY – PHYSICAL, SECURITY• PHYSIOLOGICAL – HUNGER, THIRST, SLEEPAPPRAISAL• ONCE A GIVEN LEVEL OF NEED IS SATISFIED IT NO LONGER SERVES

AS A MOTIVATOR.• ALL NEEDS ARE PRESENT WITH DIFFERENT INTENSITIES IN A

PERSON.• BECAUSE OF INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES THE HIERARCHICAL NEEDS

MAY BE DIFFFERENT AMONG PEOPLE.

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HERZBERG’S TWO FACTORS THEORY(IS BASED ON STUDY/ANALYSIS OF EXPERIENCES & FEELINGS OF 200 ENGINEERS & ACCOUNTANTS).

HYGIENE FACTORS MOTIVATORS• (DO NOT MOTIVATE BUT PREVENT

DISSATISFACTION)• (RELATED TO ENVIRONMENT OF

WORK) Eg.• COMPANY POLICY &

ADMINISTRATION• SUPERVISION• SALARY, JOB SECURITY• INTERPERSONAL RELATIONS• WORKING CONDITIONS• ADVANCEMENT OPPORTUNITIES

(SATISFIERS)•(RELATED TO NATURE OF WORK) Eg.• ACHIEVEMENT• RECOGNITION• WORK ITSELF• RESPONSIBILITY• GROWTH• NEW EXPERIENCES• CHALLENGES

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APPRAISAL OF HERZBERG’S THEORY• PROVIDING HYGIENE FACTORS WILL NOT MOTIVATE BUT

PREVENT DISSATISFACTION.

• TO MOTIVATE, PROVIDE MOTIVATORS AS WELL AS HYGIENE FACTORS.

• ONE WAY OF MOTIVATION IS THROUGH JOB ENRICHMENT i.e. CHALLENGING, AUTONOMY, VARIETY, RESPONSIBILITY, SENSE OF ACCOMPLISHMENT etc.

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ALDERFER’S ERG THEORY

ALL ABOVE NEEDS ARE IN CONTINUATION & ARE DEPENDENT UPON A PERSON’S BACKGROUND & CULTURAL ENVIRONMENT._______________________

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McCLELLANDS THEORY• STRESSES ON 3 HIGHER LEVEL NEEDS

1) POWER 2) ACHIEVEMENT 3) AFFILIATION

NEED FOR POWER (nPOW)IS THE DESIRE TO INFLUENCE OTHERS. TO MAKE THEM

BEHAVE THE WAY YOU WANT. NEED FOR ACHIEVEMENT (nACH)IS THE PROCESS OF CARRYING WORK TO ITS SUCCESSFUL

COMPLETIONNEED FOR AFFILIATION (nAFF)IS THE FORMING OF FRIENDLY RELATIONS WITH OTHERS,

DESIRE FOR COMPANIONSHIP & TO HELP OTHERS.20

NEED THEORIESRELATIONSHIP – MASLOWS, HERZ, ERG & McCLE

GROWTH

EXISTENCE

SOCIALRELATEDNESS

SELF ACTUALISATION

PHYSIOLOGICAL

HYGIENE FACTORS

MOTIVATORS

SAFETY

ESTEEM

ALDERFER’S ERG THEORY

MASLOW’SHIERARCHYTHEORY

HERZBERG’S TWO FACTOR THEORY

…………...

…………...…………...

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MCCLELLAND

nPOWnACH

……….nAFF

EQUITY THEORYBASIS – PEOPLE ARE MOTIVATED TO MAINTAIN FAIR RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN THEIR PERFORMANCE & REWARD IN COMPARISION TO OTHERS.

INPUTS(PERFORMANCE CONTRIBUTORS)

• EFFORTS• TIME• EDUCATION• EXPERIENCE• TRAINING• IDEAS• ABILITIES

OUTCOMES(REWARDS)

• PAY• PROMOTIONS• RECOGNITIONS• SECURITY• PERSONAL DEVELOPMENT• BENEFITS• FRIENDSHIP

PERSON’S OUTCOMES > OTHER’S OUTCOMES = PERSON’S INPUTS < OTHER’S INPUTSINEQUITY WILL CAUSE TENSION, PROPERTIONAL TO MAGNITUDE OF INEQUITY, COULD MOTIVATE OR REDUCE IT. 22

THEORY ‘X’ - ASSUMPTIONS• MANAGEMENT IS RESPONSIBLE TO PROVIDE:-1. MONEY, MATERIAL, EQUIPMENT, PERSONS;2. DIRECTING, MOTIVATING, CONTROLLING & MODIFYING

ACTIONS OF PERSONS; &3. WITHOUT MANAGEMENT’S INTERVENTION – PERSONS ARE

PASSIVE.• AVERAGE PERSON :-

1. WORKS AS LITTLE AS POSSIBLE;2. LACKS AMBITION;3. IS SELF CENTERED – NOT CONCERNED WITH ORGANISATION;4. RESISTS CHANGE; &5. GULLIBLE & NOT VERY BRIGHT.

THEORY ‘Y’• OPPOSITE OF THEORY ‘X’.

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COMPARISION OF ‘X’ AND ‘Y’ THEORIES (McGREGORS)

ASPECT THEORY ‘X’ THEORY ‘Y’WORK INHERENTLY DISTASTEFUL NATURAL AS PLAY

AMBITION DO NOT HAVE (AVOID RESPONSIBILITY)

HAVE

CAPACITY FOR CREATIVITY

LITTLE CAPACITY WIDELY DISTRIBUTED

MOTIVATING FACTOR FOR LOWER NEEDS FOR HIGHER NEEDS

MOTIVATION & CONTROL/SUPERVISION

LACK SELF MOTIVATION & REQUIRE CONTROL/SUPERVISION

SELF DIRECTED & CREATIVE, PREFER SELF CONTROL

SYSTEM & AUTHORITY SCALAR CHAIN SYSTEM & CENTRALISATION OF AUTHORITY

DECENTRALISATION & GENERAL PARTICIPATION

LEADERSHIP AUTOCRATIC DEMOCRATICTHEORY ‘X’ IS GENERALLY APPLICABLE TO UNSKILLED/UNEDUCATED WORKERS, ANDTHEORY ‘Y’ TO SKILLED EDUCATED EMPLOYEES. 24

THEORY – ‘Z’ (OUCHI)

FACTOR AMERICAN JAPANESEEMPLOYMENT SHORT TERM LIFE LONG

ADVANCEMENT RAPID SLOW

DECISION MAKING INDIVIDUAL COLLECTIVE

RESPONSIBILITIES INDIVIDUAL GROUP

CONCERN FOR EMPLOYEES

SEGMENTED HOLISTIC

CAREER SPECIALISED GENERAL25

BASIS: TRUST, BONDING, INVOLVEMENT, TEAMWORK & CO-ORDINATION

MONETARY MOTIVATORSGENERAL SALARY, INSURANCE, MEDICAL,

HOUSING, TRANSPORT, RETIREMENT

AMOUNT OF OUTPUT PIECE RATE, SALES COMMISSION etc.

QUALITY OF OUTPUT ONLY WHERE STANDARDS ARE MET.

SUCCESS IN REACHING GOALS BONUS

AMOUNT OF PROFIT PROFIT SHARING

COST EFFICIENCY GAIN SHARING

EMPLOYEE SKILLS SKILL BASED PAY

OTHERS VARIABLE PAY PLANS STOCK OPTIONS26

MOTIVATING A DIVERSE WORKFORCE

NON - MONETARY MOTIVATORS

• STATUS

• PROMOTION

• RESPONSIBILITY

• JOB ENRICHMENT

• RECOGNITION

• JOB SECURITY

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MOTIVATING A DIVERSE WORKFORCE

MANAGEMENT AND BEHAVIOURAL APPLICATIONS OF ATTITUDE AND MOTIVATION ON PERFORMANCE

ATTITUDES HELP TO DEVELOP WORKPLACE ENVIRONMENT, WHICH DETERMINES EMPLOYEE MORALE, PRODUCTIVITY AND TEAM-BUILDING. SOME EXAMPLES OF POSITIVE AND NEGATIVE ATTITUDE ON PERFORMANCE ARE:-

ASPECT POSITIVE NEGATIVE

DROP IN REVENUE FIND THE CAUSES AND MAKE NECESSARY CORRECTIONS

EXPECT THAT SOME EMPLOYEES WILL LOOSE THEIR JOB

COMPETITION AT WORK PLACE

ACTS AS A MOTIVATOR TO PERFORM BETTER

RESULTS TO ACHIEVE SUCCESS AT THE COST OF OTHERS.

DEVELOPING NEW IDEAS THROUGH CREATIVITY

FEEL THEIR IDEAS AND CREATIVITY WILL CONTRIBUTE TO SUCCESS

CREATIVITY IS RESTRICTED & NO FEELING OF CONTRIBUTION TO THE ORGANISATION

RETENTION VS TURNOVER OF EMPLOYEES

ENCOURAGES EMPLOYEES TO BECOME INVOLVED FOR SUCCESS OF ORGANISATION.

LEADS TO TURNOVER & LOSS OF EXPERIENCED STAFF, AFFECTING GROWTH OF ORGANISATION.

CONTD…….

MANAGEMENT AND BEHAVIOURAL APPLICATIONS OF ATTITUDE AND MOTIVATION ON PERFORMANCE (CONTD)

MOTIVATION INSPIRES EMPLOYEES TO INCREASE PRODUCTION & SAFETY AS WELL AS INCREASING THE LENGTH OF TIME AN EMPLOYEE REMAINS LOYAL TO THE CURRENT EMPLOYER. SOME OF THINGS THAT MOTIVATE EMPLOYEES TO IMPROVE PERFORMANCE ARE:-A)SETTING DIFFICULT GOALS TO ACHIEVE AND LINK THOSE WITH REWARDS, WHICH PROVIDE THEM OPPORTUNITY TO STAND OUT.B)ASSIGNING MOTIVATIONAL JOBS THROUGH WHICH AN EMPLOYEE FEELS THAT HIS/HER WORK HAS GREATER EFFECT IN THE ORGANISATION.C)HAVING MULTI LEVEL REWARDS TO GIVE RECOGNITION TO ALL IN THE ORGANISATION.D)PROVIDING CARREER GROWTH OPPORTUNITIES FOR THE LONG TERM EMPLOYMENT OF THE EMPLOYEES IN THE ORGANISATIONS.