Unit 17: Grammar · Introduction What is grammar? One way to think about it, is as a set of general...

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Unit 17: Grammarbbyy CChhrriissttiinnee RRoobbiinnssoonn

Copyright © 2019 The Open University

2 of 24 https://www.open.edu/openlearncreate/course/view.php?id=4190 Friday 10 January 2020

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ContentsIntroduction 417. Introductory handsel 517.1 Why grammar? 717.2 Some widespread features of Scots grammar 917.3 Some widespread features of Scots grammar – continued 1317.4 Some regional features 1617.5 Good Scots 2017.6 What I have learned 22Further research 23References 23Acknowledgements 23



IntroductionWhat is grammar? One way to think about it, is as a set of general guidelines within aspeech community, which determine the order words go in and how they are changed toshow things like singular and plural – or past and present. As with vocabulary andpronunciation, grammar is not set in stone but constantly changing.Many languages have formal prescriptive grammar books, which give rise to notions ofright and wrong. Another effect of these prescriptive grammar books is to “freeze” thegrammar of a language at a given moment in time. Scots being a non-standard languagedoes not have prescriptive grammar books and so is not fixed in such a way.Thus, a mix of historical forms and innovations continues to give rise to regionalvariations, which have been explored in unit 10 on Dialect Diversity. This grammar unitlooks at some of the ways in which Scots language grammar differs from Englishgrammar and highlights variations within Scots. Some grammatical terms are used buttheir meaning should be clear from the context and examples.You will notice that this unit works slightly differently from other units in this course. Youwill be introduced to a range of grammatical features with relevant examples rather thanread an essay-style description of grammatical developments. In addition, you will workhands-on with a variety of examples.The unit provides you with the vocabulary to think about and discuss Scots, English andother Modern languages in that it gives you the grounding to undertake further explorationand discover new aspects of the language. In addition, the approach taken in this unit is towork with grammar in spoken and written Scots, which is why there will be plenty ofopportunities for you to listen to Scots and speak it, too.Furthermore, you will be coming across a range of grammatical terms in this unit. In caseyou are not familiar with any of them, refer to theOxford English Dictionary’s Glossary of grammatical terms.Important details to take notes on throughout this unit:

● survivals from Old English or Middle English● the ways in which the grammar continues to change● regional variation in grammar● variation even in a single speaker.

Activity 1Before commencing your study of this unit, you may wish to jot down some thoughtson the important details we suggest you take notes on throughout this unit. You couldwrite down what you already know about each of these points, as well as anyassumption or question you might have.

Provide your answer...

Introduction


https://public.oed.com/how-to-use-the-oed/glossary-grammatical-terms


17. Introductory handselA Scots word and example sentence to learn:

GraithDefinition: II. equipment, tools

○ Example sentence: “Grammar an wirds is the graith o language.”○ English translation: “Grammar and words are the tools of language.”

Activity 2Click to hear the sentence above read by a Scots speaker.You can then make your own recording and play it back to check your pronunciation.Voice Recorder is not available in this format.Go to the Dictionary of the Scots Language for a full definition of the word

Language LinksThe Scots noun graith has a long history and is connected to, or has its roots in, a numberof other Northern and Western European languages. In modern German, the noun Gerätdoes not only sound very similar to the Scots graith, it also has the same meaning as acollective term for tools or equipment.

The noun also has connections with the modern Faroese language where greiði is used tomean requisite articles or a tool; then in Norwegian greida denotes implements or a tackleor it can be used as greide (harness). The word graith in its current spelling appeared

17. Introductory handsel


http://www.dsl.ac.uk/entry/snd/graith

http://www.dsl.ac.uk/entry/snd/graith


around 1300 in Northern Middle English meaning equipment, and in a specific context, it isused to mean harness, furnishing, or even a dress!

Here are pre-1700 usages of the word in Scots.

Related word:

BigDefinition: To build, construct:

○ Example sentence: “Wi the richt graith ye can big braw sentences wi guidgrammar.”

○ English translation: “With the right tools you can construct good sentences withgood grammar.”

Activity 3Click to hear the sentence above read by a Scots speaker.You can then make your own recording and play it back to check your pronunciation.Voice Recorder is not available in this format.

Mousa Broch, Shetland

17. Introductory handsel


http://www.dsl.ac.uk/entry/dost/graith_n

http://www.dsl.ac.uk/entry/snd/bigg_v_n1


17.1 Why grammar?

Grammar has long been a subject of study — as a companion to rhetoric in ancient Greeceand Rome and as one of the seven liberal arts in medieval education. Althoughthe methods of studying grammar have changed dramatically in recent times,the reasons for studying grammar have remained essentially the same. […]

"Grammar is important because it is the language that makes it possible for us to talk aboutlanguage. Grammar names the types of words and word groups that make up sentencesnot only in English but in any language. As human beings, we can put sentences togethereven as children — we can all do grammar.

But to be able to talk about how sentences are built, about the types of words and wordgroups that make up sentences — that is knowing about grammar. And knowing aboutgrammar offers a window into the human mind and into our amazingly complexmentalcapacity."(Nordquist, 2019)

Activity 4Following on from Nordquist’s thoughts above and to start off your work in this unit, wethought it useful for you to try out how much you might already know about grammarand also the grammar of the Scots language.

Part 1

First, listen to a short passage in Scots, and while listening, think about any particulargrammatical features that stand out to you. As a second step, read the passageyourself and then compare your version with our model – as always, if you are not aScots speaker, try to imitate the pronunciation and sentence stress of our speaker.Voice Recorder is not available in this format.

Part 2

Think about the grammar of this passage and highlight the features can you spot thatare not used in formal Standard English. How many of these features would you useyourself?Your answer will depend on where you come from. Not all of these features are usedall over Scotland. Some are common and there is one that could be considered a bittoo ahead of its time to be widely accepted. Each of these features will be discussed inthis unit and the answer will point you to the relevant sections.

Interactive content is not available in this format.

17.1 Why grammar?



AnswerFind out more on the specific features highlighted in the passage in the followingsections:

● A, ye, wir – pronouns – for more information see section 3. Some widespreadfeatures of Scots grammar;

● -nae, nivver – negatives – for more information see section 3.;● Wis – personal pronouns – for more information see section 4. Some regional

features on Northern Personal Pronoun Rule;● -in – participle endings of verbs – for more information see section 4. Some

regional features on Present participle and verbal nouns;● no – negatives – for more information see section 3.;● nor – comparisons – for more information see section 3.;● the – articles – for more information see section 3. on Determiners;● says – tense forms of verbs – for more information see section 3. on Narrative

present tense;● -it – tense forms of verbs endings – for more information see section 3. on Past

tenses;● een – noun – for more information see section 3.

17.1 Why grammar?



17.2 Some widespread features of ScotsgrammarA key feature of this unit is to show you that the speakers of a language make its grammar– not the grammar books and the people who write them. Remember that grammar isflexible and fluid, it changes with the way in which speakers use their language.That is why you will come across questions where we ask about your opinion – and onhow you as the speaker use the language, or consider it used well.In addition, you will be able to listen to and record yourself speaking many examplescontaining different grammatical features of Scots, which will help you get used to howScots grammar works and how Scots words are used in their grammatical context.

I. Negativesa) To make a negative, add to the relevant verb:-nae (e.g. West Central, East Central South) or-na (e.g. North East, Shetland) where English speakers would use -n’t:Examples:Voice Recorder is not available in this format.Voice Recorder is not available in this format.b) Nivver is used in the sense of not to refer to one particular occasion. There is noemphasis intended.Examples:Voice Recorder is not available in this format.Voice Recorder is not available in this format.c) As in many regional varieties of English, and as was common in earlier times,double or triple negatives are often used to emphasise negativity rather thancancelling each other out.Examples:Voice Recorder is not available in this format.Voice Recorder is not available in this format.

II. Past tensesWhere English uses -ed to form a part tense or past participle, Scots often uses -it.Work with the examples below and make sure to read the transcript, which alsocontains important grammatical information.Examples:Voice Recorder is not available in this format.Voice Recorder is not available in this format.Voice Recorder is not available in this format.*Note that for these verbs, the past tense and the past participle have the same form.There are other verbs, like blaw, where they change: blaw, blew (past tense), blawn

17.2 Some widespread features of Scots grammar



(past participle). Over hundreds of years, verbs have been changing to make thegrammar more regular. So, in Scots it is also possible to use blawed for the past tenseand past participle.Compare English give, gave, given with Scots gie, gied, gied or gien. In this word,Scots would appear to have gone further along the road to simplification but this is notalways the case. For example, you will hear the past tenses dove (dived) and jamp(jumped) in some parts of Scotland.As well as making more verbs end in -ed or -it, another way of simplifying verbs is tomake the past tense and the past participle the same. A seen and A done areexamples of simplification in progress. See, saw, seen may eventually become seeseen seen if enough people accept and actively use it.

Language simplification – innovation or bad grammar?What do you think – should we consider these changes in relation to the simplification ofgrammatical forms as innovation or bad grammar? Why? Remember, some people deemmore complex grammar a sign of ‘good language’, whereas others think a language is goodwhen its grammar is relatively simple and thus easier to use by its speakers and peoplelearning it as a foreign language.

III. Narrative Present TenseThis grammatical feature is often used to bring vividness into a story. Note that theendings are not the same as in the ordinary present tense. The narrative present tensehas an -s ending for every verb in the sentence/text, whereas in the normal presenttense this would only apply to the third person singular.Example:Voice Recorder is not available in this format.Voice Recorder is not available in this format.*(Chaucer used to do this in Middle English but this has disappeared from standardEnglish today).

IV. ComparisonsWhere English uses than to make comparisons, Scots is more likely to use nor.Example:Voice Recorder is not available in this format.




Language development – innovation or bad grammar?Strictly speaking, nor is a conjunction, like than. So just as an English grammar book wouldtell you to say “He is bigger than I (am)”, the more historically justifiable Scots form wouldsuggest He is bigger nor I. Is that what people really say? Do you feel there is anythingwrong with He is bigger nor me? Remember it is people who make grammar rules, notbooks.

Activity 5You are now going to test your understanding of the four grammatical features ofScots: negatives, past tenses, narrative present tense and comparisons. To doso, you will work with extracts from two texts you have already come across in thiscourse. Highlight any instances of any of the four grammatical features in the twoextracts.

Part 1


Discussion*This extract contains examples of negatives and past tenses – note also a past tensewith the ending –t in wandert, where the ‘i’ has been left out of the past tense ending asit would not be pronounced. There is also one example of a comparison with nor.




Part 2


Discussion*This extract includes examples of negatives and narrative present tense.




17.3 Some widespread features of Scotsgrammar – continued

V. DeterminersDeterminers are words like a, the, this, my, one. They turn cat sat on mat into a well-formed sentence:

“The cat sat on a mat.”

Here are examples using cat and mat to show how determiners add variety andspecificity to sentences:

Ma cat sat on yer mat.Fower cats sat on twa mats.Nae cat sat on ony mat.

a) Scots uses these words where Standard English uses them less often or not at all.Work with the examples below and read the transcript, which contains the translationof the sentences.Examples:Voice Recorder is not available in this format.Voice Recorder is not available in this format.Voice Recorder is not available in this format.

17.3 Some widespread features of Scots grammar – continued



Voice Recorder is not available in this format.Voice Recorder is not available in this format.b) The plural of this in Scots is thir. This may be an example of Old Norse influence.The plural of that is thay or thae straight from Old English.c) If this refers to something close and that refers to something further away, Scots hasan extra option, thon or yon, for something or someone even more remote in space ortime.

VI. Plural of nounsMost of the time, Scots makes a noun plural by adding –s or –es (twa dugs, matches)but there are also nouns where Scots has kept an older form such as –en. This onlysurvives in Standard English in oxen. In Scots, we have een (ee + en, eyes) and shinor sheen (shae/shee + -en, shoes). In some dialects, such as Ulster Scots, we have an–er plural in childer where Standard English and many Scots dialects have both an –erand an –en plural, hence children.

VII. PronounsPersonal pronouns show some regional variation.

a. The most widespread subject forms are: A or I; ye or you; he, she, it or hit in thesingular; we; ye or you or youse; and thay or they in the plural.

b. Object forms are: me; ye or you or youse; him, her, it or hit; us or wis; ye or you oryouse; and thaim or them.

c. Possessive forms are:my orma; your or yer; his, her, its or hits; oor or wir; your oryer; thair or their.*Note that ye and wir are less likely to be used in a stressed or emphatic context.

d. Reflexive pronouns: Scots forms reflexive pronouns in a regular fashion byusing the possessive pronoun + sel throughout: for example masel ‘myself’,yersel yourself’, hissel ‘himself’, and oorsels or wirsels ‘ourselves’.

e. Relative pronouns: The interrogative or relative pronouns are wha (who) andwham (whom) as in Scots wham Bruce has aft-times led. Wham in Scots, likewhom in English is now rarely used by young speakers.

Activity 6In this activity you will apply what you have learned about determiners, plural ofnouns and pronouns in Scots. You are going to work again with two texts you havecome across in the course before: Christina Costie’s poem ‘Speech’ and MargaretLaidlaw’s famous quote about her songs being spoiled by being printed in theMinstrelsy by Scott.

Part 1

Christina Costie ‘Speech’ – Find all examples of plurals of nouns, pronouns anddeterminers in this extract.





Discussion* Note the spelling sheu for ‘she’, which reflects the Orkadian dialect of Scots and isnot a very commonly used spelling for this pronoun.

Part 2

Margaret Laidlaw’s complaint to Walter Scott - find all examples of pronouns andplurals of nouns in this quote.





17.4 Some regional features

I. Auxiliary VerbsAn auxiliary verb is an extra verb that supports the main verb in some way. We use theverb to be as an auxiliary as in he wis rinnin, the verb to hae as in He haes boakit onthe carpet, or the verb to dae in questions and negatives: He gaed > Did he gae? Hedidna gae. There is a special group of auxiliary verbs called the modal auxiliaries (will,wad, may, micht, can, cuid, shall, shuid, maun, yaised tae). They can carry a lot ofmeaning. Compare I can bile an egg with I micht bile an egg or I shuid bile an egg, (butI’m no daein it).Particularly in Ulster Scots and in the Edinburgh and the Hawick dialects, you will hearcombinations of modal auxiliary verbs which would sound odd to speakers fromelsewhere. These ‘double modals’ are well established features of the grammar ofthese regions. Work with the examples below and read the transcript, which containsthe translation of the sentences.Voice Recorder is not available in this format.Voice Recorder is not available in this format.

II. Subject/verb agreementYou may notice something different about this sentence compared to how it wouldsound in the English language:

Its springs wis hingin oot, twa legs wis aff it.

Springs and legs are plural but the verb wis looks singular. To complicate matters, thesame speaker might also say:

They are hingin oot and they are aff it.

This is an example of the Northern Personal Pronoun Rule. This too is a survivalfrom an earlier period. This requires verbs to end in -s even when the subject is plural(compare Scots the babies sleeps with Standard English the babies sleep) unless thepronoun is plural and is placed immediately beside the verb, so:

the babies sleeps but they sleep

Activity 7In this activity, you will test your understanding of the subject-verb-agreement rulerelating to the Northern Personal Pronoun Rule. Listen to the example and thendecide whether the explanation for the use of the verb with or without an –s ending istrue or false.

Part 1

Voice Recorder is not available in this format.




lowps has an –s ending as dugs is not a personal pronoun¡ True¡ False

Part 2

Voice Recorder is not available in this format.They is a personal pronoun and it is right next to the verb lowp, the verb therefore doesnot need an –s ending.¡ True¡ False

Part 3

Voice Recorder is not available in this format.We wha daes: There is an –s ending used, as we is a personal pronoun but it is not thesubject of gets.¡ False¡ True(We is a personal pronoun and it is the subject of gets, but they are not adjacent.)wir hame sume gets guid merks: There is an –s ending used as wha is the subject ofdaes but it is a relative pronoun not a personal pronoun.¡ True¡ False

This all sounds very complicated, but the fact that people with no knowledge of formalgrammar get the Northern Personal Pronoun Rule right tells you something important.The speakers are the real experts – not the people who write books about it. This is farfrom a universal feature of Scots and even the people who use it in their dialect often driftinto a more standard English form.

III. Northern Personal PronounThe Northern Personal Pronoun Rule is a historical feature once common across theNorth of England as well as in Scotland. When you find a sentence like They gets aaaffrontit – where the -s form appears with an adjacent person pronoun – it may look asif the rule is being broken. On these occasions, however, it may be that a narrativepresent tense is being used.

IV. Present participles and verbal nounsThe present participle is the part of the verb that we use after the verb to be in so-called progressive constructions such as:

I am rinnin. He wis walkin.

You can also use it like an adjective:

the drippin tap, the bilin kettle.




In Modern Scots it usually ends with –in but a few hundred years ago, it used to endwith –and:

I am rinnand. He wes walkand.

V. DeterminersThe verbal noun also ends with –in for Modern Scots. It is called a verbal nounbecause, although it is part of a verb, it behaves like a noun. It often comes after adeterminer:

A’m here for the singin His singin wad turn milk soor.

It can be the subject of a sentence:

The singin wis braw.

It can be the object of a sentence:

We heard the singin.

Subjects and objects are usually nouns or pronouns. The verbal noun ended with –ingfor a very long time.

Activity 8Read the list of examples of older Scots and highlight the verbal nouns and presentparticiples.


DiscussionNote:

● war sportand (were sporting) sportand is a present participle● my begynning (my beginning) verbal noun after a possessive (compare my end,

your book)● variand windis (varying winds) present participle being used as an adjective as

opposed to: The winds are varying.● your slomering (your slumbering) verbal noun after a possessive● syttand on thair nestis present participle being used an adjective to describe

birdis.

This is the stage that many Scots speakers were still at only a generation or two ago.Again, speakers who had never heard of a verbal noun or a present participle made thedistinction in their speech and got it right all the time. Now this distinction only survives inOrkney and Shetland, and among older speakers in isolated pockets elsewhere. Todaywe can see how often and becomes an and -ing becomes -in.




It is therefore not surprising that the old verbal noun ending -ing became -in and the oldpresent participle ending -and became -an. We can hear all the time how vowels inunstressed syllables become pronounced less clearly, so for the rest of us, the twoendings have long since collapsed together with no distinction. Indeed, the -ng sound haseven been extended by analogy to the English present participle, where historically it doesnot belong.

VI. Personal Pronouns and polite forms of addressThe first person pronoun is usually A in the Central Belt, but as you move up the EastCoast you are more likely to hear I. The second person plural is often youse in UlsterScots and West Central Scots and this feature is spreading. It seems that we are notaltogether content with you for both the singular and plural second person.Historically, thou (thee, thy) was second person singular and ye (you, your) wassecond person plural. Then it became fashionable throughout Europe to use thesingular form to address social inferiors, children, people you knew very well or peoplethat you did not know very well and wished to insult. The plural form was used to showrespect and formality. Scots was no exception and we followed similar rules to thosewhich still operate in French (tu, vous) and German (du, Sie) today.One theory for thou falling out of use in Scotland (and England) could be that the rulesbecame too cumbersome and confusing, so everyone went with the safe, polite option.The exception is in Shetland where du, dee and dy are still used for the intimateinformal singular.




17.5 Good Scots

The lack of a grammar book in Scots has certain advantages. It means that no singledialect is socially dominant; all speakers of Scots, whatever their age and whatever theirplace of origin bring something to the grammar of their community. The downside is thatthere is a commonly held notion that Scots grammar is somehow substandard.If we had the same academic resources for Scots grammar, such as the Dictionary of theScots Language provides for vocabulary, the historical origins and creative innovation ofScots grammar could be viewed in a more balanced way.Among the socially disparaged Scots usages are thae, the plural of that. As we haveseen, survivals include the determiner thae as a plural of that and –in as the ending of thepresent participle and verbal noun. For all that these may be ‘bad English’ they areundoubtedly ‘good Scots’, with thae going back as far as Old English and -ing for thepresent participle being unhistorical even in English (the Old English ending was -ende).Other older forms include multiple negatives; the operation of the Northern PersonalPronoun Rule; and the survival of the singular form of the second person pronoun as du(dee dy) in Shetland. Ongoing innovations include the simplification of verbs so that pasttenses and past participles have the same form (I seen it, I have seen it).We can also see that Scots features, like the use of the Northern Personal Pronoun Ruleand distinct forms of the verbal noun (-in) and present participle (-an) are being erodedunder the influence of English – the language from which most Scots absorb notions of‘good and bad’ grammar.The grammar of the Northern Isles provides many instances of conservative constructionswith long pedigrees and contrasts with the more anglicised Central Belt. Even here, manyfeatures of Scots grammar survive. Yet, because most Scots speakers drift betweenEnglish and Scots in their speech, increasing the English in more formal speech orconversing with strangers, a single speaker may use both Scots and English forms.Even when speaking Scots, familiarity with English forms may erode his or her Scotsgrammar even when Scots vocabulary is being used.

You might now want to try reading and listening to more and longer Scots texts. Forexample, you could start by reading the iconic Scots language comics Oor Wullie andThe Broons, published initially in The Sunday Post newspaper from Dundee. Reading andlistening to Scots is an ideal strategy to help you get used to not only the sound of thelanguage and the vocabulary but also how the words are put together in sentences andlonger passages.

17.5 Good Scots


https://www.dctmedia.co.uk/brands/oor-wullie/

https://www.dctmedia.co.uk/brands/the-broons/


17.5 Good Scots



17.6 What I have learned

Activity 9Before finishing your work on this unit, please revisit what you worked on in Activity 1,where we asked you to take some notes on what you already knew in relation to thekey learning point of the unit.

Display of content entered previously

Compare your notes from before you studied this unit with what you have learned hereand add to these notes as you see fit to produce a record of your learning.Here are the key learning points again for you as a reminder:

● survivals from Old English or Middle English● the ways in which the grammar continues to change● regional variation in grammar● variation even in a single speaker.

17.6 What I have learned



Further researchYou may want to explore an exciting new resource, the Scots Syntax Atlas developed byresearchers at the University of Glasgow, charting the richness and diversity of Scotland’slocal dialects, in terms of their vocabulary but also their grammatical structures.Encompassing “fit like” of north-east Scotland, “gonnae no” in Glasgow, and “I might cando” from the Borders, the atlas offers a means of tracing the development of local speechpatterns. For example, the influence of Irish immigration can be heard in GlaswegianScots phrases such as “She’s after locking us out”.You can explore features of Scots grammar further in Clive Young’sThe Scots Learner’s Grammar online resource, which focuses on modern use of Scotsand provides a wealth of useful examples. Also available as in PDF format.This is the Scottish Language Dictionaries home site, the organisation responsible for theDictionary of the Scots Language. The pages in this link provide an introduction for thenewcomer to grammar and/or Scots.The Shetland ForWirds website provides an ideal model for a case study. It is particularlyinteresting to see how many older grammatical constructions have survived.These pages by Caroline Macafee incorporating material by A J Aitken, in the Dictionaryof the Scots Language website provide a full descriptive grammar of Older Scots (to 1700)and its origins.This site recognises the diversity of dialects and the fact that there is a continuumbetween shared Scots/English forms and densely Scots forms. It comes with the caveatthat it “concentrates wholly on the Traditional Scots end of that speech continuum.”

Now go on to Unit 18: Literature – poetry.

ReferencesNordquist, R. (2019) ‘Why Grammar is a Timeless Subject to Study and Teach’,ThoughtCo., 25 July [Online]. Available athttps://www.thoughtco.com/why-does-grammar-matter-1691029 (Accessed 6/12/19).Robinson, C. (2012) Modren Scots Grammar, Edinburgh Luath.Robinson, P. (1997) Ulster Scots A Grammar of the Traditional Written and SpokenLanguage, The Ullans Press.

AcknowledgementsEvery effort has been made to contact copyright holders. If any have been inadvertentlyoverlooked the publishers will be pleased to make the necessary arrangements at the firstopportunity.Grateful acknowledgement is made to the following sources:

Further research


https://scotssyntaxatlas.ac.uk/

http://scotshaunbuik.co.uk/wp/?page_id=765

http://scotshaunbuik.co.uk/wp/wp-content/uploads//SHGremmar-1.4.1.pdf

http://www.scotsdictionaries.org.uk/Scots/Grammar/index.html

https://www.shetlanddialect.org.uk/grammar

http://www.dsl.ac.uk/about-scots/history-of-scots/grammar/

https://www.scots-online.org/grammar/index.php

https://www.thoughtco.com/why-does-grammar-matter-1691029


Photograph of tools: Biser Todorov - https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Rusty_-tools.JPG - This file is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution Licence http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/Mousa Broch: Image released into the public domain by its author, Langus - https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Mousa_broch.jpgNordquist quote: Nordquist, R. (2019) 'Why Grammar Is a Timeless Subject to Study andTeach', ThoughtCo. August 20 2019. https://www.thoughtco.com/why-does-grammar-matter-1691029Footprints image: Michael Coghlan - https://www.flickr.com/photos/89165847@N00/18673933103 - This file is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-Share AlikeLicence http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/2.0/Photograph of a cat: Rob - https://www.flickr.com/photos/7928282@N08/1130446070 -This file is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-Non-commercial-NoDerivatives Licence http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/2.0/Christina Costie ‘Speech’: 'Speech' by Christina McKay Costie. Used with permission ofNancy Scott.Oor Wullie statue: Dr. Sylvia Warnecke

Acknowledgements



Unit 17: Grammar · Introduction What is grammar? One way to think about it, is as a set of general...

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