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Unit 1: Elements of Music

Section 1: Overview

Simply put, music is an art based on the organization of sounds in time. We distinguish music from other sounds because of four key elements: pitch, duration, dynamics, and tone color. These four key elements are part of the character of every musical composition and are defined as follows:

• Pitch: the relative highness or lowness of a sound (the faster the vibrations, the higher the pitch; the slower the vibrations, the lower the pitch)

• Duration: how long a musical sound lasts (coupled with rhythm, which is the flow of music through time, and helps define the specific arrangement of note lengths in a piece of music and is an essential feature of its character or personality)

• Dynamics: the loudness or softness of a sound • Tone Color: the unique auditory property that distinguishes one instrument from another.

(for example, a trumpet has a “bright” and “brassy” sound and is readily distinguishable from a flute, even if playing the same tone at the same dynamic level)

To better understand how music is constructed, this unit will provide an overview of the following elements of music:

• Melody • Rhythm • Harmony • Basic Musical Forms • Instrument Families

Understanding these key elements will make listening to music a more enjoyable experience, no matter the genre. In addition, a section on how to listen to music will include a listening example with a guided listening guide to provide a structure for listening to unfamiliar and familiar music. As the study of musical composition is complex, this unit closes with a section on resources for further study of music theory and composition if so desired.

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Section 2: Melody Key terms: Note: a sound with a specific pitch and duration. Melody: a series of notes strung together, one after another. Phrase: a musical sentence Melody, though, isn’t just any bunch of notes strung together. Composers shape or add contour to the notes to add interest and to create a distinctive, identifiable “tune” that catches the listener’s ear. A melody’s shape can be heard as well as seen in the written score. You can also describe it verbally, such as a “rising melody” or “descending line” – basically describing the ups and downs you hear (or see) in the line. In the example below, you can see the melody “rise” and then “descend.”

Melodies are usually described as being made up of phrases. A phrase is like a sentence, with a group of notes that make sense together (just as a group of words makes sense together in a sentence). Unlike a sentence, though, it takes more than one phrase to make a complete melody. In vocal music, the phrases often follow the sentence structure of the text. In instrumental music, there are strong and weak endings to the phrases, kind of like asking a question in one line and then answering it in the next. The formal terms for these questioning and answering phrases are antecedent (question) and consequent (answer). Another way to label these phrases is incomplete (question) and complete (answer). Listen for the question and answer phrases in the “Good Morning to All” song, as you follow along with the score on the next page. Use this link to access the listening file: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:GoodMorningToAll_1893_song.ogg

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Score for “Good Morning to All”

Composed in 1893 by Patty & Mildred Hill This melody with chords arrangement prepared in 2008 by Susan Anderson-Benson

Lyrics:

"Good Morning to All"

Good morning to you, Good morning to you, Good morning, dear children, Good morning to all.

This melody is probably more familiar to most listeners as the “happy birthday” song. It was written in 1893 by two sisters, Patty Hill and Mildred J. Hill. They were school teachers in Louisville, Kentucky, and their version was originally written as a classroom greeting. Interestingly, the version we know which bids a person “happy birthday” was copyrighted in 1935 as an arrangement of their original song. On a related note, Warner Chappell, the current owner of the “happy birthday” version copyright, claims that unauthorized public performances of the song as they copyrighted it are technically illegal unless they are paid royalties! Thankfully, the sisters’ original melody and lyrics remain part of the public domain.

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Section 3: Rhythm Rhythm is an essential part of music, since music can’t happen without time. Simply put, the placement of sounds in time is rhythm. Because music has to be heard over a period of time, rhythm can be either metered or unmetered. Metered music has a clear, steady beat or pulse. Metered music has a repetitive pattern of strong and weak beats, suggesting a pulse – something you can tap your foot to, clap along with, dance to, and so on. The “Good Morning to All” song previously explored in melody is an excellent example of music with a clear, steady beat or pulse. Unmetered music is where rhythm is simply a placement in time that can’t feel a specific beat or pulse. (Example of unmetered music include plainchant/Gregorian chant, and some genres of 20th century music.) This music could perhaps best be described as giving the listener a sense of “floating” or being “surrounded” by the sound, since there is not a beat or pulse to provide a rhythmic structure to the music to assist the listener’s understanding. Listen to this example of unmetered music, the Gregorian chant “Salve Regina” http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=d5p_U8J0iRQ Another element of rhythm is tempo. Tempo is a word or phrase that gives the listener the composer’s idea of how fast or slow the music should feel. This can be a little tricky, since the same tempo marking can mean different things to different composers and performers, thus the variances that can be heard in performances of the same piece. For example, think of how the “Star Spangled Banner” is performed at various sporting and political events. Sometimes, it is sung almost reverently, other times at an upbeat/robust tempo. It’s still the same song Francis Scott Key and John Stafford Smith wrote in 1814 and 1780 respectively with the tempo marking of “con spirito.” (from a copy issued in 1815, as found in the Library of Congress at the following address (click to see a full sized copy of the score): http://memory.loc.gov/diglib/ihas/loc.natlib.ihas.100000006/enlarge.html?page=1&from=pageturner

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So, according to the score, the composers wanted a “spirited” rendition of the song – not a dirge. Yet, we still hear the anthem sung slowly and often without any rhythmic pulse, depending on the performer! To better understand the difference rhythm and tempo can make, listen to these two very different recordings of the National Anthem. While there are many more recordings of the anthem on youtube.com, these two provide a striking contrast in interpretation of the rhythm and tempo. The first recording features the combined choirs of several United States military academies during a performance at a football game. Note the simplicity as well as crispy rhythmic rendition of the score, staying quite true to the composer’s original instructions.

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=9ETrr-XHBjE The second recording features the acappella group, Take 6, with a beautifully sung, but decidedly stylized rendition of the anthem. This version takes nearly a minute longer than the first version. Listen to how the singers extend the work by stretching the duration of some of the rhythms as they vocalize and stylize the anthem.

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2qZe8aB7plU

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Section 4: Harmony Harmony is simply when more than one note is sounding at the same time in music. Even if no one is playing actual chords and just playing another melody line, you can hear a relationship between these simultaneously sounding notes and that is harmony. Another word for this is accompaniment. Accompaniment is simply all the parts of the music that aren’t the melody and can include the bass line, chords, harmonies and rhythmic parts. Texture is another way to discuss how much is going on in music, for example, thick (lots going on) or thin (not much going on) and is linked to harmony, since harmony adds to the thickness or thinness of the sound. There are several types of harmony:

• Implied: this is a melody all by itself. Even just a melody, though, has “implied” harmony because of how the melody line is built, implying chords or harmony that could accompany it, even though it isn’t accompanied. A good example of this is the plainchant or Gregorian chant found in Section 3 as well as in Unit 2 (Medieval music).

• Drone: A drone is a note that stays the same or rarely changes. A good example of this is found in bagpipe music, where one note is hanging on underneath the moving melody line. “The Cliffs of Dooneen” is an excellent example of the drone harmony. Follow this link to access the mp3 file and then scroll to the bottom of the page: http://www.mattpiper.com/samples.html

• Homophony: this is a texture in music where the melody line is obvious and all the other notes are easily heard as harmony/accompaniment. (This is most of the music we routinely hear.)

• Polyphony (also known as counterpoint): this is a texture in music where there is more than one independent melody line at the same time, and they’re all pretty much equal in importance. A good example of this is J.S. Bach’s Fugue in A Minor, as performed by Julian Bream.

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2mZvdGAGlOo • Chords: in Western music, most harmony is based on chords. A chord is a group of

notes that are sounded together (block chords) or separately and quickly so they sound like a chord (arpeggiated chords). This recording of Greensleeves nicely demonstrates both block and arpeggiated chords accompanying the melody.

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=5cjjG8SOy9M Another aspect of music is Dynamics. Dynamics are simply the loudness or softness of the music, and gradations therein, including crescendo (gradually louder), decrescendo (gradually softer), accents (single strong-sounding notes). When we put all the pieces together, even on a simple song like “Good Morning to All,” the results can be quite interesting and sometimes very fun, as in this recording:

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=glK1LojN6yg Note how all the parts come together into a pleasing whole. We can clearly hear the melody, harmony and dynamics combining into this very familiar tune.

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Section 5: Basic Musical Forms Every piece has an overall plan or blueprint and that is the music “form.” Form is a familiar concept since everything that exists has form, such as recognizing a cat from a giraffe at a distance because of their unique form. Similarly, music has recognizable forms, some simple, some complex, all designed to help shape the structure of the music and give it an overall “plan.” Simple forms are readily recognizable and can help aid in the enjoyment of music. For example, a symphony is a big, complex piece of music, with essentially a very simple form. Most symphonies have three or four sections called movements, and are framed by fast movements, with a slow movement in the middle, with the other inner movement often in a dance style. Within the movements or sections themselves, there is also a recognizable form. For example, the first movement of most symphonies is in “sonata form.” The piece starts with a recognizable theme in the exposition, sometimes introduces a secondary theme, and then about mid-way through, “develops” the themes through various compositional techniques in the development section, and then returns to the main theme in the final section, called the recapitulation. Sometimes an extra little bit of music is added after hearing the main theme(s) again in the recapitulation, and is called a coda (closing material). While you can enjoy music without recognizing its form, being able to see the “big picture” or “plan” of the music can enhance the enjoyment. For instance, you can anticipate the return of the opening theme and know that the movement is coming to its conclusion. In the familiar 5th Symphony of Ludwig van Beethoven, the distinctive opening theme is presented first in the exposition, varied throughout the development, and then returns in its original form in the recapitulation. Listen to the first movement of Beethoven’s 5th Symphony in this rare old video recording from 1952, as conducted by renowned conductor Arturo Toscanini. (This recording also contains a link to the 2nd movement, so not only can you listen to the form of the 1st movement, but also the contrasting style of the 2nd movement, if you choose to do so.) http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=N6K_IuBsRM4 Note especially how the distinctive opening theme is “played with” throughout the development, and how its return in the recapitulation lends almost a sense of comfort or grounding to the listener, as its familiar notes signal the conclusion of the movement. Forms can also be labeled with letters, from simple to complex, with each major section being labeled with a letter, starting with “A.” For instance, the “Good Morning to All” song used in the previous sections is in the form: A A’ A’’ B. A is the opening line of music. This line is somewhat repeated for lines 2 & 3, but with some differences, thus they are labeled A’ (a-prime) and A’’ (a-double prime) to indicate the similarity, but also the differences. B is the closing line, which is different from all the rest. (See page 2 for the melodic score.) As you listen to any type of music (including all popular genres!), try applying the alphabet letters to the various sections. This can enhance your enjoyment by appreciating how the composer applied form to add to the organization of the piece.

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Section 6: Instrument Families Brassy…reedy…warm…harsh…shrill…piercing…mellow…bright…light…heavy…dark… All of these words have been used to describe the timbre or tone quality of the various musical instrument families. Tone color or timbre describes the aspects of musical sound that don’t have to do with pitch, volume or duration. It’s what helps us distinguish between the sound of a flute playing a note and a trumpet playing the same note. Since the human ear and brain are capable of hearing and understanding very small variations in tone color or timbre, we can not only tell the difference between a flute and a trumpet, but also the difference between, say, two flutes or two trumpets. The general sound we expect to hear from an instrument is its tone color or timbre; the differences between players of the same instrument is tone quality. For instance, a trumpet player can produce both a brassy and a mellow tone on the same note, depending on how s/he approaches the note. There are four main families of instruments: Strings, Woodwinds, Brass, and Percussion. This section will provide an overview of the primary instruments of each family, including how they produce sound. Specific “period instruments,” those instruments unique to a particular historical period, will be discussed in their respective historical units. Strings

Sound is produced by vibrating strings and amplified by a hollow wood body with perforations where the sound comes out. All stringed instruments have strings stretched over them; the strings are made of nylon, steel or gut. The instruments are played with a bow (a long stick that has horsehair attached to it), with the bow drawn across the strings in an action calling bowing. The bow can also be used to strike the strings. Players may also pluck or strum the strings with their fingers to produce sound.

The four main string instruments are: violin, viola, cello and double bass.

Violin: Smallest member of the string family; has the shortest strings, so it produces the highest sound. The shape of the violin has stayed virtually the same since the 16th century. The modern violin has 4 strings; the earliest ones only had 3.

Viola: Bigger than the violin, with longer strings; makes a rich, warm sound that is lower in pitch than the violin. The instrument itself is also a little heavier, with a slightly different shape. The viola plays the middle part of orchestral harmony and while they don’t stick out when the whole orchestra is playing, they would be missed if they weren’t there, since they fill in the vital “middle” of the harmony.

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Woodwinds

Sound is produced using vibrating air. Instruments are made not only of wood, but also metal, and even ivory and bone. The instruments are played in one of two ways. Flutes have a hole the player blows across; air vibrating through the instrument creates a sound. (If you’ve ever blown air across a pop bottle to make sound, you’ve essentially played a flute!) Pressing the fingers across holes cut in the instrument allows the player to change the sound. The other way is by blowing air through a reed (clarinet, oboe, bassoon, saxophone); the vibrating reed sets the air inside in motion, creating the sound. Again, pressing fingers across holes cut in the instrument allows the player to change the sound.

The main woodwind instruments are: flute, clarinet, oboe, bassoon, and saxophone.

Double Bass: The largest of the stringed instruments; played the lowest notes. The double bass adds the “weight” to the orchestra sound with its deep notes. Sometimes, the lowest, longest string of the double bass is made longer so it can play even lower.

Cello: Plays even lower than the viola. It is twice as big as the viola to accommodate its much longer strings. The instrument is also quite heavy, requiring players to sit down and rest the instrument against their bodies. They also use an endpin that comes out of the bottom of the cello to stick into the floor to balance the instrument. The cello makes a rich, warm sound and also helps fill out the middle part of the harmony in the orchestra.

Flute: made from metal; sometimes made from wood. Playing the highest notes in the orchestra, they’re also good at playing fast, intricate or “busy” music. The very highest pitched instrument in the orchestra is a cousin of the flute: the piccolo (Italian for “little”). The piccolo has the piercing sound that stands out over the entire orchestra in such works as the “Stars and Stripes Forever” (Sousa).

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Brass

Clarinet: made from wood or molded plastic. Clarinets come in different sizes, with the standard B-flat clarinet running about 2 feet long. Sound is produced by blowing air through a single reed. The orchestra also includes an E-flat clarinet (smaller than the B-flat and plays a higher range of notes) and a bass clarinet (plays lower).

The bass clarinet is larger than the B-flat and E-flat clarinets and because it can play lower, it can produce a “mysterious” sound quality. The bass clarinet, because of its larger size, has a bent neck, curved around to face upward, to accommodate the length. It also has an endpin that slides out of the bottom to help prop it up on the floor.

Oboe: made of wood; look similar to the clarinet, but sound very different. Unlike the clarinet, sound is produced by blowing through a thin double reed that sticks out from the upper end of the instrument. Its distinct sound is easy to hear in the orchestra, and is often heard on slow, thoughtful lines. Its cousin, the English horn, plays a little lower than the oboe and has a pear-shaped bell. Both instruments require the air to be force through at very high pressure into the tiny double reed, making it very difficult to play.

Bassoon: made of wood; has almost 8 feet of wooden tubing, bent into a narrow “U” shape. Uses a double reed, which is placed in a curved metal tube. The bassoon is the largest woodwind in the orchestra, save for its cousin, the contra bassoon, which is even bigger, and plays even lower than the bassoon. Because both instruments are so very heavy, they are usually supported by a seat strap that the player hooks onto the lower end of the instrument and then sits on to hold it in place. The rich, mellow, and low-pitched sound of the bassoon and contra bassoon have been described as “dark” and akin to a god speaking. Like the oboe, it takes a lot of breath to play the bassoon.

Saxophone: made of brass, but classified as a woodwind because it is played using a single reed and mouthpiece, like a clarinet, but has a metal body with a flared bell. There are four major types: soprano, alto, tenor and baritone. Saxophones produce a strong, mellow tone. Invented by Adolphe Sax in 1846, and originally intended for use in military bands, the instrument is heard in all musical genres, included orchestral music.

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Sound is produced using vibrating air. Instruments are made not only of brass, but also of wood, tusk, horn and shell. The instruments are played by blowing air into the mouthpiece of the instrument. The air is set in motion by the player buzzing their lips together, with their lips acting like the reeds on the woodwind instruments. Since brass instruments are really just long metal tubes with a bell at the end, the tubes are bent and folded into more compact shapes so they can be held by the player.

The main brass instruments are: trumpet, French horn, trombone and tuba.

Trumpet: made of brass, and played by blowing air into a cup-shaped mouthpiece through a narrow tube and out a flaring bell. Sounds are changed by pressing down on the keys that control its three valves, and also by changing the shape of the player’s lips against the mouthpiece. The trumpet is only 18 inches long, but if the tube were unwound, it would extend more than 4-1/2 feet long. The instrument dates back more than 3,500 years, with early versions found in the ancient Egyptian tombs, including that of King Tut.

French horn: made of brass, and played by blowing air into a small mouthpiece through a narrow tube and out a flaring bell. Sounds are changed by pressing down on the keys that control its three valves, and also by changing the shape of the player’s lips against the mouthpiece. Sound is further controls by movement of the right hand inside the bell, including volume, pitch and tone. Uncoiled, the instrument is some 12 feet long. The sound has been described as “velvety” and “round.” Its rich sound is easily heard above the rest of the orchestra without being overpowering. The very first horns were made from animals’ horns. By breaking off the horns tip and blowing down the hole, you could make a sound. Later horns were made of metal, but didn’t have valves – just a long piece of tubing coiled around in a circle, with sound changed by the lips.

Trombone: made of brass, and played by blowing air into a cup-shaped mouthpiece through a narrow tube and out a flaring bell. Unlike other brass instruments, sound is changed using a slide which is moved back and forth to change the length of the tube, which in turn changes the pitch. Unwound, the trombone tube is 9 feet long. The trombone fills the middle of the brass section covering the harmonies between the trumpets and horns, and the tubas. The trombone dates back to the 15th century, when they were called sackbuts.

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Percussion A percussion instrument is essentially any instrument that produces sound when it is hit or struck, scraped or shaken. Orchestral percussionists often may play as many a dozen different instruments in the course of a concert, since different pieces require different kinds of percussion. Struck percussion instruments are simple things like drums that you hit with your hand or a stick. They can also be as complex as the piano, which has 88 keys and makes sound by internal hammers hitting strings that are activated by pressing on the keys. Other struck percussion instruments include: timpani, xylophone, cymbals, triangle, snare drum, bass drum, woodblocks, gongs, and chimes. Scraped percussion instruments are more common in world music, but are occasionally found in orchestral literature. These include instruments such as the guiro. The same is true of shaken percussion instruments, such as tambourines and rattles.

guiro

Tuba: made of brass, and played by blowing air into a large cup-shaped mouthpiece through tubing and out a flaring bell. Notes are changed by pressing on valves, and also by adjusting how the player blows into the instrument. The largest member of the brass family, it also plays the lowest notes. Unwound, the tuba is 18 feet long. The youngest brass instrument, it was first used in military bands in the 19th century, and joined the orchestra in the early 20th century.

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Benjamin Britten wrote “The Young Person’s Guide to the Orchestra, Op. 34” in 1945. Subtitled “Variations and Fugue on a Theme of Purcell,” the work was inscribed to the children of John and Jean Maud, and written, as Britten stated in the dedication, “for their edification and entertainment.” The work provides a wonderful introduction to the instruments of the orchestra, while being an enjoyable piece in its own right. The piece is organized as follows:

Movement Name

Tempo Marking Featured Instrument(s) Running Time (minutes/seconds)

Theme Allegro maestoso e largamente Entire Orchestra 02:03 Variation A Presto Flutes and piccolo 00:31 Variation B Lento Oboes 00:59 Variation C Moderato Clarinets 00:39 Variation D Allegro alla marcia Bassoons 00:54 Variation E Brillante: alla polacca Violins 00:39 Variation F Meno mosso Violas 00:54 Variation G Cellos 01:11 Variation H Cominciando lento ma poco a

poco accel al allegro Double Basses 01:02

Variation I Maestoso Harp 00:48 Variation J L’istesso tempo Horns 00:48 Variation K Vivace Trumpets 00:32 Variation L Allegro pomposo Trombones and Tubas 00:59 Variation M Moderato Percussion 01:55 Fugue Entire Orchestra 02:45 This is a video presentation of a performance by the London Symphony as conducted by Michael Tilson Thomas and is in two parts. Watch and listen carefully as each group of instruments is featured as the piece progresses, and also listen for how each instrument brings its own unique sound and style to the variation in which it is featured. Click on the links to be connect to youtube; it will take a few seconds after you connect to youtube for the performance to start. Benjamin Britten: “The Young Person’s Guide to the Orchestra “

Part 1: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=kR9nDnyIhAU&feature=related

Part 2: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Bi0DQNd6bCc&feature=related

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Section 7: How to Listen to Music When we listen to music, we can’t help but react emotionally to what we are hearing – there are some things we really like and others that we don’t care to listen to again. Despite that, we can still apply some basic questions to all types of music to help us be better listeners even to types of music we haven’t heard before or types we have previously not enjoyed. Some simple questions can help us listen to any type of music and shape our reactions without needing advanced musical training. These questions include:

• What is your overall impression of this piece? • What is your emotional reaction to this piece? • Why do you think this? • Describe the melody. Was there more than one main tune? Was there a contrast between

“happy” and “sad” sounds? • Describe the harmony. Were there a lot of chords or busy things going on under the

melody? Was there a contrast between “happy” and “sad” sounds? • Describe the rhythm. Was it fast or slow paced? Were the notes really moving, slow, or

a combination of speeds? Was there a “beat” to the piece or syncopation or anything else that caught your ear and got your toe tapping?

• What did you like about the piece? • What didn’t you like about the piece? • For performances using a video clip: Did the performers shape your feelings about this

piece in any way? (for example – too much gesturing, distracting, too still, etc.) Coupled with the insights gained on the composers, their music and their place in history in the upcoming units, we can then approach all types of music openly and, potentially, find enjoyment in them. Let’s put this approach to work on a famous classical piece of music that may sound familiar to you: Gustav Holst, The Planets, Op. 32, 4th movement: “Jupiter, the Bringer of Jollity” Gustav Holst (1874-1934), an English composer, wrote the orchestra suite, The Planets, between 1914 and 1916, with its premier taking place at the end of World War I (1918). The concept of the work is astrological (not astronomical, thus why Earth is not included). The idea was given to Holst by a friend, Clifford Bax, who introduced him to astrology in 1913. Holst became a devotee of the subject and even cast his friends’ horoscopes for fun. Each movement is intended to convey ideas and emotions associated with the human psyche, not the Roman deities

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associated with each planet. Holst also used Alan Leo’s book, “What is a Horoscope?” as inspiration for the subtitles of the movements. Originally written as a piano duet, Holst then scored the suite for large orchestra, with his colorful and imaginative orchestration influenced by Schoenberg and Stravinsky in particular. This link will take you to a streaming video of a performance by the Osaka Philharmonic Orchestra, led by conductor Eiji Oue.

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3B49N46I39Y

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Sample of a completed listening guide for this piece: What is your overall impression of this piece? Power, might, “bigness,” and fun! What is your emotional reaction to this piece?

Awe – visualize the size of the planet Jupiter. Also smiles – for the “jollity” aspect – can’t help but smile when listening to the lighter sections, even as the “big” theme re-emerges under it and takes over

Why do you think this?

The use of the full orchestra in the opening and recurring sections creates a big sound that reflects my perceived might of the planet Jupiter. Using less instruments and softer families of instruments in the contrasting/jollity sections helped provide great contrast.

Describe the melody. Was there more than one main tune? Was there a contrast between “happy” and “sad” sounds?

I heard one main tune – it was the opening theme and it was on the heavy side – conveyed power and had a big sound. I would describe it as a powerful sound rather than sad or dark. The lighter sections had a little, but happy sound and the tunes there seemed to mostly use the lighter sounding instruments; no one tune stands out in my head here, though.

Describe the harmony. Were there a lot of chords or busy things going on under the melody? Was there a contrast between “happy” and “sad” sounds?

There was a definite contrast between the “big” and “jolly” sections of this piece. The big sections (like the opening and ending) used big sounding chords to help convey the power. The jolly sections were a lot lighter and seemed to have a lot of notes in single lines underneath the tunes throughout these sections.

Describe the rhythm. Was it fast or slow paced? Were the notes really moving, slow, or a combination of speeds? Was there a “beat” to the piece or syncopation or anything else that caught your ear and got your toe tapping?

There was a combination of things going on. The “big” section had a definite pulse or beat and a slower overall feeling of motion, since the notes weren’t running all over the place. The “jolly” section also had a definite pulse, but was busy sounding and really moved at times with lots of fast notes.

What did you like about the piece? Contrasting sections; recurring main theme; big brass sound. What didn’t you like about the piece?

‘Gets a little “long” in the extended quiet part. Despite that, overall, I really liked it; has excellent variety, ebb and flow of high and lower energy and a great finish!

Did the performers shape your feelings about this piece in any way?

This particular performance was not distracting; really just full of energy and emotion, especially the conductor!!

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Section 8: Resources for Further Study As noted in the introductory section, detailed study of musical composition and theory can be quite complex. However, there are some excellent resources available that will provide additional detail without asking the student to become a music major to do so. These resources are listed first. The resources near the bottom of the page are examples of standard music theory texts for extremely detailed study. On the internet: Resources abound on the internet, but these three sites provide a range of a little to a lot of information in a readily digestible format. Schmidt-Jones, Catherine. “The Basic Elements of Music.” Accessed 7-08-2008. <http://cnx.org/content/col10218/latest/> Covers the basic elements of music with some musical examples, and also includes activities to further explore the elements. Written specifically for elementary classroom use, but intended for developing music appreciation in persons of all ages. Mitchell, Danlee and Jack Logan, Ph.D. “Basic Elements of Music.” Accessed 7-08-2008. <http://www.cartage.org.lb/en/themes/Arts/music/elements/elemofmusic/main.htm> Also covers the basic elements of music, but in a more complex manner, with less examples, and a fairly significant amount of detailed information. Lifetips.com. “Elements of Music Tips.” Accessed 7-08-2008. <http://classicalmusic.lifetips.com/cat/57534/elements-of-music/> A quick reference for various musical elements. Not at all detailed, but a quick source of basic information. Books: Harnum, Jonathan. “Basic Music Theory” How to Read, Write, and Understand Written Music.” Questions, Ink., 2001. Provides a basic introduction to the concepts of music theory. Miller, Michael. “The Complete Idiot’s Guide to Music Theory, 2nd Edition (The Complete Idiot’s Guide).” Penguin Group (USA) Inc., 2002. Like the other “idiot’s guide” books, this one provides a very basic and understandable introduction to the concepts of music theory. Music Theory Text: Benward, Bruce, and Marilyn Saker. “Music in Theory and Practice, Seventh Edition.” Volumes 1 & 2. McGraw-Hill, 2002. Together, the two volumes provide an excellent study of the various elements of music, including musical styles, more complex chords, larger forms, and detailed compositional analysis. Older editions are also excellent and available used at very reasonable prices on the internet.

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Unit 2: Medieval Period

Approximately 200 – 1450 A.D. The Medieval Period is a challenging one to study, covering more than 1,000 years, but is essential as it lays the foundation for all subsequent musical development. During Medieval times, music was fused with philosophy and theology, and fully integrated into a student’s complete educational curriculum, making music’s role unusual and complicated. Further, the study of Medieval music can be challenging as many of the concepts from this time are unfamiliar musically, philosophically and theologically, and the tonal results coming from this fusion are somewhat strange to our contemporary ears. Finally, source materials for this period are often limited, especially for secular genres, as notation systems were limited, and usually restricted to use for church functions. Oftentimes, accompaniments were not written out at all, and the recordings we listen to today are musicians’ “best guesses” on what the practice was at the time, based on written materials describing performances and instrumentation from the time period. Despite these challenges, you will find a rich selection of musical examples along with information about this vital period of music history.

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Section 1: Main Musical Forms/Stylistic Elements Four Main Time Divisions The Medieval Period can be broken down into four main time divisions. Each division is representative of key developmental elements of that time period. Early Medieval: 200 – 1100 A.D.

Western European music comes of its own at this time, with the development of Gregorian chant/plainchant (monophonic or single line forms), “church” modes, beginnings of musical notation, as well as distinct Sacred and Secular styles of music, characterized in part by the use of Latin for the sacred music and the vernacular languages of the countries for the secular music.

Ars Antiqua: 12th and 13th Centuries A.D. (The “Old Art”)

Efforts focused largely in France, with the development of Organum (the beginning of polyphonic or multiple line/harmonized forms), the Tempus Perfectum, and rhythmic modes. Other musical forms included the motet, hocket, rota, rondellus and polyphonic conductus.

Ars Nova: 14th Century A.D. (The “New Art”)

Efforts focused largely in France and Italy, with the development of complex polyphony (further development of harmony), the Tempus Imperfectum, and isorhythms. Other musical forms included the madrigal, caccia and ballata.

Burgundian Era: 1st half of 15th Century A.D.

Efforts focused largely in France, the Netherlands and England, with the development of imitative polyphony, and continued experimentation and elaboration of the Mass. This was, for all intents and purposes, the transition time between the Medieval and Renaissance period, as exemplified in the music of Guillaume Dufay, whom we will study in the Renaissance unit.

Definitions of Key Musical Styles/Forms Ballade: A form from the troubadour tradition, this is a one-movement piece with lyrical and dramatic story-telling qualities, and was made popular by Machaut. This type of setting of French poetry remained common throughout the 14th century and into the middle of the 15th century, and featured a prominent upper voice with the text, and two lower voices accompanying by vocalizing or using instruments.

Ballata: Form from the end of the Medieval and definitely foreshadowed the techniques of the impending Renaissance period. Originated as a dance song and had a clear sectional structure with refrains (called ripressa), that were sung at the beginning and end of each verse.

Caccia: Form from the 2nd half of the 14th century. Used a canon that was based on continuous imitation of two or more parts, with the two upper parts sung in string imitation with the third/lowest part moving in slow notes, and probably played on an instrument rather than sung.

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Conductus: Polyphonic conductus was used during the 2nd half of the 13th century. Featured an original tenor melody (unlike organum) and written for 2-4 parts, with the parts moving together rhythmically.

Estampie: The main dance form of the 1400s; played in triple time typically and had many repeated sections. Hocket: A form of polyphony from the late 1200s to 1300s characterized by a technique in which the melody line was interrupted frequently by the placement of rests (alternating between the two voice parts). Sometimes described as a “hiccupping” sound.

Hymns: Sacred songs that became an important part of the sung liturgy and eventually introduced into the mass. Later included formal variations of the conductus. Hildegard was a well known writer of hymns, as was Kassia.

Liturgical Chant: see monophonic music/Gregorian chant.

Monophonic Music/Gregorian Chant: music with one melody line and no accompaniment. Also known as plainsong or plainchant. Vocal music.

Madrigal: First polyphonic form to be used in Italy; featured two vocal parts with verses written in duple time with a chorus or “ritornello” section in triple time.

Mass: Organization of liturgical music for Catholic Church worship. The form was “set” during the Medieval period, and in addition to being a public celebration of the Eucharist, included musical settings of elements such as the Kyrie, Gloria, Credo, Sanctus and Agnus Dei.

Motet: Main polyphonic form starting around 1250, replacing organum and conductus. Followed specific guidelines, with a plainsong sung by the tenor voice and above it, two other parts sang in faster moving notes. Used both in sacred and secular styles, and usually in triple meter with some dissonance or clashing harmonies appearing.

Organum: The Notre Dame Organum was developed around 1150. Another form of polyphony, it consists of two parts sung by solo voices which alternate with sections of plainsong sung by a choir. The melody was typically “borrowed” from plainsong.

Polyphonic Music/Polyphony: music with two or more melody lines that were heard at the same time. Vocal music.

Rondeau: A form from the troubadour tradition, and part of the Medieval courtly music tradition. Machaut was an early writer-composer of this form. It was later adopted by church musicians for spiritual worship, while still being used in the secular forum for subjects such as springtime, courtly love and romance. It was even used to convey pain and loss, but with a closing statement of lightness, “c’est la vie!” (that’s life!). Of note is that this practice is comparable to that found in the 20th century American blues form.

Rondellus: A three part secular form characterized by trading off between the three different melodies. A polyphonic work where all the parts start together and then rotate the melody between the three voices.

Rota: A round or canon in which two or more parts used the same melody, but at different times. (Think of “Row, Row, Row Your Boat” for an example of this kind of form.) The term was also used to describe the finale of an instrumental dance work.

Virelai: A French form of poetry and song from the troubadour tradition, it is written with a courtly text in ABBA form. The word is from the old French word “virer” (to turn or twist), showing it was derived from an early dance form.

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Section 2: Church Influences The Catholic Church The Catholic Encyclopedia notes that the combination of the words “Catholic” and “Church” (he katholike ekklesia) is seen for the first time in a letter of St. Ignatius to the Smyraeans, around the year 110, and clearly established as such by the 3rd century. The word “Catholic” also appears in the Creed by the 4th century (the petition expressing belief in the “holy Catholic church”). When the Roman Empire formally legalized Christianity during the 4th century, Catholicism spread like wildfire across Europe.

The Catholic Church quickly gained prominence and rose to power, ultimately dominating all aspects of society, fusing music with theology and philosophy as the required educational curriculum. The Church was the focal point of social life, learning and the arts throughout the Medieval period. Not only does music show this influence and control, but also art and architecture, in addition to the books and laws of the time.

Two figures represent the influence of the church in the earliest years of the Medieval period: St. Ambrose and St. Gregory. In addition, they are key figures in the development of music, too.

Coupled with prayer and his speaking skills from his legal and political roles made St. Ambrose one of the great preachers of the early Catholic Church. He was a strong champion of the church, vehemently opposed to heresy, paganism and hypocrisy, working hard to keep the Church independent from the government. He also had a significant impact on sacred music of the time, composing hymns and psalm tones which are known to this day as Ambrosian chant. He had a lasting impact on musicians of his day and beyond, with hymns originating as late as the 6th century having been attributed to him, since in this style. Stylistically, the hymns are quite simple or “austere,” as Richard Chenevix Trench (Protestant Archbishop of Dublin, as quote in “Sacred Latin Poetry,” London, 1874m 87 sq.) notes: “After being accustomed to the softer and richer strains of the later Christian poets…it is some little while before one returns

St. Ambrose: ca. 340-397

“The Father of Latin hymnody”

St. Ambrose introduced metrical hymnody into the Daily Office in the West. His influence was widespread and long-lasting. “Ambrosian” hymns are found in Catholic hymnals throughout the centuries up until the time of Vatican II, when chant generally fell out of favor. St. Ambrose of Milan was the son of a Roman prefect, and initially had a career in law and politics, becoming the Imperial governor of Northern Italy in 370. In 374, he became the bishop of Milan at the demand of the citizenry. He accepted the call as the will of God, and was baptized, ordained first as a deacon, then priest, and finally as bishop, all in one week. Recognizing his lack of preparation for this role, he immediately undertook an intensive study of Scripture.

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with a hearty consent and liking to the almost austere simplicity which characterizes the hymns of St. Ambrose…to appreciate that noble confidence in the surpassing interest of his theme, which has rendered him indifferent to any but its simplest setting forth….The great objects of faith in their simplest expression are felt by him so sufficient to stir all the deepest affections of the heart, that any attempt to dress them up, to array them in moving language, were merely superfluous.” There are 14 hymns attributed to St. Ambrose for which music is available, although recordings are difficult to find, since it is essentially service music (part of the Breviary). The following example, “Te deum laudamus,” was long attributed to St. Ambrose, but recently has been determined by historians to be by Nicetas, Bishop of Remesiana (ca. 335-414). Despite this, it is an excellent example of Ambrosian chant and is beautifully rendered in this recording. “Te Deum laudamus” (Hymn of Saint Ambrose of Milan)

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=if1bVpb_rSo

“Te deum laudamus” was one of only two hymns included in the Anglican Service of 1549. It has had many uses throughout the history of the Catholic Church, and remains a part of some service settings to this day. The final petitions were added at a later time and are considered optional. The English translation of the text is: We praise Thee, O God: we acknowledge Thee to be the Lord. All the earth doth worship Thee and the Father everlasting. To Thee all Angels: to Thee the heavens and all the Powers therein. To Thee the Cherubim and Seraphim: cry with unceasing voice: Holy, Holy, Holy: Lord God of Hosts. The heavens and the earth are full: of the majesty of Thy glory. Thee the glorious choir: of the Apostles. Thee the admirable company: of the Prophets. Thee the white-robed army of Martyrs: praise. Thee the Holy Church throughout all the world: doth acknowledge. The Father of infinite Majesty. Thine adorable, true: and only Son Also the Holy Ghost: the Paraclete. Thou art the King of Glory: O Christ. Thou art the everlasting Son: of the Father. Thou having taken upon Thee to deliver man: didst not abhor the Virgin's womb. Thou having overcome the sting of death: didst open to believers the kingdom of heaven. Thou sittest at the right hand of God: in the glory of the Father. We believe that Thou shalt come: to be our Judge. We beseech Thee, therefore, help Thy servants: whom Thou has redeemed with Thy precious Blood. Make them to be numbered with Thy Saints: in glory everlasting. Lord, save Thy people: and bless Thine inheritance. Govern them: and lift them up forever. Day by day: we bless Thee. And we praise Thy name forever: and world without end. Vouchsafe, O Lord, this day: to keep us without sin. Have mercy on us, O Lord: have mercy on us. Let Thy mercy, O Lord, be upon us: as we have hoped in Thee. O Lord, in Thee have I hoped: let me never be confounded.

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His devotion to the liturgy is seen in the music attributed to him from this period, “Gregorian Chant,” another type of plainsong. St. Gregory the Great is given credit for the final arrangement of the Roman chant in many historical sources dating from the 9th century through the 18th century. An example is “Audi benigne Conditor,” a Gregorian Vespers hymn for Lent. http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=kS_HbU0SI4E

This recording features an animated score to accompany singing by the Auckland Catholic Music Schola . The translated text is found below: O kind Creator, bow thine ear to mark the cry, to know the tear Before thy throne of mercy spent in this thy holy fast of Lent. Our hearts are open, Lord, to thee: thou knowest our infirmity; Pour out on all who seek thy face abundance of thy pard'ning grace. Our sins are many, this we know; spare us, good Lord, thy mercy show; And for the honour of thy name our fainting souls to life reclaim. Give us the self-control that springs from discipline of outward things, That fasting inward secretly the soul may purely dwell with thee. We pray thee Blessed Trinity, One God, unchanging Unity, That this our fast of forty days may work our profit and thy praise! Amen. (St. Gregory the Great; trans. Thomas A. Lacey, 1853-1931)

Jewish roots of Christian liturgical practices Even though the most significant influence in the Medieval period was the Catholic Church, there are distinctive Jewish roots to the liturgical practices found in this music. Music as appropriate medium for addressing God and a tool by which God and his works could be comprehended and interpreted was not unique to the Catholic Church. In fact, there are numerous Old Testament references to music as praise to God (such as the “Song of Miriam”), the psalms of David, and so on. Certain traditions, in particular, were common to both religious practices. Perhaps of greatest interest is the use of certain psalms being linked to specific days of the week, giving a liturgical organization common to both practices. This includes use of responsorial chant (leader sings something, congregation responds). In addition, the order of worship was an important common ground, including prayer, praise and religious instruction (Scripture). Finally, the Scripture readings were done with music, and the music was based on a standard formula or recipe for how it was to be written in order to worship God.

St. Gregory the Great: 540-604

“Doctor of the Church”

St. Gregory was another politician turned religious figure. The son of a wealthy Roman senator, he followed in his father’s footsteps, becoming Prefect (mayor) of Rome for a year before he sold all his property and used the money to build seven monasteries, including one in Rome, where he went to live as a monk (ca. 574). His life was full of deeds to those in need, and he was elected to succeed Pope Leo the Great in 590, the first monk ever elected to this role. Also known as Pope Saint Gregory I, he is called the Doctor of the Church because he wrote many books, especially on the liturgy of the Mass and the Office, as well as made laws to govern the Church. His writings lean toward the practical and spiritual, rather than being doctrinal and theoretical.

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Section 3: Other Influences/Factors Notation One of the biggest challenges of the Medieval period was establishing a common way to write down music. Prior to this time, notation was limited, and not done in the same way, thus why there is so little music around from the earliest days. Guido of Arezzo (Guido d’arezzo; ca. 990-1050) recognized this problem and sought to develop a solution to not only notate music, but also help singers to read it.

(Image source: http://www.catholicculture.org/liturgicalyear/activities/view.cfm?id=1128)

This hymn was used as a mnemonic aid for singers. Guido specifically noticed that singers had problems understanding where half-steps fell in the various modes. To help them remember the scale steps, Guido used this hymn around 1025 as a mnemonic aid for singers. Each phrase of the hymn begins a step higher than the previous one, kind of like going up the scale. Guido developed a system of six solmization syllables (ut, re, mi, fa, sol, and la – using the first word in each phrase to name them) as a way for singers to remember crucial intervals, making it easier for them to read music. This system remained the same into the 16th century, when musical development necessitated evolution. Interestingly, though, this system remains in effect to this day in the study of sight-singing, and in France, a derivative of the Guidonian custom of not using letters for pitches persists to this day.

To further assist students and singers in remembering the various syllables and “mutations” (changes of pitch) a note could receive, Guido related them to the knuckles of the hand, where each knuckle stood for a specific pitch and its various syllables/mutations. The illustration of “Guido’s Hand” found below shows how this system worked and how it was also a memory aid, again, well into the 16th century.

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(Image source: http://digitalassets.lib.berkeley.edu/ds/ucb/images/DS004539aA.jpg)

Music as the Knowledge of Numbers you liked music because it sounded nice; the ratios and the levels were what gave music its beauty to his thinking. These three levels of music are:

1. Musica mundana - music of the spheres/world 2. Musica humana - harmony of human body and spiritual harmony 3. Musica instrumentalis - instrumental music (including the human voice)

Anicius Manlisu Severinus Boethius (ca. 470-525), a Roman philosopher, espoused the idea that music is number made audible. Using a legend of Pythagoras as the basis for his work, the story goes that Pythagoras heard hammers beating on the anvils of a forge, creating beautiful harmony. Determined to understand how this was possible, Pythagoras weighed the hammers, and created ratios based on their weights to explain the sounds he had heard. Simply put, music gets its beauty from the pure world of numbers, thus Boethius’s assertion that music is number made audible. Boethius then took this concept further, creating three levels of music that had further interconnected relationships or levels, with the ratios being the rationale for why music was enjoyable; it wasn’t enough to say that

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Section 4: Social/Historical Context

The word Medieval means middle ages (med=middle; eval=ages). Despite some of rather grim elements, like the plague and general poverty, it wasn’t all bad, though. The times were relatively peaceful, and improvements in farming and other techniques resulted in the ability to sell excess goods. Lifespan was also growing longer. For those who survived childhood disease, most enjoyed 20 to 30 “good years” before succumbing to the perils of “old age” in their 40s and 50s. Some lucky and exceptionally hardy individuals lived into their 60s, 70s and even 80s, and were deemed to be examples of how God’s blessings could extend a person’s life!

As was mentioned in Section 2, the Catholic Church touched every person's life in every level of society. Every child was baptized and then entered a life of service to the church, since everyone had responsibility to the Church and fell beneath its laws. Everyone paid taxes to the Church as well as to their feudal lord. In turn, the Church controlled not only the people, but the leaders, plus made political alliances, and even controlled royal marriages. The Pope was the head of the Church and was considered to be God's representative on earth. Anyone who defied the church was met with excommunication, a powerful punishment upon the offender. In the Church hierarchy, beneath the Pope were the bishops, ruling over the priests of the parishes. Every nation was divided into parishes over which a priest led. Every town had a parish church, generally the largest building in the town. Most of the parishioners were illiterate and depended on the priest for religious and Biblical instruction. (Remember, this was pre-Guttenberg, before the Bible was translated into the language of the people.) The priest’s instruction included a service (in Latin that parishioners did not understand) and a sermon, which was given in the native language of the parish. Even when you died, the Church still controlled you, since around it were the consecrated burial grounds for the parish, reserved only for those who were in “good standing.” Anyone who had been excommunicated or in some other way had offended the Church were not allowed to be buried within the consecrated grounds.

Church dating to Medieval times, Erice, Sicily

Another aspect of the time that is difficult to understand today is the lack of individualism and privacy experienced by all people. Partly this was due to a lack of being able to travel far, plus

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the relative poverty, but also because that had always been the way life was lived. Living quarters were cramped, even for the nobles, and the lack of full house heating we are accustomed to made it usual for nobles to have huge beds (12 feet wide!) that allowed the noble, his wife, their children, and even some servants and key members of the noble’s knights to sleep together in the coldest days of winter. Likewise, the noble household members dined together, not only to encourage loyalty but also because there was no refrigeration so meat and cooked food had to be eaten right away or it would spoil. So, people lived in close quarters, and didn’t even think about privacy as we know it today. In fact, anyone who went off by themselves was thought to be extremely pious, or mad, or even a little of both!

Finally, for aristocratic children, they were typically given two choices: either accept an arranged marriage or choose life in a convent or monastery. Interestingly, many chose religious life, “dropping out” of society rather than fulfill their royal obligations. In addition, many kings and queens chose to live out their “retirement years” in convents and monasteries as well. This is particularly interesting, since some of the composers featured in this unit were of noble birth who chose religious life, and ultimately benefited from the educational opportunities it afforded them.

Musica speculativa is another important concept from this time. This is the term used to describe the philosophical, mathematical, scientific and even psychological bases and elements of music. Music was fully intertwined with these disciplines in a complex process of education in a symbiotic relationship that drew upon the other facets. Of particular interest is the study of philosophy during this period. Philosophy: The study of philosophy from the Medieval period could easily comprise an entire course and study guide of its own. For the purposes of this course, we will look at the key points that impacted music of the period. Again, the Church emerges as a primary influence. Christian institutions such as monasteries sustained all intellectual life in this period, and created the curriculum by which students were considered to be educated. History considers this philosophical theology to be one of the greatest achievements of Medieval philosophy, in that the great thinkers of this period, as highly trained theologians, readily combined philosophical ideas, argument and logic and conceptual analysis to the various questions they explored to understand the world. The Church retained this exclusive control of education until the 12th century, when Universities began to emerge. As the students were then able to firsthand study Aristotle, they were at the same time discovering works by Jewish and Islamic philosophers, such as Avencebrol and Avicenna respectively. Some of their works were commentaries on Aristotle, providing the students with understanding and insight, while also sparking debate and discussion. Ironically, the same Boethius who defined music as number (see Section 3), translated Aristotle and Plato into Latin since he felt that general intellectual ability of his time was declining to a point that students could not read the original Greek! Unfortunately, he had just begun his efforts here when he was executed for treason (suspected of conspiring with the Byzantine empire), and thus the Greek classics were lost for hundreds of years, with this resource being reclaimed at the same time the Universities emerged.

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Section 5: Instruments Many of the instruments of the Medieval period are the predecessors to our modern instruments, such as guitar and clarinet, and some are not much different today to how they were at that time. Some specific period instruments that will be heard in the upcoming musical examples include: Chalumeau: A simple rustic reed-pipe, an ancestor of the clarinet, with 6 to 8 finger-holes.

Dulcimer: A shallow closed box over which are stretched wires to be struck with 2 wooden hammers held in the player's hands. Also known as a Cimbalon.

Flute: A Woodwind instrument of ancient origin formerly made of wood. In the Medieval period, there were two methods of producing sound: either blowing across a round mouth-hole as on the panpipes or transverse (side-blown) flute or blowing into a whistle mouthpiece (end-blown) as on the recorder. During Medieval times, the word flute was indiscriminately used to denote both side and end blown types.

Harp : an instrument of very ancient lineage, it can be simply described as an open frame over which is stretched a graduated series of strings, which are vibrated by plucking with the fingers.

Lute: A fretted stringed instrument played by plucking with fingers (or with a pick). The lute has a round body, like a halved pear, a flat neck with seven or more frets, and a separate pegbox usually bent back from the neck at an angle.

Mandolin : A plucked instrument of the lute family, usually with 8 strings tuned in pairs and played with a pick, generally in a sustained tremolo or vibrating type of motion.

Oliphant : horn made of elephant tusk

Organ: Portative organs or organetto were used at this time. These were small and able to be moved around. The positive organ was perhaps the most important instrument in this family as it was medium size, unable to be moved around, and was the first for which polyphonic music was composed. Around 1300, the very large pipe organs we are familiar with in contemporary times began to appear in the churches of Europe.

Percussion: Kettledrums, also called nakers or timpani, were used in pairs during this era. A cylindrical drum called a tabor was also used. Bells and cymbals of all sorts were also commonly used.

Psaltery: A plucked string instrument with a flat sounding board, similar to the zither.

Rebec: Bowed string instrument with a pear-shaped body.

Recorder: A woodwind instrument of ancient ancestry, made without a reed. The recorder is the forerunner of the flute, but is end-blown through a whistle-mouthpiece. It has seven finger-holes in front and one thumb-hole behind, and a beak-shaped mouthpiece.

Shawm: double reed wing instrument.

Trumpet : made of wood or metal at this time

Vielle: Bowed string instrument.

Zither : A folk instrument, which consists of a flat wooden soundbox over which are stretched four or five melody strings, and up to thirty-seven accompanying strings. The melody strings are nearest to the player, and are stopped on a fretted fingerboard with fingers of the left hand and plucked by a plectrum on the right thumb. The accompanying strings are plucked by fingers of either hand.

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(Image source: http://flickr.com/photos/14307737@N00/2158254172/)

Relief carving of Medieval instruments from the Minster at Beverly (England)

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Section 6: Key Figures For years, the male composers of the Medieval period were always studied as the only significant figures of this time. Even today, with the notable exception of Hildegard of Bingen, men are still known as the key contributors to the music of this time. Part of this is due to the greater problem of the time, which is simply that much of the music is not credited to any composer, male or female. Further, women were often writing only functional music; for example, nuns writing liturgical music for use by their sisters for worship. The church’s stance on women playing instruments in general, along with a grim view of all types of secular music, coupled with limited resources to notate music, thus further limits the amount of examples available from this time period. For the purposes of this course, we will focus in this section on three key male figures from the period: Bernart de Ventadorn, Philippe de Vitry, and Guillaume de Machaut. Each represents a significant development of the period, with extant music and recordings available.

Follow the link to hear and watch a performance of this piece. Written around 1180, it is being played in this performance on an oud.

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3HDxDtcyNx0

Bernart de Ventadorn (ca. 1130-ca. 1200)

French troubadour poet and composer Bernart de Ventadorn is considered one of the most important troubadours because of his musical ability. He is also notable as the prominent member of the idealist school of troubadours who sang of chivalric love rather than the then-common heavier themes. He served in the court of Eleanor of Aquitaine (grandmother of Queen Blanche), and some of his songs even spread to other parts of Europe. He was a highly influential composer, and his work in northern France is believed to have contributed to the development of the trouvere tradition there. Eighteen of his poems with their music survive to this day, more than any of his contemporaries. His song “Quan vie la lauzeta mover” (When I see the lark beat his wings) was very popular and its being spread throughout Europe demonstrated not only his popularity, but confirms his importance for spreading the troubadour genre throughout Europe as a whole.

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notable is his famous treatise “Ars nova,” written around 1320 about the “new art,” and dealing with the theoretical aspects of French music of the first half of the 14th century. 24 chapters long, it included discussion of the new theories of mensural notation, which recognizes the existence of five note values, codifies a system of duple and triple meter (mensuration) in four levels, and also introduces four time signatures. (This was a big deal for this time; remember that notation was still in its infancy and this work along with de Vitry’s motets written this way, really moved music forward.) Sadly, most of de Vitry’s music, save for a few motets, did not survive. These surviving motets reflect the theoretical developments de Vitry so eloquently describes in “Ars nova.” The link found below will bring you to a recording by the Medieval music ensemble “Sequentia”, on a work by de Vitry titled “Firmissime fidem teneamus/Adesto, sancta trinitas/Alleluya, Benedictus”. http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=W4e14GzNeKg If you’re interested in knowing more about the modern day performance of Medieval music or just learning more about the ensemble “Sequentia”, check out their web site at this link: http://sequentia.org

Philippe de Vitry: 1291-1361

(no photos available of this composer)

Image of de Vitry’s famous treatise “Ars nova”

French prelate, music theorist, poet and composer Philippe de Vitry studied at the Sorbonne (one of the early Universities) and was ordained as a deacon while still young. He served the French royal court in many politic roles, including to the papal court, and was ultimately appointed bishop of Meaux. He was considered one of the leading intellectuals of his time, and recognized by Petrarch as “the unparalleled poet of France.” His place in history, though, is for his work as a musician. Most

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Machaut took holy orders and ultimately served the King of Bohemia, and then other members of the French nobility, from 1323 until his death. Throughout these years, he wrote more than 140 mainly polyphonic works, all of which are preserved in 32 manuscripts, making it the largest collection of music available from a single composer of this time period. Machaut is considered the last great poet of France to view poetry and music as a single entity, and that is readily heard in his compositions. In addition to the sacred and secular vocal music for which he is so well known, Machaut also wrote some of the first purely instrumental music in the West in “Hoquetus David.” Compositionally, Machaut followed and developed the guidelines of de Vitry’s “Ars nova” treatise, and especially followed his advocation of using duple time in most of his works, even the Ordinary of the Mass. He epitomized the chivalric world, writing many love songs, and in fact, near the end of his life, falling in love with a much younger woman and courting her through letters, poems and songs, as was the courtly love tradition, in order to win her love. Even though he was quite innovative rhythmically, Machaut is really a composer at the crossroads of conservatism and innovation, with his music falling between those who devoted their lives to keeping the traditions of the previous century and those who fought to make the new ideas the rule. It is his “middle of the road” posture that most likely made him so popular. There was enough familiar and enough new to make him very interesting, and that will be heard in the two examples found below. Recognized as the most respected composer of his time, at his death, a peer memorialized him thus: “Men of arms, lovers, ladies and their knights, clerks, musicians, and those who write in French, all thinkers, poets, and all you who sing harmoniously with tuneful voice and hold dear the sweet art of music, give full feeling to your rightful grief, and lament the death of Machaut, the noblest bard.”

Guillaume de Machaut: ca. 1300-1377

French composer and poet Guillaume de Machaut was the leading composer of the Ars Nova movement of the 14th century. His music embodied a spontaneity and lyricism that foreshadowed the art of the Renaissance. He was one of the earliest known users of syncopated rhythm and was a leader in rhythmic experimentation in both sacred and secular genres. Although he is best known for “La Messe de Notre Dame” (Notre Dame Mass), his heart was really in his secular music, and in it, he embodied the world of chivalry and spirit of courtly love.

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“La Messe de Notre Dame” (ca. 1364) is one of the first Masses to have been written by a single composer (previously, the various parts were assembled from music of different composers). In addition, it is the first polyphonic Mass (rather than in plainchant), and also employed his innovative rhythmic techniques (like isorhythm-the repeated overlapping of a rhythm pattern in various melodic forms), making it a true milestone in the evolution of the Mass as a musical

form in and of itself.

This link goes to a performance of the Agnus Dei as performed by cantato dai solisti dell’Abbazia di Solesmes. Note the purity of the sound and the sheer beauty of the male voices as they weave in and out of each other as their lines overlap.

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=bHRAYbgdxew In his chanson, “Rose, liz, printemps,” Machaut brings the trouveres into the polyphonic age. This sample exemplifies his secular music, as sung by Lionhart in a 1999 concert. The complete text in both the original French and English

translation is included for reference. http://www.chantboy.com/lionheart/machaut.htm

Rose, liz, printemps, verdure, Rose, liz, spring, greenery, Fleur, baume et tres douce odour, Flower, balsam and very sweet odor, Bele, passés en douçour, Bele, crossed there douçour, Et tous les biens de Nature, And all the property of Nature, Avez don’t je vous aour. Have of what I to you, Rose, liz, printemps, verdure, Rose, liz, spring, greenery, Fleur, baume et tres douce oudour. Flower balm and very soft odor.

Et quant toute creature And as any creature Seurmonte vostre valour, Seurmonte vostre valour, Bien puis dire et par honnour: Well then say and honor: Rose, liz, printemps, verdure, Rose, liz, spring, greenery, Bele, passes en douçour. Bele, crossed there douçour.

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Section 7: Role of Women

Not surprisingly, perhaps, members of religious orders dominated the women’s music scene in the Medieval period, with notated music readily available as well as biographical information. This was partly because convents offered women access to musical literacy, and thus the opportunity to write and perform music. This was despite the restraints placed on women’s role by the Church Fathers as early as the 4th century, in which they elaborated on St. Paul’s dictum “mulieres in ecclesies taceant” (“Let your women keep silent in the churches, for they are not permitted to speak, but they are to be submissive as the law also says”; 1 Corinthians xiv.34). The 9th to 13th centuries in particular comprised a period of relative power and freedom for women. Noblewomen had many of the same legal and economic privileges as men, especially in northern Europe, and most especially in France. Women could take over their husbands’ businesses upon their deaths, could belong to most guilds, and were expected to administer the household and financial affairs of their husbands’ estates. Even peasant women had a peer relationship with men, being able to work beside them. While there is historical reference to secular women musicians and composers of the period, including the troubadours and trouveres, there is little notated music extant from this genre, save for that of select noblewomen. Music, in general, had a functional or transitory nature to it; it was created for a specific use, say to entertain, or support worship, but without credit to either the male or female composer. In this unit, we will focus on three women composers for whom there are extant scores, as well as recorded music available. Each is significant musically and historically in her own right, as the biographical information and musical examples will demonstrate.

Kassia’s extant writings include 49 attributed hymns (30 of which are still used in the Eastern Orthodox liturgy). Of these 49 hymns, 47 are troparia (short praise hymns) and 2 are canons

Kassia: 801- ca. 867

Kassia was a renowned Byzantine composer of chant. She was probably born and raised in Constantinople. Her family was aristocratic as her father served in the emperor’s court. Her education is uncertain, but she was skilled in classical Greek. Rumors abound as to Kassia’s early life, with a legend of her having been beaten for helping exiles and imprisoned monks around 825. Another tale has Kassia being considered as a wife by the Emperor Theophilis in 830, but being rejected because she spoke up for women. Her life between 830 and 843 is uncertain; it is not known if she ever married or had children. She is next heard from in 843, when she founded a monastery in Constantinople and became its first abbess. Her hymns are believed to have come from this period, with some scholars believing she wrote in secular verse prior to this time.

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(hymn cycles of eight odes). A set of troparia by Kassia represents the first surviving music by a female composer. Her works demonstrate her originality and ability as both a poet and as a composer. The poetry guides the structure of the music, with her works being much more original than those of her contemporaries, both male and female. Likely this originality and imaginativeness are part of the reason her music was saved and recorded in the Byzantine chronicles of the day. Her contemporaries were much less creative, with wordier poetry and long, drawn out music. They also paid little attention to musical structure. By contrast, Kassia’s music is concise and she set her texts syllabically. Her legendary wit is evident in her poetry and how she plays with words, as well as the structure of her compositions, with the two interlinked by musical motives that symbolize and reflect her text. (This is certainly an early predecessor of the 20th century “tone painting” genre.) Kassia’s historical importance may also lie in the fact that she was the only hymnographer of her time who wrote a hymn about the “fallen woman,” Mary Magdalene, a subject that male hymnographers in particular did not find worthy of any attention. Thus, her most famous troparia is “The Fallen Woman.” It is still used today during Holy Week in the Orthodox church, sung in the Morning Office of Holy Wednesday, but technically celebrated at the end of the Vespers service of Holy Tuesday. The hymn is about Mary Magdalene, the “fallen woman” who washed Christ’s feet, anointed them, and wiped them with her long hair. (Luke 7: 36-50)

An Orthodox image of Mary Magdalene; note the similarity to the portrait of Kassia!

Image source: http://www.logoi.com/pastimages/mary_magdalene.html

The hymn is also considered to be at least partly autobiographical. History suggests that Emperor Theophilos later regretted not choosing Kassia as his bride, and he kept trying to see her to express this and to proclaim his love. Although Kassia avoided him, she felt that she had returned his love in her heart, and thus had also become a “fallen woman.” Legend also suggests that while Kassia was in the middle of writing the poem for this hymn, the Emperor made one of his unexpected visits, and she fled to avoid him, leaving the unfinished poem on her desk. When the Emperor entered her monastery cell, legend suggests he saw the poem and added the lines “those feet at whose sound Eve in Paradise hid for fear.” The lines contain a delicious double entendre: Eve hiding from God, and Kassia hiding from Theophilus. Although out of context with her theme of a fallen woman, legend says that Kassia kept the Emperor’s addition. In some ways, this legendary aspect helped make this hymn so well known.

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Follow this link for a video recording of this hymn: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jQBY95YVruk The translated text of this troparia is:

O Lord, the woman who had fallen into many sins, Perceiving Your divinity, Took the part of a myrrh-bearer; Weeping, she brings oils of myrrh Before your burial.

“Woe to me,” she says, “for night is a frenzy of license to me, a dark, moonless love of sin. “Receive the fountains of my tears, O You who gather the sea-waters into clouds Incline to the groanings of my hearts, O You who laid low the heavens by Your ineffable humility. “I shall kiss Your immaculate feet, wipe them again with the hair of my head, those feet at whose sound Eve in Paradise hid for fear. “The multitude of my sins, the depths of your judgments, who can search them out, O Savior of souls? Do not despise me, Your handmaiden, O You whose mercy admits of no measure.”

Kassia also wrote 261 known epigrams and gnomic verses (short, witty poems, expressing a single thought of observation, or concise, clever, often paradoxical statements, some being only one line). An example from her epigrams is this one-liner: “Love everyone, but don’t trust all.”

Hildegard of Bingen: 1098-1181

Hildegard, an abbess from Germany, was a leading figure in 12th century culture, and one of several prominent female mystics in the 12th and 13th centuries and is the “superstar” female composer of the Medieval period. While music history has long acknowledged her presence, only recently has the full scope of her achievement become known. Hildegard created the largest body of attributed monophonic chant of this period. She also wrote the first allegorical morality play, “Ordo virtutum,” the only Medieval music drama in which both music and text are attributed.

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Hildegard has enjoyed a recent revival of her music some 800 years after it was written (thanks to Anonymous 4 and other performance groups). However, she is not always celebrated as a mainstream composer, since her music was exceptionally creative and poetry rather mystical, putting her somewhat outside of the “mainstream” of the time. Regardless, her contribution is significant and extant, in large part, to this uniqueness. Juan Louis Vives, a noted 16th century scholar, in his book “De institutione feminae christianae,” wrote that “the letters and learned books of the German maiden, Hildegard, are in everyone’s hands,” clearly showing her long-lasting impact despite her uniqueness for her time.

Sample of Hildegard’s music in period notation

Known for her mysticism, Hildegard was certainly charismatic, drawing the attention of royalty and Popes, and preaching to many persons. She wrote poetry, tracts on theology and medicine, and of course, composed music. Her music and poetry is said to have come to her in her numerous visions which she then recorded. The antiphon, “Caritas abundat” (Divine love abounds) exhibits just such a mystical and deeply religious air, similar to the quality of most of Hildegard’s chants. Her spreading of words over several notes makes it seem as if the singer is vocalizing rather than intoning words at times, adding to the mystical quality of the music. Follow this link to the video recording of “Caritas abundat.”

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jCZdjYrB788 Text for “Caritas abundat” in both the original Latin and in English translation:

Caritas abundat in omnia, de imis excellentissima super sidera, atque amantissima in omnia, osculum pacis dedit. quia summo Regi Loving tenderness abounds for all from the darkest to the most eminent one beyond the stars, Exquisitely loving all she bequeaths the kiss of peace upon the ultimate King.

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Writing in the vernacular and the secular tradition, and most definitely the language of courtly love, Queen Blanche provides a glimpse into the otherwise mostly unavailable secular trouvere songs of Medieval women. Note the similarity to the courtly love themes seen in the works of her male contemporaries. This was a particularly popular theme in secular music of this era. This sample file of “Amours, ou trop tart me sui pris” (“Love, with whom too late I am allied) provides a nice taste of her work. Performed by soprano, accompanied by psaltery and medieval fiddle, the performance is representative of what was common secular music performance practice from this time.

http://www.leonarda.com/le340.html Entire text of “Amours, ou trop tart me sui pris” translated to English: Love, with whom too late I am allied, Has instructed me through its lordship, Sweet lady of Paradise. That I should want to sing-a-song of you; For the joy which can endure One should serve and love you. Virgin Queen, sacred lily, How much joy fills him Who is full of love for you; No one can say, For the joy which can endure One should serve and love you. Well chosen was the vessel, Sweet Lady, where the Holy Spirit was, For nine full months nourished, For it was, Lady, your heart. For the joy which can endure One should serve and love you.

Queen Blanche of Castile: 1188-1252

Blanche was born in Castile, then a kingdom of what we now know as central and northern Spain. She was brought to France by her grandmother, Eleanor of Aquataine, to marry the heir to the French throne, the future Louis VIII. As mother of Louis IX, she governed France as regent during his youth and again when Louis went on a crusade in 1248. Since Blanche was of noble birth, she was able to receive an education unavailable to most women and men outside of religious orders. Her nobility, along with her education and wealth, probably helped assure the survival of her songs throughout these many centuries.

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Section 8: Additional Musical Examples

The internet abounds with Medieval musical examples. The list below annotates just a few of the many free resources available. In addition, there are many more fee-required recordings available through some of these same links, as well as on the music services of iTunes and Rhapsody. Follow this link to access several samples of Kassia’s work: http://www.vocame.de/en/musik/ You are encouraged to explore several of the samples to get a good sense of her style. Medieval Songs, Dances & Chant: http://www.leonarda.com/le340.html This link connects to a “sampler” of songs from the recording entitled “The Medieval Lady” and features music by Medieval women composers. Hildegard recordings: http://www.earlywomenmasters.net/cds/ has several excellent mp3s of Hildegard’s works using actual instruments and voice; as a caution, the site also has some midi files of recordings which do not do justice to the music of this era! Hildegard and Machaut compositions: the following link has mp3 files of performances of Umea Akademiska Kor of both of these composers; the recordings are very good. The site also features an entire listing of works by many Medieval composers, so it is well worth exploring for anyone interested in hearing more of this type of music.

http://www.acc.umu.se/~akadkor/conserts/2006-01-15.html Finally, you can find virtually anything and everything at http://www.youtube.com Youtube’s search engine is excellent; just type in a composer name or style or a title or a few words, and you will find many more examples of Medieval music by all the composers featured in this unit, and many more.

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Section 9: Resources for Further Study This unit provided an overview of key concepts and figures of the period. For those interested in learning more about specific subject areas, the following resources are provided for further study. On the Internet: Catholic Encyclopedia, http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/01383c.htm By using the search engine or alphabetical search guide, this online encyclopedia is a topnotch source for the Catholic perspective, especially as relates to period music and figures. Early Women Masters, http://www.earlywomenmasters.net A wonderful source for snapshot information on women composers, and even links to recordings. Hildegard Publishing, http://www.hildegard.com/ Great short biographies of women composers, plus sheet music for purchase. International Machaut Society. http://www.loyno.edu/~avclark/Machaut/imslinks.htm For all things Machaut – detailed bibliography including biographical information, music/recordings.

MacDonald, Scott and Norman Kretzmann (1998). Medieval philosophy. In E. Craig (Ed.), Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy. London: Routledge. Retrieved July 09, 2008, from http://www.rep.routledge.com/article/B078 This link goes to an excellent, detailed source with lots of cross-study links imbedded throughout the site. This site is for anyone wanting to study philosophy and its inter-relationship with theology from this time in more detail. The Musica Antiqua group at Iowa State maintains an excellent website of Medieval and Renaissance era instruments. Click this link to reach their main page, and then select the link for any instruments you’d like to know more about to see pictures, read more about the instrument, and in some cases, hear a sound sample. http://www.music.iastate.edu/antiqua/instrumt.html Touliatos-Miles, Diane. “Women Composers in Byzantium.” Retrieved July 7, 2008, from http://web.archive.org/web/20061023191159/symposium.music.org/cgi-bin/m_symp_show.pl?id=207 Simply the best accounting of the women composers from this period, with an excellent account of the life and work of Kassia in particular, including transcriptions of the music by the author. Link to bonus article by the same author: http://www.hellenicnest.com/womencomp2.html Touliatos-Miles is a foremost writer on this subject and this article provides additional insights into the women of this period. Books: Seay, Albert. “Music in the Medieval World, 2nd Edition,” Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1975. An excellent, albeit male-dominated, overview of the Medieval period in music history. The book includes cultural, philosophical and religious aspects that shaped this period. This book gets heavy at times, but overall is very reader friendly for anyone wanting to go into some more depth on this period.

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Hoppin, Richard H. “Medieval Music (The Norton Introduction to Music History),” W.W. Norton & Company, 1978. Extremely detailed and excellent accounting of the Medieval period, intended for the music major/graduate music student studying this period. The companion book of scores provides annotated sheet music for the period.

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Unit 3: Renaissance Period

1450 – 1600 A.D. “Renaissance” means “rebirth,” and indeed, the Renaissance period was just such a period in music history. The objective of the scholars and artists of this time was to put aside the Medieval period’s concepts and to embrace or restore both the philosophical and artistic ideals of classical antiquity (the period preceding the Medieval period), including the creation of art for art’s sake. Many historians consider the Renaissance to be the beginning of modern history. While this goal was relatively easily put forth in the philosophical arena, that wasn’t quite the case in the musical arena. Indeed, while a “Renaissance spirit” can be felt in the songs of Dufay (smooth, flowing lines), the contrapuntal or imitative harmonic aspects coming to the fore at the end of the Medieval continued to develop and in fact, became increasingly complex at the period unfolded. The development of printing further allowed knowledge to become spread more easily and music became published instead of hand-copied, allowing its more ready distribution, and thus available for teaching purposes. The resulting hybrid of the “smooth” and the “imitative” styles is found in the music of Palestrina and Byrd, among others. This characteristic musical style of the Renaissance is found both in secular and sacred music, both vocal and instrumental.

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Section 1: Main Musical Forms/Stylistic Elements As noted in the introduction to this unit, the characteristic musical style of the period is a hybrid of the smooth, flowing lines of those looking back to classical antiquity, and the imitative or contrapuntal complexity of those who continued to develop the techniques that emerged near the end of the Medieval period. This hybrid can be described as a smooth, homogeneous, imitative polyphonic style. The vocal styles remained the dominant genres, but separate instrumental styles were emerging and becoming independent forms in their own right. This style will be found in both secular and sacred music genres. In secular music, the style is particularly found in the vocal madrigals, as well as the instrumental consort music. In sacred music, the style is found mainly in the masses and motets. Imitative polyphony continued to develop, foreshadowing the complex counterpoint of the subsequent Baroque period. Interestingly, even as this complex style was emerging, the Renaissance imitative polyphony, with its smooth lines, remained popular in sacred music well into the 17th century, and even beyond, being recognized in many schools as the most “fitting” manner for church music. One of the interesting challenges facing modern musicians who perform music of the Renaissance is to not be lured into the conventions of the barline and what various time signatures “tell us” what to do when we perform. Stylistically, it’s difficult to not respond in this way, since musicians are so conditioned to have strong downbeats, and having the rhythm in some ways dictate interpretation of the music. The challenge then is to use contemporary transcriptions of Renaissance music as guideposts, and to take extreme care to let the rhythmic polyphony “flow” as it was meant to be performed. Likewise, singers have to take care to use a vocal quality that is more folk-like or non-Western, and to avoid the “bel canto” (aka operatic) style so prevalent in post-Renaissance music. The recordings used throughout this section demonstrate the careful approach contemporary musicians have taken to preserve the stylistic intent of the Renaissance. One other thing to note when listening is the “niceness” or harmoniousness of the resulting sounds. The imitation/polyphony, rather than being the sole stylistic feature, instead provide some very lovely harmonies that make this music less trying to modern ears than the Medieval music that proceeded it, and also easier to understand the words. Definitions of Key Musical Styles/Forms The Roman Catholic Church continued to dominate religious music, but the newly emerging Protestant church also developed new musical forms to support their new churches, especially in Germany, France and England. Religious music was still the dominant musical form, but this was decreasing as the period unfolded and secular music gained much ground. Likewise, vocal music was still dominant, but independent instrumental styles began to emerge and also develop. Instruments were also used more freely in the performance of vocal music, and musicians were encouraged to improvise or “embellish” (ornament) the written music. There were also many transcriptions of vocal works for instruments Perhaps of greatest note is the overall emergence

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of works that displayed more artistic freedom and individualism, despite the “rules” still being imposed upon composers. Anthem: A new form that developed first in England after 1534 for the Anglican church. The term was probably derived from the Catholic liturgical “antiphon” and soon assumed a vital place in services of most Protestant denominations. Texts came from a variety of sources (not just the Bible) and were always in the vernacular of the region. The use of the term was rather loosely applied to a variety of religious music used in this way, and remains quite flexibly used to modern times. Ballade: A continuation of the form first seen in the Medieval period; a one-movement piece with lyrical and dramatic story-telling qualities. Ballata: A continuation of the form first seen in the Medieval period; a dance song with a clear sectional structure and refrains. Caccia: A return of a Medieval form; used a canon that was based on continuous imitation of two or more parts, with upper parts in imitation and the lowest part moving in slow notes and played on an instrument rather than sung. Canon: Think of “Row, Row, Row Your Boat.” This is an imitative style where one part starts out with the melody, with another part coming in with the same melody a little later, and other parts joining at various points to form a lush harmonic structure through the simple repetition of melodic parts at staggered intervals. In addition to the mensuration canon described first, canons were also written in retrograde (melody sung backwards), augmentation (where the time values of the notes get longer in the imitating voices), and as double canons (two different melodies, each canonically imitated). Cantus Firmus: The cantus firmus was a repeating melody. Used primarily as a new mass form, each section of the ordinary had the same melody, usually written in plainsong style (although sometime secular melodies were used). Canzone: Popular vocal form in Italy; usually in four parts, with a strong beat and dance-like rhythms. This form is a predecessor of the madrigal. Carol: Popular music form in England; usually had two parts and was sung to a religious poem with lots of verses and a refrain. Chanson: French secular song form; typically used the same polyphonic texture as the mass, but more rhythmic, with the melody in the top voice. Chorale: One of the most important forms that came from the Protestant Reformation. This is a hymn meant to be sung by the congregation. Chorales began as monophonic works (single line), but gradually evolved to four-part harmony and the still prevalent harmonic form found in most traditional Protestant hymns. Concertato: An instrumental or vocal style where groups of instruments or voices share a melody, usually alterating it. Gabrieli started the style using groups of instruments in different parts of the cathedral and used the echo effect to create a “stereo” sound. This is the beginning of this form which took even greater shape during the Baroque period. Fugue: In the Renaissance, the term was used to denote specifically imitative works (following specific rules). This is really the beginning of this form that takes its full shape in the Baroque period. Hymns: Usually a religious song, written for praise, adoration or prayer, addressed to God. The term comes from the Greek word “hymnos” (a song of praise). Instrumental Consort: An instrumental ensemble, often used to accompany vocal music. Lied: A popular German secular song form; typically written for four voices with imitative counterpoint. Often based on existing popular songs.

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Madrigal: Secular song form; grew out of the canzone tradition, with greater expressiveness, more elaborate contrapuntally, and generally more “polished” in terms of musical organization. Mass: Organization of liturgical music for Catholic Church worship. The cantus firmus mass was a new development of the Renaissance. This was a setting where each successive section had the same melody; the melodies were usually written in the plainsong style of the Medieval period, but some used secular music. Another development was the parody mass, where a secular chanson or motet was altered to fit the text of the mass. Regardless of the style, the mass was polyphonic, although use of actually canon technique became much less used by the early 1500s. Motet: Sacred choral composition based on a single Latin text and sung in all voice parts, with the melody in the top voice; usually short in length; written on a variety of subjects, usually derived from the Bible. Depending on country of origin, may be written as a duet, or in fugal/imitative style or counterpoint. Prelude/Choral Prelude: The prelude was the main improvisational form of the Renaissance; usually composed for keyboard or lute, making use of a collection of materials to give the listener a feeling of improvisation. A choral prelude is a contrapuntal arrangement of a chorale which was played on an organ. Psalms: A predominantly French form, Biblical Psalms were translated to French and then set to melodies; usually sung in unison by congregations and meant to be sung at home, too. Sometimes arranged into four part harmony with more elaborate contrapuntal arrangements as the era progressed. Quodlibet: A popular German secular song form; had various popular tunes and their texts humorously combined in a contrapuntal manner. Rondeau: A continuation of a Medieval form that remained popular in the early Renaissance period. The form calls for a rigid repeated pattern of verse and refrain, following the evolving rhyme scheme of the poetry. Toccata: A virtuosic work for keyboard or plucked string instrument that features fast-moving, lightly fingered sections, emphasizing the agility of the performer’s fingers. Sometimes used in works for multiple instruments, but typically refers to works for solo instruments. The form first appears in the Renaissance and reaches it highest development during the Baroque period and the work of J.S. Bach. Variation/Ground: The theme and variation form was one based on a popular tune which was then modified with each restatement (variation). Another version was the ground, which used short themes of four to eight measures in the bass and had a changing counterpoint played above it. The cantus firmus variation used a single melody which was repeated many times, and usually accompanied by a different counterpoint and in a different voice with each repetition. Villancico (Spanish)/Villanella: A four part secular work with a regular metric construction. Text was based on a three verse poem and with performed as a solo song with instruments playing the three lower parts. Virelai: A continuation of a Medieval French form of poetry and song from the troubadour tradition, it is written with a courtly text in ABBA form. The word is from the old French word “virer” (to turn or twist), showing it was derived from an early dance form.

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Section 2: Church Influences As the Catholic Church began to lose its juggernaut-like control over society as a whole, two other groups began to gain prominence: the Lutherans and the Calvinists. This section will explore the three groups and their roles in society as a whole and, in particular, how they impacted the music of the period. In some ways, the Catholics represented the Renaissance spirit with their desire to go backward and keep the “old” alive and dominant. The Lutherans and Calvinists, even with their expressed desire to recapture the true meaning of Christianity actually represent the moving forward, especially by using the vernacular (language of the area), with the Calvinists being even more radical than the Lutherans. Lumped under the umbrella terms of “Reformation” and “Protestant,” both had a clearly anti-Catholic identity. The Catholics, in response, met these rebels with a movement called the “Counter Reformation,” a clear effort to revitalize the Church and oppose all things Protestant. Catholic Church/Counter Reformation Some historians find the term “Counter Reformation” too negative and prefer to describe the movement to revitalize the Catholic Church as the “Catholic Reformation” or the “Catholic Restoration.” No matter the term, the movement’s goal was two-fold: to breathe new life into the Catholic Church and to oppose Protestantism/the Reformation. Even as far back as the 15th century, as Christians became more sensitized to religious abuses, calls for reform of the church were heard. Various initiatives were undertaken to bring the Church back to more austere times, but were disorganized and failed. When Paul III became Pope in 1534, the Church finally had the leadership it needed to make serious efforts toward reform and to meet the challenge of the Protestants head on. Paul brought serious reformers into the College of Cardinals and also encouraged the development of new religious orders, most notably the Jesuits, under the leadership of St. Ignatius Loyola. A group of highly educated men, they were dedicated to a renewal of piety through preaching, religious instruction, and retreats.

most of the Protestant positions, upholding the structure of the Medieval Church, doctrine, and the practices of indulgences, pilgrimages, veneration of saints and relics, as well as the Virgin Mary. Most notably, they reaffirmed the role of the Pope as God’s sole representative on earth, much to the irritation of the Protestants. The most lasting of the Council’s work was the commissioning of the Roman Catechism, which still serves as the Church’s authoritative

Paul’s most notable act was convening the Council of Trent in 1545 to deal with the many doctrinal and disciplinary questions raised by the Protestants. While his relationship with Holy Roman Emperor Charles V was often shaky, Paul (like his predecessors) still used both diplomatic and military measures against the Protestants. Following Paul’s lead, in Spain, the Inquisition became a terrifying instrument of King Philip II to suppress both religious and political dissent. The Council of Trent sought to address such issues as corrupt bishops and priests, the practice of indulgences (paying for salvation) and other financial abuses. The Council rejected

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teaching tool (the 1992 edition only updated language and provided modern explanations, but doesn’t differ doctrinally). While the basic structure of the Church remained intact, there were some changes made to answer complaints that even the Counter Reformers had to admit were real. This included the growing gap between the priests and congregation, partly due to the lack of education of the rural parish priests. This included assuring that these priests were well schooled in Latin and had proper theological training. In addition, bishops were no longer appointed for political reasons; they had to visit even the most remote parts of their parishes to instill high standards.

The most effective of the new Catholic orders, the Jesuits, were founded in 1534 by Spanish nobleman Ignatius of Loyola (St. Ignatius Loyola). The order received papal approval in 1540 from Paul III. The order was known for its careful selection, rigorous training and unyielding discipline. Taking strong monastic vows of chastity, obedience and poverty, their example helped improve the entire Church, and has been credited for staving off the Protestant movement in Poland, Hungary, southern Germany, France, and the Spanish Netherlands. They also were majority participants in missionary activity to the Americas and Asia, even outpacing the very aggressive evangelical efforts of the Calvinists. The absolutism of the Council of Trent and the Jesuits firmly brought the Church back to its Medieval roots. The arts, as a whole, were impacted by this Counter Reformation. Starting with the Council of Trent, and continuing on through Pope Pius IV’s time, the Church attacked things such as Michelangelo’s Sistine Chapel (painted 1534-41) frescoes for their nudity (which they painted over), depictions of Christ, and inclusion of the pagan figure Charon. Orders included removal of anything lascivious or superstitious, no elaborate clothing, and so on in all art works.

Music was dealt a serious blow by the Council of Trent when it demanded simplicity in music so that the words could be clearly heard, which could have been the death knoll for polyphony. In their “Canon on Music to be used for the Mass,” the Council stated: “All things should indeed be so ordered that the masses, whether they be celebrated with or without singing, may reach tranquilly into the ears and hearts of those who hear them, when everything is executed clearly and at the correct speed. In the case of those masses which are celebrated with singing and with organ, let nothing profane be intermingled, but only hymns and divine praises. The whole plan of singing should be constituted not to give empty pleasure to the ear, but in such a way that the words be clearly understood by all. And thus the hearts of listeners be drawn to desire of

When Pius IV became Pope in 1560, the Counter Reformation really took form. This comprehensive effort to revitalize the Church and put down Protestantism had 5 major components:

1. Doctrine 2. Ecclesiastical or Structural Reconfiguration 3. Religious Orders 4. Spiritual Movements 5. Political Dimensions

The reforms included the formation of seminaries for the proper training of priests in this new order as well as a reform of religious life, returning orders to their spiritual foundations.

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heavenly harmonies in the contemplation of the joys of the Blessed. They shall also banish from church all music that contains whether in the singing or in the organ playing things that are lascivious or impure.”

With this decree, while not specifically banned, the use of polyphony was essentially no longer deemed acceptable for sacred music due to the requirement that texts be clearly articulated. Other changes in music that the Council brought about included development of the Missa Brevis, Lauda, and Madrigali Spirtuali (Spiritual Madrigal), which are defined in Section 1.

This example from the “Missa Papae Marcelli” demonstrates the intricacy, yet clarity Palestrina was able to achieve. This recording is the Kyrie from the Mass. http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=y28ZRYF9Q-4

Martin Luther/Lutherans/The Reformation Luther developed his own personal theology shortly after becoming a monk in 1505, his actions turning into outright blasphemy against the Catholic Church when he protested the use of indulgences and posted his “95 Theses” on the door of the church in Wittenburg for all to read. Luther held strong to his views, despite being ordered to recant, and was ultimately

Giovanni Pierluigi da Palestrina (1525-1594)

The Italian composer Giovanni Pierluigi da Palestrina (1525-1594) was able to affect the outcome of these difficult demands, thanks to his musical mastery and skillful word setting. He composed a six-part polyphonic mass, the “Missa Papae Marcelli” (Pope Marcellus Mass) in 1555, demonstrating that polyphony was compatible with the requirements of the Counter Reformation. Palestrina’s music became the model for future generations of Catholic composers, and continues to this day to be the example for clarity of text in polyphony. Composers were thus able to express sacred themes despite the little room for artistic expression that the Council’s rules left them. Palestrina is thus notable for the consistency of his style, and also for composing reverent, yet technically flawless music suited ideally to enhance the sacred texts.

Martin Luther (1483-1546)

Nailing up the 95 Theses & a Classic Portrait

Martin Luther certainly didn’t plan to start a revolution. Ironically, he saw himself as a reformer of the Catholic Church. A simple German monk, Luther believed his ideas would help the Church return to its roots. Instead, he divided Christianity into two separate churches and changed the world significantly, pushing it not into an idealistic past, but rather firmly into the modern era.

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excommunicated from the Church in 1521. His work, “The Freedom of the Christian,” outlined his theological and ideological thinking. Luther’s concept of freiheit (freedom or liberty) isn’t what we think of when the term “freedom” is used today, but in time, his concepts gave rise to the ideas of individual freedom, economic freedom and political freedom. The overall concept was one of liberating people – from false beliefs, false religion, arbitrary authority, and similar problems identified by many who were uneasy with the direction the Catholic Church had moved. Indeed, this concept of liberating people, common to international politics to this day, comes out of Luther’s idea of freedom. There are five theological tenets of Lutheranism/the Reformation called the “five solas.” These solas are Latin phrases (or slogans) that emerged during the Reformation and summarized the basic theological beliefs that were contrary to those of the teaching of the Catholic Church at that time. The word “sola” means alone or only or single. Thus, the solas were what the Reformers believed were the only things needed for Christian salvation. The Five Solas are:

1. Solus Christus (Christ alone): in protest of the Catholic dogma that the Pope was Christ’s representative on earth, and recognizing Christ as the only mediator between God and man.

2. Sola scriptura (Scripture alone): This tenet addressed the need for pure reading of the Bible, believing that Catholic teaching obscured or convoluted the teachings of the Bible.

3. Sola fide (Faith alone): This tenet addressed the Catholic stance that faith alone was not enough and that man had to do good works for eternal salvation. Protestants put forth the belief that good works were merely a testimony to one’s faith.

4. Sola gratia (Grace alone): Protestants put forth the idea that salvation is a gift of God, God’s act of free grace. This directly attacked the Catholic stance that salvation was contingent upon one’s works, and that faith wasn’t just a belief but included works, and only through both could one achieve salvation.

5. Soli Deo Gloria (Glory to God alone): In this tenet, the Reformers expressed the belief that human beings are not worthy of the glory accorded them by the Catholic Church – this included the saints, pops and ecclesiastical hierarchy. In Protestant eyes, all glory was due to God alone, since salvation was accomplished solely through this action.

In addition to translating the Bible into German, and making it readily accessible, Luther was also instrumental in creating lasting music for worship. Luther loved music and, for him, music was one of the greatest gifts of God. Because of this, Luther wanted to use music to move the soul, and to do so, he wanted people to be able to sing during his services, not just rote-recite Latin chant. For Luther, congregational singing exemplified the spirit of worship in the new Church. He wanted them to put themselves into singing heartily, and thus created music in his native German language (the vernacular) in order for worshippers to participate fully in the worship experience. He reformed the Catholic Mass to allow the congregation more chances to sing and participate in the service, rather than just being spectators. This spirit of inclusiveness can be seen to this day in all the many permutations of worship experience we see at various Protestant churches and on television. All of these worship experiences have their roots in Luther’s work to make worship more inclusive and participatory.

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To further enhance worship participation, Luther advocated including hymns in the vernacular as a part of the formal worship service. He began composing hymns in 1523. While the exact number of hymns he composed remains in dispute to this day, he is acknowledged as having written at least 36 hymns. The dispute in the number he actually wrote comes from the fact he translated Latin texts and used the same familiar melodies people had rote-sung in the past. (His intent in “reusing” this material, of course, was to take something familiar to aid in the congregation’s participation and comfort.) Regardless, his impact on hymn writing and worship has reached across the centuries, with J.S. Bach first re-setting one of his hymns and use of his instrumental chorales continuing through the 20th century with composers such as Shostakovich. His chorale style writing was so popular it was picked up by the secular composers of his time and again, continued to develop throughout the succeeding centuries, just as the hymn writing did. Martin Luther’s contributions to music were invaluable and provided the model for much future development of both sacred and secular music. Worship music in the vernacular helps worshippers better understand the messages of the church. Similarly, children are taught ideas in song aid in remembering and understanding. Music as a universal language is at the heart of Luther’s musical heritage. In addition, his hymns are still widely used today, and the tradition of congregational participation and robust singing are mainstays of Lutheran services to this day. “Ein feste Burg ist unser Gott” (“A Mighty Fortress is Our God”) is one of the most universally familiar of all of Luther’s hymns. Click the link to hear an organ rendition of this mighty work. http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Z2PvGvZMNIg

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Next line of text

By the mid-1550s, Geneva was completely Calvinist in thought and structure and had become the most important Protestant center of Europe, especially for those exiled from their native countries of France, England, Scotland and the Netherlands.

The five points of Calvinism reflect Calvin’s thinking; while not written by him, they are derived from ideas he presented. The main thought of these points is that God is able to save every person upon whom He has mercy and that His efforts aren’t affected by the unrighteousness or the inability of humans. These five points are represented by the acronym “tulip” and are:

T: Total Hereditary Depravity. At birth, all are depraved, a sinful condition inherited from their parents.

U: Unconditional Election. God arbitrarily chose to save some people and destroy others and nothing can be done to change God’s sovereign decree.

L: Limited Atonement. Christ died only for the ones God chose unconditionally to save.

I: Irresistible Grace. Once God determines to save someone, that person cannot overcome or resist the power of God no matter what s/he may desire.

P: Perseverance of the Saints. Since people can’t do anything but evil on their own, God’s unconditional election is required to save them. Thus, one doesn’t need to do anything to remain saved.

The strictness of Calvinism and its literal reading of Scripture resulted in music that was also distinctly rule-driven. Music had to use Biblical texts and couldn’t use non-Biblical texts (this was much more strict than Luther’s thoughts on texts), and also required monophonic (single line) setting of texts for worship services – no parts! Of musical significance is the resulting Genevan Psalter, a collection of metrical psalms created under Calvin’s direct supervision. Metrical psalms are rhymed versions of the songs from the book of Psalms in the Bible.

John Calvin (aka Jean Cauvin) was originally a lawyer, but was so filled with the ideas of humanism (see Section 3 for more on humanism) he dedicated himself to reform the Church. He got his chance in Geneva when he was invited there to build the new Reformed church. At first, his reforms didn’t go over well and he was tossed out in 1538. In 1540, he was invited back and set about revolutionizing Genevan society, with his most important innovation being to incorporate the church into city government. Clergy was involved in municipal decisions, especially as related to disciplining the citizens, including imposition of a strict moral code.

John Calvin (1509-1564)

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The Genevan Psalter (Pseaumes Octante Trois de David) was published in 1551 and is a mixture of borrowed tunes (from secular chansons & the Strasbourg Psalter) and original compositions by Guillaume Franc, Pierre Davantes and Loys (or Louis) Bourgeois.

Most notable of these songs is the well known “Old Hundredth,” composed by Louis Bourgeois. Perhaps the best known melody in all Christian musical traditions, it was first associated with Psalm 134 in the Genevan Psalter, the original text that Bourgeois used for the tune. It’s better known name (“Old Hundredth”) came later when Psalm 100 was applied to the hymn tune in a paraphrase of the Psalm written by Scottish clergyman William Kethe in 1561 in the Anglo-Genevan Psalter (“All People that on Earth do Dwell”). The hymn tune is also known as the “Doxology” (“Praise God from Whom All Blessings Flow”), the familiar “grace” text sung first in 1674, and written by the Church of England priest Thomas Ken.

Although released by the personal intervention of John Calvin, he remained controversial, with the town council ordering the burning of his instructions to singers. Shortly after this, Bourgeois left Geneva and returned to France, where he appears to have returned to composing secular music, with a collection of secular chansons being published in 1560. No records of his life are available after 1560, and it is believed he died this year.

The version in this listening example is an arrangement with harmonization by contemporary composer Ralph Vaughan Williams. It was first sung at the coronation of Queen Elizabeth II in 1953. The first verse is as follows: All people that on earth do dwell, Sing to the Lord with cheerful voice. Him serve with fear, His praise forth tell; Come ye before Him and rejoice.

Follow this link to the musical example: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=dtfkyyPQLAE This particular recording is sung by the choir of Westminster Abbey. The accompanying pictures are of various cathedrals around the United Kingdom.

Bourgeois (c. 1510-1560) was a French composer and music theorist. His early life is a mystery; his first publication, a collection of secular chansons, is dated 1539. By 1545, he was in Geneva and became a music teacher there. He worked on psalm tunes in 1549 and 1550, and is remembered as one of the three main composers of the original hymn tunes in the Genevan Psalter. He was sent to prison late in 1551 for changing the tunes of some well-known psalms “without a license.”

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Score to the Old 100th psalm tune

Closing Thoughts: From the strictness imposed upon it by the Catholics and Calvinists, to the move toward music truly of the people with the Lutherans, music was thus clearly impacted by the three major religious phenomenon of the Renaissance.

In closing, it is interesting to note that both Luther and Calvin had been encouraged to become lawyers by their fathers, with Calvin actually practicing law for a time. This may perhaps (at least partly) explain their ability to so stridently and successfully present their cases against the tenets of Catholicism, as well as their determination to persevere in their beliefs despite adversity, not only from a theological standpoint, but also a musical one.

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Section 3: Other Influences As noted in Section 2, religion was certainly at the heart of much that happened in the Renaissance. Beyond that, though, there were many social, political and intellectual happenings that helped define the Renaissance. During the 16th century, ancient Greek and Roman writings were rediscovered, translated and thus read by many people. These classical writers (such as Plato, Ovid & Sophocles) focused on the human condition; that is, the nature of humans, human suffering and what worked to establish social order. From these ideas there ultimately emerged a philosophy called “humanism.”

Humanists believed that the ancient writings held the lessons one needed to live a moral and effective life and also provided the best models for life. The result was the development of a new kind of classical scholarship, with ruling families hiring humanists to teach their children this classical morality, as well as writing in that elegant/classical style for their letters, histories, and even propaganda pieces. The Church likewise hired these scholars to write official correspondence and propaganda in an effort to create an image of the popes as powerful, modern and enlightened leaders. This also spilled over into the service itself, with the writing of a more classical form of the Mass.

The relationship between popes and scholars was complex, since the humanists ended up developing their own views on theology, and even criticized Church doctrines, with some even bordering on paganism. The Protestant threat resulted in some scholars using humanist scholarship to defend the Church. In the end, the humanists couldn’t reform the Church it both supported and challenged, and the relationship between popes and scholars dissolved.

Rodin’s “The Thinker”

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Section 4: Social/Historical Context

There were many social, political and intellectual changes/evolutions that comprised the Renaissance. Of these, religion and humanism were clearly the two main influences on overall life, and also music. In this section, two additional areas will be discussed to provide even further insight into the context in which composers were writing during the Renaissance: science and William Shakespeare. (Note that discussion of the women’s situation will take place in section 7.) The Scientific Revolution comprises a period between 1500 and 1700. The foundations of modern science were developed in Western Europe during this period. Prior to this time, nothing like science as we know it even existed. During the Medieval period, there were attempts to explain the physical world, known as “natural philosophy,” and based almost entirely on the teachings of the Greek philosopher Aristotle. These explanations were based on Aristotle’s writings rather than experiments or practical study. This approach was done avoiding practical subjects such as mathematics to explain the physical world. Even at universities, sciences such as astronomy and physics were considered inferior to Aristotle’s natural philosophy. The study of plants was even done in the “natural” way, using texts rather than actual physical observation and analysis. This approach was reinforced by the Catholic Church after it resolved problems with the non-Christian aspects of Aristotelian teaching. In fact, the Church embraced Aristotle’s teaching as a handmaiden to the “queen of the sciences,” theology! Thus, the combination of the Church doctrines along with Aristotle’s natural philosophy resulted in the exclusion of direct study and analysis of nature. During the Renaissance period, the situation began to change. The scientific revolution had four major pieces: development of experimental method; realization that nature obeys mathematical rules; use of scientific knowledge to achieve practical aims; and development of scientific institutions. Experimentation became a vital part of the scientific world during the Renaissance, and remains a key feature to the sciences to this day. Throughout the period, experiments were used to help understand the physical world. Increasing emphasis on experiments and actual observation became the norm for scientific study: doing rather than just reading about something. Coupled with the advent of printing, information became widely available with excellent illustrations that could be mass-produced and thus provided more useful reading material based on actual experiments and observations. The period is also marked by the invention of new observational instruments. Galileo used the telescope to make his astronomical observations. His success with the telescope prompted the development of the microscope, thermometer and barometer, all now considered “standard” instruments in the study of nature/science. Developments were rapid and widespread. Copernicus, the Polish astronomer, put forth the theory that the Earth must revolve around the Sun, simply because mathematics said so. Kepler,

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the German astronomer, reinforced this idea with astronomical measurements more precise than any prior to that time. This theory of motion ultimately became a new mathematical science initiated by Galileo and reaching its highpoint in the work of Isaac Newton a few decades later. This development along with several others (such as Descartes’ groundbreaking work in mechanical philosophy), all working in concert with the four major pieces of the scientific revolution resulted in the realization that the traditional Aristotelian natural philosophy was completely wrong. Despite this, because of its broad-ranging scope, Aristotelian teaching remained a part of study since it could still provide an explanation for all the things that still couldn’t be explained through the new experimental and observational scientific approaches. Perhaps the most interesting outcome of the scientific revolution was the tangential subject of atheism. Previously unknown in Christian Europe, atheism became an increasingly popular alternative to religion. This is especially ironic, since all of the major figures of the scientific revolution were extremely devout Christians. Regardless, the new scientific philosophies were used to deny the validity of religion, since the world could be explained as working in an entirely mechanistic way without need for supernatural intervention or supervision. This examination of the human situation is clearly humanistic, while at the same time showing connections to the ancient Greek handling of tragedy. Music was often used to accompany Shakespeare’s plays. The example below is some incidental music to Act III of MacBeth. To set the scene: On a stormy night, the witches invoke evil spirits as they brew their magic potions. Macbeth arrives and asks them to prophecy his destiny, In response, they conjure up three apparitions who, in turn, warn him to beware Macduff, that he need fear "none born of woman," and that he will be invincible until Birnam wood marches on his castle. The witches then summon the apparitions of eight kings who proceed past Macbeth, followed by Banquo, carrying a mirror. Terrified, Macbeth recognizes them as Banquo's descendants ("Fuggi, o real fantasima"). Macbeth faints and the witches dance around him ("Ondine e silfide"), then disappear. Of note, this particular witch's dance doesn't sound threatening (i.e., it's not "Blair Witch"-like). Listen carefully: it seems that the Renaissance English took a more enlightened view of witches (more like Glenda from Oz)? Click the link http://www.jsayles.com/familypages/earlymusic.htm and scroll down to “The Witches’ Dance” from Anonymous to listen to this selection.

William Shakespeare (c. 1564-1616)

William Shakespeare, the great English Renaissance writer, was well read in ancient Greek and Roman literature and certainly was influenced by it. Knowledge of these works, along with philosophical humanism, is believed to have contributed vastly to Shakespeare’s focus on human beings in his work, instead of the supernatural. For example, Romeo and Juliet depicts how an inherited feud coupled with an impetuous nature not only can ruin people’s lives, but the state itself. Likewise, it shows that passion is disruptive, dangerous and destructive, while still expressing love and grief. Finally, with the death of the two young lovers, the feuding families are reconciled, and order is restored to the community.

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Section 5: Instruments Most the instruments used during the Medieval period continued to be used in the Renaissance, with new instruments being invented throughout this period that provided greater ranges and technical opportunities for performers and composers alike. Refer to page 26 (Section 5, Instruments, in Unit 2, Medieval Period) to review descriptions of the instruments that continued to be used in the Renaissance Period. Instruments that continued to be used from the Medieval included: dulcimer, flute, harp, lute, mandolin, organ, percussion, psaltery, rebec, recorder, shawm, trumpet, vielle, and zither. Many instruments were created in different sizes to produce difference ranges, and then played in groups known as “consorts” to emulate the sound of a vocal quarter (soprano-alto-tenor-bass). New inventions included: Clavichord: a keyboard instrument that was very popular from the 16th century to the 18th century. Its name is derived the Latin word “clavis” (key) and the Greek word “chorda” (string of a musical instrument). Sound is produced by striking brass or iron strings with small metal blades called tangents. The clavichord was widely used as a practice instrument and an aid in composition. The instrument continued to develop through the period, increasing in range from four octaves to six octaves. Crumhorn : a woodwind instrument most commonly used during the Renaissance. Its name is derived from two old English words: “crump” (curve) and “crumpet” (a curved cake). It is played by blowing into a windcap with a double reed inside to produce sound. Shaped like the letter “J,” crumhorns are distinctive for their strong buzzing sound. They have a limited range, and thus were usually played by a group of instruments of different sizes, and thus different pitches (the consort). Harpsichord: a keyboard instrument; existed in varying shapes and sizes, but all functioned the same: the player presses a key, which causes the far end of the key to rise. This in turn lifts a long strip of wood, called a jack, which is attached to a piece of quill called a plectrum, which then plucks the string and makes the sound. Organs: the use of the portative of the Medieval period was declining (and died out entirely by the later 1600s). Regal or positive organs were the new inventions of this period. The regal dates from the late Medieval period, and was a small portable organ that had beating reeds and two bellows. The positive organ was a portable one-manual pipe organ that could be moved without first being taken apart. It was used in both sacred and secular music, at first performing the lowest part of polyphonic works. Some even had wheels to enhance their portability. Because this is pre-electricity times, organs required a person to operate the bellows to supply the air or wind to the instrument. The positive is also notable in that it was larger than the Medieval portative and wasn’t played strapped to the player’s body, but rather on a table top. Because of their versatility and rich sound, positive organs were used in homes and churches, at banquets and court events, for choirs and music schools, and especially in the small orchestras of Monteverdi at the beginning of the musica drama/opera. Trombones: early version, pre-valves, still. These were restricted to playing the natural tones of the harmonic series, and air/lips had to be used to change to these tones. Trumpets: early version, pre-valves, still. These were restricted to playing the natural tones of the harmonic series, and air/lips had to be used to change to these tones.

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Viol : The viol is a string instrument that has frets and is bowed. The frets were made from pieces of stretched gut and tied around the neck of the instrument and could be pushed around easily for tuning. Viols were typically played by holding them downwards on one’s lap or between the legs, with the box drawn across the strings to produce sound. The viol produces a quiet sound, with a distinctly nasal quality; it is readily heard in polyphonic music of the period. Like other instruments of the period, they came in multiple sizes, and thus ranges. The types of viols were treble, alto, small tenor, tenor and bass. Virginals : The virginals is a keyboard instrument that is smaller than the harpsichord, and has only one string per note. The strings run parallel to the keyboard, on the long side of the case. The Iowa State website has excellent pictures and even some musical examples featuring the Renaissance instruments. This site has especially excellent information on crumhorns, lutes and shawms. Click this link to access the site for further exploration:

http://www.music.iastate.edu/antiqua/instrumt.html

A rendition of a Scottish consort from the painted ceilings of Crathes Castle in Aberdeenshire, late 16th century

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Section 6: Key Figures As discussed in the previous sections, the Renaissance was a time of change on every front. The musicians of the period accordingly had to respond to these stimuli and still create music that either met a functional need and/or was appealing to the “masses” as music was increasingly also a home activity in this period. The music created by women of the period will continue to be lifted out and covered separately, in Section 7, since the issues surrounding their role in music remain complex and still separate from their male counterparts. In addition to Palestrina, Luther and Calvin/Bourgeois (covered in section 2), there are many other male composers in this period, but three figures are representative of the period’s musical output: Guillaume Dufay, William Byrd and Thomas Morley. Next line here As his career continued, he incorporated the four-voice vocal style which came to be characteristic of the early Renaissance. His Mass writing became the dominant style of mass composition for his time, and he produced what is considered the earliest surviving mass based on a secular theme, rather than liturgical chant, as previous masses had been written. Dufay’s music remains important today, not only for its inventiveness and grace, but also because of its place in history and the very quickly evolving style of the early Renaissance period. Dufay’s music and his life have provided historians with valuable insight into the musical developments of the early Renaissance. This example is from his “L’homme arme” Mass. The use of the “l’homme arme” tune for this mass is historically significant, as this French secular song tune was used in many settings of the Ordinary of the Mass during this period. The importance of the “armed man” in the song has been suggested to represent the Archangel Michael. Of further significance is that the song first appeared around the time of the fall of Constantinople to the Ottoman Turks, which had a huge psychological effect on Europe as a whole; Dufay in particular composed laments relative to this event. There appears to be, on the whole, a feeling of wanting to organize a military opposition to the Ottoman Turks, and this song’s popularity and inclusion in Mass settings, reinforces this goal of opposition.

Guillaume Dufay (1398-1474)

Guillaume Dufay is credited with being the man most responsible for ushering in the Renaissance in music. Born in the Duchy of Burgundy (now France), he lived in one of the main musical centers of his era. He also lived in Italy, and assimilated French and Italian thought to become one of the most cosmopolitan composers of his generation. He composed in every genre known at the time, including Masses, motets, and hymns.

Dufay produced music that flowed more smoothly than the complex rhythmic pieces from the end of the Medieval period, and his graceful melodies are distinctive, with a clear sense of direction.

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One other theory of the tune’s origin is that is a stylized blending of a street cry with a trumpet call, with the tune possibly composed for a Renaissance “man of arms,” Charles the Bold. Whatever its true origin, certainly this tune is distinctive and provides a solid melodic base for Mass composition. The tune and a translation of its text will be found below:

Original French English

L'homme, l'homme, l'homme armé, L'homme armé L'homme armé doibt on doubter, doibt on doubter. On a fait partout crier, Que chascun se viengne armer D'un haubregon de fer.

The man, the man, the armed man, The armed man The armed man should be feared, should be feared. Everywhere it has been proclaimed That each man shall arm himself With a coat of iron mail.

The link below will take you to the Missa L’Homme Arme by Dufay. This is the Gloria movement; the melody is somewhat concealed until near the end when the tenor (who sings the cantus firmus or melody) is more clearly heard in the ensemble and the melody become readily apparent. As you listen to this example, listen especially for the characteristic gracefulness of the melodic lines. Links to other movements of the mass will be found connected to this link if you would like to further explore this work.

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=drqXpKuxuxc

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The conflict is further seen in his compositions: he composed a lot of music, some of it for Roman Catholic liturgy, yet also a great deal of music for the Anglican service, including the Short Service and Responses, that remain in use to this day! He also wrote a great deal of secular music. Likely as a result of these divided loyalties, Byrd did not receive much recognition for his genius in his time, but is certainly recognized now as one of the foremost composers of his time. His situation was especially aggravated around 1605, following the “Gunpowder Plot,” when an anti-Catholic frenzy swept England, and under threat of imprisonment, all Catholic music was banned from the country. Despite this, many examples of Byrd’s work are available. Included in this section is a particularly popular, and even familiar work of Byrd’s called “The Carmans Whistle.” Featuring a delightful tune, the piece provides wonderful insight into Byrd’s keyboard mastery, and features Davitt Marone on the organ.

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=hFATccMxixA

An interesting historical insight into this period is that among Morley’s works are a number of

Italian madrigals he reworked and published without acknowledgement of the original

composers, a common practice of this period.

William Byrd (c. 1539-1623)

William Byrd is perhaps the epitome of the true Renaissance man and is not easily “categorized” as his life and work are marked by a variety of contradictions. One of the most renowned English composers of his time, he lived well into the 17th century without writing any music the new “baroque” style that emerged at the beginning of the century, even though his keyboard works clearly mark the beginning of the Baroque organ and harpsichord styles. His life and corresponding work reflect not only his mastery of the keyboard and madrigal, but also the Latin and English churches. Interestingly, he was the organist for the throne’s private religious house, the Chapel Royal, yet he remained a devout Roman Catholic his entire life.

Thomas Morley, the English composer, organist and theorist, was the first of the great English madrigal writers. He converted to Roman Catholicism early in life, most likely at the influence of his master, William Byrd. He was even sworn in as a gentleman of the Chapel Royal in 1592. However, Morley left the Church, and even engaged in espionage work among English Roman Catholics in the Netherlands. About this same time, Morley recognized the potential the newly popular Italian-style madrigals offered with texts, and began to do likewise in his works.

Thomas Morley (c. 1557-1602)

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Morley’s works are written in two distinct styles. The first reflects his training and work under

his master, William Byrd, and are in the pre-madrigal English style that featured strong and

broad polyphony. By the 1590s, though, his mastery of the Italian madrigal style was evident in

the springy rhythms, clarity of texture, and harmonic warmth his works exhibited. Morley ended

up being the most famous composer of secular music in Elizabethan England, and the only

composer whose settings of verse by Shakespeare survive to this day.

The piece, “April is in my mistress’ face” was published in 1594, and is perhaps the best known

and shortest of Morley’s madrigals. It is believed to be based on an Italian text by Livio Celiano:

April is in my mistress' face, And July in her eyes hath place; Within her bosom is September, But in her heart a cold December.

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=o4vE2lZWZVU

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Section 7: Role of Women

Although members of religious orders continued to play an important role in the women’s musical scene, some women in other walks of life were able to prosper as musicians, especially those in the nobility/ruling classes. Remember that the Renaissance was really a time of going backwards for most women. The ideal Renaissance woman was supposed to marry well, be loyal to her husband, and to give birth to boys (think of poor Anne Boleyn as you consider this!). Custom and prejudice thus kept most women at home, serving as the primary caregivers of the children and also the keepers of the house. Work for women became very separate from that of men, and unlike in the Medieval period, when women often worked beside men as trades or crafts people, women were active only in the “domestic” crafts of carding and spinning wool. As the production of goods became more efficient, women’s economic significance waned to the point that many more women were unemployed. The constraints placed on women were thus social and economic, and to a great extent, cultural as well. Women who did thrive during this period are believed by feminist scholars to have constructed positions for themselves in everyday life in the areas of literature, art and music. Indeed, fathers and husbands who were able to profit from the work of their daughters/wives were likely to support their efforts, although this was not a common situation. Joan Kelly-Gadol, in her 1977 essay entitled “Did Women Have a Renaissance?” argues that even though this was declared a period of “rebirth,” that the Renaissance rebirth really only benefited the men of the time. The embracing of the classical Greek and Roman writings, along with the medieval notions of women as being either good or evil, resulted in women being relegated to roles of having and raising kids, and keeping the house to assure their man’s comfort. Likewise, in the area of art, female members of royalty used this form to establish and/or strengthen their power. Not only were women the driving force behind works of art, but they were also featured in numerous pictures. Even so, women were used both to show female virtues and also eroticized, emphasizing the “wiles” women used or were accused of using to attract men. No matter, in all of these roles (artist, patron, subject), women were still controlled and regulated so they did not threaten social order nor the position of men in the social hierarchy. Ironically, the very Protestant Reformation and consequent Catholic Reformation that proved to be driving forces in social change, further restricted women’s roles. Again, women were relegated to the “domestic realm” and their role as wives and mothers took tantamount importance. Another striking occurrence is the peaking of witch executions during the mid 1500s through the mid 1600s. The women accused of witchcraft were often those outside male control, usually living alone on the outskirts of rural areas, and middle-aged. Some 30,000 women were killed during these “witch hunts,” even as numbers of widows and unmarried women increased. In all likelihood, this further constrained women’s desires to “step out” and be musicians. Despite these barriers, women’s status improved during the final decades of the 16th century, albeit rather irregularly, and only in certain areas of music. By the end of the century, women

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could aspire to positions as court musicians and opera singers. In addition, women were working as composers but were restricted to vocal music for soloists or groups. Similarly, the professions of instrumentalists and church musicians (and the corresponding music composed for these areas) were almost exclusively male. An added barrier to women pursuing music as their vocation was the necessity to also be either a wife or a nun. Thus, many young women gave up their music studies and essentially “disappeared” at a young age. Even so, there is a rich unwritten tradition of women’s influential and active roles in creating texts, musical settings, and performing in a variety of genres. Women shared singing to the lute as a pastime with men, with some reported to have displayed great virtuosity in this practice. So, at least to this extent, women had at least some manner of “Renaissance,” albeit not as rich as that of their male contemporaries. Because of the nature of women’s role in the Renaissance, this section will look at a female patron in addition to four female musicians from the period.

Renaissance Women's Consort. One of four extant paintings from about 1525 by the "Master of the Female Half Lengths," all depicting three female musicians, and all performing Sermisy's 'Jouissance.'"

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of the court, and became expert with playing the lute and singing, as well as was an innovator of new dances. She was betrothed to then heir to the Marquis of Mantua at age 6, and became his bride at the age of 16, and together their reigned as Marquis and Marchessa of Mantua. After becoming Marchessa, she also studies architecture, agriculture and industry to help improve the well being of her people. In her free time, she read and continued to play the lute; she also tried all the new instruments as they became available. She also collected art, and backed the master painters of her time: Titian, Raphael, and Da Vinci. Isabella remained a driving force until her death, at times ruling both Mantua and Romagna, Solarlo and giving comfort and aid to refugees of war. She also making Mantua a cultural center, established a school for girls, and turned her duchal living quarters into a museum of fine art. She was, in every sense of the word, a leader, and proved that women could be as good as men, and will be remembered for her influence in her own time and still today. notable about her compositions is that she was among the Italian composers whose motets were for a few voices and organ accompaniment (continuo) in the new “concertato” style. Her notoriety was such that she was even mentioned by the published Lomazzo in the dedication of her male contemporary’s works, Giovanni Paolo Cima. Among her published works is an “Ave verum corpus” (“Hail, true body”). The “Ave verum corpus” first appeared in the 14th century and is a short Eucharistic hymn that was set to music by many composers. Based on a 14th century poem, the text is a meditation on the Catholic

Isabella d’Este (1474-1539)

Portrait by DaVinci

Isabella d’Este was the “first lady” of the Renaissance: noted primarily for her patronage of the arts, she was also an inventor, political ruler, mother to seven children, and a musician. Isabella used her stations in life to serve not only herself, but also others, and worked to better the standard of living of those others. She exemplified the characteristics of the male great leaders of the period and thus is remembered for her words and actions. Born to the Duke and Duchess of Ferrara, she received a royal education, and was schooled in Roman history and also learned to translate Greek and Latin. Her intellect gave her the opportunity to discuss the classics and political affairs with ambassadors. Likewise, she knew the painters, writers, musicians and scholars

Caterina Assandra (c. 1570-1610)

Sister Caterina Assandra was an Italian composer and Benedictine nun. She studied counterpoint with Benedetto Re (aka Reggio), a leading teacher of the day. She likely received her musical training because of her future religious vocation. Her fame as a composer and as an organist extended beyond Italy. Her compositions were limited to sacred works, written in the motet style. It is believed she also wrote the texts to her motets. In addition, she wrote quite a few works for organ. Her compositions were among the earliest examples written in the “Roman style.” Some of her works were published during her lifetime. Perhaps most

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belief in Jesus’ real presence in the sacrament of the Eucharist, and also ties it to Catholic ideas on suffering in the life of believers. The text is in Latin. An English translation is also included.

Ave verum corpus natum Hail the true body, de Maria Virgine, Born of the Virgin Mary, vere passum, immolatum Truly suffered, sacrificed, in cruce pro homine, On the Cross for mankind, cuius latus perforatum Whose pierced side unda fluxit et sanguine, Flowed with water and blood, esto nobis praegustatum Let it be for us, in consideration, in mortis examine. A foretaste of death.

Click this link to listen to this performance: http://lenorealford.com/sound-1.htm Western music history. Around this time, she moved to Venice, where she gave private music instruction. She also played the lute and sang for private entertainment. (Remember, women weren’t supposed to perform publicly on instruments.) In the dedication to the first book, Maddalena clearly indicates her intention to prove her talents and abilities as a woman in a male-dominated field. Her dedication to Isabella de Medici (the highly educated daughter of Cosimo I de Medici, and acting first lady of Florence following her mother’s death) included these words: “want to show the world, as much as I can in this profession of music, the vain error of men that they alone possess the gifts of intellect and artistry, and that such gifts are never given to women.” Her declaration of being a professional composer was not easily accepted for a woman in the male-dominated society of the Renaissance. Despite this, she did receive recognition from some of her male counterparts, including Lassus, who is reported to have conducted one of her works at a wedding in Bavaria. Around 1570, she moved to Milan. Her “Second Book of Madrigals for Four Voices” was published in the same year. She continued to dedicate works to Isabella de Medici, and their relationship appears to have been quite close. (Isabella de Medici enjoyed much greater freedom and autonomy than many of the women of her time.) At some point, she is believed to have married, since the reprinting of the first book in 1583 referred to her as Maddalena Mezari detta Casulana. Her last known madrigal was a work for three voices, and found in a 1586 collection entitled “Il Gaudio,” also published by Scotto. A

Maddalena Casulana (c. 1540-1590)

(no image of Maddalena is available; this is a sample from one of her

compositions)

Maddalena Casulana was an Italian composer, and the first woman to publish her music, as well as to consider herself to be a professional composer. She received her musical training first in Casola d’Elsa (her birthplace) and then in Florence. She published her first work in 1566: four madrigals in a collection entitled “Il Desiderio,” and published by Scotto. In 1568, her first entirely self-composed collection, the “First Book of Madrigals for Four Voices,” was published by Scotto. This is the first printed, published work by a woman in

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total of 66 of her madrigals have survived to the present day. Reference to her is not found after this point, and it is believed she died sometime around 1590. Maddalena’s style is slightly contrapuntal and also chromatic, with readily singable melody lines and careful attention to her texts. In this sample from “Morir non puo il mio cuore,” listen carefully for the melody lines as well as how the voices blend together in the gentle movement of the lines..

Click on the arrow beside the song title to activate the sample http://www.amazon.com/gp/product/B000THG936/ref=dm_mu_dp_trk16?ie=UTF8&qid=1031941642&sr=11-1

Jacobean lute music. The lute’s popularity for men and women alike, public and private performance, make this collection particularly interesting, since it so vividly reflects what was “popular” during this time, as well as the artistry of the composers and the performers alike. The examples included here are the “3 English Toyes” from this collection. A “toy” is a little piece for study or “fun” playing.

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=k7jkWjeZNqU

Jane Pickering (c. early 1600s)

Jane Pickering’s Lute Book is the major source for English lute music of the Renaissance. The book, published in various versions between 1615 and 1645, contains music that was copied in three different hands. At this time, it was customary when printed music wasn’t readily available, to write down familiar tunes, your own tunes, and tunes composed by other people. The book takes its name from the lute pieces written in the same hand that also wrote on the book “Jane Pickeringe owe [sic] this Booke 1616.” Written during the “Golden Age” of lute music, it is the main source of Elizabethan and

Anne Boleyn is perhaps best known as the second wife of English King Henry VIII and mother of Elizabeth I. Executed in the Tower of London in 1536 for “treason” (although her only crime is believed to have been her failure to produce a male heir to the throne), Anne is also remembered as an excellent poet, composer and musician. Anne lived in the French court from ages 12-16 when her father was the ambassador to France. She was trained in music and dancing, owned a virginals, and played the lute. Her reputation was excellent as a composer and performer.

Anne Boleyn (1507-1536)

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Anne had a serious interest in vocal polyphonic music as evidenced by the appearance of her coat of arms on a collection of French motets and chansons copied in France. It is believed she performed from this collection with her female friends in her private chambers. (Remember that women were prevented from public performance still at this time.) As Queen of England, it is considered very likely that Anne encouraged the performance of these and other “continental” works in King Henry’s Tudor court. Her early exposure to “continental” music would have certainly influenced her own compositions. In 1522, the French Viscount Chateaubriant wrote in his memoirs of Anne: “Besides singing like a siren, [and] accompanying herself on lute….harped better than King David and handled cleverly both flute and rebec.” Thus Anne was clearly an intelligent and talented young woman, as well as an accomplished performer. “O Deathe, rock me asleepe” is a poem attributed to Anne, and is reported to have been written during her final days of life in the Tower of London. Writing poetry intended for musical setting was a common practice among courtly women of the Renaissance, and it is known that a poem attributed to Anne was set by her contemporary, English composer Robert Johnson. Anne’s education supports the notion that she would have been able to set her songs to paper. Given the desire for anonymity so prominent amongst especially female nobles at this time, it explains why nothing bearing Anne’s name as author has survived. Likewise, since it was commonplace for women to create improvised songs that contemporary sources were likely to pay no attention to Anne’s works, either. This setting, with its improvisatory quality, is believed to have been written by Anne and completed by her chaplain, and adds credence to Anne’s authorship of the work, as the poem vividly describes a woman in captivity, and the melody itself has a “French” sound to it, and evokes the sounds of the bells tolling that she would have heard incessantly during her captivity in the Tower. Likewise, her use of monotone to express “let passe my wearye giltles ghost” seems as if the music lost its will to move. The use of this early “tone coloring” to express the text would certainly have been something the well-education Anne would have been capable of completing. A sample of “O Death rock me asleepe” will be found at this link:

http://www.leonarda.com/le340.html Scroll down to Anne Boleyn’s name, and then click on the sample. Text for the work:

O Death, O Death, rock me asleepe, Alone, alone in prison strong Bring me to quiet rest; I wail my destiny. Let pass my weary guiltless ghost Woe worth this cruel hap that I Out of my careful breast. Must taste this misery! Toll on, thou passing bell; Toll on, thou passing bell; Ring out my doleful knell; Ring out my doleful knell; Thy sound my death abroad will tell, Thy sound my death abroad will tell, For I must die, For I must die, There is no remedy. There is no remedy. My pains, my pains, who can express? Farewell, farewell, my pleasures past! Alas, they are so strong! Welcome, my present pain! My dolours will not suffer strength I feel my torment so increase My life for to prolong. That life cannot remain. Toll on, thou passing bell; Cease now, thou passing bell, Ring out my Ring out my doleful knell; doleful knoll, For thou my death dost tell: Thy sound my death abroad will tell, Lord, pity thou my soul! Death doth draw For I must die, nigh, Sound dolefully: There is no remedy. For now I die, I die, I die.

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Section 8: Additional Musical Examples

The sites included here provide a range of music from the Renaissance, with some providing additional historical insights as well. http://wwnorton.com/college/music/hill/Anthology_recordings_list.htm Don’t be deceived the page’s title indicating it is a Baroque music site. The recording from the early 1600’s represent the end stages of the Renaissance and there are several excellent selections to further enjoy the vocal style of the period: #6 (Cenci); #24 (Buonamente); #26 (da Gagliano); #27 (Viadana); #28 (Assandra). http://www.jsayles.com/familypages/earlymusic.htm This site is a lot of fun! The artist describes himself as not being a professional, but he is certainly a lover of music of the Renaissance. The site features a wonderful variety of pieces, ranging from Dowland to Morley to others. The recordings are also very good. http://www.leonarda.com/le338.html This site has samples of music by women composers from albums available for purchase. This link brings you to samples of works by Assandra and Caccini from the Renaissance. Works f from other eras are also available for sampling at this site. http://www.linnrecords.com/recording-go-from-my-window-sacd.aspx This site also features a nice sampler of a wide variety of works also available for sale. Perhaps most interesting is the work by John Johnson, “Greensleeves.” The site includes interesting historical information as well. http://pipedreams.publicradio.org/listings/2003/0309/ This “Pipedreams” program on Minnesota Public Radio featured a work by Gracia Baptista, “Conditor alme siderum,” which appeared in one of the first printed collections of Spanish keyboard music. Baptista, a Spanish nun, flourished around 1557, and is remembered for her keyboard works, and in particular, her setting of “Conditor alme siderum.” The entire program is available at this site, and features organ music by women composers from as early as Baptista to as contemporary as Minnesota’s own Libby Larsen.

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Section 9: Resources for Further Study This unit provided an overview of key concepts and figures of the period. For those interested in learning more about specific subject areas, the following resources are provided for further study. On the Internet: http://www.teacheroz.com/renaissance.htm#art This site has wonderful links to everything Renaissance.

http://www.diabolus.org/guide/guide-m.htm This is another very nice instrument site with photos, sounds and descriptions of period instruments.

http://www.pbm.com/~lindahl/music.html Everything and anything you’d want to study further from the Renaissance period may be found in the links on this site – amazing details and recordings available.

http://www.classicalscore.com/renaissancestyle.htm An unbelievable amount of information about composers, styles, theorists, etc – with links for further detail. Another site for indepth study of the period.

http://www.kapralova.org/DATABASE.htm This is the Women Composers Database. It contains a great deal of information on women composers of all generations and periods. This site is a terrific starting point for information on women composers.

Books Morgenstern, Sam. “Composers on Music: An Anthology of Composers’ Writings From Palestrina to Copland,” Pantheon Books, Inc., 1956. This book is a delightful compendium of composers’ writings on their work, their times, and other topics; provides first-hand insight into the composers and their time. Osborne, Charles. “The Dictionary of Composers,” Taplinger Publishing Co., Inc., 1978. This book is an abbreviated, but useful source for biographical information on the “big names” in male composition from the Renaissance to mid-20th century. As the author notes, “The criterion for inclusion has been whether one was likely to encounter the music of the composer in question in the concert hall or the opera house, not just on an isolated and rare occasion but with reasonable frequency.” Pendle, Karin. “Women & Music: A History,” Bloomington Indiana University Press, 1991. This book provides wonderful insight into women musicians across several historical periods. Routley, Erik. “Church Music and the Christian Faith,” Agape, 1978. This book provides an excellent and detailed overview of the Christian faith accompanied by good musical examples. Written especially for music majors and church music professionals. Strunk, Oliver. “Source Readings in Music History: The Renaissance,” W.W. Norton & Company, Inc., 1975. This book contains period readings by theorists, composers, and key social movement figures of the period.