(UNGS 2040)

STANDARD CONTENTS

© Department of General Studies, 2008

Al-‘ilm (العلم) /Knowledge

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The arrival (Husulحصول:) in the soul of the meaning of a thing or an object of knowledge and the arrival (wusul: (وصول of the soul at the meaning of a thing or object of knowledge

” حصول معنى أو صورة الشيء في النفس“ووصول النفس إلى معنى الشيء

(al-Jurjani:160-161)

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Realization of the meanings of things (Al-Ghazzali)

Realization of something in its true nature through different levels of understanding and in agreement with the facts or true to nature. (textbook, 4)

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To know, to understand, to perceive, to be familiar and acquainted with things.

A firm belief that accords with the reality of things ( (فاعلم أنه ال إله إال الله) 47 :19 (.

- Theology (عقيدة), Principles of Jurisprudence( صول الفقهأ ) etc.

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لظنا : ConjectureUncertaintyNot supported with decisive proofsIt might accord with the reality and it might not

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الشك : doubt لجهلا : ignorance السفة : foolishnessالضالل: misguidance

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….cont.,

knowledge: العلم•Certainty, conviction (القين/القطع)•Accords with the reality•Certainty by observation اليقين عين•certainty through knowledge علماليقن•Certainty through experience حقاليقين

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1. Knowledge is a requirement for the fulfillment of man’s obligations as a khalifah on earth. Allah says:

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FةHيفJ ل Hخ JضMرH Mاأل فJي RلJاعHج Vي Jن إ JةH Jك ئ HالHمM Jل ل Hبك Hر HالHق MذJ وHإ

dنMحH وHن HاءHمVالد dكJف MسH وHي فJيهHا dد JسMفd ي MنHم فJيهHا dلHعMجH Hت أ dوا قHال HونdمH HعMل ت Hال مHا dمH HعMل أ Vي Jن إ HالHق HكH ل dسVدHقd وHن HكJدMمHحJ ب dحV ب Hسd ن

)30 (JةH Jك ئ HالHمM ال عHلHى MمdهHض HرHع yمd ث yهHا dل ك HاءHم MسH Mاأل HمHدH آ Hمy وHعHل) HينJقJادHص Mمd Mت dن ك MنJ إ Jء HالdؤHه JاءHم Mس

H Jأ ب Jي dون Jئ Mب نH أ HالHقH31ف (

dيمJ MعHل ال HتM Hن أ Hكy Jن إ Hا Hن yمMت عHل مHا yالJ إ Hا Hن ل HمM ل Jع Hال HكH ان HحM ب dس dوا قHال) dيمJكHحM HهdمM) 32ال Hأ Mب Hن أ Hمyا فHل MمJهJ مHائ Mس

H Jأ ب MمdهM Jئ Mب نH أ dمHدH آ Hا ي HالHق

JاتHاوHم yالس HبM غHي dمH HعMل أ Vي Jن إ Mمd Hك ل MلdقH أ MمH Hل أ HالHق MمJهJ مHائ MسH Jأ ب

) Hونdمd Mت Hك ت Mمd Mت dن ك وHمHا HونdدM dب ت مHا dمH HعMل وHأ JضMرH MاألH33و(

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2. The first revelation to the Messenger of Allah is about seeking knowledge and revealing scientific knowledge:

VكH ”أقرأ باسم ب Hالذىخلق *خلق االنسان من علق ر*اقرا وربك االكرم *الذى علم بالقلم *علم

)5-1االنسان ما لم يعلم“ (العلق:

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Read! In the name of the Lord and Cherisher, who created- created man, out of a mere clot of congealed blood. Proclaim! And your Lord is most Bountiful- He who taught the use of the pen, taught man that which he knew not” (96:1-5)

[“read, teach , pen”]

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3. Islam is a religion based upon knowledge.

4. The text of the Quran is full of verses inviting man to use his intellect, to ponder, to think and to learn.

5.The total number of verses in which ‘ilm or its derivatives and associated words are used is 704.

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6. The main miracle and sign of authenticity of prophethood of Mohammed (صلى الله عليه وسلم) was a book of knowledge; The Qur’an.

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……cont.,

7.The Prophet (صلى الله عليه وسلم) made seeking knowledge obligatory on Muslims (men and women):

”طلب العلم فريضة على كل مسلم“

“Seeking knowledge is obligatory on every Muslim”.

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8. Knowledge is the way through which people can recognize Allah, fear him, and discover the truth.

Hونd MمdؤMمJن MهdمM وHال J مJن Mم MعJل اسJخdونH فJي ال yالر JنJكH ”ل “ HكJلM MزJلH مJنM قHب ن

d MكH وHمHا أ Hي Jل MزJلH إ نd JمHا أ dونH ب dؤMمJن ي

)162(النساء: “But those among them who are well-grounded in knowledge, and the believers, believe in what has been revealed to you and what was revealed before you…”

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 ” MنJم HكM Hي Jل MزJلH إ نd yذJي أ MمH ال MعJل dوا ال dوت yذJينH أ ى ال HرH وHي

JيزJزHعM اطJ ال HرJى صHلJ HهMدJي إ MحHقy وHي VكH هdوH ال ب HرMحHمJيدJ“ (سبأ (6 :ال

“And those who are knowledgeable see that the revelation sent down to you from the Lord is the Truth, and that it guides to the Path of Allah who is Exalted and Worthy of all praise.”

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……cont.,

9. Knowledge elevates the status and position of its bearer and makes difference between him and ignorant.

HمM MعJل dوا ال dوت yذJينH أ dمM وHال Mك dوا مJن yذJينH ءHامHن yهd ال فHعJ الل MرH ”يجHات“ (المجادلة: HرH11د(

“Allah will raise up, to high ranks those of you who believe and who have been granted Knowledge…”

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……cont.,

Jهy Jل MحHمMدd ل MمFا وHقHاال ال ل Jع HانHمM Hي ل dسHو HدdاوHا دH Mن Hي HقHدM ءHات ”وHل “ HينJ MمdؤMمJن HادJهJ ال ب Jع MنJير مJ Hث Hا عHلHى ك Hن yذJي فHضyل ال

النمل)15(:

We gave knowledge to David and Solomon: and they both said: "Praise be to Allah, Who has favoured us above many of His subjects who believe!"

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……cont.,

” dهHعHي مJ وVبH Hالd أ ب JاجH yا فHضMالF ي Hا دHاوdدH مJن Mن Hي HقHدM ءHات وHل

)HيدJدHحM Hهd ال yا ل Hن لH MرH وHأ JغHات 10وHالطyي اب Hس MلHمMاع Jن

H ) أJمHا Vي ب Jن ا إ FحJ dوا صHال دJ وHاعMمHل Mر yي السJف MرVدHقHو

) RيرJصH HعMمHلdونH ب )“ (سبأء)11ت  “We bestowed grace on David …

and We made the iron soft for him. Make coats of mail, balance well the rings of chain armour, and work righteousness; for be sure I see all that you do."

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……cont.,

”قل هل يستوي الذين يعلمون والذين ال )9يعلمون“ (الزمر:

“ Say: “are those equal, those who know and those who do not know?”

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……cont.,

Purpose of knowledge

Divinely Worldly

To recognize God To benefit man

Pleasure of God

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Classification of Knowledge

Limitations (a) Absolute (perfect) knowledge: this is the knowledge of God who

knows the reality, essence and details of all things.

(b) Limited knowledge: The knowledge given to His

creations;

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angels, prophets, human beings, jinn, and animals.

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……cont.,

• Limited knowledge:

(i) Gifted knowledge: a. Instinctive knowledge (natural): it is imparted in the very nature of the creation.

b. Revealed/Sacred knowledge: the knowledge that Almighty

God reveals to human beings.

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(ii) Acquired Knowledge Gained through effort by way of

reflection, senses and experience. (a) Recommended (praiseworthy)

i- Fard ‘ayn ii. Fard kifayah (b) Prohibited (blameworthy)

-Magic (kindly refer to slides 46-48)

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General Classification of Knowledge in Islam

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General classification of Knowledge in Islam

Limited Knowledge

Acquired KnowledgeGifted Knowledge

Absolute Knowledge

Instinct (ilham)Sacred Praiseworthy Blame worthy

By external influence By itself

Fard ‘AinFard Kifayah

Al-Ghazzali’s Criteria for Classification of sciences :

1. Theoretical and practical 2. Presential and acquired3. Religious and intellectual

4. Individual obligatory and communal obligatory

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According to al-Ghazali

Theoretical Practical

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Intellectual

Fard kifayah(CollectiveObligatory Knowledge)

AttainedPresential

Religious

Fard ‘ayn (PersonalObligatory Knowledge)

1. Theoretical and practical (philosophers)

Theoretical: to know the states of beings as they are( to realize/ comprehend the reality of

beings; celestial & terrestrial)

Practical: deals with man’s actionsTo find out what is useful to

mankind in this life as well as in the Hereafter

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2. Presential & acquired (tasawwuf) (the mode of knowing)

Presential : intuitive, contemplative spiritual experience -

revelation

Acquired : empirical, rational, logical

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Which one is better?Al-Ghazzali: the presential is superior to the

acquired, It is free from errors & doubt, certainty on spiritual truths

This is true with the revelation and intuition received by the prophets

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The intuitive knowledge claimed by people other than prophets may not be taken for granted unless it is judged in light of the established principles of Islam

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3. Religious and intellectual (the source)

Religious (transmitted sciences):Acquired from revelation/ prophets

1. Roots (Qur’an, sunnah, consensus)

2. Branches (law and ethics) 3. Ancillary sciences (grammar

and lexicography) 4. Complementary sciences

(Qira’at, commentary, history)Intellectual: attained by human

intellect alone

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4. Fard ‘Ayn and Fard kifayah (the need for learning)Fard ‘ayn:

What should be learned by each and every Muslim.◦Individual responsibilities ◦Things which can’t be done on behalf of others

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Beliefs, worship, halal and haram, core moral values, how to discharge one’s responsibilities towards others (man’s obligations to family and society), necessary skills for daily life.

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….Cont.,

Fard kifayah : - the community’s needs that can be

performed by a sufficient group on behalf of others.

- collective responsibilities Religious sciences: knowledge that

is not needed for daily practice of Islam.

Intellectual knowledge: all types of knowledge needed for the welfare of the society in this life

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Praiseworthy sciences:Enhances human well being and the environment within the boundaries outlined by shari’ah

All sciences which are useful, beneficial and satisfy the requirements of science.

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Blameworthy sciences: A science which does not meet the requirement of science, or it is purely or usually harmful.

Blameworthy by its nature by an external factor

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Magic: It is defined as “seeking the help of

demons to perform something harmful against somebody” or “showing something to an audience, which is contrary to reality.

Reasons why magic is prohibited in Islam:

1) It is an act of blasphemy (kufr). Allah says in the Holy Qur’an:

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“And when there came to them a Messenger from Allah confirming what was with them, a party of those who were given the scripture threw away the book of Allah behind their backs as if they did not know. And they followed what the devils gave out falsely of magic of the reign of Solomon; for Solomon did not disbelieve but the devils disbelieved, teaching men magic and such things that came down at Babylon to the two angels Harut and Marut, but neither of these two (angles) taught anyone (such

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things) until they had said: we are only for trial, so don't disbelieve. And from them (magicians) people learn that through which they would cause separation between a person and his spouse, but they could not thus harm anyone except by Allah's leave; and they learn that which harms them rather than profits them. And indeed they knew that its practitioner would have no share in the Hereafter. And how bad indeed was that for which they sold their own selves if they but knew.” (2:101-102).

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2) According to the following authentic hadith, magic is a deadly act:

The Prophet (s.a.w) said: “Avoid the seven deadly acts which are: ascribing partners to God, magic, killing the human self which Allah prohibited except with right, eating usury (riba), devouring the orphan’s wealth, defecting from the battle-field (without a justified reason) and slandering chaste, unwary believing women.”

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Magic being harmful and evil act, Allah has told us to seek His protection against it:

“Say I seek refuge in the in the Lord of daybreak From the evil of that which he created; From the evil of the darkness when it is intense, and from the evil of malignant witchcraft, And from the evil of the envious when he envies.” (Surah al-Falaq)

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Magic is from devils (see the above Qur’anic verse: 2:101-102)while miracles are from Allah.

On the other hand, miracles are real while magic is deceptive; it is covering the truth with falsehood).

Because miracles are from Allah, they could only be performed by Prophets while magic, which is from devils, can be performed by anyone who associates himself with the devil.

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Horoscope Not only magic is prohibited in Islam but

also horoscope or reading one’s palm to foretell the future.

The Holy Qur’an affirms that no one knows the future or the unseen except Allah: “He knoweth the Unseen as well as that which is Open.” (6:73) “With Him are the keys of the Unseen, the treasures that none knoweth but He...” (6:59)

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The Holy Qur’an also asserts that not even Muhammad knows the unseen:

“If I had the knowledge of the unseen, I should have secured abundance for myself, and no evil would have touched me.” (7:188).

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The Prophet (s.a.w) said: “Whoever goes to a fortune teller (a soothe sayer) or a diviner and believes him, has, in fact, disbelieved in what has been revealed to Muhammad.”

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Example: HoroscopeCapricorn: (Dec 23 - Jan 20)

Today’s stars encourage you to be more diplomatic and inclusive in your relations with others

Aquarius: (Jan 21 – Feb 19)On the Zodiac’s Day of Metamorphosis, you need to transform ideals into reality, and turn dreams into concrete plans. If you work patiently towards your goals, you can achieve the long-term success you are looking for.

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Astrology: It is the study of the positions and

aspects of celestial bodies. Muslims scholars agree that astrology

is a prohibited field to deal with. For example, Imam Ibn Taymiyah said: “Astrology that is concerned with studying the positions and aspects of celestial bodies in the belief that they have an influence on the course of natural earthly occurrences and human affairs is prohibited by Almighty Allah’s Book, the Sunnah, and the unanimous agreement of the Muslim scholars.

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Ibn `Uthaymeen, said: “Astrology is a kind of sorcery and fortune-telling. It is forbidden because it is based on illusions, not on concrete facts. There is no relation between the movements of celestial bodies and what takes place on the Earth.”

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During the Prophet’s lifetime, it happened that the sun eclipsed on the same day when the Prophet’s son Ibrahim died. The people then thought that it had eclipsed because of the Prophet’s son’s death. On knowing this, the Prophet (peace and blessings be upon him) led them in the Eclipse Prayer and then delivered them a speech saying: “The sun and moon are but signs of Allah; they do not eclipse because so-and-so died or was born.”

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The above hadith indicates that the Prophet (s.a.w) denied all relation between the movements of the heavenly bodies and events on the Earth.

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Ibn ‘Abbas (may Allah be pleased with him and his father) reported that Allah’s Messenger (s.a.w) said: “He who has acquired some knowledge of astrology has acquired some knowledge of sorcery; the more he acquires of the former the more he acquires of the latter.” (Reported by Ahmad, Abu Dawud, and Ibn Majah)

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Commenting on the above hadith, al-Shawkani said that the Prophet (s.a.w) compared between astrology and sorcery because sorcery was known to be forbidden; and so, he who would get some knowledge of astrology would do something forbidden and would be sinful.

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To sum up, astrology is based on lies and deceit; it has no scientific basis. The astrologists’ usage of computers to convince people that what they do is technological and scientific is nothing but deceit. There is no scientific proof that there is a relationship between the appearance of a star in a specific time and the character and behavior of someone born at that time.

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Sciences are inter-related, and none of them can exclude the others.

Humanities, natural sciences, and the religious sciences unite to produce true understanding of this world and the causes behind its existence.

Religious scholars are in need of philosophical and natural sciences as much as scientists are in need of the religious sciences.

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Natural and philosophical sciences are to enable the Muslim to explore, exploit and get a better insight into what Allah has created in this universe.

Religious sciences are to guide people to understand the reality of this life, their origins and their mission.

And to set the moral and legal guidelines that should be observed by human beings for a meaningful and better life.

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Sources and Means of Knowledge

1. Revelation ( :الوحي

(القرآن والسنة2. Reason/Intellect (العقل)3. Nature/Physical world ((الطبعية

4. Five Senses (الحواس الخمسة)

5. Intuition (اإللهام) 62

Definition: The Qur’an is the Book revealed from God to His Messenger Muhammad (saw), written in masahif, and transmitted to us through authentic continuous narrations

Analysis:• Qur’an is the pure speech of God (al-Nisa’:42) • Allah’s speech revealed to Muhammad• An exposition of all things (tibyanan li kulli

shay‘)• Guidance and mercy• Neglects nothing (al-Nahl:89) 63

• The Qur’an is the Arabic words and their meanings (translation is not a Qur’an)

• Transmitted to us by way of tawatur continuous narration by a) (تواتر)large number of people in each part of the chain of narration)

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Revelation & Recording of the Qur’an

a) Revelation of the Qur’an• The Qur’an was transmitted directly from Allah

(swt) to the Messenger of Allah through Jibril (not an inspiration-ilham)

• The Qur’an was not revealed all at once.• The Qur’an was revealed in stages, sometimes

according to incidents and occasions.

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Wisdom of Revealing the Quran in Stages

1.Allowing people to memorize, understand and implement it gradually.

اسJ عHلHى ” y½½ى النHلHع dهH أ Hر M½½قH Jت اهd ل H½½نMق HرHا ف F½½انHء MرdقHو

Hن½MزJيال“ (اإلس½راء: Mن½Hاهd ت ل yزH Mث وHن 106مdك - (It is a Qur’an which we have divided into parts from time to time in order that you might recite it to men at intervals) (17: 106)

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2. To strengthen the heart of the Messenger (saw), give him courage and moral support to overcome difficulties and challenges. Allah said:

FةHدJاحHو FةH ءHانd جdمMل MرdقM MهJ ال Hي لH عHل Vزd HوMال ن وا ل dرHفH yذJينH ك ”وHقHالH ال“ (الفرقان: FيالJ ت MرH Hاهd ت Mن yل ت HرHو HكHادHؤdف JهJ VتH ب Hب dث Jن JكH ل HذHل )32ك

(Those who reject faith say: "Why is not the Qur’an revealed to him all at once? It is revealed in stages so that We may strengthen your heart thereby, and We have rehearsed it to you in slow, well-arranged stages, gradually. (25: 32)

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3. Live interaction between the divine text and the socio-political reality.For instance, some verses deal with:• some situations faced by the Messenger of Allah;• solve problems faced by Muslim community;• respond to challenges advanced by disbelievers;• correct mistakes of the Muslim community, etc.

Those incidents, cases or questions are called occasions for revelation( سباب النزولأ ) . They help those who came later with a better understanding and implementation of those verses.

The period of revelation lasted for around 23 years.

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The Recording of the Qur’an

The Messenger of Allah used to memorize the verses revealed to him then recite them to his companions. The Sahaba used to memorize those verse they listen to

Soon following revelation, there were scribes among the Sahabas who used to record the verses

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The original copies of the written records were preserved in the house of the Prophet.

While some other scribes would record the verses for themselves and preserve them for their own use.

The order of the verses within each surah and the order of the surahs was directed by Jibril.

During each month of Ramadan Jibril used to recite the Quran in its order with the Prophet.

During the time of Abu Bakr, the Qur’an was compiled in a single official copy.

The suggestion came after the battle of Yamamah.

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The Qur’an and the other Revealed Books

Universality: Previous Books were local and sent

for specific people/nations. The Qur’an is the last revealed Book

and a universal message for all humanity, is comprehensive and eternally preserved.

MمdهH Mن Hي dمM ب MهJ فHاحMك Hي Fا عHل MمJن HابJ وHمdهHي Jت Mك MهJ مJنH ال HدHي MنH ي Hي JمHا ب MحHقV مdصHدVقFا ل Jال HابH ب Jت Mك MكH ال Hي Jل Hا إ Mن ل HزM نH ”وHأ

yهd“ (المائدة: لH الل HزM Hن JمHا أ )48بTo you we sent the Scripture in truth, confirming the scripture that came before it, and a watcher over it. So, judge between them by what Allah has revealed…”

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2. The way of preservation:The people of each Book were entrusted with guarding it against any distortion/ manipulation

Hمdوا ل MسH yذJينH أ JيونH ال yب JهHا الن dمd ب HحMك dورR ي اةH فJيهHا هdدFى وHن HرMوy Hا الت Mن ل HزM ن

H yا أ Jن ”إ Jهy HابJ الل Jت dحMفJظdوا مJنM ك ت Mا اسHمJ Hارd ب ب MحH MاألHو HيونJ yان ب yالرHوا وdادHه HينJذy Jل ل

هHدHاءH “ (المائدة dش JهM Hي dوا عHل Hان وHك

“It was We who revealed the Torah; therein was guidance and light. By its standard have been judged the Jews, by the prophets who bowed to Allah's will, by the rabbis and the priests; for to them was entrusted the protection of Allah's Book, and they were witnesses thereto…” (5: 44) 72

If they fail, Allah sends another Prophet to guide people back to the right way.

Since Muhammad (saw) was the last Messenger, Allah (swt) assumed the responsibility of guarding and preserving His last Book.

HونdظJافHحH Hهd ل yا ل Jن MرH وHإ Hا الذVك Mن ل yزH HحMنd ن yا ن Jن )9”(الحجر: ”إ (We have, without doubt, sent down the Message; and We will assuredly guard it against any manipulation or change)

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Preservation of the Qur’an

The Qur’an was preserved as follow: From the early beginning, the Qur’an was made public

From the time it was revealed, the Qur’an was fully recorded

The Qur’an was preserved in the original form (same language, same words)

The assurance from God that the Qur’an will be preserved till the Day of Judgment.

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”وإن½ه لكت½اب عزي½ز، ال يأتي½ه الباط½ل من بين يدي½ه وال من خلف½ه، )42-41تنزيل من حكيم حميد“ (فصلت:

(And indeed it is a Book of exalted power. Falsehood cannot come at it from before it or from behind it. (It is) a revelation from the Wise, the Owner of Praise.

No one can alter or change any part of the Qur’an even the Messenger of Allah himself.

) HينJمH MعHال بV ال Hر MنJم RيلJزM Hن HقHاوJيلJ 43”ت HعMضH األ Hا ب Mن Hي HقHوyلH عHل HوM ت ) وHل)44) JينJمH Mي Jال Mهd ب Hا مJن HخHذMن JينH (45) أل MوHت Mهd ال Hا مJن HقHطHعMن dمy ل ) 46) ث

“HينJزJاجHح dهM HحHد عHن dمM مJنM أ Mك ).47(الحاقة: فHمHا مJن(This is a Message sent down from the Lord of the worlds. And if the Messenger were to invent any sayings in our name, we should certainly seize him by his right hand, and we should certainly then cut off the artery of his heart: Nor could any of you protect him from that.

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The Characteristics of the Qur’an

1- Guidance and mercy to believersMبH فJيهJ هdدFى ي Hال ر dابH Jت Mك JكH ال “ ”ذHل HينJقy Mمdت Jل )2(البقرة: ل

(This is the book; in it is guidance, sure, without doubt, to those who fear Allah)

JقHوMم حMمHةF ل HرHى وFدdم هM ل Jى عHلHع dاهH Mن Hاب فHصyل Jت Jك HاهdمM ب Mن ئ Jج MدHقH ”وHل “ Hونd dؤMمJن )52(األعراف: ي

(For We had certainly sent unto them a Book, based on knowledge, which We explained in

detail, a guide and a mercy to all who believe)

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2. Spiritual/ social healerJمHا فJي فHاءR ل JشHو Mمd Vك ب Hر MنJم RةHظJعMوHم Mمd Mك yاسd قHدM جHاءHت يهHا الن

H Hاأ ”يJينH“ (يونس: MمdؤMمJن Jل حMمHةR ل HرHى وFدdهHو Jورd57الصد(

(O mankind! there has come to you a direction from your Lord and a healing for the (diseases) in

your hearts, and for those who believe, a Guidance and a Mercy)

3- Light HكJ Hئ dول MزJلH مHعHهd أ ن

d yذJي أ Hعdوا النورH ال yب وهd وHات dرHصH وهd وHن dر yزHعHو JهJ dوا ب yذJينH ءHامHن ”فHال “ HونdحJلMفdمM )157(األعراف: هdمd ال

So it is those who believe in him (the Messenger), honor him, help him, and

follow the Light which is sent down with him, it is they who will prosper.

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4- Preacher for believersyقJينH“ (آل عمران: Mمdت Jل yاسJ وHهdدFى وHمHوMعJظHةR ل Jلن HانR ل Hي )138 ”هHذHا ب

(Here is a plain statement to men, a guidance and instruction to those

who fear Allah)

5- Revealing reality and clarifying doubtsJين“ (النمل: Hاب مdب Jت ءHانJ وHك MرdقM Hاتd ال JلMكH ءHاي )1  “طس ت

(Ta. Sin. These are verses of the Qur’an, a Book that makes things clear and

showing its reality)78

Mمd Mت dن ا مJمyا ك FيرJ Hث dمM ك Hك Vنd ل Hي dب Hا ي dن ول dس Hر Mمd HابJ قHدM جHاءHك Jت Mك HهMلH ال Hا أ ”ي Rورd yهJ ن dمM مJنH الل Jير قHدM جHاءHك Hث HعMفdو عHنM ك HابJ وHي Jت Mك dخMفdونH مJنH ال ت

“ (المائدة: RينJ HابR مdب Jت )15وHك(O People of the Book! there has come to you

Our Messenger, revealing to you much that you used to hide in the Book, and passing over much

(that is now unnecessary): There has come to you from Allah a (new) light and a perspicuous

Book)

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6- Miraculous• The Qur’an is the primary miracle and proof of the Messenger of Allah for the authenticity of his prophethood.

• The miracles in the Quran are the proof of its authenticity

• The miracle of the Quran is seen in terms of:

i. Structureii. Meaning (its knowledge:

historical events, future prediction, scientific facts.. 80

The Challenge of UnbelieversThe miracle of the Quran is shown in its open challenge to all humanity to produce:

a. Another book similar to it:Hونd dؤMمJن Hل ال ي Hهd ب HقHوyل dونH ت Hقdول HمM ي dوا )33( ”أ Hان JنM ك JهJ إ Mل JحHدJيث مJث dوا ب ت

M Hأ Mي فHل) HينJقJادHالطور. )“34ص

(Or they say: He has invented it? Nay, but they do not believe! Then let them produce a speech like it, if

they are truthful.)

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b. Ten chapters similar to those of the Qur’an Mمd dنت JنM ك yهJ إ dمM مJنM دdونJ الل HطHعMت ت Mاس MنHوا مdعMادHات وH ي HرH JهJ مdفMت Mل وHر مJث dس Jر MشHعJ dوا ب ت

M اهd قdلM فHأ HرH dونH افMت Hقdول HمM ي ”أ) HينJقJادH(هود). )13ص”

(Or they say: He has invented it! Say: Then bring ten surahs, the like thereof, invented, and call on everyone you can beside Allah, if you are truthful!

c. One surah similar to those of the Qur’an

Mمd dنت JنM ك yهJ إ dمM مJنM دdونJ الل هHدHاءHك dوا شdعMادHو JهJ Mل ة مJنM مJث Hور dسJ dوا ب تM Hا فHأ MدJن Hا عHلHى عHب Mن ل yزH Mب مJمyا ن ي Hي رJف Mمd dنت JنM ك ”وHإ

HينJقJادHالبقرة. )“23( ص

(And if you are in doubt concerning that which We reveal to our Messenger (Muhammad), then

produce a surah like one thereof, and call your gods and supporters beside Allah if you are truthful) 82

Types of Knowledge in the Qur’an The Universal Book Islam is the last (seal) and universal religion. Societies are always open for evolution and

development. The Qur’an then should meet the arising needs of

all human beings in different places and different times.

To be able to do so, it should: Give clear guidance on what is important for

human life that cannot be known through reason only

Set the core values and principles to guide humans to righteousness against corruption and deviation

Flexibly accommodating the development of human life & societies.

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Immutable Quranic values and norms:

• The Qur’an sets the norms, standards and universal values corresponding all peoples at all times. These values and norms should not be subject to change so as to ensure prevailing righteousness and justice

• According to these norms, people are given freedom to innovate and adopt new systems, procedures deemed necessary.

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Physical and Natural Sciences The Qur’an deals with things to be known or may not

be understood by humans, or may not be understood

properly (in cases where humans can only speculate).

These include for example: The origin of mankind,

the substance and the way of his first creation, his

first acquisition of the basic knowledge.Origin of earth and heavens, astronomy, geology, physics, embryology section 3

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The objectives/aims of scientific references in the Qur’an

The Quran does not intend to provide many details or teach natural and physical sciences. These Quranic references are only to prove:

• The existence of God and his power• Human weakness• Indebtedness of humanity to Allah for His bounties and blessings

• Authenticity of Prophets and Books i.e.

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When Muslims read and understand these references,

they acquire stronger faith

ونH فJي dرy HفHك Hت JهJمM وHي dوب ن dى جHلHعHا وFودdعdقHا وFامH yهH قJي ونH الل dرd HذMك yذJينH ي ”الHا HكH فHقJن ان HحM ب dس F HاطJال HقMتH هHذHا ب ل Hا خHا مH yن ب Hر JضMر

H مHوHاتJ وHاأل yالس JقMلHخyارJ“(آل األعمران: ).191عHذHابH الن

Those who remember and praise Allah, standing, sitting, and lying down on their sides, and

contemplate the wonders of creation in the heavens and the earth, (with the thought): "Our

Lord! not for naught has you created all this! Glory to you! Give us salvation from the Penalty

of the Fire. (3: 191)87

For non-Muslims who question the authenticity or authorship of the Qur’an, these references provide them with interesting answers.

dهy نH HهdمM أ yنH ل Hي Hب Hت yى ي ت Hح MمJه JسdفM Hن Hا فJي اآلفHاقJ وHفJي أ Jن Hات dرJيهJمM ءHاي ن Hس”هJيدR“ (فصلت: Hء¨ شMي Hش Vلd yهd عHلHى ك ن

H VكH أ ب HرJ MفJ ب Hك HمM ي وHلH MحHق أ )53ال

(Soon will We show them Our Signs in the (farthest) horizons, and within themselves, until it becomes manifest to them that it is the Truth. Is it not enough that your Lord does witness all

things? [41:53]88

How should we deal with Quran’s scientific facts?

• To grasp better understanding of those verses related to natural phenomena compared to the way they were understood by early Muslims

• We should not over-emphasize the scientific miracles to the extent we relate each new scientific theory to the Qur’an. Such an approach may cause misinterpreting the texts of the Qur’an or changing its interpretation, which is counterproductive and confusing.

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b) Religious, human and social sciences

Belief: (Revelation is the only source)

The Concept of God The existence of God; the Creator and the Lord

of the universe. The concept of tawhid (Unity of God)

Since the concept of God was not new to humanity, the Qur’an focuses on correcting prevalent concepts of God and demonstrate the Unity of God, His Omnipotence and Knowledge, etc.

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The Concept of Prophethood God used to send a prophet to every people

A brief history of Prophets (some names mentioned)

Revelation Some revealed books include the Suhuf / Ibrahim, Zabur/ Dawud, Torah /Musa, Injil/ Gospel/ Esa

Angels Their nature, character, position and relation with God (not his sons or daughters) 91

Day of Judgment Its existence, what will happen, Jannah, Jahannam

No specific date‘Ibadat (worship) Revelation is the only source The Qur’an sets the basics of ‘ibadat and provides Prophet with details

Morality Revelation is the main source The Qur’an sets universal ethical norms & values: Obedience and submission to God, justice, kindness, generosity, brotherhood, honesty, truthfulness, sincerity, trust (amanah), forbearance, patience, tolerance and forgiveness, inviting/encouraging people to good, preventing/ changing evil (munkar)

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Human & Social Relations Revelation is the main source The Qur’an deals with the main principles of these relations:◦Relationship among family members

husbands & wives parents& children marriage, divorce,

inheritance◦Relations with relatives◦Relations with neighbors ◦Social relations and interaction◦Relations between genders◦Etiquettes and manners◦Relations with non-Muslims◦Relations with animals 93

Halal (Lawful & Haram (Forbidden, unlawful)

Revelation is the only source: Food, drinks, clothes

Law- Family law/Criminal law/ Procedural law/ Commercial law/ International law

Economic system Revelation provides guidance to attain and maintain justice

Quran sets norms, principles and restrictions to ensure the observance of those norms and principles (prohibition of riba, uncertain contracts, Zakat secure economic and social justice (Social welfare (59: 7)

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Political systemThe Qur’an sets norms and principles Establishment of government/ central authority and the duties of subjects to obey its commands

Governance is based on consultation and right of people to select (شورى)their leaders.

The format of (شورى)and government are left for the choice of people and are open for development. 95

History and Civilization Origin of the universe: The Qur’an describes

how the universe is created by God

The Origin of humanity: The Qur’an confirms that the first human (Adam) was created by God from dust/ clay (15: 26), (15: 28-29), (17: 61), (23: 12), (32: 7), (32: 9), 38: 71-72) Eve was created for Adam (4: 1), (7: 189), (39: 6)God taught Adam the basic knowledge (2: 30-33), When Adam and his wife, mistakenly, disobeyed the commands of God, they were sent down from Jannah (Paradise) to the earth where they and their children settled.

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History of Messengers of AllahThe Qur’an gives a brief historical account of most significant Messengers

The Qur’an does not focus on historical details. It rather focuses on the lessons that should be learned from those events.

The Qur’an gives attention to the patterns of rise and fall of societies/civilizations (civilizational studies)• The Qur’an exhorts Muslims to learn from human experience.

• The Quran intends to guide Muslims to build their civilization and guard it against social diseases leading to its fall and collapse.

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How should we deal with the Qur’an?

• The Qur’an is an authoritative text to be followed and implemented

• The clear and self-explanatory Quran texts should be implemented without further examination

• Quran texts are open for interpretation and can be examined based on the following principles:◦Grouping of similar texts/statements which address

one common theme ◦Analyzing & understanding of each text/

statement in context◦Identifying the rules which unify the various

categories◦Identifying the general rules & purposes which

govern the interaction/ interrelation of various categories.

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Literal Meaning: Sunnah سنة)) means a clear path, an established course of conduct, the pattern of life, a precedent and custom.

The word sunnah and its plural sunan have been used in the Qur’an sixteen times. In all these instances, sunnah has been used to imply an established practice or course of conduct.

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It may be a good example or a bad one, and it may be set by an individual, a sect or a community.”من سن سنة حسنة فله أجرها وأجر

من عمل بها إلى يوم القيامة ومن سن سنة سيئة فله وزرها ووزر من عمل

بها إلى يوم القيامة“

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“Whosoever originates in Islam any good way/ precedent (good sunnah) has its reward and the reward of whoever acts upon it till the Day of Judgment. And whosoever originates in Islam a bad way/ precedent (bad sunnah) bears its burden and the burden of whoever acts upon it till the Day of Judgment”

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The opposite of sunnah is bid`ah (innovation), which is characterized by lack of precedent and continuity with the past.’

Technical meaning: a. The acts, sayings and approvals of the Messenger of Allah.

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Kinds of Sunnah with respect to the channels of the ahkam

1. Sunnah which is intended to be binding law: This kind includes the sayings, acts and approval of the Prophet (saw) through which he intended the laying down of the law or the explanation of the ahkam (law) laid down by the Qur’an . This comprises the largest part of the sunnah.

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2- Sunnah which is specific to the Prophet(صلى الله عليه وسلم)This kind includes those acts which are specific to the Prophet ( صلى الله عليه The number of these acts is .(وسلمvery limited. One example is the number of his marriages, not eating out of charity (صدقة).

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3. Ordinary physical acts performed by every human beingLike eating, drinking, walking. Such acts are not meant to lay down laws. If one imitates the Prophet (saw) in these acts out of love for him and with the intention to get reward, he will be rewarded for this.But the etiquettes and manners prescribed by the Messenger of Allah for the performance of such acts are part of the which is meant to be binding law.

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4. Acts based on human experience This may include acts that pertain to

his experience as a human being, like the organizing of the army, tactics of war, trading skills.

These acts don’t become precedents of law, because their basis is skill and experience rather than revelation.

However, if they are still relevant to one’s situation they might be followed.

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Status of the Sunnah with respect to the Qur’an The Sunnah is the second source just next to the Qur’an which is the first source.

There will be no Islam without the adoption of the sunnah.

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The Sunnah is basically an elaboration and commentary on the Qur’an .

Some ahkam are found in the Qur’an in general, undetermined or unelaborated form.

The Sunnah restricts, qualifies, or elaborates these ahkam.

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The Sunnah is a concrete implementation, a tangible form and the actual embodiment of the Qur’an

The Sunnah may lay down some rules that are not mentioned in the Qur’an

Qur’an says: “And whatsoever the messenger brought to you, follow it. And whatsoever he forbids, abstain from it” (al-Hashr:7)

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Worship (عبادة) The rulings and teachings related

to عبادة Halal and haram:

In food, drinks, clothes, and transactions:

- the Sunnah interprets what needs to be interpreted in the Qur’an .

- The Sunnah may add some prohibitions which are not included in the Qur’an .

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Law (family, criminal, commercial, procedural, international )

Manner of conduct: The biography of the Prophet (saw) is the model of individual moral conduct.“A noble model you have in Allah’s Apostle, for all whose hope is in Allah, and in the final Day, and who often remember Allah” (al-Ahzab:21)

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The model in implementing and embodying the teachings and principles of the Qur’an

The model in the relationship between humans and Allah (‘ibadah)

The model in establishing a family and treating wives as well as children.

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A model in dealing with people.

A model in hard-working, patience, and perseverance etc.

Leadership: He was a model leader, and from him we learn the requirements of a successful leader.

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Da‘wah:

How he started from nothing and ended with hundreds of thousands of followers after two decades only.

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Nation building and social reformation:

How could he establish a nation and changed a quite primitive society dominated by tribalism and rivalries between different tribes and social classes to a civilized and strong state characterized by unity, cooperation, and brotherhood.

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Eliminating idolatry and establishing Tawhid

Eliminating bad social values in dealing with the weak social classes: women, slaves, poor people, black people, etc.

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Reason (العقل)

as a Sources of Knowledge

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Reason as a Source of Knowledge

The term “reason” is used in different meanings:

1. The power of being able to think in a logical and rational manner, as distinct from experience or emotions.

2. Ability to think clearly and coherently3. The ability or process of drawing

logical inferences.119

Meanings/ Functions of Reason

1. Reason sometimes denotes a number of self-evident principles (such as the principle of non-contradiction) which govern the process of thinking of mentally competent people, regardless of their cultural background.

. These fundamental truths are intuitively apprehended

. As opposed to sensation, perception, feeling, desire (the existence of which is denied by empiricists)

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Reason is an instrument used to examine the coherence and rationality of a body of statements.

The examination allows us to conclude that the examined statements are either:* coherent and conform the principles of reasonOr * contradictory, and violate reason

Reason which gives a priori knowledge (pure reason)

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2. The capacity of rational beings to acknowledge the truth of certain assertions and deny the truth of others with the power to abstract, analyze, synthesize

A body of knowledge which has been examined and systemized by the principle of logic and considered by certain people as reasonable.

Reason as an mental faculty Reason is to be associated with methods and

mechanisms used in science and knowledge, generally, rather than a source of knowledge

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Reason vs. Revelation

Reason is a gift from Allah. It is the most valued part of human body

Reason is the basis of taklif (legal capacity) because it provides the power of discernment through which humans are able to distinguish between ‘good’ and ‘bad’, ‘right’ and ‘wrong’

Reason is the basis of Iman/ faith, thus, it is given the authority to examine the authenticity of prophets and the revelation they claim to bring from God.

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The Qur’an is full of references which command and exhort people to think, contemplate, and to examine the claimed revelation

This shows that: - Islam values reason; and - Islam is confident that there will

be no contradiction between what is contained in the revelation and what can reasoned through human reason

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What is claimed by unbelievers to be irrational or unreasonable is either:

mere speculation and ignorance, like their denial of some beliefs, or their misunderstand- ing

dنeي مeنfغhال ي jنjالظ jنe نlا إ dظ jالe كfثdرhهhمf إ dأ hعe dتjب ”وdمdا ي“ (يونس: dونhلdع fفdا يdمe eنj اللjهd عdلeيمy ب يfئzا إ dق{ شdحf36ال(But most of them follow nothing but conjecture

and speculation: truly conjecture and peculation can never challenge or replace truth. Verily Allah is

well aware of all that they do. (10:36)

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Or mere wishes and elusive hopes (hawa)

Jالy مHنM كHانH هdودFا yةH إ HدMخdلH الMجHن ”وHقHالdوا لHنM ي MمdكH dرMهHان dوا ب dمM قdلM هHات Jيه مHان

Hأ HكMلJ HصHارHى ت وM نHأ

dمM صHادJقJين“ Mت JنM كdن )111(البقرة: إAnd they say: "None shall enter Paradise unless he be a Jew or a Christian." Those

are their vain desires. Say: "Produce your proof if you are truthful." (2: 111)

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The Quran describes those who reject religion/revelation based on their ‘logic and rationality’ as people failing to properly use their mental faculties/ reason properly

JعM أHهMوHاءH الyذJينH ال yب Hت JعMهHا وHال ت yب رJيعHة مJنH األHمMرJ فHات Hى شHلHع HاكH dمy جHعHلMن ”ثHعMلHمdونH“ (الجاثية: )18ي

“ Then We put you on the right way of religion; so follow that way, and do not follow the desires of those who do not know.”

(45: 18)

FاءHعdد y Jال مHعd إ MسH JمHا ال ي MعJقd ب Hن yذJي ي HلJ ال HمHث وا ك dرHفH yذJينH ك Hلd ال ”وHمHثH“ونdلJقMعH MمR عdمMيR فHهdمM ال ي dك JدHاءF صdمÌ ب )171 (البقرة: وHن

The parable of those who reject Faith is as if one were to shout like a goat-herd, to things that listen to nothing but calls and cries: deaf, dumb, and blind, they are void of wisdom. (2: 171)

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Hawwas (senses)

as Means to Knowledge

128

• The Qur’an urges believers to use the faculties of senses

• The Quran blames disbelievers for failing not to use their senses properly

• On the Day of Judgment, the faculties of sense will stand for or against human being

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Hearing (al-sam’)

Hearing is a faculty (quwa) placed in the nerves spread out in the cavity of the ear hole, by which sounds are perceived.

It is by way of connecting with the ear hole the air which assumed the quality of the sounds. Meaning Allah taala creates perception in the soul (al-nafs) [E. Elder, 18]

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Seeing (al-Basar)

Seeing is a faculty placed in the two hollow nerves which meet each other in the brain, thence they separate and go to the two eyes; by this faculty are perceived rays of light, colors, shapes, measures, motions, the beautiful and the ugly, and other things, the perception of which Allah creates in the soul whenever the creature uses this faculty.

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Smelling (al-shamm)

It is a faculty placed in the two protruding lumps on the front of the brain; by this faculty odors are perceived by way of connecting with the cartilage of the nose the air which has assumed the quality of the odors.

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Taste (al-zawq)

Taste is a faculty spread out in the nerves situated on the organ of the tongue. Through this faculty, flavors are perceived through the mixing of the saliva which is in the mouth with the thing tasted.

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Touch (al-lams)

It is a faculty spread out into all the body by which heat and cold, moisture and dryness and others are perceived

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Methodology

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Method: A particular way of doing something, esp. a systematic one; an orderly logical arrangement.

Methodology: The theoretical analysis of methods appropriate to a field of study/body of methods and principles particular to a branch of knowledge.

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Types/Kinds of Methodologies

i. Methodology in Revealed Knowledgeii. Methodology in human knowledge (pure and social sciences)iii. Integrative methodology of revealed knowledge and human knowledge

• Methodology: technique or method• Methodology: field of inquiry concerned with the examination of methods used study of natural sciences, human and social sciences and religious sciences• A comprehensive Islamic methodology is meant to islamize and integrate knowledge on the basis of the combination between revelation and reason to overhaul the obstacles and challenges facing a modern man and the society.

1. Collected data from the Qur’an and Sunnah2. Verified techniques used by the narrators to

ensure authentic narrations3. Reliable narrators with rigorous criteria4. Continuous chain of transmission5. Memorized texts: Qur’an and Sunnah

• Ijma’ (consensus) : Consultation among Muslim scholars (majority opinions)

• ‘Ijtihad: legal reasoning, interpretation in light of local culture and customs

• ‘Istihsan: (juristic preference), supplementary methods to make up for the growing number of new arising situations is difficult with the textual and the analogical arguments.

• Maslahah or Masalih Mursalah (public interest): supplementary methods when specific texts of the Qur’an and Hadith or consensus or analogy were not available.

• `Urf (custom of a particular society or a nation):

Merits of the Traditional Approach

• Sincerity, piety, enthusiasm, commitment, and dedication of early Muslim researchers

• Islamic research, experimentation and empirical investigation were considered acts of ibadah.

• Piety of the traditional scholars was reflected in their writings and research. They used to commence with bismillah (in the name of Allah), seek His blessings and conclude by dedicating their results to Him.

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• The holistic nature of the traditional Islamic educational system makes no distinction between Revealed Knowledge and empirically derived knowledge.

• Knowledge is perceived as a comprehensive whole, with empirically derived knowledge subject to the verification of revealed knowledge.

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Three main criteria of tawhid for Islamic methodology:

1. All that which conflict with the reality must be rejected.

2. Ultimate contradictions must be rejected.3. Approaches to understanding reality are open

and flexible (accommodate new situations)

Methodology in Human Knowledge

(pure and social sciences)

Science: From Latin word scientia meaning: systematic knowledge of the physical or material world

Knowledge of Science• acquired through experience, observation and research• discursive: preceded by arguments, inductive and

deductive. • Proceeding to a conclusion through reason rather than

intuition. 

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Two scientific methods/logical systems:

Induction & Deduction

1. Deductive method (istinbat) (استنباط)• Researcher begins with a theory,• Derives one/more hypotheses for testing• Defines the variables in each hypothesis &

operations used, • Measure them in specific observable terms• Implement those observations to see whether

they confirm or fail to conform the hypotheses.150

2. Inductive method (istiqra’) (استقراء)• A method of discovering general rules and principles

from particular facts and examples.• In induction, research starts from observed data and

develops a generalization which explains the relationships between the objects observed.

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Characteristics of Scientific Method

1. Openness to questions• Open-minded about all (known/unknown)• Stage of “knowledge” is transitional (subject to

invalidation)2. Evidence-based (observation)• Search for knowledge through observation (not

authority of tradition or ideology)• Systematic, comprehensive and objective

evidence

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Basic Steps in Scientific Research:

1. Collecting data• This is a common basis for all sciences (pure, basic,

applied, human, and social)

• This is a function of perception and cognition.(the mind goes on to collect data through observations and experiments. Through its power of identification and retention, the mind establishes new relationships

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• This observation can be done in a lab (physics, chemistry, biology, etc.) or in a field when the parts under study spread over vast areas in time and space (astronomy, geology).

• Observation can be conducted through senses, perceptive power, scientific instruments, technological equipments

• The advance of scientific and technological equipment has contributed to the expansion of methods and means of data collection and observation.

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In Muslim history of science, Muslim scientists realized the need for scientific equipment for data collection. One of their example is the introduction of astrolabes (scientific instrument used for reckoning time and to help astronomers calculate the position of the sun and prominent stars with respect to both the horizon and the meridian)

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• Quadrants (an instrument for measuring angles, checking one’s position at sea or to look at stars): exact observations of stars and planets,

• Spherical astrolabe.

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Measures against Distortion Observations should be clear: No preconceived ideas. Objective: recording that which is really happening

(objective) Patience & perseverance to ensure reliability of

observations Observations are not reliable until confirmed

through statistical tests by a number of independent scientists

Example: Rules of observation laid down by Jabir ibn Hayyan (chemistry):

1. Time and season must be carefully chosen

2. Laboratory should be secluded (quiet & private)

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Classification and Data Analysis • Arrange data in regular order and Explore the characteristics of

data population• Establish the relations and correlations between different

members of the population or with members of other series.

3. Hypothesis: Following the study of the characteristics of data population,

we begins to ask the question “How” about the working of those members and their correlations. The answer to this question is the hypothesis which describes in words or in symbols the relationship that appear to exist between them.

• Hypothesis depend on observation, experience and knowledge.

• There could be more than one hypotheses depending on the number of variables.

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4- Testing Hypotheses:• Hypotheses are put into testing through

experiments in different conditions for validation/applicability.

• If predictions is correct, then the hypothesis is raised to a “theory”. If this theory is found to be universally applicable, it becomes a “law of nature”

Examples: • 1) If we give plant A more fertilizer than plant B then plant A will grow

faster than plant B. 

2) If we give plant A acid while we give plant B water then plant be will grow to be taller than plant A. 

3) If we put plant A on the windowsill and put plant B in the closet then plant A will grow taller than plant 

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Observation

Logical deduction

Experimentation and empirical observations

(under controlled conditions)

The hypothesis is validated = Theory

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Origin of Scientific methodology

• Muslim scientists were the first to introduce this method and to emphasize the role of experimentation.

• In his book on chemistry, Jabir ibn Hayyan stated : “the first essential is to perform practical work and experiments. One who does not do so will never attain mastery”.

 (born c. 721 in Tous–died c. 815 in Kufa) a prominent polymath: a chemist and astronomer and astrologer, engineer, geologist, philosopher, physicist, and pharmacist and physician. He is considered by some to be the "father of chemistry

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Some experiments rules laid down by Ibn Hayyan

• Operator should know the reason of the experiment (hypotheses and predictions should be set clearly);

• Instructions should be properly understood;• Impossible/useless processes should be

avoided (vague hypotheses which don’t lead to definite predictions, or hasty experiments which lead to vague results, are of no value).

Conflict between Science & Religion

• The characteristics of Muslims’ method include experiment and observation, geometrical and mathematical sciences (instruments of reasoning).

• In their writings on mechanics, hydrostatics, optics, etc. it is interesting to remark that the solution to a problem is always by performing an experimental observation.

• It was this that made them the originators of chemistry;

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• Invention of all kinds of apparatus for distillation (to make a liquid pure by heating it until it becomes a gas, then cooling it and collecting the drops of liquid that form)

• Sublimation: conversion of a substance from the solid to the vapor state without its becoming liquid)

• Fusion: the process or result of joining two or more things together to form one, like the fusion of copper and zinc to produce brass)

• Filtration: the process of filtering a liquid or gas)• Astronomy: Use instruments such as quadrants

and astrolabes in Chemistry, or to construct tables of specific gravity and astronomical tables like those of Baghdad and Spain, great improvements in Geometry, invention of Algebra and adoption of Indian numeration in Arithmetic. Such were the results of the performance of the inductive method

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• Francis Bacon, A founder of inductive/scientific method in the West (in his book Novum Organum-1st quarter of the 17th century) while pleading for the introduction of empiricism in Europe says again and again that: “great authorities” follow this and consider this method better than the old deductive method of Greeks. But he never mentions the name of the “great authorities” and the “wise people”

• No one applied this method before except Muslim scientists. It is suggested that he did not mention them by name for fear of inquisition.

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Contribution/Achievements of Scientific method

• Liberated sciences from the domination of rigid deductive method (appropriate to theoretical & philosophical studies)

• Limited the sphere of intellectual speculations and provided larger space for empirical knowledge.

• Free scientific research from the grip of Greek axioms.

• Limited the sphere of metaphysical studies and made shift to natural and physical studies

• Successful results of scientists gave them confidence in scientific method, which led to the expansion of the scientific research; discovery of new laws and new areas.

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“Side effects” of Scientific Method

• The overconfidence in scientific method led to extreme rationality.

• Extreme rationality led to the adoption of scientific method in the field of human and social sciences.

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Empiricism/ logical-positivism(from the Greek word empeiria = experience)

• Inaugurated by Francis Bacon and developed by John Locke (1632-1704). In philosophy, the attitude that beliefs are to be accepted and acted upon only if they first have been confirmed by actual experience.

• Stresses experience. Empiricism is opposed to the claims of authority, intuition, imaginative conjecture, and abstract, theoretical, or systematic reasoning (Rationalism) as sources of reliable belief.

• The essence of empiricism is observation, measurement, and quantification of sense data available to the observer.

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Early Empiricism vs. Revelation

• Although Bacon proclaims the universal applicability of induction, he himself treats it almost exclusively as a means to natural knowledge and ignores its social application.

• Divine knowledge originates from revelation while reason has nothing to do with it. Divine philosophy (later called rational or natural theology), but its sole task and competence is to prove that there is a God.

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• John Locke, one of the fathers of empiricism, consider revelation, in principle, as a source of certain type of knowledge. But he assigned to it a very marginal and subordinate role.

• Locke argues that knowledge acquired by human reasoning is more reliable and certain than knowledge received through revelation.

• Reasons: doubt of preservation of the original revelation through narration, or lack of means for validating or substantiating its content.

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Locke gives revelation the upper hand over reason in two instances:

1. In questions of faith: because it is inaccessible to human reasoning.

2. Revelation should supersede reason in the realm of probable knowledge not rising to certainty.

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PositivismIn philosophy, any system that confines itself to the data of experience and excludes a priori (knowledge that is independent of all particular experiences,

as opposed to a posteriori knowledge, which derives from experience alone) or metaphysical speculations.

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As a philosophical ideology and movement, Positivism first assumed its distinctive features in the work of Auguste Comte (1798–1857).

It then developed through several stages known by various names, such as Empirio criticism, Logical Positivism, and Logical Empiricism, etc.

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Basic Affirmations of Positivism

1. All knowledge regarding matters of fact is based on the “positive” data of experience;

2. Beyond the realm of fact is that of pure logic and pure mathematics, which were, in a later phase of Positivism, classified as purely formal sciences.

3. Strict adherence to observation and experience is the all-important imperative of positivists.

4. In its basic ideological posture, Positivism is worldly, secular, anti-theological, and anti-metaphysical

Naturalism, commonly known as materialism, is a philosophical paradigm whereby everything can be explained in terms of natural causes. Physical matter is the only reality - everything can be explained in terms of matter and physical phenomena. Naturalism, by definition, excludes any Supernatural Agent or activity. Thus, naturalism is atheism. Naturalism's exclusion of God necessitates moral relativism.

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Naturalism

Naturalism/ Natural method• A theory that relates scientific method to philosophy by affirming that all beings and events in the universe are natural.

All knowledge of the universe falls within the pale of scientific investigation.

Naturalism denies the existence of truly supernatural realities.

Naturalists assert that nature is reality. There is nothing beyond, nothing “other than,” no “other world” of being.

• Naturalism presumes that nature is in principle completely knowable.

• There is in nature a regularity, unity, and wholeness that implies objective laws, without which the pursuit of scientific knowledge would be absurd.

• Naturalism has no ontological preference: dualism and monism, atheism and theism, idealism and materialism are all per se compatible with it.

• Ontology: the branch of metaphysics that studies the nature of existence or being as such

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Emergence of inductive experimental method

During the Middle Ages (which more or less corresponds to the Islamic Golden Age),[13] early Islamic philosophy addressed issues of what is now termed science and engaged in debates over them. There was greater emphasis on combining theory with practice in the Islamic world than there had been in Classical times, and it was common for those studying the sciences to be artisans as well, something that had been "considered an aberration in the ancient world." Islamic experts in the sciences were often expert instrument makers who enhanced their powers of observation and calculation with them.[14] Muslim scientists used experiment and quantification to distinguish between competing scientific theories, set within a generically empirical orientation, as can be seen in the works of Jābir ibn Hayyān (721-815)[15] and Alkindus (801-873)[16] as early examples. Several scientific methods thus emerged from the medieval Muslim world by the early 11th century, all of which emphasized experimentation as well as quantification to varying degrees.

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• Behavioral Psychology (known as behaviorism): a theory of learning based on the idea that all behaviors are acquired through conditioning. Conditioning occurs through interaction with the environment. According to behaviorism, behavior can be studied in a systematic and observable manner with no consideration of internal mental states.

“Give me a dozen healthy infants, well-formed, and my own specified world to bring them up in and I’ll guarantee to take any one at random and train him to become any type of specialist I might select-doctor, lawyer, artist, merchant-chief and, yes, even beggar-man and thief, regardless of his talents, penchants, tendencies, abilities, vocations, and race of his ancestors”John Watson, Behaviorism, 1930

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Positive Results of Behaviorism

1. Development of neurosciences. 2. Development of behaviour

therapy (behaviour modification), which focuses on modifying observable behaviour, rather than on the thoughts and feelings of the patient (as in psychoanalysis).

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Conclusion

• It is easy for scientists to be materialist when they perceive in the universe the apparently relentless (continuous) unfolding of natural law, and forgets that there are domains where the laws of physics are irrelevant.

• More scientists are realizing that they are exploring only one section of the great world of nature in all its manifold complexity; beauty, moral, conduct, spiritual values, religious experience, are all outside their domain, yet all come within man’s scrutiny when he attempts to interpret the universe as a whole and strives to discern purpose therein…”

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Harris, Kelvin (1979), Education and Knowledge

The limitations of empiricism in human and social sciences can be manifested in different areas: Derived conclusions could not be logically valid

for generalization because there could be exceptions.

Methodology of data collection is theory loaded, that is, the investigator has preconceptions and motives, which influence his choice of methodology of investigation and this subsequently affects the outcome

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“The humanistic studies of Western man and the social analysis of Western society by a Western scientist are necessarily "Western" and cannot serve as models for the study of Muslims or of their society.”

Ismail Raji al-Faruqi (1977), "Islamizing the Social Sciences"

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The Search for an Islamic Methodology

Methodology comprises: 1. Technical procedures2. Conditions for using methods/ Conceptual aspects of methodology

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1. Natural & Physical Sciences:

Scientific method in its technical procedures has a universal application

Initially started by Muslim scientists and later developed by Western scientists

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2. Social & Human Sciences:• Western methods used in the field of human &

social sciences are characterized by:• Heavily inclination towards materialism • Application of procedures of the natural

sciences• Exclusion of spiritual aspect.• Embody Western concepts & values (leads to

exclusion of revelation, adherence to materialism, atheism, etc.)

• Set Western values & concepts as universal norms and models for other societies’ judgments.

• Misappropriate usage of Western methodology in the Muslim world is leading toward Westernization of Muslim societies.

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Some Issues:• Rejecting revelation and contrasting scientific

with revealed knowledge • Confining reality to the empirical one under

the justification that reason cannot ascertain transcendental reality;

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- These structures are not immediately encountered by the senses. Structures of empirical existence are inferred through the use of categories abstracted from the sensible, and mediated by purely “rational” categories and statements. e.g. understanding the relationship between earth and sun is mediated by mental constructs, and hence is completely at variance with the immediate impression received from the senses.

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2. Revelation, in its Islamic form, seeks its justification in empirical reality.

• Revelation sees empirical reality as the manifestation of a transcendental reality.

• The interconnectedness of the empirical and transcendental is stressed by the Qur’an

• To understand revelation proper and profoundly: sometimes, we need empirical knowledge.

• To understand nature a comprehensive understanding we need revelation.

• Science-revelation conflict is neither imperative nor universal, but specific to Western religion and experience. No need to reproduce it Muslim culture.

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Setting the Norm/ Standard/ Model In social and human science: Norms,

models, standards are crucial to understanding, judging, and changing human behaviour and social phenomena.

Norms/ standards/ models are used to deduce conclusions.

Western scholarship assumes that the practices of the Western society (assumed to be the peak of human evolution) become the standard of normality.

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Integrative Methodology of Revealed Knowledge and Human

Knowledge

• The common point among Muslim scholars working on Islamization of knowledge/ Islamic methodology: Incorporation of Revelation into different fields of research.

• As to the question of “How”: Answers may be different.

• Until now, only little has been done, and more efforts are required to establish a viable Islamic methodology for different social and human sciences

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Islamic Methodology should:• Incorporate revelation as a source of

knowledge • Give revelation its due role in guiding

human inquiry• Work under the directions of Tawhidic

worldview (origin & nature of man and the universe, purpose of creation, and human destiny).

• Reflect the Islamic objectives and values• Set the norms/standards/models derived

from the Qur’an, the Sunnah, and the practice of the early Muslim society

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A Framework for Islamization of Knowledge

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Islamic legacy Western knowledge

Mastery of disciplinary substantive knowledge

Mastery of analytical and synthetic techniques

University textbooks

Islamic University

Perfect/universal man

Conclusion• Over the past, Muslims followed the

Islamic methodology in research and based their work on the principle of tawhid

• Muslims verified information to ensure its authenticity

• Muslims acted with sincerity, piety, commitment

• Muslims view knowledge as a comprehensive whole

• Muslims avoided any innovation (heresy) in religion

• Muslims had greater familiarity with classical Arabic, which facilitated their understanding & analysis of original texts

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