UNIT IV - DIRECTING
Transcript of UNIT IV - DIRECTING
UNIT – IV - DIRECTING
Foundations of individual and group behaviour –motivation – motivation theories – motivational techniques – job satisfaction – job enrichment –leadership – types and theories of leadership –communication – process of communication – barrier in communication – effective communication –communication and IT.
By:
N.S.Srivatchan. ASP/EEE
Mrs.R.Vanitha. AP/EEEMG6851 Principles of
Management
Learning Outcomes
Define the focus and goals of organizational
behavior
Describe the three components of attitudes
Explain cognitive dissonance
Describe the Myers-Briggs personality
framework
Discuss the concept of perception
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Learning Outcomes
Explain how managers can shape employee
behavior
Contrast formal and informal groups
Explain why people join groups
Discover how roles and norms influence behavior
Learn how group size affects behavior
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Organizational Behavior
Groups
Individuals
OB Focus OB Goals
Predict
Explain
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Job-Related
Attitudes
Job
Involvement
Job
Satisfaction
Organizational
Commitment
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Cognitive Dissonance
DissonanceElements
Degree ofInfluence
RewardsInvolved
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Managing Attitudes on the Job
More Satisfied
Less Satisfied
Employees
Low
High
High
Low
ProductivityDissonance
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Style of
Decision Making Judging (J)
Perceiving (P)
Preference for
Decision Making Thinking (T)
Feeling (F)
Type of Social
Interaction Introvert (I)
Extrovert (E)
Preference for
Gathering Data Intuitive (N)
Sensing (S)
Myers-Briggs Type Indicator
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The “Big-Five”Personality
Model
Extroversion
Agreeableness
Conscientiousness
Emotional Stability
Openness
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Emotional Intelligence
Self-Awareness
Self-Management
Self-Motivation
Empathy
Social SkillsMG6851 Principles of
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Personality Traitsand Workplace Behavior
Self-
Esteem
Self-
Monitoring
Risk
Propensity
Machiavellian
Traits
Locus
of Control
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Holland’s Personality-Job Fit Theory
Type Personality Occupations
Realistic
Investigative
Social
Conventional
Enterprising
Artistic
Shy, Stable, Practical
Analytical, Independent
Sociable, Cooperative
Practical, Efficient
Ambitious, Energetic
Imaginative, Idealistic
Mechanic, Farmer,
Assembly-Line Worker
Biologist, Economist,
Mathematician
Social Worker,
Teacher, Counselor
Accountant, Manager
Bank Teller
Lawyer, Salesperson
Painter, Writer,
Musician
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Attribution
Theory and
Individual
Behavior
External
External
External
Internal
Internal
Internal
Attribution
of Cause
Distinctiveness
Consensus
Consistency
High
Low
High
Low
High
Low
InterpretationObservation
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Halo Effect Stereotyping
Selectivity
Self-Fulfilling
ProphecyAssumed
Similarity
Judgmental
Shortcuts
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Involuntary
Behavior
Unlearned
Voluntary
Behavior
Learned
Operant Conditioning
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Social Learning
Theory Processes
Attention Retention
Motor
ReproductionReinforcement
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Positive Reinforcement
Negative Reinforcement
Punishment
Extinction
Shaping Behavior
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Informal Formal
What Is a Group?
Formally Established
Work Tasks
Occur Naturally
Friendships
Common Interests
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Why PeopleJoin Groups
Affiliation
Status
Goals
Security
Self-
Esteem
Power
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Basic Group Concepts
Acceptable Standards
of Behavior Shared
by the Members
of a Group
Expected Patterns of
Behavior Based on a
Given Position in a
Social Unit
Group Roles Group Norms
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Strong Increase
in Productivity
Moderate Increase
in Productivity
No Significant Effect
on ProductivityDecrease in
Productivity
Cohesiveness
Alig
nm
en
t o
f G
rou
p a
nd
Org
. G
oals
High Low
Cohesiveness-Productivity Relationship
High
Low
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Motivation
Any influence that triggers, directs or maintains behavior
Research is based upon different variables that affect motivation
Individual Differences
Organizational Contexts
Manager Behaviors
Process Theories
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Content Versus Process
Motivation Theories
Content theories
explain why people have different needs at different times
Process theories
describe the processes through which needs are translated into behavior
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Alderfer’s
ERG Theory
Maslow’s
Need Hierarchy
Content Theories of
Motivation
Self-
Actualization
Esteem
Belongingness
Safety
Physiological
Growth
Existence
Herzberg’s
Theory
Motivators
Hygienes
Need for
Achievement
Need for
Power
Need for
Affiliation
McClelland’s
Learned Needs
Relatedness
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Maslow’s Hierarchy
Each individual has needs, or feelings of deficiency that drive their behavior
Once a need is satisficed, then it is no longer motivating
Needs are in a hierarchy that an individual moves up as they satisfy levels of needs
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Practical Implications of
Content Theories
People have different needs at different times
Offer employees a choice of rewards -- a flexible reward system
Do not rely too heavily on financial rewards
they mainly address lower level needs MG6851 Principles of
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Maslow’s Hierarchy
Each individual has needs, or feelings of deficiency that drive their behavior
Once a need is satisfied, then it is no longer motivating
Needs are in a hierarchy that an individual moves up as they satisfy levels of needs
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Maslow’s Hierarchy
Adapted from Figure 14.2
Self-
Actualization
Esteem
Affiliation
Security
Physiological
14.3
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Levels of Needs
Physiological/Survival needs
Food, Clothing, Shelter, Air
Security
Feel safe, absence of pain, threat, or illness
Affiliation
friendship, company, love, belonging
first clear step up from physical needs
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Need levels (cont.)
Esteem Needs
self-respect, achievement, recognition, prestige
cues a persons worth
Self-Actualization
personal growth, self-fulfillment, realization of full potential
Where are YOU on the hierarchy???
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Alderfer’s ERG
Consolidates Maslow into 3 categories
Existence-physiological and security
Relatedness-affiliation
Growth-esteem and self-actualization
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ERG Model of Motivation
Frustration-Regression Satisfaction-Progression
Growth Needs
Relatedness Needs
Existence Needs
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Frustration-Regression
Differs from Maslow
When unable to satisfy upper level needs, the individual will revert to satisfying lower level needs
Interesting point from research....growth stimulates growth
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McClelland’s Learned
Needs
Needs are acquired through interaction with environment
Not a higherarchy, but degrees of each type of need or motive
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Types of Needs
N Ach-motive to meet some standard of excellence or to compete
N Aff-motive to develop and maintain close and meaningful relationships
N Pow-desire to influence and control others and the environment
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Herzberg’s Two Factor
Theory
Some variable prevent job dissatisfaction and some variables produce motivation
Hygiene factors-basic needs that will prevent dissatisfaction
light, temperature, pay, parking
Motivators
when present cause high levels of motivation
interesting work, advancement, growth, etc.MG6851 Principles of
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Herzberg’s Two Factor
TheoryHigh
Motivation
High
Hygienes
Adapted from Figure 14.4
Low High
Motivators
Low
Low Motivation
Dissatisfaction
Low Dissatisfaction
14.6
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Process Theories
Reinforcement Theory
Expectancy
Equity
Justice Theory
Goal Setting
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Types of Reinforcement
Positive Reinforcement-rewards
Punishment-Application of a negative outcome
Negative Reinforcement-removal of negative outcomes when behavior is performed
Extinction-absence of reinforcement (removal of positive reinforcement)
DrawbacksMG6851 Principles of
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Reinforcement Process
Source: From L. W. Porter and E. E. Lawler III.
Managerial Attitudes and Performance. Homewood,
Ill.: Irwin, 1968, p. 165. Used with permission
Stimulus(situation)
Response(behavior)
Consequences(rewards and punishments)
Future Behavior
14.9
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Types of Rewards
Extrinsic-external rewards such as money, fringe benefits, job security
Intrinsic-internal satisfaction outcomes from doing work
Satisfaction-employee‟s attitude about work situations
Intrinsic motivation and Intrigue??????
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Equity Theory
Individuals try to find a balance between their inputs and outputs relative to a referent other
However, a referent other is not always present
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Results of Inequity
Equity-I am being treated fairly
Under-rewarded-will look to increase rewards, or decrease inputs to match rewards
Over-rewarded-will change referent to match cognitions or increase inputs
Leaving and distortion
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Reinforcement Theory
Behaviors are functions of consequences that they produce
If a behavior is followed by a pleasant experience it will be repeated
In order to change behaviors the consequences must be changed
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Overreward Versus
Underreward Inequity
YouComparison
Other
Outcomes
Inputs
Outcomes
Inputs
Overreward
Inequity
Outcomes
Inputs
Outcomes
Inputs
Underreward
Inequity
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Goal Setting Theory
Assignment of specific, moderately difficult, and providing feedback will provide motivation to work
Employee participation
Receive rewards
Provide competencies for achievement
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High
Task
Perf
orm
an
ce
Low Moderate Challenging Impossible
Area of
Optimal
Goal
Difficulty
Effect of Goal Difficulty on
Performance
Goal DifficultyMG6851 Principles of
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Expectancy Theory
Combines goal setting and reinforcement theories
Three questions drive motivation
With effort can I perform?
With performance, will I be rewarded?
Do I value the rewards?
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Terms
Expectancy-belief that effort will lead to performance
Instrumentality-performance leads to rewards (does performance level matter)
Valence-value of rewards
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E-to-P
Expectancy
P-to-O
Expectancy
Outcomes
& Valences
Outcome 1+ or -
Effort Performance
Outcome 3+ or -
Outcome 2+ or -
Expectancy Theory of
Motivation
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Justice Theory
Procedural Justice - fairness issues concerning the methods, mechanisms, and processes used to determine outcomes
Distributive Justice - concerns the fairness of outcomes, includes equity theory
Interactional Justice - concerns the way one is treated informally during procedures and distributionsMG6851 Principles of
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How they interact
Procedural justice and interactional justice can buffer inequity to some level
Above that threshold, procedural and interactional justice do not matter
If equity is present, then interactional and procedural do not matter
Does order of procedural or interactional justice matter?
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WORK ASPIRATION &
SATISFACTION
Work Aspiration?
A desire or ambition to achieve something related to work
Work Satisfaction?
Job satisfaction describes how content an individual is with his or her job
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Aspiration & Satisfaction
Aspiration is related to motivation,which subsequently, influenceproductivity.
Positive Correlation between aspirationand motivation
Positive Correlation between aspirationand productivity
Workers with higher aspiration tend tobe more content with their work.
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Characteristics of Individual
with high aspiration
Work hard
Enjoy work
Responsible
Very focus
Confident
Have high standard
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Aspiration lead to
Motivation to work
There are various self-evident reasons why people work:
Work provides a source of income
A source of activity and stimulation
A source of social contacts
A means of structuring time
A source of self-fulfillment, and
A self-actualization
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Definitions - Job
Satisfaction
A pleasurable emotional state resulting from the appraisal of one‟s job.
An affective reaction to one‟s job
An attitude towards one‟s job
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JOB SATISFACTION
Hulin & Judge (2003) – Job satisfactionis an employee‟s affective reaction to ajob is based on a comparison of theactual outcomes derived from the jobwith those outcomes that are deservedor expected.
Davis (2004) – feeling of jobsatisfaction can change with time andcircumstances.MG6851 Principles of
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History
Hawthorne studies (1924-1933)
Novel changes in work conditions temporarily increase productivity.
Finding: people work for purposes other than pay (other factors)
Argument :
“Maslow Need hierarchy Theory “laid the foundation for job satisfaction theory (the theory explain that people seek to satisfy five specific needs in life)
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JOB SATISFACTION
Job satisfaction is based on attitudes, which in turn are shaped by values and ethics
Self-concept is one‟s attitude about oneself
Values do tend to influence, not necessarily affect, behavior, including whether or not behavior is ethical
Work
Values
A worker‟s personal convictions aboutwhat outcomes one should expect fromwork and how one should behave atwork.
The most general and long-lastingfeelings and beliefs people have thatcontribute to how they experiencework.
Values can be intrinsic (i.e., related tothe nature of work itself) or extrinsic(i.e., related to the consequences ofwork).
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INTRINSIC VS. EXTRINSIC WORK VALUES
Intrinsic Values
Interesting work
Challenging work
Learning new things
Making important contributions
Responsibility and autonomy
Being creative
Extrinsic Values
High pay
Job security
Job benefits
Status in wider community
Social contacts
Time with family
Time for hobbiesMG6851 Principles of
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Work Attitudes
Collections of feelings, beliefs, and thoughtsabout how to behave that people currentlyhold about their jobs and organizations.
Compared to values, attitudes are
More specific
Not as long lasting
Specific work attitudes:
Job satisfaction is the collection offeelings and beliefs that people have abouttheir current jobs.
Organizational commitment is the collectionof feelings and beliefs that people haveabout their organizations as a whole.
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Job
Satisfaction
Job satisfaction – a set of attitudestoward work
It is what most employees want fromtheir jobs
Job satisfaction affects absenteeism andturnover, which affect performance
Job satisfaction survey – process ofdetermining employee attitudes about thejob and work environment
Job satisfaction
People differ in what is important to them.
How employees feel about their jobs is highlyvariable
Individual differences in expectations.
The degree to which a job meets one‟sexpectation.
Hulin (1991) stated „jobs with responsibility maybe dissatisfying to some because if the stress andproblems that covary with responsibility; othersmay find responsibility a source of positiveaffects‟ (p.460)
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Job Satisfaction
The happier an individual is with theirjob the more satisfied they are saidto be.
Job satisfaction is not the same asmotivation, although it is clearly linked.
Job design aims to enhancejob satisfaction and performance, methods
(include job rotation, job enlargement andjob enrichment)
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The Nature of Job
Satisfaction
Definition: how people feel about theirjobs overall and about different aspects ofthem -- the extent to which they like theirjobs
Why is job satisfaction important?
Approaches to Job SatisfactionGlobal
Facet
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Multi-faceted nature of Job
Satisfaction
WorkSatisfaction
PaySatisfaction
PromotionSatisfaction
SupervisionSatisfaction
CoworkerSatisfaction
GeneralJob Satisfaction
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Antecedents of Job
Satisfaction
Environmental antecedents
job characteristics
role variables
role ambiguity
role conflict
• intrarole conflict
• extrarole conflict
Work-family conflict
Pay
Personal antecedents
Personality
negative affectivity
locus of control
Gender
Age
Genetics
Cultural and ethnic differences
Person-job fit
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Determinants of Job
Satisfaction
4. Supervision 5. Co-workers6. Attitude
toward work
2. Pay
3. Growth and
upward
mobility
1. The work
itself
CAUSES OF JOB SATISFACTION
Need Fulfillment
Satisfaction is based on the extent to which a job satisfies a person‟s needs.
Discrepancies
Satisfaction is determined by the extent to which an individual receives what he or she expects from a job.
Value Attainment
Satisfaction results from the extent to which a job allows fulfillment of one‟s work values.
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Causes of Job Satisfaction
Equity
Satisfaction is a function of how “fairly” an individual is treated at work.
Trait/Genetic Components
Satisfaction is partly a function of personal traits and genetic factors.
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Job Satisfaction – other
factors
Other influences on satisfaction include:
the management style and culture,
employee involvement,
empowerment and autonomous work groups.
Job satisfaction is a very important attitude which is frequently measured by organizations.
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Others (John & saks, 2001)
Discrepancy – discrepancy theory
Fairness – equity theory
Disposition
Compliment
Mentally challenging work
High pay
Promotion
People MG6851 Principles of
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Theories of Job
Satisfaction
Each theory of job satisfaction takesinto account one or more of the fourmain determinants of job satisfactionand specifies, in more detail, whatcauses one worker to be satisfied with ajob and another to be dissatisfied.
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The Facet Model
Focuses primarily on work situation factors bybreaking a job into its component elements, or jobfacets, and looking at how satisfied workers arewith each.
A worker‟s overall job satisfaction is determined bysumming his or her satisfaction with each facet ofthe job.
Sample job facets : Ability utilization: the extent to which the job
allows one to use one‟s abilities. Activity: being able to keep busy on the job.Human relations supervision: the interpersonal
skills of one‟s boss.
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The Steady-State Theory
Each worker has a typical orcharacteristic level of job satisfaction,called the steady state orequilibrium level.
Different situational factors or eventsat work may move a workertemporarily from this steady state,but the worker will eventually returnto his or her equilibrium level.
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Job Characteristics Theory
If employees have a high need for growth,specific job characteristics lead topsychological conditions that lead toincreased motivation, performance, andsatisfaction.
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Potential Effects of Job
Satisfaction
Job Performance
Turnover
Absence
Health And Well Being
Life Satisfaction
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Assessment of Job
Satisfaction
Job Descriptive Index
work
pay
promotion opportunities
supervision
coworkers
Minnesota Satisfaction Questionnaire
Intrinsic satisfaction
extrinsic satisfaction
Job in General Scale
similar to JDI, but measures global job satisfaction
Is global satisfaction the sum of the facets?
JDI and JIG say no
MSQ says yes
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COMMUNICATION
Communication is the process of sending and
receiving messages between parties
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THE NATURE OF COMMUNICATION
1-Senders and Receivers
2-Transmitters and Receptor
3-Messages and Channels
4-Decoding, Meaning, and Encoding
5-Feedback
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Senders & Receivers
Each have goals and objectives
The sender may want to change the receiver’s mind
The receiver may not want to have his mind changed
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Transmitters and Receptors
is the equipment by which information is sent
Information can be sent verbally and nonverbally
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Messages and Channels
are the vehicles by which information is communicated.
direct expressions
symbolic representations
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Decoding, Meaning, and Encoding
Decoding is the process of translating messages from their symbolic form into interpretations that can be understood.
Meanings are the facts, ideas, feelings, reactions, or thoughts that exist whitin individuals, and act as a set of “filters” through which the decoded messages are interpreted.
Encoding is the process by which messages are put into symbolic form
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Feedbackis the process by which the receiver
“reacts” to the sender’s message
It is necessary to let the sender know that the message was
(a) actually received,(b) encoded, (c) ascribed with the same meaning that the
sender intended MG6851 Principles of
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BASIC PRINCIPLES OF COMMUNICATION
It is impossible to avoid communicating
Communication is largely nonverbal
Context affects communication
Meanings are in people, not in words
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BASIC PRINCIPLES OF COMMUNICATION (cont’d)
Communication is irreversible
Noise affects communication
Communication is circular
Creating common goal is essential
Communication has effects
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VERBAL AND NONVERBAL MESSAGES
Basic ways in which people send and receive messages
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Verbal Messages
Messages sent verbally are messsages expressed in words
The science of semantics
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Nonverbal MessagesAbout 65 percent of the meanings people
get from a communication
VoicePhysical MovementsSpace
“your lips tell me „no,no‟ but there is „yes,yes‟ in your eyes”
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ADAPTING MESSSAGES TO PURPOSE AND AUDIENCE
increase the probabilty that communication will be successful
Language
Format
Style
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Language
Appropriate language is the language that has been adapted to the
receiver while retaining a naturalness with respect to the sender
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DISTORTION BARRIERS
1. Distractions
2. Semantic Problems
3. Absence Of Feedback
4. Climate
5. Status And Power Differences
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Distractions
It occurs where people
are constantly coming
in and leaving for one
reason or another, and
experinced the
frustration that is
created by this
distracting traffic flow.
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Semantic Problems
Distortion in communication comes from semantics- the use of words or expressions which have a different meaning for the sender or receiver.
Created when communicators use technical jargon- usage common to a particular field or specialization.
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Status And Power DifferencesDifferences incommunications arelikely to parallel thedifferences in power.
Imbalance or asymmetry
in negotiating powerleads the high powerparty to performsignificantly better thanthe low power party.
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GUIDELINES FOR EFFECTIVE COMMUNICATION
Be Exact
Use the word “is” carefully
Avoid Overgeneralization
Be sensitive to connotative meaning
Do not to overuse you or your
Count from 1 to 10
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GUIDELINES FOR EFFECTIVE COMMUNICATION
Recognize that you don’t know all the answers to all questions
Always remember that what others may not mean the way we think they mean it
Focus on common interests rather than differences
Think positive
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The Dangers of Ineffective Communication
• Because managers must communicate with others to perform their various roles and tasks, they devote a lot of time to this activity.
• When managers and other members of an organization are ineffective communicators, organizational performance suffers, and any competitive advantage the organization might have is likely to be lost
• Poor communication sometimes can be downright dangerous and even lead to tragic and unnecessary loss of human life
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Information Richness and Communication Media
• To be effective communicators, managers need to select an appropriate communication medium for each message they send. • There is no one best communication medium for managers to
rely upon. • When choosing a communication medium, managers should
consider three factors.• Information richness: The amount of information that a
communication medium can carry and the extent to which the medium enables the sender and receiver to reach a common understanding
• The second factor is the amount of time needed for communication.• The third factor is the need for a paper or electronic trail to serve as
evidence that a document was sent or received.
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Information Richness and Communication Media
• Face-to-face communication• Has highest information richness• Can take advantage of verbal communication and nonverbal
signals• Provides for instant feedback
• Management by wandering around: A face-to-face communication technique in which a manager walks around a work area and talks informally with employees about issues and concerns
• Face-to-face communication should not always be the medium of choice for managers because of the large amount of time it consumes and the lack of a paper or electronic trail.
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Information Richness and Communication Media
• Spoken communication electronically transmitted:
• Has the second highest information richness
• Telephone conversations are information rich with tone of voice, sender‟s emphasis, and quick feedback - but provide no visual nonverbal cues
• Managers also can get quick feedback over the telephone and answer questions, thereby ensuring that a mutual understanding is reached.
• Voice mail systems also allow managers to send and receive verbal electronic messages.
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Information Richness and Communication Media
• Personally addressed written communication:• Has a lower richness than the verbal forms of communication -
but still is directed at a given person• Excellent media for complex messages requesting follow-up
actions by receiver
• Because personally addressed written communication is addressed to a specific person, there is a good chance that the person will open and read it. Also, the sender can write the message in a way that the receiver is most likely to understand.
• Even if managers use face-to-face communication, a follow-up in writing is often needed.
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Information Richness and Communication Media
• E-mail also fits into this category because senders and receivers are communicating through personally addressed written words. It is important to follow e-mail etiquette.
• The widespread use of e-mail has been accompanied by its growing abuse. • To avoid e-mail abuse, managers need to develop a clear policy
specifying what company e-mail should be used for and what is out of bounds.
• Managers also should clearly communicate this policy to all members of an organization.
• Employees should also be informed of procedures that will be used when e-mail abuse is suspected and the consequences that will result when e-mail abuse is confirmed.
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Information Richness and Communication Media
• Impersonal written communication:
• Has the lowest information richness.
• Good for messages to many receivers where little or feedback is expected (e.g., newsletters, reports)
• Information overload: A superabundance of
information that increases the likelihood that important information is ignored or overlooked and tangential information receives attention
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Advances in Information Technology
• Product life cycle: The way demand for a product changes in a predictable pattern over time
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The Organizational Hierarchy: The Traditional Information System
• Traditionally, managers have used the organizational hierarchy as the main system for gathering information necessary to make decisions and coordinate and control activities
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The Organizational Hierarchy: The Traditional Information System
• Several drawbacks
• Can take a long time for information to travel up the hierarchy and for decisions to travel back down
• Information distortion: Changes in meaning that occur as information passes through a series of senders and receivers
• As an organization grows larger, its hierarchy lengthens and this tall structure can make the hierarchy a very expensive information system
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Limitations of Information Systems
• A vital human element of communication may be lost
• Very rich information is required to coordinate and control an enterprise and to make informed decisions, far beyond that which can be quantified and aggregated
• The importance of information richness is a strong argument in favor of using electronic communication to support face-to-face communication, not to replace it