Unit 2 -Support Leadership and Morale & Motivation

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    Leadership theories&

    Morale and Motivation

    Dr.Yogananthan

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    A.Leadership theories

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    Lecture Plan

    Leadership theory

    a. Trait theory

    b. Behavior theory

    c. Contingency theory (situation theory) Substitute Servant Content & Process theories

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    What Is Leadership?Leadership

    The ability to influence agroup toward theachievement of goals

    Management

    all actions focused onaccomplishing the tasks in anorganization.

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    Effective Leadership andManagement Styles

    Personal Check-In: Individual LeadershipReflection

    Think about a leadership experience that reallypleased you, a time when you worked with others anddid a good job of helping something positive oreffective occur. It can be a work experience or a

    personal experience.

    1. Briefly summarize the situation.

    2. What action did you take to make it happen?

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    What is the skills approach to

    leadership?

    A. Robert Katzs researchsurfaced a set of skills forleadership success.

    B. Skill 1-Technical skillsinvolving hands-on activity.

    C. Skill 2 -Human skillswhich is the ability to workwith people.

    -Greatest asset tohave.

    D. Skill 3 -Conceptual skillshaving ability to work with

    ideas and concepts.

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    The Different Views of

    LeadershipTrait definition ofleadership Process definition ofleadership

    Leader Leader

    Followers Followers

    Leadership LeadershipHeight Intelligence Extroversion Fluency Other traits

    Interaction

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    Trait Theories of leadership

    Theories that consider personality,

    social, physical, or intellectual traits todifferentiate leaders from non leaders.

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    Trait Approach

    Traits (Bennis & Nanus, 1985, pp. 152) Logical thinking Persistence Empowerment Self-control

    Assumption: Leaders are born Goal: Select leaders Problems

    Traits do not generalize across situations Better at predicting leader emergence than leader

    effectiveness Unclear evidence of the cause and effect of relationship of

    leader and traits

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    Behavioral Theories

    Behavioral Theory

    Leadership behaviors can be taught.

    vs.

    Trait Theory

    Leaders are born, not made.

    Behavioral Theories of LeadershipTheories proposing that specific behaviors differentiateleaders from nonleaders

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    Ohio State Studies/University of Michigan(pp.154)

    Initiating Structure/Production Orientation Consideration/Employee Orientation

    Assumption: Leaders can be trained Goal: Develop leaders Problem: Effective behaviors do not generalize

    across situations.

    Behavioral Approach

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    Ohio State StudiesInitiating Structure

    The extent to which a leader is likelyto define and structure his or her roleand those of subordinates in thesearch for goal attainment

    Consideration

    The extent to which a leader is likely to have jobrelationships characterized by mutual trust, respect forsubordinates ideas, and regard for his/her feelings

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    University of Michigan StudiesEmployee-oriented Leader

    Emphasizing interpersonal relations; taking a personalinterest in the needs of employees and accepting individualdifferences among members

    Production-oriented Leader

    One who emphasizes technical or task aspects of thejob

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    Leadership style

    Refers to the behavior of leaders towardssubordinates, the manner in which tasks andfunctions of leadership are conducted.

    Autocratic style to democratic/participative style

    Task/Structure orientation Vs people/interpersonal

    orientation

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    The Managerial

    Grid(Blake and Mouton)

    E X H I B I T 121

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    Contingency Theories

    All Consider the Situation Fiedler Contingency Model

    Houses Path Goal Theory

    Assumptions underlying the different models: Fiedler: Leaders style is fixed.

    Others: Leaders style can and should be changed.

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    Leader: Style Is Fixed (Task-oriented vs.Relationship- oriented)

    Considers Situational Favorableness for Leader

    Leader-member relations Task structure Position power

    Key Assumption

    Leader must fit situation; options to accomplish this: Select leader to fit situation Change situation to fit leader

    Fiedler Model

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    Fiedler Model: The Leader

    Least Preferred Co-Worker (LPC) Questionnaire

    The way in which a leader will evaluatea co-worker who is not liked will indicatewhether the leader is task- or

    relationship-oriented.

    Assumption: Leaders style is fixed and can bemeasured by the least preferred co-worker (LPC)questionnaire.

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    Fiedler Model: Defining the

    SituationLeader-Member Relations

    The degree of confidence, trust, and respect subordinateshave in their leader

    Position PowerInfluence derived from ones formal structural position inthe organization; includes power to hire, fire, discipline,promote, and give salary increases

    Task StructureThe degree to which the job assignments are procedurized

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    Findings of the Fiedler Model

    Category Leader-

    Member

    Relations Task

    Structure

    I

    Goo

    d

    High

    II

    Goo

    d

    Hig

    III

    Goo

    d

    LowStro

    IV

    Goo

    d

    Low

    V

    Poor

    High

    Strong

    VI

    Poo

    r

    High

    VII

    Poor

    Low

    Strong

    VIII

    Poo

    r

    Low

    Good

    Poor

    Per

    formance

    Relationship-Oriented

    Task-Oriented

    Favorable Moderat

    e

    Unfavorable

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    Path-Goal Theory

    PremiseExpectancy theory of motivation, emphasizing on theleaders effect on subordinatess goals and the paths used toachieve those goals.

    Flexibility of leader behavior:

    Directive behaviors: planning, setting expectationsand clarifying instructions

    Suportive behaviors: offering friednly consideration

    Participative behaviors: involving subordinates in

    DM Achivement-orientated behavior: setting objectives

    and expecting them to be achieved.

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    Path-Goal Theory

    E X H I B I T 124

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    What are the major components of

    the Contingency Theories?A. Contingency theoryidentifies:

    -Key situationalfactors,

    -Specifies how they

    interact, and-Determines bestleadership approach.

    -This is called

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    Contingency Theories continued

    B. Fred Fiedlerdeveloped theContingency Theory.

    -Effectivenessdepends on situation.

    C. Three factors.

    -Leader-memberrelations.

    -Task structure.

    -Leader position

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    Contingency Theories continued

    Situational leadership isbuild upon the

    contingency theory, and

    refined by Ken Blanchardin the 1980s. Leadership is composed of

    both adirective andsupportive dimension.

    Coaching and delegating

    were added to provide four

    styles.

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    Contingency Theories continued

    D. Path-Goal Theorydeveloped by Evans &House.

    -Adapting leadership tothe situation.

    -Leader can impact

    performance of others byoffering paths to desiredgoals.

    -Rewards contingent onincreased performance.

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    Contingency Theories continued

    E. Four leader behaviors:

    -Directive: gives specificguidance and direction.

    -Supportive: providesassistance.

    -Participative: hand-in-handwith subordinates.

    -Achievement Oriented:sets challenging goals and hashigh expectations.

    F. Best style to use is to adapt

    to the participative leadership

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    Substitute theory

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    Substitutes for Leadership

    Characteristic

    Relationship-Oriented orConsiderateLeader Behavioris Unnecessary

    Task-Oriented orInitiating StructureLeader Behavior isUnnecessary

    Of t he Subo rd i na t e1. Ability, experience, training, knowledge X2. Need for Independence X X3. Professional orientation X X4. Indifference toward organizational rewards X XOf t h e Ta s k5. Unambiguous and Routine X6. Methodically invariant X7. Provides its own feedback concerning

    accomplishment X8. Intrinsically satisfying. X

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    Characteristic

    Relationship-Oriented orConsiderateLeaderBehavior isUnnecessary

    Task-Oriented orInitiating StructureLeader Behavior isUnnecessary

    Of t he O rgan i z a t i o n9. Formalization (explicit plans, goals, and areas

    of responsibil ity)X

    10. Inflexibil ity (rigid, unbending rules andprocedures)

    X11. Highly specified and active advisory and staff

    functionsX

    12. Closely knit, cohesive work groups X X13. Organizational rewards not with the leaders

    controlX X

    14. Spatial distance between superior andsubordinate

    X X

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    Servant & super leadership theory

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    Servant and Superleadership

    Servant Leadership represents a philosophy in whichleaders focus on increased service to others rather thanto oneself.

    A superleader is someone who leads others to leadthemselves by developing employees self-managementskills.

    Superleaders attempt to increase employees feelings ofpersonal control and intrinsic motivation.

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    Characteristics of the Servant-Leader

    1. Listening Servant-leaders focus on listening toidentify and clarify the needs and desires ofa group.

    2. Empathy Servant-leaders try to empathize withothers feelings and emotion. An individuals

    good intentions are assumed even when heor she performs poorly.

    3. Healing Servant-leaders strive to make themselvesand others whole in the face of failure orsuffering.

    4. Awareness Servant-leaders are very self-aware or theirstrengths and limitations.

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    Characteristics of the Servant-Leader (continued)

    5. Persuasion Servant-leaders rely more on persuasionthan positional authority when makingdecisions and trying to influence others.

    6. Conceptualization Servant-leaders take the time and effortto develop broader based conceptual

    thinking. Servant-leaders seek anappropriate balance between a short-term, day-to-day focus and a long-term,conceptual orientation.

    7. Foresight Servant-leaders have the ability to foresee

    future outcomes associated with a currentcourse of action or situation.

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    Characteristics of the Servant-Leader (continued)

    8. Stewardship Servant-leaders assume that they arestewards of the people and resources theymanage.

    9. Commitment to Servant-leaders are committed to people

    the growth of beyond their immediate work role. Theypeople commit to fostering an environment thatencourages personal, professional, andspiritual growth.

    10. Building Servant-leaders strive to create a sense of

    Community community both within and outside thework organization.

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    Continuum theory

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    Motivation at Work

    Content & Process theories

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    MotivationThe force which drives behaviour(pp.48) DIRECTION - i.e. what a person is trying to do

    EFFORT - how hard a person is trying PERSISTENCE - i.e. how long a person

    continues trying

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    Theories of motivation

    Content theories (pp.49)Two-factor theory ( Hersberg): intrinsic and extrinsicTypes of needs: classification of needs: deficiency versus growth Hierarchy of needs (e.g. Maslow): ordering of need by relativepriority

    Process theoriesExpectancy theory (Vroom; Porter & Lawler): : a rational estimate ofthe likely result of their behaviour Goal theory ( Locke) Equity theory ( Adams)

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    C t t Th i

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    Content Theories1.Hierarchy of Needs Theory

    Abraham Maslow (pp.56) There is a hierarchy of 5 needs---physiological,

    safety,social,esteem,& self-actualization---and as each

    need is sequentially satisfied,the next need becomesdominant

    review:1.intuitively logical,ease of understanding,

    receiving wide recognition, particularly amongpracticing managers. 2.little empirical support

    Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs

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    1. Biological and Physiological needs - air, food, drink,

    warmth, sleep, etc.

    2. Safety needs - protection from elements, security, order,law, limits, stability, etc.

    3. Belongingness and Love needs - work group, family,affection, relationships, etc.

    4. Esteem needs - self-esteem, achievement, mastery,independence, status, dominance, prestige, managerialresponsibility, etc.

    5. Self-Actualization needs - realizing personal potential, self-fulfillment seekin ersonal rowth and eak ex eriences.

    y

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    Content Theories2. ERG theory (Alderfer, pp.58)

    There are three groups of core needs: existence,relatedness and growth

    Difference:(1) more than one need may be operative atthe same time,(2) if the gratification of a higher level

    needs is stifled, the desire to satisfy a lower level needincreases

    Maslow: a rigid step like progression. ERG:contains afrustration-regression dimension

    Several studies have supported the ERG theory:natives ofSpain & Japan place social needs before their

    physiological requirements

    C t t Th

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    Content Theory3.McClellands Acquired Needs Theory

    Acquired needs theory. Developed by David McClelland.

    Three needs achievement, affiliation, and power are acquired over time, as a result of experiences.

    Managers should learn to identify these needs and thencreate work environments that are responsive to them.

    Content Theory

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    Content Theory3.McClellands Acquired Needs Theory

    Need for achievement. The desire to do something better or more efficiently, to

    solve problems, or to master complex tasks.

    High need for achievement people:

    Prefer individual responsibilities.

    Prefer challenging goals.

    Prefer performance feedback.

    Content Theory

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    Content Theory3.McClellands Acquired Needs Theory

    Need for affiliation.

    The desire to establish and maintain friendly and warm

    relations with others.

    High need for affiliation people:

    Are drawn to interpersonal relationships.

    Seek opportunities for communication.

    Content Theory

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    Content Theory3.McClellands Acquired Needs Theory

    Need for power.

    The desire to control others, to influence their

    behavior, or to be responsible for others.

    High need for for power people: Seek influence over others.

    Like attention.

    Like recognition.

    Content Theory

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    Content Theory3.McClellands Acquired Needs Theory

    Research evidence on acquired needs theory.

    Identification of the need profiles that are required

    for success in different types of jobs.

    People can be trained to develop the need forachievement, particularly in developing nations.

    Content Theories

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    Content Theories4. Motivation-Hygiene Theory

    Developed by Frederick Herzberg.

    Also known as Two Factor theory.

    Portrays two different factors hygiene factors andmotivator factors as the primary causes of job

    dissatisfaction and job satisfaction.

    Content Theories

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    Content Theories4. Motivation-Hygiene Theory

    Hygiene factors. (Mostly Extrinsic) Sources of job dissatisfaction.

    Associated with the job context or work setting.

    Improving hygiene factors prevent people from beingdissatisfied but do not contribute to satisfaction.

    Content Theories

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    Content Theories4. Motivation-Hygiene Theory

    Motivator factors. (Mostly Intrinsic) Sources of job satisfaction.

    Associated with the job content.

    Building motivator factors into the job enables peopleto be satisfied.

    Absence of motivator factors in the job results in lowsatisfaction, low motivation, and low performance.

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    Content Theories4. Motivation-Hygiene Theory

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    l Not specific about what behaviours and rewardssatisfy which needs.

    lNeglect the impact of the social context on peoples

    interpretation of their needs.

    lPeople do not necessarily strive to move up thehierarchy - at least, not through their work.

    lHow to define needs?

    Problems with Content Theories

    P Th i

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    Process Theories

    1. Vrooms Expectancy Theory(1964) pp.51

    Motivation ( M)=Expectation (E) x Valence

    Where: Expectancy - If I tried would I be able toperform the action?

    Valence - How much do I value thoseoutcomes?

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    Process Theories

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    Process Theories2. Goal-setting Theory (Locke,pp.51)A goal is a target level of performance

    If a goal is: difficult

    specific

    And if a person:accepts the goal

    feels committed to itgets feedback on their progress

    Then their performance improves because:

    their behaviour is focused

    they try hardthey keep trying

    they develop strategies

    SLIDE 9 19

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    SLIDE 9.19

    S li i i G l

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    Some live issues in Goal-Setting

    How to enhance goal commitment (participative?) Who defines challenging?

    Conflict between goals

    Individual v. groupCompeting personal goals

    Goals set Vs dynamic environment

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    Process theories3.Equity theory (Adams, 1963, pp.65)

    Individuals compare their job inputs & outcomes withthose of others & then respond so as to eliminate anyinequities

    Minor qualifications:

    1. people have a great deal more tolerance of overpaymentinequities than of underpayment inequities.

    2. not all people are equity sensitive,such as benevolent

    types

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    Process theory3.Equity theory

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    Motivation and Job DesignHackman and Oldham (1980, pp.73)

    Motivation through design of work.

    Five Core Job Dimensions

    1. Skill Variety

    2. Task Identity

    3. Task Significance

    4. Autonomy

    5. Feedback

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    S h t d ll th th i dd t ?

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    Sowhat do all these theories add up to?

    1. Successful work performance can arise from many differentneeds/motives.

    2. People need to believe they can perform effectively if they try.

    3. The rewards for good performance should actually be desired by thepeople concerned.

    4. What constitutes good performance should be clearly defined.5. People need feedback on their performance.

    6. Peoples values and identity matter.

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    B. Morale & Motivation

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    Content

    Introduction to Morale Importance of morale

    Signs of morale Indices of morale Measure morale Morale & productivity

    Motivation Mechanism of motivation

    Theories Work & Motivation Ways to motivate them Summary

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    Define - Morale

    How somebody feels emotionally: thegeneral level of confidence or optimism felt

    by a person or group of people, especiallyas it affects discipline and motivation

    [Mid-18th century. Via French moral< Latin

    moralis]

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    Define Moral(Social Justice)

    1. involving right and wrong: relating to issues of right and wrong and to how individual peopleshould behave

    2. derived from personal conscience:based on what somebody's conscience suggests is right orwrong, rather than on what rules or the law says should be done

    3. according to common standard of justice: regarded in terms of what is known to be right or just,as opposed to what is officially or outwardly declared to be right or just a moral victory.

    4. encouraging goodness and decency: giving guidance on how to behave decently and honorably

    5. good by accepted standards: good or right, when judged by the standards of the average person orsociety at large

    6. able to tell right from wrong: able to distinguish right from wrong and to make decisions based onthat knowledge

    7. based on personal conviction:based on an inner conviction, in the absence of physical proof

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    Why study morale?

    Poor morale leads to: Retention and recruitment problems Increased absenteeism

    Increased incidents and accidents, includingneedlestick injuries

    Increased adverse outcomes Reduction in quality of care All of these issues cost organisations $$$

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    Importance of Morale

    When employee morale is high Staff are satisfied with their jobs, they can tolerate

    perceived discrepancies. They can work long hours

    without complaint, take disappointments in stride,support changes in the company, and maintain apositive attitude toward their workplace.

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    When morale slides.?

    Everything becomes more acute. Overtimebecomes onerous, disappointments become

    discouraging, change becomes stressful, anda negative attitude takes over. Grumbling,complaining, gossiping, and increasedabsenteeism are signs of low morale.

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    Signs ofHigh Morale

    Employees look forward to coming to work Employees show up with new ideas Employees care about the organization Employees endorse organizational goals

    Employees volunteer Employees willingly undertake assignments Employees help each other Employees demonstrate pride in their work Employees concern themselves with their work area, tools and job equipment Employees work well with little direction

    Employees occasionally go above and beyond the job description Employees enjoy their work

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    Signs ofLow Morale

    High absenteeism Lateness Low productivity Large amount of error in work Frequent necessity to redo work Lack of enthusiasm

    Jealousy or disputes among the staff Customer service complaints15

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    Indices of low morale- Remedies!!!

    Remedies for Employee unrest

    Absenteeism & Tardiness Employee turnover Grievances Need for discipline Fatigue and monotony

    Effective profit sharing program HR programs

    Other socialization programs

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    Morale & HR

    Areas that contribute to job satisfactioninclude good working relationships with

    immediate supervisors, managementrecognition of employee job performance,and effective communication betweenemployees and senior management.

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    Good communication-is vital tool asbooster of Morale

    Good communication is your strongest tool formaintaining morale within your company. Thisranges from one-to-one interactions between

    employees and supervisors, to company-widecommunication about progress and future direction.Avoid employee misperceptions by practicing goodcommunication techniques.

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    Measure morale

    1. Observation Method

    2. Interview Method

    3. Printed questionnaire for AttitudeSurveys

    4. Projective Techniques

    5. Company Records and Reports

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    Improve and Hold morale High!!

    Managers That Boost Morale Good managers can make the difference when it comes to retaining

    quality employees. Jeffrey Saltzman, an industrial psychologistrecommends business owners looks for these traits in their managers:

    Considerate treatment of subordinates Ability to give clear directions Offers rewards and challenges on the job Dont Overlook Job Satisfaction Avoid Burn Out Appreciate Your Team Keeping a Small Business Fun Games, Company sponsored

    lunches, Dress codes and relaxations!!!!

    http://office.lifetips.com/tip/73762/morale-motivation/morale/managers-that-boost-morale.htmlhttp://office.lifetips.com/tip/70444/morale-motivation/morale/don-t-overlook-job-satisfaction.htmlhttp://office.lifetips.com/tip/69951/morale-motivation/burn-out/avoid-burn-out.htmlhttp://office.lifetips.com/tip/70252/morale-motivation/morale/appreciate-your-team.htmlhttp://office.lifetips.com/tip/14418/morale-motivation/morale/keeping-a-small-business-fun.htmlhttp://office.lifetips.com/tip/14418/morale-motivation/morale/keeping-a-small-business-fun.htmlhttp://office.lifetips.com/tip/70252/morale-motivation/morale/appreciate-your-team.htmlhttp://office.lifetips.com/tip/69951/morale-motivation/burn-out/avoid-burn-out.htmlhttp://office.lifetips.com/tip/70444/morale-motivation/morale/don-t-overlook-job-satisfaction.htmlhttp://office.lifetips.com/tip/73762/morale-motivation/morale/managers-that-boost-morale.html
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    Morale & Productivity

    High

    Morale

    Low

    High Morale

    Low productivity

    High Morale

    High productivity

    Low Morale

    Low Productivity

    Low Morale

    High productivity

    Low Productivity High

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    Theories of Motivation

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    Motivation

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    Maslow

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    Drucker

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    Likert

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    Taylor

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    Argyris

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    Herzberg

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    Hygiene Factors

    Conditions Pay

    Status Security Company policies

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    Motivation factors

    Achievement Recognition

    Growth/Advancement Interest in the job

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    McClelland

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    McGregor

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    Mayo

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    Click to edit Master subtitle style

    Mechanisms of Motivation

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    Motivation and Incentives

    Motivation - factors within and outside an organismthat cause it to behave a certain way at a certaintime

    Motivational state or drive - an internal condition,which can change over time, that orients anindividual to a specific set of goals (e.g., hunger,thirst, sex, curiosity)

    Incentives - goals or reinforcers in the externalenvironment (e.g., good grades, food, a mate)

    Drives as Tissue Needs

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    Drives as Tissue Needs

    Homeostasis - the constancy of internal conditionsthat the body must actively maintain

    Drives may be an upset in homeostasis, inducing

    behavior to correct the imbalance Animals do behave in accordance with their tissue

    needs (e.g., increasing or decreasing caloric intake,drive for salt)

    However, homeostasis cannot explain all drives

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    Types of Drives

    Regulatory drives - helps preservehomeostasis (e.g., hunger, thirst,

    oxygen) Nonregulatory drives - serve other

    purposes (e.g., sex, achievement)

    Drives as

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    States of the Brain

    Central state theory of drives - differentdrives correspond to neural activity in

    different sets of neurons in the brain Central drive system - set of neurons in

    which activity constitutes a drive

    Reward Pathways in the Brain

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    Reward Pathways in the Brain

    Medial forebrain bundle runs from the midbrainthrough the lateral area of the hypothalamusinto the nucleus accumbens in the basal ganglia

    neurons in this tract secrete dopamine animals will self-stimulate this pathway euphoria-producing drugs affect the level of dopamine in this

    tract

    evolved to promote survival and reproduction

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    Click to edit Master subtitle style

    THE NATURE OF WORKMOTIVATION

    (Interpretation with theories)

    2

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    Work Motivation

    Definition: The psychological forces thatdetermine the direction of a personsbehavior, a persons level of effort, and a

    persons level of persistence. Key elements to the definition:

    Effort Persistence Direction/goal orientation

    3

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    Key Elements of Work Motivation

    Direction of Behavior - Which behaviorsdoes a person choose to perform in anorganization?

    Level of Effort - How hard does a personwork to perform a chosen behavior? Level of Persistence - When faced with

    obstacles, roadblocks, and stone walls, how

    hard does a person keep trying to perform achosen behavior successfully?

    Links between4

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    Motivation and Performance

    Performance is an evaluation of the results of apersons behavior. It involves determining how wellor poorly a person has accomplished a task or done a

    job. Motivation is only one factor among many that

    contributes to a workers job performance. Other contributing factors:

    Personality and ability Task difficulty

    Resource availability Working conditions Chance or luck

    5

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    Intrinsic vs. Extrinsic Motivation

    Intrinsically MotivatedBehavior: Behavior that isperformed for its own sake.

    Extrinsically MotivatedBehavior: Behavior that is

    performed to acquire materialor social rewards or to avoidpunishment.

    6

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    Advice to Managers

    Keep in mind that motivation determines whatbehaviors workers choose to perform, how hardthey work, and how persistent they are in the faceof difficulties.

    Do not equate motivation with performance.Motivation is only one of several factors thatcontribute to determining performance.

    To better understand the source of yoursubordinates work motivation, determine whetherthey are intrinsically or extrinsically motivated.

    7

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    Insert Figure 6.1 here

    8

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    Insert Figure 6.2 here

    9

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    Need Theories of Motivation

    A group of content theories about work motivationthat focus on workers needs as the sources ofmotivation. These theories attempt to explain whatmotivates workers.

    A needis a requirement for survival and well-being. Individual needs within organizations vary. Managers should try to:

    Determine what needs a worker is trying to satisfy on thejob.

    Ensure that a worker can satisfy his or her needs byengaging in behaviors that contribute to organizationaleffectiveness.

    M l Hi h f N d

    10

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    Maslows Hierarchy of Needs

    Physiological Needs: Basic needs for things such as food,water, and shelter that must be met in order for an individualto survive.

    Safety Needs: Needs for security, stability, and a safeenvironment.

    Belongingness Needs: Needs for social interaction,friendship, affection, and love.

    Esteem Needs: The need to feel good about oneself andones capabilities, to be respected by others, and to receive

    recognition and appreciation. Self-Actualization Needs: The need to realize ones full

    potential as a human being.

    Basic Tenets of Maslows Theory11

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    Basic needs must be satisfied before anindividual seeks to satisfy needs higher upin the hierarchy.

    Unsatisfied needs are the prime motivators

    of behavior. Once a need is satisfied, it is no longer a

    source of motivation. At any particular time, only one set of needs

    motivates behavior; it is not possible to skiplevels.

    Alderfers ERG Theory

    12

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    Alderfer s ERG Theory

    Existence Needs: Basic needs for humansurvival such as the need for food, water,clothing, shelter, and a secure and safeenvironment.

    Relatedness Needs: The needs to have goodinterpersonal relations, to share thoughts andfeelings, and to have open two-waycommunication.

    Growth Needs: The needs for self-development and creative and productive work.

    Diff f M l Th

    13

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    Differences from Maslows Theory

    Reduces the number of universal needs from five tothree. No rigid hierarchy:

    A higher-level need can be a motivator even if a lower-

    level need is not fully satisfied. Needs at more than one level can be motivators at any

    time.

    When an individual is motivated to satisfy a higher-

    level need but has difficulty doing so, his/hermotivation to satisfy lower-level needs willincrease.

    Ad i t M

    14

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    Advice to Managers

    Do not assume that all workers are motivated by thesame needs or desires.

    To determine what will motivate any given worker,determine what needs that worker is trying to satisfy

    on the job.Make sure you have the ability to administer orwithhold consequences that will satisfy a workersneeds.

    Structure work situations so that workers can satisfytheir needs by performing behaviors that enable theorganization to achieve its goals.

    E t Th

    15

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    Expectancy Theory

    A process theory about work motivation thatfocuses on how workers make choices amongalternative behaviors and levels of effort.

    Two main questions are addressed: Do individuals believe that their inputs will result in a

    given level of performance? Do individuals believe that performance at this level will

    lead to obtaining outcomes they desire? Keys to the theory:

    Valence Instrumentality Expectancy

    16

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    Valence

    Definition: The desirability of an outcometo an individual.

    Can be positive or negative:

    Outcomes with positive valence are desirable. Outcomes with negative valence are

    undesirable.

    Can vary in magnitude to indicate howdesirable or undesirable an outcome is.

    17

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    Instrumentality

    Definition: A perception about the extent to whichperformance of one or more behaviors will lead to theattainment of a particular outcome.

    Can be positive or negative. Range is from -1 to +1.

    I = -1 means that the individual perceives thatperformance will definitely notlead to the outcome.

    I = 0 means that the individual perceives no linkbetween performance and outcome.

    I = +1 means that the individual perceives thatperformance is certain to lead to the outcome.

    18

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    Expectancy

    Definition: A perception about the extentto which effort will result in a certain levelof performance.

    Range is from 0 to 1: 0 means that the individual believes there is

    no chance that his/her effort will result inperformance.

    1 means that the individual is certain thathis/her effort will lead to performance.

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    Insert Figure 6.3 here

    Advice to Managers

    20

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    g

    Determine what outcomes your subordinates desire. More specifically, identify

    outcomes that have high positive valence for your subordinates in order tomotivate them to perform at a high level. Once you have identified desired outcomes, make sure that you have control

    over them and can give them to subordinates or take them away whenwarranted.

    Let subordinates know that obtaining their desired outcomes depends on theirperforming at a high level (raise instrumentalities). Administer the highly valentoutcomes only when subordinates perform at a high level (or engage in desiredorganizational behaviors).

    Do whatever you can to encourage workers to have high expectancies: Expressconfidence in subordinates abilities, let them know that others like themselveshave been able to perform at a high level, and give them guidance in terms ofhow to perform at a high level.

    Periodically assess workers beliefs concerning expectancies andinstrumentalities and their valences for different outcomes by directly askingthem or administering a survey. Using these assessments, make differentoutcomes available to workers, and clarify instrumentalities, or boostexpectancies when necessary.

    E it Th

    21

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    Equity Theory

    A process theory about work motivation thatfocuses on workers perceptions of the fairness oftheir work outcomes and inputs.

    According to equity theory, what is important to

    motivation is the way a worker perceives his or heroutcome/input ratio compared to that of another

    person. Outcome/input ratio is the relationship between

    what a worker gets from a job (outcome) and whatthe worker contributes to the job (input).

    22

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    Inputs, Outcomes, and Referents Types of inputs

    Special skills Education and training Work effort

    Types of outcomes Pay and benefits Opportunities for advancement

    Referents

    Coworkers Self at another job or at another time Other people in the same job

    How Equity Theory Works23

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    An individual compares his/her outcome/input ratio to

    that of the referent to see if they are in balance:

    Self Referent

    Outcomes? OutcomesInputs = Inputs Overpayment inequity exists when a person perceives

    that his/her outcome/input ratio isgreaterthan the ratioof the referent.

    Underpayment inequity exists when a personperceives that his/her outcome/input ratio is less than theratio of the referent.

    Conditions of Equity and Inequity

    24

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    Conditions of Equity and Inequity(Table 6.4)

    Equity

    Overpayment

    Inequity

    UnderpaymentInequity

    OutcomesOutcomes------------ =------------

    Inputs Inputs

    OutcomesOutcomes

    ------------ >------------

    Inputs Inputs

    OutcomesOutcomes------------