1.11 Heat and Radiation

In this section, we will look at the effects of exposure to extremes of temperature (hot & cold) and the preventative measures.

1.11.1 Heat

Heat can be more than uncomfortable. It can be dangerous and even deadly. Summer weather is a common cause of heat problems. Workers are also exposed to heat in boiler rooms, laundry facilities, and confined spaces and during welding or brazing. Too much heat can cause a number of health problems.

Health Effects.

Being exposed to heat can cause any of the following symptoms:

Heat rash, also known as prickly heat.

Heat cramps - these are painful muscle spasms. The cramps are usually felt in the arms, legs and stomach area. They usually occur after sweating heavily and not drinking enough liquids.

Heat exhaustion - symptoms include tiredness, dizziness, clammy skin, heavy sweating, loss of appetite, nausea and pain in the stomach area. These symptoms are brought on when the body loses too much fluid (dehydration) during hard physical labour.

Heat Stroke – this occurs when the body can no longer cool itself. The person's skin becomes hot and red or blotchy, and their body temperature is as high as 41°C degrees or more. Heat stroke can cause

a person to lose consciousness and go into a coma. Heat Stroke Can Kill. Heat stroke is a condition that needs immediate medical attention.

Other effects of exposure include heart disease. Workers also become less alert and are more likely to injure themselves or others.

_____ Symptoms include tiredness, dizziness, clammy skin, heavy sweating, loss of appetite, nausea and pain in the stomach area.

1.   ?   Heat stroke2.   ?   Heat cramps3.   ?   Heat exhaustion

4.   ?   Heat rash

1.11.2

Measuring Heat Hazards

Knowing the temperature is only part of figuring out if it is too hot. The effects of heat increase when it is humid or when there is no breeze.

A Wet Bulb Globe Temperature device gives a reading based on heat, humidity and wind speed, and provides a more accurate measure of the effects of heat on the body.

1.11.3

Controlling Heat Hazards

Engineering Controls.

Ventilation and air conditioning.

Air conditioning can eliminate heat hazards in buildings and vehicles. Areas with machines such as ovens, dryers and other equipment that cause heat need exhaust systems to remove the extra heat that is produced.

Work Practices (Administrative Controls).

The following changes can protect workers from heat:

Scheduling: Do the hottest work during early morning, evening or night hours, or on cooler days.

Job rotation: Divide heavy and hot work among more workers.

Breaks: Take breaks, preferably in an air-conditioned area or at least a shady place.

Drink fluids: Replace the fluids that are lost through sweating. Avoid drinks that contain caffeine and alcohol. Caffeine and alcohol make you lose more fluids.

Get used to heat gradually: Workers need a chance to get used to heat (acclimatization). At first, work in hot environments should be limited to short periods. The amount of time that workers spend in the heat should be increased gradually.

Personal Protective Equipment.

Light-coloured clothing should be worn. Cooling vests provide some protection for jobs like highway repair and working on boilers and in steam tunnels.

1.11.4 Cold

Health Effects.

Frostbite: As the body tries to prevent heat loss, less blood

reaches the surface. Hands and feet become numb and the skin freezes. Severe frostbite may require amputating the affected parts.

Hypothermia: This is a condition that results from being in cold

weather or submerged in cold water. The body can no longer create heat, causing dizziness, fatigue, and can lead to unconsciousness and death.

Trench foot: Long periods of exposure to wet and cold

conditions can cause severe nerve and muscle damage in the feet.

Eye injuries: Workers can become snow blind and the cold can

cause the cornea to freeze.

Controlling - Cold Hazards.

The following steps can protect workers from the cold:

Give workers frequent rest periods in a warm area. Provide clothing designed to keep cold and wind out

and allow heat and perspiration to escape. The body loses heat quickly when clothes are wet.

Workers should wear layers of vented clothing, insulated gloves and footwear.

Where possible, build barriers around the worksite to block the wind.

Supply workers with warm beverages that do not contain caffeine or alcohol.

Keep vehicles in good running order. Workers can be exposed to extreme cold for long periods if they get stranded in vehicles that break down.

1.11.5 Radiation

In this section we will be looking at both Ionizing and non-ionizing Radiation. A brief overview of the two is below:

Radiation is physical energy that moves in a wave-like motion. X-rays, the light we can see from the sun or a light bulb, microwaves, and radio waves are all forms of radiation.

Figure 1 shows the wave-like motion of radiation. The distance from the top of one wave to the top of the next wave is the wavelength. The frequency is the number of waves that pass each second, or cycles. Frequency, or the number of cycles, is measured in units called Hertz (Hz). One Hz is equal to one cycle per second.

Common types of radiation are shown in Figure 2. The differences can be compared to the display on a radio. The frequencies of different types of radiation are shown from highest to lowest. As shown in Figure 1, radiation is divided into two kinds, ionizing and non-ionizing.

IONISING RADIATION Ionizing radiation is strong enough to change the structure of atoms.

X-rays are the best-known type of ionizing radiation.

Note that under some circumstances ultra-violet radiation may cause ionization, though it is usually considered to be non-ionizing.

1.11.6 Ionizing Radiation

Health effects of ionizing radiation.

Exposure to ionizing radiation can be serious or even deadly. The type of effect depends on the strength of the radiation, the length of exposure, and the part of the body exposed. The main health effects include:

cancer of the skin, breast, lung, digestive organs, blood (leukemia) and other sites;

infertility due to changes in the genes and chromosomes in men or women;

birth defects;

Radiation sickness, a short-term effect that includes loss of appetite and nausea.

Finding sources of ionizing radiation at work.

Workers should be informed about all equipment that uses X-rays and other forms of ionizing radiation. In addition to training, workers should be aware of radiation hazards through:

labeling and warning signs;

monitors that measure the amount of radiation being emitted by equipment,

and/or

Radiation badges worn by workers to measure each employee's exposure.

1.11.7 Radiation UnitsUnits of measurement for radioactivity and radiation doses.

In SI units, the activity of a radioactive source is measured in Becquerel’s (symbol Bq), where one Becquerel is equal to one nuclear disintegration per second (an older unit is the curie).

The exposure is measured in coulombs per kilogram (C kg−1); the amount of ionizing radiation (X-rays or gamma rays) that produces one coulomb of charge in one kilograms of dry air (replacing the roentgen).

The absorbed dose of ionizing radiation is measured in grays (symbol Gy) where one Gray is equal to one joule of energy being imparted to one kilograms of matter (the rad is the previously used unit).

The dose equivalent, which is a measure of the effects of radiation on living organisms, is the absorbed dose multiplied by a suitable factor that depends upon the type of radiation.

It is measured in sieverts (symbol Sv), where one sievert is a dose equivalent of one joule per kilogram (an older unit is the rem).

Ionizing Radiation in the Workplace

Type of ….Radiation Source of Exposure

X-ray X-ray machines in medical and dental settings; XRF lead-based paint detectors; machines to check welds.

Beta and Alpha Medical implants; nuclear reactors.

1.11.8 Video: Radiation explained

1.11.9

Preventing Exposure to Ionizing Radiation.Engineering Control.

Properly shield and maintain equipment that uses radiation

.

Isolate radioactive equipment in restricted access areas.

Install switches to turn on equipment from another room.

Work Practices.

Move workers as far away from radiation sources as possible. The strength and, therefore, the danger of radiation decreases as workers move away from it.

Workers should not hold patients during X-rays. Use film holders. If a child needs to be held, a family member should do it.

Identify patients with radioactive implants. Wear badges to measure exposure to radiation.

Pregnant workers should not be exposed to radiation. They should be transferred to other jobs without loss of pay, seniority or other rights or benefits.

1.11.10 Ionizing Radiation, - principles of control

The three governing principles are:

every practice resulting in exposure to ionizing radiation shall be justified by the advantages produced;

exposures should be kept as low as reasonably practicable/achievable (ALARA);

Doses shall not exceed certain limits.

Expanding on these three principles:

Every practice resulting in exposure to ionizing radiation shall be justified by the advantages produced.

An assessment is required to balance the benefits achieved against the risks to health of those involved in the process.

This will be achieved by an appropriate combination of:

Engineering controls, such as shielding the source;

Increasing the source ↔ operator distance;

Personal protective equipment , properly chosen, used and maintained (PPE will be required when handling unsealed sources or clearing up after an accident);

Implementation of efficient and logical working and maintenance procedures, perhaps involving the use of permits to work;

Safety features and devices such emergency trip systems, good signposting and audible/visible warning signals;

Prohibition of drinking and eating in a controlled area;

Prohibition of directly holding sources in the hand.

1.11.11 Ionizing Radiation, principles of control.

Doses shall not exceed certain limits.

In workplaces where ionizing sources are in use, it is necessary to designate areas of the workplace: controlled areas for higher levels of radiation and supervised areas for lower levels.

The UK Regulations define three categories of person: radiation protection adviser (RPA), qualified person and radiation protection supervisor (RPS), who must be competent to undertake the necessary work.

The Role of the RPS.

The RPS has a crucial role to play in helping to ensure compliance with the arrangements made by the radiation employer under IRR99 and, in particular, supervising the arrangements set out in local rules. The legal responsibility for supervision, however, remains with the radiation employer.

The RPS will generally be an employee of the radiation employer. They will usually be in a line management position, closely involved with the work being done, to allow them to exercise sufficient supervisory authority.

In some situations, for example where a contractor is undertaking work on the site of another employer, it may be appropriate to appoint one of that site employer's employees as the RPS.

Such an appointment might be appropriate where the site employer is a radiation employer and the contractor rarely undertakes work with ionizing radiation and may need to be confirmed by suitable contractual arrangements.

It may not always be necessary for an RPS to be present all the time. In deciding how many RPS's are required, the radiation employer will need to take account of the range and complexity of the work that is subject to local rules and the number of different locations to be covered.

In some large establishments, the RPS may not be the immediate line manager or supervisor overseeing the work with ionizing radiation. In these cases, a system should operate which may involve more than one person, to ensure that adequate supervision is maintained.

In all cases, the radiation employer should provide sufficient resources and managerial support to allow the RPS to operate effectively.

1.11.12 Non-ionizing RadiationNon-ionizing radiation is not as strong as Ionizing radiation. However, non-Ionizing radiation can have serious health effects.

Preventing exposure to non-ionizing radiation.

Properly shield and maintain equipment that gives off non-Ionizing radiation.

Move workers away from sources of radiation.

Wear glasses with UVR filter lenses. Cover skin or use sunscreen when working outdoors.

1.11.13 Very Low Frequency (VLF), Extremely Low Frequency (ELF), and Electromagnetic

Very low frequency and extremely low frequency electromagnetic fields are also forms of non-ionizing radiation. Power lines, electrical wiring and electrical equipment such as computers produce these types of EMF’s.

Researchers have been studying many different occupations and types of electric equipment to see what the risks might be. For example, studies have been done to see if those who work around power lines have increased rates of leukemia, brain or other cancers.

There has also been concern that working all day with computers may cause miscarriages or birth defects. The evidence at this time does not show that radiation from video display terminals causes reproductive problems.

Unfortunately, questions about the health effects of EMF’s have not been fully answered. More research is needed on the health risks of EMF’s.

Non-ionizing Radiation in the Workplace

Type of Radiation

Sources of Exposure

Health Effects

Ultraviolet Radiation (UVR) (low intensity).

Sunlight and artificial lightfrom fluorescent andincandescent bulbs.

Sunburn, skin cancer, cataracts.

Ultraviolet Radiation (UVR) (high intensity).

Welding. Damage to eye ("welder's flash" or ''arc-eye'').

Infrared Radiation (IRR).

Foundries hot work. Cataracts.

Microwave/radio.

Microwave equipment and telecommunication equipment. 

cataracts, can interfere with pacemakers

And other medical devices.

Immune disorders.

Laser.

Laser equipment, e.g. metal

Cutting.

Damage to eyes and skin.

1.11.14 Non-ionizing Radiation SpectrumAs we have said, non-ionizing radiation is made up of low frequency,

long wavelength and low energy electromagnetic waves.

It includes ultraviolet light, visible light, infrared light, radio frequency, very-low and extra-low frequency radiation.

Manufactured sources include

photocopiers; welding equipment; TV, radio and telecommunication transmission towers; mobile phones; microwaves; visual display units; Power lines.

Non-ionizing Radiation Spectrum

Long waves/low frequency ---------> shorter waves/higher frequency

Extra Low(ELF) Very Low(VLF)

Low Radio Frequency

Infrared(IR)

Visible Light

Ultraviolet

TV & computer screen fields, electric power supply, communication services.

TV & Radio transmissions, Microwave, mobile phones.

Radar.

Document copying, Electric welding, sunlight.

Lasers.

Protecting employees from

EMF’s

Employees should not be treated like guinea pigs.

Efforts should be made to reduce exposure to EMFs until more research answers questions about health risks. A policy of prudent avoidance means avoiding exposure to EMFs because the risks are unknown. Exposure to EMFs can be reduced by shielding and grounding electrical equipment, and/or moving people away from equipment and sources of EMF. For example, the source of EMFs in a Visual Display Terminal is the fly back transformer located in the back of the monitor. The radiation is strongest in the back and side of the monitor. Computer operators should be at least four feet away from the back or sides of other workers' machines.

Ultraviolet Radiation, Infrared Radiation and Microwave/radio are all examples of

1.   ?   Non-Ionizing Radiation

2.   ?   Ionizing Radiation

1.12 StressWhat is stress?

The HSE defines stress as "the adverse reaction people have to excessive pressure or other types of demand placed on them".

Pressure is part and parcel of all work and helps to keep us motivated. However, excessive pressure can lead to stress which undermines performance, is costly to employers and can make people ill.

Why do we need to tackle stress?

The HSE-commissioned research has indicated that:

about half a million people in the UK experience work-related stress at a level they believe is making them ill;

up to 5 million people in the UK feel "very" or "extremely" stressed by their work;

Work - related stress costs society about £3.7 billion every year (at 1995/6 prices).

The key messages on stress are:

Work-related stress is a serious problem. Tackling it effectively can result in significant benefits for organizations.

There are practical things organizations can do to prevent and control work-related stress.

The law requires organizations to take action.

Resources available on the HSE's website include:

HSE's Management Standards for Stress, and how to use them The Live Issues page, which features latest news on stress at work Details of HSE's published guidance on tackling work-related stress HSE's online Stress Solutions Discussion Group - a forum for organizations

to share good practice in stress prevention A selection of case studies and an example of a stress policy Details of HSE's research on stress at work Advice for individuals and managers of individuals suffering from stress-

related ill-health

1.12.1 Stress

Stress, while not as obvious as safety problems, noise or exposure to toxic chemicals, can cause serious health problems. Stress increases when the worker has little control over his or her work. A little stress is not bad, but continuous stress can have serious health effects on workers.

People have very different abilities to deal with stress. What may be stressful or very upsetting to one person may not be so to another.

Nevertheless, it is important for people who work under stressful conditions to realize that stress on the job is the body's natural response to poor working conditions. It is not caused by an individual's shortcomings and cannot be cured by being 'tough'.

Health Effects.

Workers suffering from repeated, prolonged or continuous job stress may experience:

Frequent headaches; Sleeplessness; Loss of appetite; Depression; Short temper; Backache; Stomach problems; Ulcers; High blood pressure; Heart disease and heart attacks.

Stress can also increase the risk of being injured on the job, weaken the body's resistance to disease and lead to marital problems, drug abuse and alcoholism.

Burnout is a severe reaction to job stress. Burnout is common for workers in occupations such as social work, day-care and health care who are in constant contact with clients or patients. These workers are not only exposed to stressful conditions, but also suffer from emotional over-stimulation. The resulting burnout leads to a sense of emptiness and loss of feelings, in addition to the other physical and psychological symptoms of stress.

1.12.2 Factors that Cause Stress (stressors)

Factors that cause stress at work include:

Physical and environmental conditions such as: poor, unsanitary or unsafe working conditions, lack of privacy, improper lighting, and poor ventilation and temperature control.

Psychological: harassment, inadequate job skills, role conflicts, conflict with co-workers and supervisors, and lack of adequate breaks.

Organizational: policies and procedures, schedules, deadlines, repetitive work, unreasonable workloads, inadequate pay and benefits.

Socio-cultural: lack of support from supervisors or co-workers, overly authoritative or crisis-centered management style.

Interpersonal: lack of respect, lifestyle, financial or family problems.

Work setting: lack of job security, lack of control over one's job.

1.12.3 Reducing Stress at Work

Poor working conditions are the primary cause of workplace stress. Stress Management techniques (such as meditation, muscle relaxation, etc.) are useful in treating the symptoms, not the causes of stress-related illnesses. The best way to reduce stress is to reduce the causes of stress in the workplace. The following steps should be taken.

Do a survey or talk to workers to define what aspects of the job cause stress.

Reduce the causes of stress. This may include increasing staff levels, reducing overtime, providing more rest time, reducing the frequency of shift rotations, improving physical working conditions.

Use Employee Assistance Programs (EAPs) to help workers deal with stress and other problems, whether at home or at work.

Stress Training and Reduction Workshops can teach techniques that can reduce the symptoms, but not the causes of stress-related illnesses. These techniques can be helpful to reduce some of the symptoms while the causes of stress are being addressed. Physical exercise, relaxation exercises, and making more time for families, hobbies and outside interests are important methods of stress reduction.

What are the health effects experienced by those suffering from stress?

1.   ?   High blood pressure2.   ?   All of the above3.   ?   Hear disease and heart attacks

4.   ?   Depression

1.13 Violence at Work

According to a UK crime survey of violence at work, workers in the protective services, for example police officers, are most at risk of violence at work. 14% of workers in protective services have experienced violence. Health and social welfare associate professionals, including nurses, medical and dental practitioners are also at relatively high risk: 5% experienced violence.

The UK Health and Safety Executive (HSE) defines work-related violence as: "Any incident in which a person is abused, threatened or assaulted in circumstances relating to their work. This can include verbal abuse or threats as well as physical attacks".

1.13.1 Effects of ViolenceAbusive or threatening incidents as well as injuries in the workplace often result in serious and disabling psychological damage. Victims of workplace violence also have an increased risk of post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD). PTSD is a disorder common among combat veterans and victims of terrorism, crimes, rape and other violent incidents.

Psychological trauma is a common outcome of violent incidents. Emotional problems include self-doubt, depression, fear, post-traumatic stress syndrome, loss of sleep, irritability, disturbed relationships with family, friends and co-workers, decreased ability to function at work and increased absenteeism.

Workers often blame themselves when they are injured in an assault, and inappropriate action by management often encourages this self-blame.

It is rare that these issues are dealt with effectively, even in the short term. But there is increasing evidence that victims and witnesses of violent incidents need long-term treatment to fully overcome these problems.

1.13.2 Preventing Violence

There is a very dangerous common myth that workplace violence is essentially random and unpredictable. According to this way of thinking, because violence cannot be predicted, we can't do anything about it.

The reality, however, is that violence can be predicted and prevented. Violence can be prevented even in workplaces that serve groups of the public who tend to be aggressive and violent.

In almost every situation, there are solutions. Some are easy, painless and cheap, while others are more difficult and expensive.

Solutions differ greatly from occupation to occupation, and from workplace to workplace. Nevertheless, there are measures that can make the work environment less dangerous, even in the most dangerous workplaces.

1.13.3 Identify the Conditions that Increase the Chances of Violence (Risk Factors).

Identifying risk factors involves looking at the work environment, work practices and victim and perpetrator characteristics.

Environmental risk factors that predict violence include:

a violent society; a violence-prone neighbourhood; the large number of weapons in circulation; early release of mental patients who have a history of violence; Hospitalization instead of incarceration of violent criminals.

Work practices associated with workplace violence include:

low staffing levels; working alone; working late at night or early in the morning; working with money or prescription drugs; long waits for services by customers, clients or patients; The lack of available services.

Victim characteristics include:

working in homes or in the community; handling money or prescription drugs; Working in correctional institutions or institutions for the mentally ill

or developmentally-disabled without adequate training in violence-avoidance or self – defense.

providing care, advice or information, such as health care workers, mental health workers, emergency-room and admission workers, and social services workers;

dealing with complaints, such as social service, child welfare and unemployment workers;

Having the authority to act against the public, inspect premises and enforce laws, such as inspectors, child welfare workers, law enforcement/corrections officers and security guards.

Characteristics of those who commit violence (perpetrator characteristics) include:

Persons with a history of violent behavior; Criminal gang members; The mentally ill; 

Relatives of injured persons; Drug/alcohol abusers.

1.13.4 Eliminate or Reduce Risks.

As with other health and safety problems, first try to eliminate the problem. If this is not possible, then attempt to engineer or build the problem out of the workplace. Finally, change administrative procedures.

Try to remove the problem:

Mental health and social service workers are frequently assaulted by patients or residents in health care or social service facilities; patients or residents who should be in jails or forensic facilities.

Engineering controls that can provide protection:

Metal detectors (stationary or hand-held); Changing office design to provide escape routes for employees; Panic alarms; Bullet-proof glass; Entrance controls in certain parts of the building; Closed-circuit TV cameras; Restricting entrance to a facility after dark; Mobile phones for field personnel.

Administrative controls that can reduce risks:

Additional staffing; A ban on working alone; Recording accidents, verbal abuse and near-misses; Training in defusing violent situations or in self-defense.

Post-Incident Procedures:

NOTE: Training as the sole safety programme element will create an impossible responsibility on the worker for safety and security for him or herself, colleagues or other clients. Other programme elements must always accompany training.

Persons trained to treat people exposed to violent incidents should be called in immediately after an incident has taken place.

Procedures such as critical incident debriefing and sometimes long-term counseling may be appropriate not just for victims of assaults, but also for witnesses or people doing similar jobs.

1.13.5

Worker-on-Worker Violence

Assaults or threats by one worker on another are very difficult issues to resolve.

It is important to attempt to discover the cause of a worker's threatening behaviour. Possible causes are:

A toxic workplace (high stress levels, abusive management, threatened layoffs, etc.);

drug or alcohol abuse; domestic problems (relationship, money, etc); Mental health problems.

Seek the help of a professional when there is a real risk of violence. Managers should not try to address potentially violent situations themselves.

It is useful to attempt to resolve these problems before the discipline and grievance process starts. Discipline and grievance procedures lead to winners and losers. The solution lies in getting help for the troubled worker, if possible. Employee assistance programmes (EAPs) can often be useful.

1.13.6

Workplace Violence Policies

Every workplace should have a workplace violence policy that contains a management statement that violence or threatening behaviour will not be tolerated, whether it comes from clients, customers, patients, inmates, colleagues or supervisors.

What to watch out for:

Profiles: The media and many consultants promote the use of profiles that put workers into categories that allegedly measure the likelihood that they will become violent. These profiles are not very

accurate and can be used by management to discriminate against employees.

Zero-Tolerance Policies: These call for the immediate termination of anyone violating the anti-violence policy. These often lack flexibility and can make workers reluctant to report incidents because they may feel that a colleague will be fired instead of helped.

Policies that do not apply to management. Policies that create committees that do not consult widely enough Policies that violate employees' contractual or due-process rights.

1.14 Shift WorkAs well as stress and violence, other factors that may contribute to

psychological health hazards includes shift work

Shift work (working hours outside the traditional work schedule) and rotating shifts places a great deal of stress (both physical and mental) on the worker. Shift work disrupts the natural 24-hour circadian rhythm that regulates all body functions.

Health effects of shift work.

Shift work can cause a variety of health problems:

Disturbed sleep: Many workers have difficulties maintaining sleep after the night shift and going to sleep before the morning shift. Shift workers may also suffer more fatigue than day workers. Being overly tired makes it difficult to concentrate, which increases the possibility of errors or injuries. This can be a risk both to the worker and to the public.

Interference with social and family life: Shift work can disrupt family and social life, resulting in psychological harm to the worker.

Behavioural effects: There is more use of alcohol, coffee and tobacco among shift workers. The stress of shift work can cause irritability, nervousness and bad tempers and may play a role in causing ulcers and heart disease.

Digestive problems: Some research has suggested that shift workers have more upset stomachs, constipation and stomach ulcers than day workers.

Heart problems also have been noted more often among shift workers than day workers.

1.14.1

Rotating Shifts

There are ways to make rotating shifts less harmful. Because of the human body's natural biological clock or circadian rhythms, the least disruptive is to change to the next later shift after a day or two off.

In other words, a day-afternoon-night shift rotation is better than a day-night-afternoon rotation.

A fast rotation (every two days, for example) should be avoided because it does not allow enough time to get used to night work.

Even where shift rotations are properly scheduled, prolonged shift work can place great strain on personal relationships for workers whose waking and working hours are out of synchronization with those of their family and friends.

In addition, shift workers may find that the quality of time that they spend with family and friends is unsatisfying because the worker's fatigue (from poor sleep or lack of sleep) prevents normal social activity.

Some workers just never adjust to shift work. Whenever possible, working the night shift should be voluntary and/or include provisions for employees who simply cannot adjust.

Improving Shift Work Schedules Minimize a permanent (fixed or non-rotating) night

shift. Most workers never get used to night shift because they go back to a daytime schedule on their days off. Also, some workers on fixed night shifts lose contact with the rest of the workers in the organization.

Keep consecutive night shifts to a minimum. Avoid quick shift changes. Some researchers suggest

that 48 hours should be the minimum between shifts. Schedule as many weekends off as possible. Avoid several days of work followed by four-to seven-

day mini- vacations. Keep long work shifts and overtime to a minimum. Consider different lengths for shifts. Heavier, more

boring work should be done during shorter shifts and lighter, more interesting work should be moved to longer shifts.

Flexi-time can be useful for those with child-care needs or a long commute time. Start and end times can be moved away from rush hour.

Keep the schedules regular and predictable. Workers should know their schedule well ahead of time, so they can plan their rest, child care and contact with family and friends.

Provide enough rest breaks for jobs requiring repetitive physical work.

Brief rest breaks each hour seem to be the best for recovery from muscle fatigue.

1.14.2 Video: Alcohol and Drugs at Work

_____ Health hazards include heat and cold, noise, radiation, electricity and other dangers.

1.   ?   Ergonomic2.   ?   Chemical3.   ?   Physical

4.   ?   Psychological

_____ Health hazards include Fatigue, Stress, Shift Work and Violence

1.

1.   ?   Psychological2.   ?   Chemical3.   ?   Physical

4.   ?   Ergonomic

_____ Health hazards include Manual Handling, Production Processes and arise from users of a Visual Display Unit (VDU).

1.   ?   Ergonomic2.   ?   Physical3.   ?   Chemical

4.   ?   Psychological

2.0

SummaryThis summary section will refer you back to the learning outcomes

and summarize the notes.

Explain the term 'ergonomics' and the contribution that ergonomic design can make to health, safety and efficiency at work

E rgonomics is a branch of science that aims to learn about human abilities and limitations and then apply that knowledge to improve people's interaction with products, systems and environments. Ergonomics is a relatively new branch of science which celebrated its 60th anniversary in 2009 but relies on research carried out in many other older established scientific areas, such as engineering, physiology and psychology.

It originated in World War 2, when scientists designed advanced new and potentially improved systems without fully considering the people who would be using them. It gradually became clear that systems and products would have to be designed to take account of many human and environmental factors if they were to be used safely and effectively. This awareness of people’s requirements resulted in the discipline of ergonomics.

Most people have heard of ergonomics and think it is something to do with seating or with the design of car controls and instruments. Whilst these subjects are covered by the science, its full scope encompasses much more.

Ergonomics is the application of scientific information concerning humans to the design of objects, systems and environment for human use.

Ergonomics comes into everything which involves people. Work systems, sports and leisure, health and safety should embody all ergonomics principles if well designed.

Identify work processes and practices that may give rise to musculoskeletal health problems (in particular work-related upper limb disorders -

WRULDs) and hand/arm vibration syndrome (HAVS)

Each of the risk factors described here can cause problems. However, it is usually the case that workers are exposed to more than one risk factor at a time.

Repetitive motion: This refers to performing the same motion or motion pattern every few seconds, or on a continuous basis for hours at a time.

Awkward posture: Whether standing or sitting, there is a neutral position for the back, neck, arms and hands. This is the position that puts the least amount of physical strain on the particular part of the body. Postures that differ from the neutral position increase stress on the body.

Overhead work twisted or bent back, bent wrists, squatting or stooping are examples of body positions and movements that cause problems.

Long periods of repetitive activity (duration): This is the amount of time workers perform a motion or movement pattern during the workday.

Lack of recovery time: Recovery is rest or a break from a risk factor. Forceful movement: This is the effort or pressure workers need to

perform various tasks. Forceful movements include lifting a heavy object, unscrewing a rusted bolt, or squeezing an object in your hand. Another type of force, known as contact stress, comes from pressure against a part of the body. For example, resting the wrists against the

sharp edge of a desk while working at a computer puts pressure on the wrists.

Vibration : Exposure to vibration can affect particular parts of the body, such as the hands, when using power tools. This is known as localized vibration. Workers who drive trucks or work with jackhammers are exposed to whole body vibration.

Uncomfortable environmental conditions: An uncomfortable environment can be dangerous as well as unpleasant. High temperature and humidity can make workers drowsy and less alert. Excessive noise damages hearing. Glare and bright lighting while working with computers can cause headaches and vision problems.

Stressful work organization: This refers to the way jobs are organized. These factors include staffing levels, scheduling workload and job pacing, electronic monitoring, performing monotonous tasks, and the amount of control workers have over how they perform their jobs. These are sometimes called psychosocial factors.

Identify common welfare and work environment requirements in the workplace;

Overview: The Welfare Regulations were made under Section 15 of the Health and Safety at Work Act and apply to virtually all workplaces - a notable exception being construction sites, although similar requirements are contained in the Construction (Health, Safety and Welfare) Regulations 1996, and farming and forestry land which is away from the main buildings.

R egulation 2 of the Welfare Regulations defines a "workplace" as "any premises or part of premises which are not domestic premises and are made available to any person as a place of work". This includes any place on the premises to which a person has access while at work. For example: rooms, lobbies, corridors, staircases, roads or other places used as a means of access or egress from a place of work or where facilities are provided for use in connection with the place of work other than a public road.

The requirements aim to ensure that workplaces meet the health and safety needs of each member of the workforce. Therefore, special consideration may need to be given to the needs of employees with disabilities. For example, several of the regulations require things to be "suitable for any person in respect of whom such things are so done or provided". This emphasizes, amongst other matters, that traffic routes, facilities and workstations which are used by persons with disabilities should be suitable for them to use.

R egulation 4 requires every employer to ensure that every workplace, modification, extension or conversion which is under his or her control, and where any of the employees work, complies with the requirements of the Regulations. Tenant employers are also responsible for ensuring that the workplace complies and that the required facilities are provided. Where facilities, such as sanitary conveniences and washing facilities, are provided by a landlord or a neighbouring business, the employer is still responsible for ensuring that they comply.

Describe the health effects associated with exposure to noise and suggest appropriate control measures;

The danger depends on how loud the noise is and how long you are exposed to it.

The damage builds up gradually and you may not notice changes from one day to another, but once the damage is done there is no cure. The effects may include:

sounds and speech may become muffled so that it is hard to tell similar sounding words apart, or to pick out a voice in a crowd;

permanent ringing in the ears (called tinnitus);

a distorted sense of loudness - sufferers may ask people to speak up, then complain that they are shouting;

Needing to turn up the television too loud, or finding it hard to use the telephone.

Reducing the risk of hearing damage and reducing noise exposure

The Regulations do not prescribe precise methods of noise control but recognize that many approaches will be valid depending on the circumstances. Some methods that could be used in your workplace are discussed below.

Control of noise at source - Vibration isolation

Noise is generated by vibration of a surface or a fluid flow. Any modification of this vibration will modify the noise generated. The first stage, therefore, is to identify the vibrations that are causing the most significant contribution to the noise.

For instance, the stiffness of a vibrating surface can be modified if the structure is altered by bolting or welding ribs on the surface. The size of the surface can also be reduced or the surface can be isolated from the remaining structure.

A bsorption

These materials, which are mainly porous in order to dissipate the sound energy, are normally applied to surfaces to eliminate sound reflection and reduce reverberant noise build-up within an enclosed

space. They are, for example, applied to the internal surfaces of equipment casings and noise enclosures for this purpose.

S ound insulation

These materials, which form a sound barrier, are applied to attenuate the level of sound being transmitted through a panel, duct, wall or partition. It is their mass effect which provides the noise reduction and this can in many cases be further increased by the lamination to the material of a spacing layer, often a sound absorption material.

D amping

Typical applications: chutes; hoppers; machine guards; panels; conveyors; Tanks.

S ilencers

Where the noise is caused by turbulent air or liquid flow in ductwork or at air exhausts or jets, these can be modified by reducing the velocity, fitting silencers and limiting pressures and flows to the minimum required. Doubling the air flow rate within a duct can increase the noise levels by up to 15 dB(A).

Aerodynamic noise can be generated by fans and air jets. The basic control technique here is to reduce the speed of the fan or the air jet

causing the air turbulence which is the source of the noise. However, with simple fan noise, it is often most economic to install a silencer.

M aintenance

Fans, even in small equipment such as office printers, may become dirty and so get out of balance and vibrate. Adequate lubrication is important because, apart from reducing wear, the wetting of surfaces in contact can reduce noise generation. Mechanical handling equipment such as component sorting, counting, transport and packaging often involves repeated impact. The use of plastics or rubber, which does not vibrate as readily as metal, can reduce noise.

N ew machinery

When selecting new machinery, it is important to select that which is least noisy. Ideally, this will have been a primary consideration at the planning and design stage. The purchaser should liaise with the supplier before installing any equipment and between them agree on appropriate noise specifications.

Controlling noise at source: checklist of techniques;

Adequate and regular maintenance of machinery. Substitute a quieter machine or process. Isolate/coat vibrating parts. Apply coatings to vibrating panels. Use mufflers or silencers on noisy air jets.

E ar protection

The Control of Noise at Work Regulations 2005 (NAWR) make it clear that the use of hearing protection should be considered as a method of last resort, or solely as an interim measure in protecting operators from noise.

When it is likely that exposure will be to the first action level or above in circumstances where the daily personal noise exposure is likely to be less than 85 dB(A), suitable and efficient personal ear protectors are available to those who request them. For exposures at or above the second or peak action levels, suitable ear protectors must be provided which, when properly worn, can be reasonably expected to reduce risk of hearing damage to below that caused by an unprotected exposure at these levels.

There are various forms of hearing protection equipment available including ear plugs, ear muffs and helmets. Each form of protection has its own specific characteristics. However, all types should:

be comfortable and safe to use; be aesthetically acceptable; not provoke a toxic reaction in the wearer; Not impair speech communication.

Ear protectors provided must comply with any relevant UK legislation and be compatible with other protective equipment worn simultaneously.

Describe the principal health effects associated with ionizing and non-ionizing radiation and outline basic protection techniques;

Health effects of ionizing radiation .

Exposure to ionizing radiation can be serious or even deadly. The type of effect depends on the strength of the radiation, the length of exposure and the part of the body exposed. The main health effects include:

cancer of the skin, breast, lung, digestive organs, blood (leukemia) and other sites;

infertility due to changes in the genes and chromosomes in men or women;

birth defects; Radiation sickness, a short-term effect that includes loss of appetite

and nausea.

Preventing Exposure to Ionizing Radiation

Engineering Controls.

Properly shield and maintain equipment that uses radiation. Isolate radioactive equipment in restricted access areas. Install switches to turn on equipment from another room.

Work Practices. Move workers as far away from radiation sources as possible. The

strength and therefore the danger of radiation decreases as workers move away from it.

Workers should not hold patients during X-rays. Use film holders. If a child needs to be held, a family member should do it.

Identify patients with radioactive implants. Wear badges to measure exposure to radiation. Pregnant workers should not be exposed to radiation. They should be

transferred to other jobs without loss of pay, seniority or other rights or benefits.

The three governing principles are:

every practice resulting in exposure to ionizing radiation shall be justified by the advantages produced;

exposures should be kept as low as reasonably practicable/ achievable;

Doses shall not exceed certain limits.

Expanding on these three principles:

Every practice resulting in exposure to ionizing radiation shall be justified by the advantages produced.

An assessment is required to balance the benefits achieved against the risks to health of those involved in the process.

This will be achieved by an appropriate combination of:

engineering controls, such as shielding the source; increasing the source/operator distance; personal protective equipment , properly chosen, used and maintained

(PPE will be required when handling unsealed sources or clearing up after an accident);

implementation of efficient and logical working and maintenance procedures, perhaps involving the use of permits to work;

safety features and devices such as emergency trip systems, good signposting and audible/visible warning signals;

prohibition of drinking and eating in a controlled area; Prohibition of directly holding sources in the hand.

Doses shall not exceed certain limits

In workplaces where ionizing sources are in use, it is necessary to designate areas of the workplace as controlled areas for higher levels of radiation and supervised areas for lower levels.

The UK Regulations also define three categories of person: radiation protection adviser (RPA), qualified person and radiation protection supervisor (RPS), who must be competent to undertake the necessary work.

Non-ionizing radiation is not as strong as ionizing radiation. However, non-ionizing radiation can have serious health effects.

Preventing exposure to non-ionizing radiation

Properly shield and maintain equipment that gives off non-ionizing radiation.

Move workers away from sources of radiation. Wear glasses with UVR filter lenses. Cover skin or use sunscreen when working outdoors.

Explain the causes and effects of stress at work and suggest appropriate control actions;

The HSE defines stress as "the adverse reaction people have to excessive pressure or other types of demand placed on them". Pressure is part and parcel of all work and helps to keep us motivated. However, excessive pressure can lead to stress which undermines performance, is costly to employers and can make people ill.

The key messages on stress are:

Work-related stress is a serious problem. Tackling it effectively can result in significant benefits for organizations.

There are practical things organizations can do to prevent and control work-related stress.

The law requires organizations to take action.

Workers suffering from repeated, prolonged or continuous job stress may experience:

frequent headaches; sleeplessness; loss of appetite; depression; short temper; backache; stomach problems; ulcers; high blood pressure; Heart disease and heart attacks.

Stress can also increase the risk of being injured on the job, weaken

the body's resistance to disease and lead to marital problems, drug abuse and alcoholism.

Burnout is a severe reaction to job stress. Burnout is common for workers in occupations such as social work, day care and health care who are in constant contact with clients or patients. These workers suffer not only exposure to stressful conditions, but also emotional over-stimulation. The resulting burnout leads to a sense of emptiness and loss of feelings in addition to the other physical and psychological symptoms of stress.

Factors that cause stress at work include:

Physical and environmental conditions such as: poor, unsanitary or unsafe working conditions, lack of privacy, improper lighting, and poor ventilation and temperature control.

Psychological: harassment, inadequate job skills, role conflicts, conflict with colleagues and supervisors, and lack of adequate breaks.

Organizational: policies and procedures, schedules, deadlines, repetitive work, unreasonable workloads, inadequate pay and benefits.

Socio-cultural: lack of support from supervisors or colleagues, overly authoritative or crisis-centered management style.

Interpersonal: lack of respect, lifestyle, financial or family problems. Work setting: lack of job security, lack of control over one's job.

Poor working conditions are the primary cause of workplace stress.

Stress Management techniques (such as meditation, muscle relaxation, etc.) are useful in treating the symptoms, not the causes of stress-related illnesses. The best way to reduce stress is to reduce the causes of stress in the workplace. The following steps should be taken:

Do a survey or talk to workers to define what aspects of the job cause stress.

Reduce the cause of stress. This may include increasing staff levels, reducing overtime, providing more rest time, reducing the frequency of shift rotations, improving physical working conditions.

Use Employee Assistance Programs (EAPs) to help workers deal with stress and other problems, whether at home or at work.

Stress Training and Reduction Workshops can teach techniques that can reduce the symptoms, but not the causes of stress-related illnesses. These techniques can be helpful to reduce some of the symptoms while the causes of stress are being addressed. Physical exercise, relaxation exercises, and making more time for families, hobbies and outside interests are important methods of stress reduction.

Describe the situations that present a risk of violent assault to employees and suggest ways of minimizing such risk.

Environmental risk factors that predict violence include:

a violent society; a violence-prone neighbourhood; the large number of weapons in circulation; early release of mental patients who have a history of violence; Hospitalization instead of incarceration of violent criminals.

Work practices associated with workplace violence include:

low staffing levels; working alone; working late at night or early in the morning; working with money or prescription drugs; long waits for services by customers, clients or patients; The lack of available services.

Victim characteristics include:

working in homes or in the community; handling money or prescription drugs; working in correctional institutions or institutions for the mentally ill

or developmentally-disabled without adequate training in violence-avoidance or self-defense;

providing care, advice or information, such as health care workers, mental health workers, emergency-room and admission workers, and social services workers;

dealing with complaints, such as social service, child welfare and unemployment workers;

Having the authority to act against the public, inspect premises and enforce laws, such as inspectors, child welfare workers, law enforcement/corrections officers and security guards.

Characteristics of those who commit violence (perpetrator characteristics) include:

persons with a history of violent behaviour; criminal gang members; relatives of injured persons; Drug/alcohol abusers.

Congratulations - end of lesson reached.