Unit 9: Motivation and Emotion

Motivation

What are some things you are “motivated” to do??

What is motivation?

• Fueled by a motive, which is:–A specific need or desire that prompts

goal-directed behavior• Primary: Hunger, Thirst, Sex• Secondary: –Stimulus (Contact, Comfort, Exploration)–Social (Aggression, Achievement,

Motivation)

Where do “motives” come from?

1. Instincts– Inborn, goal-directed behavior that is characteristic

of an entire species and unlearned

– Human behavior is not easily explained by instincts because much what we do is learned and flexible (we aren’t JUST governed by instincts)

– Human behavior is directed by both physiological needs (instincts: to eat) by psychological wants (that ice cream looks delicious but I’m not hungry)

Where do “motives” come from?2. Drives

• A state of tension or arousal caused by bodily needs• Drive Reduction Theory states that motivated behavior

is an attempt to reduce a drive and return the body to homeostasis

– Sequence of events: • lack of homeostasis (I’m “empty”)• Need (I need food)• Drive (Tension caused by “hungry”)• Motivation to act (I’m going to eat)• Homeostasis

– Primary drive: Unlearned drive, such as hunger, based on a physiological state – Similar to instincts

– Secondary drive: Learned drive, such as ambition

Maslow’s Hierarchy of Motives• Physiological needs (Primary)• Safety needs• Belongingness needs (Affiliation)• Esteem needs • Self-actualization needs

(Achievement)_______________________• Prompt goal-directed behavior.• Can you engaged in goal-direct

self-actualization needs without fulfilling physiological needs?

• Keep this hierarchy in mind as we progress through the motives.

The Primary Drives

1. Hunger2. Thirst3. Sex

1. HungerWhy do we eat?

When do we eat?How much do we eat?

Biological Factors - NeurologicalHunger appears to be regulated by

regions in the hypothalamus Lateral hypothalamus (LH) acts as a

hunger center, triggering the onset of eating

Ventromedial hypothalamus (VMH) acts as a satiety center, stopping eating behavior

Paraventricular nucleus (PVN) influences the drive to eat specific foods (i.e. craving chocolate)

My PVN said to do it

Consider our friend Mickey:

• With damage to the __________, Mickey would turn away from cheese because he’d never be hungry.

• With damage to the ________, Mickey would never feel full and would eat to his death!

Biological Factors – Chemical

• Changes in blood glucose level, fats, carbohydrates, and insulin signal need for food– Partly regulated by what you eat– Protein- longer satiety; Sugar spikes (candy) results in drops

that can later increase “hunger”• Hormones– Ghrelin turns on hunger; Leptin turns it off– Triggered by food intake; Natural levels affect sensitivity to

impact of eating– Cholecystokinin (released by intestine) signals brain about

satiety• takes 20-30 minutes! EAT SLOWLY!

Biological Factors - Genetics• OB-1/Chromosome 15– 15th chromosome may carry a gene that predisposes some

people to obesity

• Basal Metabolic Rate (BMR)– How quickly you burn calories may be genetically influenced

• Set Point Theory– Body has a “set” weight it wants to be.– Body has a set number of fat cells which shrink with weight

loss and enlarge with weight gain, but the number does not change.

– Efforts to go below this are seen by body as a threat, and body will compensate by slowing metabolic rate

Psychological Factors

• Perceived portion size– Are there “cues” to stop (bottom of the bag,

artificial “divider”)?• Perception of others– What will my eating habits say about me?

• Perception of time– Is it “lunch time”?– When did I last eat?

Socio-Cultural Factors

• Culture also influences what we choose to eat and how much we consume– Social facilitation – we eat when others are eating• Our culture’s emphasis on food and drink?

– Unit bias – what is a “serving size?” • Heart Attack Grill

– Society’s definition of “attractive”?– Society’s priorities?• Resistance to caloric content information• Resistance to portion regulation• Where else do we get hints about what a society

values? (or doesn’t?)

U.S. Subcultures and Consumption

• What makes certain states and countries healthier?

Obesity

• Considered by U.S. Surgeon General to be the most pressing health problem today

• An estimated 36% of Americans are obese– 15-25% of children and adolescents– 2/3 people are overweight

• Obesity can lead to increased risk for– Hypertension– Cardiovascular disease– Diabetes– Sleep apnea

• Tendency may be inherited (OB-1)

A Culture of Extremes?The Other End of the Spectrum

• Anorexia nervosa– Intense fear of weight gain– Distorted body image– Refusal to maintain minimal normal body weight– Absence of at least three consecutive menstrual cycles (for

women)

• About 1% of adolescents afflicted– Approximately 90% of those are white upper- and middle-

class females

Karen Carpenter (1950-1983)Gaga, Mary-Kate, Victoria Beckham

Eating Disorders (cont.)

• Bulimia nervosa– Recurrent episodes of binge eating– Recurrent behaviors to prevent weight gain, such as self-

induced vomiting– Behaviors must occur at least twice a week for three months– Body shape and weight overly influence self-image– Symptoms occur independent of anorexia

• About 1-2% of female adolescents afflicted• Dying to be Thin Clip (“Ana” and “Mia”)• Binge Eating Disorder – binging without purging

Summary of Hunger Motivation

2. Thirst

• Why do we drink?• What does “thirst” mean?• Do we drink simply to rehydrate fluids?

Thirst in a Nutshell

• Both internal and external cues can trigger the thirst drive– Internal cues include level of fluids inside body

cells and amount of fluids outside body cells• If you are “thirsty”, you are already dehydrated

– External cues can include advertisements and weather conditions

– Perception of liquid as less caloric than food?• Snacking: Drinking vs. eating

3. Sexual Motivation• What biological factors govern sexual

behavior?• Is there a difference between males and

females?• What determines sexual orientation?

Biological Factors• Hypothalamus controls the release of luteinizing hormone from

the pituitary gland, which in turn controls the release of androgens and estrogens.

• Testosterone– Important in both men and women in early development– Men and women seem to need some to be interested in sex, but as long

as it is there its role in regulating sexual activity is minimal

• Estrogens– Female hormones that peak during ovulation– Interestingly, when charting sexual activity, women are more receptive

to sex during ovulation

Human Pheromones?• The psychological world is currently researching the

effects of pheromones on humans– Results are mixed– May influence mood, but not signal change in mood (i.e.

all of the sudden feeling sexually attracted)– Context has an impact– That’s enough evidence for perfume companies

• Human sexual motivation is much more dependent on experience and learning than on biology

• There are many reasons why people have sex• External Stimuli

– Both men and women tend to become aroused when exposed to sexually explicit material

– Repeated exposure to the same stimuli lessens arousal over time (cheating????)

• Imagined Stimuli– Sexual arousal while dreaming in both sexes– Sexual fantasies are prevalent, but may not be indicative of desires in real

life– Ugly Thoughts’ Defense Fails as Officer Is Convicted in Cannibal Plot

We are Not Just Animals: The Psychology of Sex

• The Kinsey Reports – Sexual Behavior in the Human Male

(1948)– Sexual Behavior in the Human Female

(1953) – Kinsey Scale and human sexuality (0 to 6

the “X” was added later for asexual)– Controversial methods?• Prison population• Male prostitutes

– 10% ??

The Psychology of Sex: The First Study

The Motivation Behind Sexual Behavior

Sexual motivation

Social-cultural influences:

• family and society values• religious and personal values• cultural expectations• media

Biological influences:

• sexual maturity• sex hormones• sexual orientation

Psychological influences:

• exposure to stimulating conditions• sexual fantasies

Human Sexual Response Cycle(Masters and Johnson, 1966)

• Excitement• Plateau

• Orgasm• Resolution

Difference between Men and Women?Physical

Difference between Men and Women?Psychological

• We already know that men and women have different response cycles (Masters and Johnson)

• How do men and women differ in sexual activity?

• Article: Does Sexuality Differ for Men and Women?

• Age and sex– Dr. Oz on the Health Benefits

Adolescent Sexuality

• Teen Pregnancy– US has a relatively high rate of teen pregnancy and abortion– Some explanations include a lack of knowledge about sex and

birth control, substance use, and lack of media reinforcement of protected sex

• Sexually Transmitted Infections/STDs– For reasons listed above, STIs are also prevalent amongst young

people (2/3 of all new infections occur in population under 25)– Many people do not know the risks of certain sexual practices

and do not think about the number of partners their partner has had

• Why?– Alcohol and sex?– Frontal Lobe Dev’t?

Sexual Orientation• Refers to the direction of an individual’s sexual interest

– Heterosexual • Sexual attraction to opposite sex

– Homosexual • Sexual attraction to same sex

– Bisexual• Sexual attraction to both sexes

• Approximately 3-4% of men and 1-2% of women are gay/lesbian.• Sexuality is enduring over time and cannot be “changed”• Women’s sexuality seems to be more “fluid” than men’s (“erotic

plasticity”)• Nature and nurture explain human sexuality

Sexual Orientation

Secondary Drives: Stimulus Motives

• Stimulus motives push us to investigate or to change our environment

• Example stimulus motives include:– Exploration and curiosity

• E.g. Where does that path lead? How does the internet work?

• Why? An emotion? An acceptable expression of sex drive? Part of the drive to find the meaning of life?

– Manipulation and contact• E.g. DO NOT TOUCH signs – why are they

necessary?• The need to touch, handle, or play with

objects to feel satisfied.• How important is this to our

development?

Harlow’s Monkeys• Harry Harlow (1958) wanted to

find out why infant monkeys bonded with their mother.

• Was the bond driven by a need for food (nursing) or something else? – Harlow’s experiment– Impact of denying infant monkeys p

hysical comfort from their mother• Illustrates contact motive• Consequence of deprivation of

social contact? (i.e. Orphanages)

Other Motives: Social Motives

• Social motives are those which involve how we are driven to relate to others. They include the following:– Aggression– Achievement– Affiliation

Social Motives: Aggression• Intent is a key element of aggression –

behavior is aimed at DOING HARM to others

• Why are we aggressive?– Aggressive behavior may be innate, although

learning clearly plays a role– Frustration-Aggression Theory?– Social Learning?

• Aggression and culture– Collectivist cultures are less aggressive than

individualistic cultures– Crime in the US?

• Gender and aggression– Males are more physically aggressive– Nature…or nurture?

Writing Prompt

• Think of an example of something that you are intrinsically motivated to do, then think of an example of a behavior that you are extrinsically motivated to do.

Social Motives: Achievement

• Motivation to excel at a task• Desire is for achievement for

its own sake• Work and Family Orientation

Scale (WOFO)– Work orientation, mastery,

competitiveness– Highest GPA – high mastery and

work orientation, lower competitiveness – WHY?

What do incentives do to our behaviors?

• External stimuli that prompt goal-directed behavior

• We are often unaware of the incentive

• Examples– Aroma of food may cause us to

eat even when not hungry– Advertisements can lead us to

buy a product– Return to classical

conditioning??

Intrinsic and Extrinsic Motivation

• Intrinsic motivation– Motivation for a behavior is the behavior itself– Children playing is an example

• Extrinsic motivation– Behavior is performed in order to obtain a reward

(incentive) or to avoid punishment– A bonus program is an example– Dangers of providing extrinsic motivation for

intrinsically motivated activities?– Overjustification

• Dan Pink on Motivation (Ted Talks)

Social Motives: Affiliation• Motivation to be with

others• Rats, monkeys and

humans in stressful situations all feel a reduction in anxiety and fear when in the presence of another member of their species

• Evolutionary value? Learned behavior?