UNIT 1. PHONETICS: THE SOUNDS OF THE LANGUAGE

1. Three factors in the production of speech sounds- the production of speech sounds: depending

upon 3 factors:* a source of energy to cause vibration:outgoing air stream.

* a vibrating body: vocal bands* a resonator to modify the speech sounds

produced: the pharynx, the oral & nasal cavities.- the process of producing speech sounds: the airstream going out from the lungs through thewindpipe will go past the larynx (Adams apple)in which are located 2 vocal bands.

If the vocal bands are stretched & partially open,the air will make them vibrate. The vibration atsome frequency will produce speech soundswhich will be resonated or amplified & modifiedin the resonance chambers (pharynx, nasal & oralcavities) before going out & reaching our ears.

2. The vocal tract- the vocal tract: the breathing passage through which the air travels. - the vocal tract: beginning with the lungs, which furnish the source of energy for the vocal sound, then continuing with the windpipe.

- at the top of the windpipe: the larynx. Passing through the larynx, the air goes into the pharynx, or upper throat, & escapes outside through the mouth or the nose.- the organs of the vocal tract are located in the head, throat & chest. They are involved in the process of producing or modifying the speech sounds, including articulators & points of articulation.- articulation: the formation of speech sounds.- articulators: the movable organs of the vocal

tract which are involved in articulation,

including the tongue, the most movable articulator & the lower lip. - points of articulation: the parts of the vocal tract which cant move but which are involved in articulation. They are the upper lip, the teeth, the alveolar ridge, the hard palate, the soft palate or velum, the pharynx, & the larynx.- articulation: consisting of bringing an articula-

-tor into contact with a point of articulation while the breath stream is released.

3. Larynx & different position of the glottis3.1. larynx: in the neck. The front of the larynx is called Adams apple.

* inside the larynx, there are 2 vocal bands/ folds/ cords which are 2 bands of elastic tissue attached to the side walls of the larynx & can move. The opening b/w the vocal bands is called the glottis.3.2. different positions of the glottis - since the vocal bands move, the glottis can be of different positions & different sounds are produced.

* wide apart: during the normal breathing, the glottis: open as far as possible: the vocal bands are relax. This is the position for voiceless sounds.

* narrow glottis: the opening: narrow. When theair goes through it, a sound like a whisperedvowel (V) is produced: the sound /h/, called avoiceless glottal fricative.* partially open / closed: the edges of the vocal

bands : touching each other, or nearly touching, air passing through the glottis will cause vibration position for vocal band vibration & voiced sounds.

* tightly closed: the vocal bands : firmly pressed together so that air cant pass b/w them position for a glottal stop or plosive.

4. Consonants (Cs) & Vowels (Vs)I. Differences b/w consonants (Cs) & vowels

(Vs)Cs & Vs: different from each other by:1. Manner of articulation: the way how the sound

is produceda. Consonants: obstruction of the airstream,

totally or partially.ex: /p/: the airstream is obstructed totally before

being released with a small plosion/s/: the airstream is partially obstructed & forcedto escape through a narrow passage with afriction

b. Vowels: no obstruction of the airstream & itfreely escapes

ex: /1/: the airstream escapes freely & the lipsare spread/neutral

2. Distribution: the way how the sounds occur inthe lang.

a. Consonants: in an English syllable, there maybe no or many Cs occurring before or after theVs.

ex: are /@/; on /4n/; car /k@/; play /pl_1/; spring/spr17/; bank /b`7k/; texts /t_ksts/

b. Vowels: in an English syllable, there must beone & only one V as the centre/nucleus of thesyllable.

ex: cat /k`t/; food /fud/; could /k$d/II. Vowelsa. Definition: Vs: sounds produced with a totally

unobstructed oral cavity (Buchanan, 1961).In English, 12 simple Vs/monothongs : /1 - 4 - $ -

^ - 6 - ` - _/ (short Vs) & long Vs /i - u - 3 - 0 -@/ as well as 8 diphthongs /@1 - _1 - 01 - 6$ - @$ -16 - _6 - $6/

b. Description/Classification of monothongs orsimple Vs

12 simple Vs in English: described/ classifiedbasing on the following criteria:vTongue position/part: front centre backvTongue height: high mid lowvLip shape: unrounded roundedvJaw position: open mid closevLength of sound & tension of muscles:

long/tense short/lax vowels: described based on the above criteria

c. CharacteristicsShortening: Vs & diphthongs: a bit shortened

when preceding final voiceless Cs & its symbol:[], e.g. bit [b1t]; beat [bit]; goat [g6$t] Nasalization: Vs & diphthongs: nasalized when

preceding a final nasal & its symbol: [], e.g. pin[pn]; time [t1m]; singer ['s76]

III. Diphthongsa. Definition: diphthongs: sounds consisting of a

glide from one V to another in which the 1st

one is much longer & stronger than the 2nd one(Roach, 1989)

b. Diphthong treeDiphthong

centring closing

ending in 6 ending in 1 ending in $

16 _6 $6 _1 @1 01 6$ @$

IV. Consonantsa. Definition: Cs: sounds produced with

obstruction of the airstream whether totally orpartially

b. Description or classification24 English Cs: described/classified basing on 3

criteria:qManner of articulation: the way how the sound is

produced or how the airstream is releasedplosives/stops: the airstream is stopped

completely then released sharply with a smallplosion 6 plosives /p - b - t - d - k - g/

fricatives: the airstream is stopped partially &forced to escape through a small passage with afriction 9 fricatives /f - v - 8 - 5 - s - z - ~ - 2 - h/

affricates: the airstream is stopped totally & thenforced to escape with a friction. In other words,affricates begin as a stop & end as a fricative 2affricates /t~ - d2/

nasals: the airstream is stopped in the mouth & thusescapes through the nose

3 nasals /m - n - 7/ lateral: the air is stopped in the middle of the tongue

& escapes along its both sides 1 lateral /l/

approximants: one articulator approaches anotherbut doesnt touch it 3 approximants /r - w - j/

semi-vowels/semi-consonants: the sounds that areboth similar to Vs or Cs 4 semi-vowels /h - w j- r/* manner of articulation: similar to Vs (the air

escapes freely), e.g. twin /tw1n/; ghost /g6$st/ ..* distribution: similar to Cs, e.g. a wet year

/6 w_t j16/; a uniform /6 'jun1f0m/qPlace/point of articulation: the point of contact b/w

an articulator & a point of articulation to obstructthe airstream (the place where the air is stopped)

bilabials: lower lip against upper lip 4bilabials /p - b m - w/ labio-dentals: lower lip against upper teeth 2

labio-dentals /f - v/ inter-dentals: tongue tip b/w lower & upper teeth 2 inter-dentals /8 5/alveolars: tongue tip against/close to the alveolar

ridge 6 alveolars /t - d - n - s z - l/alveo-palatals: tongue front b/w alveolar ridge &

hard palate 5 alveo-palatals /~ - 2 - t~ - d2 - r/ palatal: tongue front towards hard palate 1palatal /j/

velars: tongue back against velum/soft palate 3 velars /k - g - 7/glottal: in the glottis 1 glottal /h/qVoicing: the vibration of the vocal cords

* voiced sounds: the sounds produced while thevocal cords are vibrating , e.g. /b - d - g - n/* voiceless sounds: the sounds produced whilethe vocal cords arent vibrating 9 voicelesssounds in English /p - t - k - f - 8 - s - ~ - t~ - h/

V. Characteristics of consonantsa. plosives/stops:

- aspirated: in English, voiceless plosives

/p - t - k/: aspirated in the following cases:* at the beginning of a word or syllable followed

by a stressed vowelex: pin [ph1n]; appear [6ph16]

- devoicing: voiceless plosives /p - t - k/ at initialposition devoice the /w - r - l - j/ & symbol:

[o]ex: play [p!_1]; clean [k!in]

- shortening: voiceless plosives /p - t - k/ at finalposition shorten the preceding vowel & diphthongs;symbol [v]

ex: bit [b1vt]; goat [g6v$t]b. fortis consonants /p - t - k - f - 8 - s - ~ - t~/: strong

as they are produced more force than voiced Csc. lenis consonants (weak): all the voiced Cswhen they are at initial & final positiond. /7 - 2/ never occur at initial positione. /h - w - r - j/ never occur at final positionf. /7/ never occurs after a long vowel ordiphthong, only after /1 - 4 - ` - ^ - _/g. at final position, /m - n - 7/ nasalize thepreceding vowel or diphthong, symbol [ ~]

ex: pin [pn]; singer [s76]h. when occurring before a velar sound /k - g/,

/n/ becomes /7/

i. /l/: clear when occurring before a vowel, e.g.love /l^v/; belong /b1l47/

j. /l/: dark when occurring after a vowel, e.g.bill [b1]; children [t~1dr6n]