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Transcript of Unethical Workplace Behavior, Causes & Mitigation
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AIR WAR COLLEGE
AIR UNIVERSITY
UNETHICAL WORKPLACE BEHAVIOR:
CAUSES AND MITIGATION
by
Travis C. Harsha, Lt Col, USAF
A Research Report Submitted to the Faculty
In Partial Fulfillment of the Graduation Requirements
Advisor: Col James E. Lackey, USA
14 February 2013
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DISCLAIMER
The views expressed in this academic research paper are those of the author and do not reflect
the official policy or position of the US government, the Department of Defense, or Air
University. In accordance with Air Force Instruction 51-303, it is not copyrighted, but is the
property of the United States government.
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Biography
Lieutenant Colonel Travis C. Harsha is a U.S. Air Force security forces officer assigned
to the Air War College, Air University, Maxwell AFB, AL. He entered the Air Force in 1991 as
an AFROTC distinguished graduate. He graduated from the University of Missouri-Columbia in
1991 with a Bachelor of Science in Business Administration, University of Maryland-College
Park in 2001 with a Masters of Arts in Criminology and Criminal Justice, and Air Command and
Staff College in 2005 with a Master of Arts in Military Operational Art and Science. He has
served at unit, major command and Air Staff level in various positions, including three times as a
squadron commander.
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Abstract
Over the past year, numerous military scandals of unethical workplace behavior have
surfaced. This behavior negatively affected all involved, undermined public trust in military
leaders and service as a whole and affected morale, discipline and mission readiness.
Considering its corrosive effects, unethical workplace behavior must be addressed. To address
it, we must first understand its causes. Empirical evidence shows individual, organizational and
situational factors cause and/or allow unethical workplace behavior. To the extent leaders and
managers understand and can address these factors, they can mitigate unethical workplace
behavior. This paper explores these causes and ways to mitigate.
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Introduction
Over the past year, numerous military scandals of unethical workplace behavior have
surfaced. This behavior negatively affected all involved, undermined public trust in military
leaders and service as a whole and affected morale, discipline and mission readiness.
Considering its corrosive effects, unethical workplace behavior must be addressed.
Why do people behave unethically at work and what can be done to mitigate such
behavior? This paper, divided into three sections, attempts to answer these questions. Empirical
evidence shows individual, organizational and situational factors cause and/or allow unethical
workplace behavior. To the extent leaders and managers understand and can address these
factors, they can mitigate unethical workplace behavior. Section I defines key terms and
explores individual, organizational and situational factors which cause and/or allow unethical
behavior. Section II provides recommendations to mitigate unethical workplace behavior.
Finally, Section III provides a conclusion.
Definitions
Three definitions are central to this paper. First, a moral issue is present where a
persons actions, when freely performed, may harm or benefit others.1 Second, a moral agent is
a person who makes a moral decision, even though he or she may not recognize that moral
issues are at stake.2 Third, ethical behavior is legal and morally acceptable to the larger
community.3 Conversely, unethical behavior is either illegal or morally unacceptable to the
larger community.4 In this paper, the terms moral and ethical are considered equal and
used interchangeably depending on context.
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Causes
Before we can address unethical workplace behavior, we must first understand what
causes it. Based on empirical evidence from criminology, psychology and sociology research,
this section will discuss key individual, organizational and situational factors that cause and/or
allow unethical workplace behavior.
Individual
Individuals commit unethical workplace behavior for a number of reasons. Some people
have a propensity to engage in unethical behavior based on certain individual characteristics.
Empirical evidence suggests the most consistent individual factors which predict unethical
behavior include the following (in no particular order):
1) Certain personality traits. Low self-control (impulsive for instant gratification if
given the opportunity), external locus of control (believe outcomes are primarily determined by
external forces vice self) and high in Machiavellianism (propensity to deceive/manipulate others
in pursuit of selfish goals).5, 6, 7, 8, 9
2) Certain ethical philosophical beliefs/values. Relativism (believe moral rules are
situational) and teleology (ends justify means; also known as consequentialist ethics).10, 11, 12
3) Propensity to rationalize/morally disengage. Research shows most people use
standards of ethical behavior they adopt through socialization to guide their actions and regulate
themselves.13
To neutralize any regrets or negative feelings before and/or after committing
unethical behavior, people may disengage their self-regulatory process through rationalizations
in a process called moral disengagement.14, 15, 16
Based on extensive research, the most common rationalization tactics are: denial of
responsibility (convince themselves they have no other choice because of circumstances), denial
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of injury (no one is harmed so actions are not corrupt), denial of victim (victim deserved to be
victimized), social weighting [can occur in two ways: condemning the condemners (question
legitimacy of condemners) and selective social comparisons (compare self to others who appear
to have committed worse behavior making self feel not as bad)], appeal to higher authorities
(need to breach ethical norms to fulfill more important goals) and balancing the ledger (good
works have earned credits to offset bad).17
Researchers found the likelihood to morally disengage correlates positively with
Machiavellianism and relativism, which reinforces linkage of moral thinking/behavior to certain
personality traits and certain ethical philosophical beliefs/values.
18
Bandura argues moral
disengagement is explicitly interactive, the result of the continued reciprocal influence of the
individual, behavior, and the environment.19
Thus ones personality traits/beliefs coupled with
certain contextual factors/situations (e.g., denial of responsibility in response to dominant
authority figures) may increase ones propensity to morally disengage.20
4) Low cognitive moral development (affects moral judgment and behavior).21, 22
Kohlbergs Cognitive Moral Development theory argues individuals progress in stages as they
become more cognitively advanced and independent in their moral reasoning.23
Research shows
most adults are at the conventional level of cognitive development, meaning their thinking about
what is right/wrong is largely influenced by significant others through social learning and
rules/laws. Social learning theory asserts individuals learn by observing and modeling the
behavior of others they deem important (usually leaders/supervisors and in-group/popular
employees).24, 25
Through social learning, supervisors and peers can influence employee ethical
decision-making and behavior for better or worse.26
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5) Poor ethical decision-making. Much research on unethical behavior asserts people
behave unethically based on poor ethical decision making/reasoning, which all of the
aforementioned individual factors affect.
James Rest provides the most popular ethical decision-making model, which posits four
basic components/steps: 1) identifying moral issue (moral awareness), 2) making a moral
judgment, 3) establishing moral intent and 4) acting morally.27
Rest argues people are apt to act
unethically when one or more of these steps is not followed. For example, those who act
unethically may not see an issue as a moral one and/or may rationalize their actions (before or
after) to see themselves acting morally when they are not.
28
Finally, just because one uses an
ethical decision making model does not mean their judgment or behavior is/will be ethical.29
Research also demonstrates moral judgments can come from an intuitive, emotion-based
(impulsive) process, rather than reason.30, 31
Haidt argues the main difference between
intuition and reasoning are that intuition occurs quickly, effortlessly, and automatically,
such that the outcome and not the process is accessible to consciousness, while reasoning occurs
more slowly, requires some effort, and involves at least some steps that are accessible to
consciousness.32
He asserts moral reasoning exists, but it usually occurs after a moral judgment
as justification for decision/actions vice before.33
Haidt emphasizes the importance of social
and cultural influences in shaping ones intuition and subsequent moral judgment. Similar to
social learning theory, Haidt argues in many cases peoples privately held judgments are
directly shaped by the judgment of others (even if no reasoned persuasion is used).34
Research shows unethical judgments and behavior are also strongly influenced by certain
organizational and situational factors.35
To use a metaphor, there are bad apples, some of which
are caused, or accelerated in their decay, by bad barrels.
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Organizational/Situational
A good and bad applespropensity for unethical behavior can increase when they sit in
bad barrels (unethical organization/situations).36, 37
Given organizational/situational factors can
increase ones propensity to commit unethical behavior, Doris argues, Rather than striving to
develop characters that will determine our behavior in ways substantially independent of
circumstance, we should invest more of our energies in attending to the features of our
environment that influence behavioral outcomes.38
Key organizational and situational factors which influence unethical workplace behavior
include the following (in no particular order):
1) Unethical organizational climate/culture. As mentioned, a bad barrel can
make/foster bad apples. Organizations which foster unethical behavior often exhibit one or more
of the following characteristics: have weak and/or unethical leaders, bottom-line mentality (ends
justify means), unrealistic goals, reward or ignore/weakly sanction unethical behavior, treat
employees unfairly and demand unquestioning obedience to authority.39
Like individuals, organizations may morally disengage by rationalization tactics to
maintain a positive image and infuse such tactics into their way of doing business. In a corrupt
unit, socialization tactics often accompany rationalization tactics to progressively assimilate
newcomers into accepting and committing unethical behavior.40, 41, 42
Over time, these actions
can make unethical behavior part of the organizational culture and routine way of doing
business.43
Research repeatedly demonstrates peer influence plays a major role in influencing
unethical behavior. The more individuals witness co-workers acting unethically, the more likely
they are to do the same.44
Peers also exert normative influence against peer reporting of
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unethical behavior, particularly if the peer is a friend.45
Research shows most employees view
themselves as more ethical than others, even when they are not. When surrounded by unethical
behavior, employees may justify/rationalize their own unethical behavior on the basis of
everyone else is doing it or it is not as bad as what others are doing or its necessary to
compete evenly with others who are far less principled.46
2) Weak and/or unethical leadership/supervision (do not demonstrate/enforce ethical
values/behavior). Through social learning, employees look to significant others (especially
leaders and supervisors) for what is acceptable and unacceptable behavior.47
If
leaders/supervisors commit unethical behavior and/or allow others to do so, they can influence
employees to think and act unethically too by legitimizing such behavior.48
Through power of
rewards/punishment and unquestioned authority, unethical leaders/supervisors can also
influence/pressure employees to accept/commit unethical behavior.49
Under reciprocal deviance, a leader/supervisor that allows or treats employees
unfairly/disrespectfully can foster a toxic work environment, which can breed contempt and
retaliatory unethical behavior to right perceived wrongs.50 Research has found a significant
relationship between job dissatisfaction (especially from toxic leaders/supervisors) and
deviant/unethical work behavior.51
Poor leadership often exists where/when employees perceive a leader is more focused on
his/her own self-interest vice concern for employees.52
3) Certain job characteristics. Some jobs have inherent characteristics which can
increase ones opportunity andpropensity to behave unethically, especially if predisposed to do
so based on individual causal factors. These job characteristics include (in no particular order):
stressful/demanding (unrealistic objectives, limited time/resources), lack control over
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environment, lack of support network, more external contacts and where/when employees
perceive an expectation of unquestioning obedience to authority.53, 54, 55, 56
Note many military
jobs contain such job characteristics.
Organizations may also create job/work demands (e.g., increased stress/work hours or
rotating shift schedules) that foster inadequate rest/sleep, which can increase ones propensity for
unethicalbehavior by diminishing ones self-control resources.57
This draws on Ego Depletion
Model, which argues people have a limited capacity for cognitive self-control (like fuel tank) at
any moment that is depleted by using it until rest/sleep restores it.58
4) Situational factors. Situationism posits variance in human behavior is typically a
function of the situation a person inhabits, or takes herself to inhabit, rather than any traits of
character she putatively possesses.59
So to understand ones behavior, we must take into
account situational variables.
Several studies show how minor situational variables affect helping behavior (e.g.,
hurried passersby step over passed out victim while unhurried stop to help or those who just
found some change help a person whose papers have fallen vice those who did not just find
change do not).60
Studies have also shown how situational variables can spawn harmful behavior in
ordinary people [e.g., Millgrams study of how people are willing to torture someone at the polite
request of an authority figure or Zimbardos study of how people acting as prison guards can
increasingly abuse others acting as inmates].61
To the extent situational factors can influence
behavior more than ones character or moral development, organizations and individuals must be
aware of such factors and address them.62
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While situationist research often argues situational variables trump individual traits (such
as character, which some situationist advocates believe does not exist), some researchers argue
situationist research supports the existence of localtraits of character (viceglobal, which
traditional virtue ethics endorse but the evidence does not support global traits of character).63
For example, most people would behave compassionately when they are not in a hurry (they are
ambling-along-compassionate) or when they are not in a group (they are not-in-a-group-
compassionate).64
Similarly, if one is loyal-to-his-wife-only-when-sober, he will wisely reject
dinner-and-drink invite from co-worker.65
As Doris argues, condemnation for ethical failure
might very often be directed not at a particular failure of the will but at a certain culpable naivet
or insufficiently careful attention to situations.66
Situational variables can also impact ethical
behavior directly and act as a moderator (e.g., influencing moral reasoning leading to moral
behavior). Subsequently, scholars stress organizational culture must be managed to influence
individual and organizational ethical behavior.67
In what is known as the Bathsheba Syndrome, upper-level leaders/managers unethical
behavior can be caused/tempted by their inability/unpreparedness to deal with the by-products of
success, which include the following: increased autonomy; privileged access to people,
information or objects; unrestrained control of organizational resources and an inflated belief in
ones ability to manipulate outcomes.68
The next section discusses recommendations to mitigate unethical behavior addressing
individual, organizational and situational causes.
Recommendations
To most effectively and efficiently address/mitigate unethical workplace behavior,
organizations must address its individual, organizational and situational causes.
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identify and question such tactics rather than accept/participate; include periodic introspection
days with external facilitators to examine acts/policies for ethical implications); 2) use
performance evaluations that go beyond numbers (explore what numbers were met and how;
avoid bottom-line mentality where any means may be used to justify ends); 3) nurture an ethical
environment in the organization (code of ethics supported by organizational structures and
policies); and 4) ensure top management serves as ethical role models.73
To reverse unethical behavior related rationalizations and socializations, organizations
should: 1) avoid denial and move quickly (as bad apples can come from bad barrels, look for
and quickly address any system driven problems); 2) involve external change agents (to ensure
objectivity/credibility); and 3) remain aware and vigilant.74
With individual causes addressed, we now turn to addressing organizational/situational
causes.
Organizational/Situational
1) Create and sustain ethical climate/culture. Just as unethical climates/cultures can
create unethical behavior, research shows organizations can reduce misconduct and raise job
satisfaction by fostering an ethical climate/culture.75
Leaders shape an organizations culture by their words and actions. The five primary
mechanisms a leader can use to influence organizational culture are: 1) what they pay attention
to, measure and control; 2) how they react to critical incidents and crises; 3) their deliberate role
modeling, coaching and teaching; 4) the criteria used for rewards and status; and 5) the criteria
used for recruitment, selection, promotion and retirement.76
To create and sustain an ethical climate/culture, organizations must carefully select and
promote authentic leaders/supervisors, which are attuned to their roles as moral agents.77
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Leaders must clearly and genuinely communicate and demonstrate ethical standards/conduct and
reward and enforce ethical behavior.78
Leaders should foster a safe, secure and enjoyable work
environment where people feel cared for and are inspired to behave ethically in the interest of the
company and its employees.79
Given the great influence of leaders/managers on an employees
decision to engage in unethical behavior, organizations should impose more severe sanctions
against unethical leaders/managers.80
All policies, practices and decisions should pass the headline test and external parties
should review them periodically to ensure they are ethical. They should set realistic goals and
avoid bottom-line mentality, focusing on what and how people accomplish their mission. Lager
posits, More effective than the usual compliance-based ethics system are values-oriented or
integrity-based programs, where the focus is not on compliance, but on maintaining a culture
where ethical issues can be discussed, ethical behavior is rewarded and the organizations values
are incorporated by its leaders into strategic decisions.81
Organizations should also develop a code of ethics in an open, participative environment
involving as many employees as possible to foster buy-in. The code of ethics must clearly state
the organizations basic principles and expectations, realistically focus on potential ethical
dilemmas, be clearly/routinely communicated to employees, be accepted/internalized by
everyone and it must be enforced to be effective.82
Unique units in organizations should expand
on organizations core code of ethics adding their own codes for unique ethical dilemmas they
may face.83
2) Ensure authentic leadership/supervisors. Research shows authentic
leadership/supervision is critical to creating/sustaining an ethical work climate/culture.
Authentic leadership is a pattern of leader behavior that draws upon and promotes both positive
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psychological capacities and a positive ethical climate, to foster greater self-awareness, an
internalized moral perspective, balanced processing of information, and relational transparency
on the part of leaders working with followers, fostering positive self-development.84
To be most effective, authentic leaders/supervisors must be ethical role models. An
ethical role model is someone who is fair, honest, respectful, considerate, consistently
demonstrate ethical standards and actively manage morality (set the ethical tone, promote values-
based over compliance based, and reward good behavior and punish bad).85, 86, 87, 88
At its core,
ethical leadership behavior is being a servant leader (selflessly serving/caring for subordinates
and acting with organization/employee best interests in mind).
89
Research shows employees
with strong ethical leadership are more committed to their organization, more ethically aware
and more willing to report ethical problems than those organizations with weak or unethical
leadership.90
Just as social learning can support bad behavior, it can support good behavior. Retired
United States Air Force General Fogleman recognized a single individual in a position of
leadership could make or break a unit.91 An authentic leader, General Fogleman saw leadership
and integrity inextricably linked and most critical to mission success (setting the standard for
integrity within organizations).92
His four pass-fail items for leadership demonstrate his
conviction to inspire trust and teamwork, essential for an ethical climate: 1) Dont rule through
fear. 2) Never lose your temper or have an outburst of anger in public. 3) Never tolerate any
breach of integrity. 4) Zero tolerance for sexual harassment or any kind of prejudice based on
race, religion, ethnic origin, ageany kind of discriminator.93
3) Tap the trenches. To care for their employees, leaders and supervisors must know
their issues. They must get out from behind their desks and walk the line. Such actions can
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foster greater trust, communications and commitment from employees. In that vein,
organizations should also conduct in-depth interviews/surveys with lower-level employees to get
their perceptions on organizational climate/culture, leader/supervisor behavior, employee fair
treatment and aggressively follow-up on any ethical concerns raised by employees.94, 95
4) Reduce the pressures/stress. As stress can make employees more likely to behave
unethically, leaders/supervisors should identify and reduce work stressors (to the extent they can)
and improve employee capacity to handle stress. Leaders/supervisors should set realistic goals
and provide adequate time/resources to get the job done right. For example, as research shows a
lack of sleep can affect moral cognition/behavior, supervisors should closely monitor work
schedules and personnel to ensure adequate sleep. Those not afforded adequate sleep should be
monitored closely to ensure opportunity does not arise to commit an unsafe or unethical act.
To reduce upper-level leaders/managers falling victim to the Bathsheba Syndrome
(inherent temptations/corruption that can come with power), organizations must change
structures, procedures and practices which encourage/allow such unethical behavior.96
To
mitigate such behavior, bosses of upper-level leaders/managers should authentically lead/mentor
their direct reports and ensure they are living a balanced/grounded life and are surrounded by an
ethical team of leaders/managers who will inspire them to lead by example and challenge or
comfort them when they need either.97
5) Increase the certainty of unethical workplace behavior being caught. Deterrence
theory posits three factors (certainty of being caught, severity of punishment and swiftness of
punishment) deter crime. Research shows certainty of being caught is the most important
deterrent factor (as criminals think they will not be caught, so severity and swiftness of
punishment will not matter as much in their calculus to commit a crime).98
Research shows the
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threat of punishment, no matter how severe, is not effective in promoting ethical behavior.99
Subsequently, to deter unethical behavior, organizations should focus on increasing employee
perceptions they will be caught if they commit unethical behavior by setting up control measures
(e.g., well-advertised monitoring, internal controls, regular audits) and fostering an ethical
climate/culture where unethical behavior will not be tolerated and will be reported/investigated
and appropriately handled.100, 101
6) Ensure effective reporting system for unethical behavior (whistle-blowing).
Research shows employees are more apt to report unethical behavior if they are tasked to report
it and organizational culture/climate supports such reporting. Researchers also found to the
extent unethical behavior threatened the groups interest (group penalized), group members were
more likely to report a peer.102
For example, the United States Air Force Academy honor code (like code of ethics)
states, We will not lie, steal or cheat, nor tolerate among us anyone who does. Under the
honor code, each cadet is obligated to confront/report such unethical behavior. If they do not
confront/report such behavior, they fall subject to the same discipline as others who violate the
code. The code deters unethical behavior by increasing the certainty of being caught (everyone
is responsible to detect and report such behavior). Leaders also swiftly and seriously deal with
all reports of ethical violations, which fosters confidence in system and corrects/removes any bad
apples before they rot the barrel.
7) Identify/mitigate situational factors. As certain situational factors may lead one to
behave unethically, it is important one identify these factors unique to him/her and take actions
to mitigate them. Doris provides an example for sexual fidelity.
Imagine that a colleague with whom you have had a long flirtation invites you fordinner, offering enticement of interesting food and elegant wine, with the excuse that you
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are temporarily orphaned while your spouse is out of town. Lets assume the obvious
way to read this text is the right one, and assume further that you regard the infidelity that
might result as an ethically undesirable outcome. If you are like one of Milgramsrespondents, you might think there is little cause for concern; you are, after all, an upright
person, and a spot of claret never did anyone any harm. On the other hand, if you take
the lessons of situationism to heart, you avoid the dinner like the plague, because youknow that you are not able to confidently predict your behavior in a problematic situationon the basis of your antecedent values. You do not doubt that you sincerely value
fidelity; you simply doubt your ability to act in conformity with this value once the
candles are lit and the wine begins to flow. Relying on character once in the situation is amistake, you agree; the way to achieve the ethically desirable result is to recognize that
situational pressures may all too easily overwhelm character and avoid the dangerous
situation. I dont think it wild speculation to claim that this is a better strategy than
dropping by for a harmless evening, secure in the knowledge of your righteousness.103
Conclusion
Individual, organizational and situational factors cause and/or allow unethical workplace
behavior. To the extent leaders and managers understand and can address these causal factors,
they can mitigate unethical workplace behavior. To most effectively and efficiently foster
ethical behavior, organizations must be led by authentic leaders backed by an ethical
organizational climate/culture. Leaders/supervisors must clearly, consistently and genuinely
communicate and demonstrate ethical values/standards and reward/enforce ethical behavior.
They must lead/serve people selflessly to inspire their trust, loyalty and commitment to always
do the right things the right way. Finally, given the strong influence of organizational and
situational factors on ones ethical behavior, organizations must seek, identify and address these
causal factors to the extent possible. The traditional solution of addressing unethical behavior
by character development/ethics training is necessary but woefully insufficient.
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Notes
(All notes appear in shortened form. For full details, see appropriate entry in the bibliography.)
1. Jones, Ethical Decision Making by Individuals in Organization, 367.
2. Ibid., 367.
3. Ibid., 367.4. Ibid., 367.
5. Pratt and Cullen, Empirical Status of Gottfredson and Hirschis General Theory ofCrime, 953 (for low self-control).
6. OFallon and Butterfield, A Review of the Empirical Ethical Decision-Making
Literature, 396.
7. Trevino, Weaver and Reynolds, Behavioral Ethics in Organizations, 965.
8. Stead, Worrell and G. Stead, An Integrative Model for Understanding and Managing
Ethical Behavior in Business Organizations, 234.
9. Moore, Detert, Trevino, Baker and Mayer, Why Employees Do Bad Things, 7.
10. OFallon and Butterfield, A Review of the Empirical Ethical Decision-MakingLiterature, 379, 396.
11. Stead, Worrell and G. Stead, An Integrative Model for Understanding and Managing
Ethical Behavior in Business Organizations, 235.
12. Ibid., 234.
13. Bandura, Moral Disengagement in the Perpetration of Inhumanities, 193.
14. Moore, Detert, Trevino, Baker and Mayer, Why Employees Do Bad Things, 35.
15. Anand, Ashforth and Joshi, Business as Usual, 41.
16. Lager, Governments Demand Compliance, Ethics Demand Leadership, 221.
17. Anand, Ashforth and Joshi, Business as Usual, 41-44.
18. Moore, Detert, Trevino, Baker and Mayer, Why Employees Do Bad Things, 35.19. Ibid., 38.
20. Ibid., 38.21. OFallon and Butterfield, A Review of the Empirical Ethical Decision-Making
Literature, 396.22. Andreoli and Lefkowitz, Individual and Organizational Antecedents of Misconduct in
Organizations, 309.
23. Moore, Detert, Trevino, Baker and Mayer, Why Employees Do Bad Things, 8.
24. Bandura, Social Learning Theory, 6.
25. Stead, Worrell and G. Stead, An Integrative Model for Understanding and Managing
Ethical Behavior in Business Organizations, 234.
26. Loviscky, Trevino and Jacobs, Assessing Managers Ethical Decision-making, 264.27. OFallon and Butterfield, A Review of the Empirical Ethical Decision-Making
Literature, 375.
28. Tenbrunsel and Smith-Crowe, Ethical Decision Making, 565.
29. Jones, Ethical Decision Making by Individuals in Organization, 380.
30. Tenbrunsel and Smith-Crowe, Ethical Decision Making, 583.
31. Haidt, The Emotional Dog and its Rational Tail, 815.
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32. Ibid., 819.
33. Ibid., 815.34. Ibid., 822.
35. Loviscky, Trevino, and Jacobs, Assessing Managers Ethical Decision-making, 264.
36. Gino, Ayal, and Ariely, Contagion and Differentiation in Unethical Behavior, 393.37. Ibid., 397.
38. Doris,Lack of Character, 146.
39. Gino, Ayal, and Ariely, Contagion and Differentiation in Unethical Behavior, 398.
40. Anand, Ashforth and Joshi, Business as Usual, 41.41. Ibid., 39.
42. Trevino, Weaver and Reynolds, Behavioral Ethics in Organizations, 968.
43. Anand, Ashforth and Joshi, Business as Usual, 41.
44. OFallon and Butterfield, The Influence of Unethical Peer Behavior on Observers
Unethical Behavior: A Social Cognitive Perspective, 117.
45. Ibid., 117.
46. Ibid., 120.47. Andreoli and Lefkowitz, Individual and Organizational Antecedents of Misconduct in
Organizations, 309.
48. Jones and Kavanagh, An Experimental Examination of the Effects of Individual and
Situational Factors on Unethical Behavioral Intentions in the Workplace, 512.49. Ibid., 511.
50. Ibid., 512.
51. Ibid., 512.
52. Trevino, Weaver, Gibson and Toffler, Managing Ethics and Legal Compliance, 144.
53. Stead, Worrell and G. Stead, An Integrative Model for Understanding and Managing
Ethical Behavior in Business Organizations, 233-234.
54. Appelbaum, Iaconi and Matousek, Positive and Negative Deviant WorkplaceBehaviors, 591.
55. Henle, Predicting Workplace Deviance, 248.
56. Trevino, Weaver, Gibson and Toffler, Managing Ethics and Legal Compliance, 144.
57. Barnes, Schaubroeck, Huth and Ghumman, Lack of Sleep and Unethical Conduct,
178.
58. Ibid., 170.
59. Upton, Virtue Ethics and Moral Psychology, 104.
60. Doris,Lack of Character, 2.
61. Ibid., 2.
62. Ibid., 148.
63. Upton, Virtue Ethics and Moral Psychology, 109.64. Ibid., 109.
65. Ibid., 109.
66. Doris,Lack of Character, 148.
67. Andreoli and Lefkowitz, Individual and Organizational Antecedents of Misconduct in
Organizations, 314.
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68. Ludwig and Longenecker, The Bathsheba Syndrome, 265.
69. Stead, Worrell and G. Stead, An Integrative Model for Understanding and Managing
Ethical Behavior in Business Organizations, 239.70. Ibid., 239-240.
71. Dunkelberg and Jessup, So Then Why Did You Do It? 62.72. OFallon and Butterfield, The Influence of Unethical Peer Behavior on Observers
Unethical Behavior: A Social Cognitive Perspective, 128.
73. Anand, Ashforth and Joshi, Business as Usual, 48-49.
74. Ibid., 47-51.
75. Andreoli and Lefkowitz, Individual and Organizational Antecedents of Misconduct in
Organizations, 326.
76. Carlson and Perrewe, Institutionalization of Organizational Ethics through
Transformational Leadership, 834.
77. Neubert, Carlson, Kacmar, Roberts and Chonko, The Virtuous Influence of Ethical
Leadership Behavior, 166.78. Lager, Governments Demand Compliance, Ethics Demand Leadership, 220.79. Jones and Kavanagh, An Experimental Examination of the Effects of Individual and
Situational Factors on Unethical Behavioral Intentions in the Workplace, 521.
80. Ibid., 521.
81. Lager, Governments Demand Compliance, Ethics Demand Leadership, 220.82. Stead, Worrell and G. Stead, An Integrative Model for Understanding and Managing
Ethical Behavior in Business Organizations, 239.
83. Ibid., 240.
84. Walumbwa, Avolio, Gardner, Wernsing, and Peterson, Authentic Leadership, 94.
85. Trevino, Weaver, Gibson and Toffler, Managing Ethics and Legal Compliance, 149.
86. Andreoli and Lefkowitz, Individual and Organizational Antecedents of Misconduct inOrganizations, 315.
87. Hannah, Avolio and Walumbwa. Relationships between Authentic Leadership, Moral
Courage, and Ethical and Pro-Social Behaviors, 561.
88. Mayer, Acquino, Greenbaum and Kuenzi, Who Displays Ethical Leadership, and Why
Does it Matter? 151.
89. Neubert, Carlson, Kacmar, Roberts and Chonko, The Virtuous Influence of Ethical
Leadership Behavior, 159.
90. Lager, Governments Demand Compliance, Ethics Demand Leadership, 219.91. Fogleman, Leadership-Integrity Link, 39.
92. Ibid., 39.93. Chumley, Were In Good Hands, 2-7.
94. Trevino, Weaver, Gibson and Toffler, Managing Ethics and Legal Compliance, 149.
95. Jones and Kavanagh, An Experimental Examination of the Effects of Individual and
Situational Factors on Unethical Behavioral Intentions in the Workplace, 521.
96. Ludwig and Longenecker, The Bathsheba Syndrome, 265.97. Ibid., 272.
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98. Lager, Governments Demand Compliance, Ethics Demand Leadership, 217.
99. Ibid., 218.
100. Ibid., 217.
101. Dunkelberg and Jessup, So Then Why Did You Do It? 62.
102. Trevino, Weaver and Reynolds, Behavioral Ethics in Organizations, 969.103. Doris,Lack of Character, 147.
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