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Unesco-UNEP International Environmental Education Programme
Environmental Education Series 23
GUIDELINES FOR THE DEVELOPMENT OF NON-FORMAL ENVIRONMENTAL EDUCATION
Prepared at:
Gwent College of Higher Education, Caerleon, Gwent, Wales, United Kingdom, by: A.J. Young M.J. McElhone
Division of Science, Technical and Environmental Education
The opinions expressed in this publication do not necessarily coincide with any official views of Unesco. The designations used and the presentation of the material herein do not imply the expression of any opinion whatsoever on the part of Unesco concerning the legal status of any country, or of its authorities or concerning the delimitations of the frontiers or any country or territory.
0 Unesco, 1986 ED-86/WS/92
PREFACE
The environmentalization of formal and nonformal education brings relevance to teaching/learning at all levels and types of education. Nonformal environmental education with its wide scope and large target audience is a fertile and promising field for fulfilling the purpose of inculcating awareness, knowledge, skills, commitments and actions on the part of individuals and groups in the general public for the protection and improvement of the environment and its quality for the present and future generations.
The development of nonformal environmental education requires the incorpora- tion of environmental education objectives, concepts, teaching methods and evaluation techniques into all processes of nonformal education. In order to facilitate the development of nonformal environmental education, it has been considered essential to develop some guidelines to serve as a discussion guide in a series of regional and subregional training seminars in which key personnel shall focus on the taskof how to environmentalize their nonformal education systems at the national and local levels. This document has been prepared in the context of activities of Unesco-UNEP International Environmental Education Programme (IEEP) to serve the above purpose by spurring’and guiding discussions on this fundamental topic.
The content of this document focuses on the concept of environmental education (EE); environmental problems and their resolution; methods, materials, training of personnel and evaluation in nonformal EE; environmental ethics; and coordination and legislation in nonformal EE. Throughout the document examples are given as concrete experiences at national level from certain countries. These guidelines and examples may be specified and/or increased when the development of nonformal EE is conceived in the context of a specific educational system by interested national educational institutions.
Unesco is appreciative of the collaboration of Dr. A.J. Young and Dr. M.J. McElhone in the preparation of this document done under a contract with Unesco at Gwent College of Higher Education, Caerleon, Gwent, Wales, United Kingdom.
Comments on this document to be considered in its revision may be sent to IEEP, Division of Science, Technical and Environmental Education, Unesco, 7 Place de Fontenoy, 75700 Paris, France.
Opinions expressed in this document do not necessarily coincide with official views of Unesco. The designations employed and the presentation of the materials herein do not imply the expression of any opinion whatsoever on the part of Unesco concerning the legal status of any country, or of its authorities, or concerning the delimitation of the frontiers of any country or territory.
@ UNESCO 1986
(ii)
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Preface we
I Introduction i 1
II Environmental Education 3
III 1. Environmental Problems and their Resolution 10
III l.A. Environmental Problems 10 Population 10 Energy 11 Resource Depletion ' 13 Pollution 13
Deforestation, extinction of species, ecosystem degradation, urban explosion 14
III 1. B. Resolving Environmental Problems 16 Community partlclpation 16 Environmental pressure groups in the developed world 17 Development of alternatives 19. Environmental implication in the Third World 22
IV Methods, materials, training of personnel and evaluation In non-formal Environmental Education 28
The variety of non-formal Environmental Education 28 The Methodology of non-formal Environmental Education 29 The talk or lecture aa part of an extended programme 32 The class environment 33 The technical competence of the speaker 33 The class discussion 34 Problem solving 37 The use of drama/popular theatre 44. E.E. and existing non-formal education programme3 47 Suggested Training Programmes for teachers in E.E. 49 Guidelines for a training programme for teachers/extension workers in non-formal Environmental Education 55
(iii)
V
VI
VII
VIII
Suggested Training Programme
Evaluation
The media and non-formal Environmental Education
Radio
Television
Guidelines on the use of media in non-formal E.E.
The multi-media approach
Environmental Ethics
Co-ordination in non-formal Environmental Education
International co-ordination and co-operation
Non-formal Environmental Education at national level3
Asia
Africa
Arab States
Caribbean
Latin America
U.S.A.
U.S.S.R.
Czechoslovakia
Portugal
Finland
Legislation
Conclusions
Bibliography
57
59
63
63
65
66
69
70
76
76
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92
I. Introduction
The objectives in producing the guidelines for the development of
non-formal environmental education are threefold;
(1 > to define the concept and elaborate the importance, needs
and target groups,
(2) outline the ways of developing non-formal environmental
education
(3) enhance the exchange of information.
In this paper, the importance of environmental education is reviewed
along with its objectives of promoting awareness, knowledge, attitudes,
skills and levels of participation. fiphasis is placed upon the need
to cater for all ages and social groups from a variety of societies
living in developed and developing countries. It may be necessary to
challenge more traditional approaches of environmental use and develop
new ways of thinking and increased participation in the solving of
environmental problems.
The need for environmental education is amply illustrated in the review
of environmental problems. Population pressures, rising energy
consumption, resource depletion, pollution, ecosystem degradation and
urban population explosions are all indicative of the need to alter
man's exploitative attitude towards the environment. The role of non-
formal environmental education and a process through which it can be
developed is considered here. The strength of non-formal education lies
in the fact that it does not operate within a given set of rules with
a strict structure, curriculum and examination procedures. Non-formal
environmental education, theoretically at least, is more capable of
responding to local environmental issues which have more social meaning and
usefulness to the community and is less dominated by academic requirements.
One of the major problems envisaged concerning the effective implementation
of non-formal environmental education is the diversity of the target
groups and their needs. Other problems include the lack of finance
and structure through which environmental education concepts can be
developed. For discussion, we have presented a comprehensive Chapter on
methods, materials, training of personnel and evaluation of non-formal
environmental education. Key personnel likely to be involved are
identified and how the environmental dimension of their training can
be facilitated and improved.
A review of the need for the development of environmental ethics is
given. Although, attitudes towards the environment may vary from
culture to culture, it is imperative that people foster and develop an
environmental ethic which is prudent and conducive to a harmonious
development with nature,maintaining stability and sustainability.
Lastly, a review of the development of formal education at national
and international levels is given with particular emphasis on the role
of co-ordination and co-operation in increasing the efficiency and
effectiveness of non-formal environmental education.
3
II. Environmental Education
It is nearly eight years since the IntergoverrmIental Conference
on Dnrironmental Education (E.E.) took place in Tbilisi, U.S.S.R.,
five years ago, a World Conservation Strategy to promote
development that is environmentally sound and also sustainable
was launched in over one hundred countries. And yet, today,
approximately twenty eight million (28m) people in Africa are
suffering from lack of food and water and are in an extremely
critical state, India has recently experienced the worst
environmental accident in living memory and many scientists in
the Federal Republic of West Germany believe that they are
monitoring the death of the Black Forest by acid deposition.
These examples, along with many others which could be cited,
indicate that the magnitude and urgency of solving environmental
problems, whether local or global, are not diminishing. Whilst
it is difficult, if not impossible, to assess whether world wide,
the extent of such problems is increasing or decreasing, the idea
of progress envisaged by Turgot is becoming increasingly more
difficult to sustain :-
(1 . . . ..manners are gradually softened, the human mind is enlightened, separate nations draw nearer to each other, commerce and policy connect at last every part of the globe, and the total mass of the human race, by alternating between calm and agitation, good and bad, marches always, however slowly, towards greater perfection". hoted by Buzzati-Traverson in Trends in Environmental Education UNESCO, 1977.
For many environmentalists, the concept of the globe marching
slowly towards perfection is untenable, the more cynical might .
suggest that a more accurate metaphor would portray the world
running quickly in the opposite direction. But the way ahead
4
has been signposted for many years. In 1972, the Declaration of
the United Nations Conference on the Human Environment held in
Stockholm stated that I' . . . ..to defend and improve the environment
for the present and future generations has become an imperative
goal for mankind". United Nations Conference on the Human
Environment, Stockholm 1972.
The Stockholm Conference was an early milestone in the development
of E.E. It called upon the Secretary General to plan and
organise world-wide programnes of E.E., not simply for the
formal sectors of education, but for all sections of the community.
As a result of the recommendation 96 of the Stockholm Conference,
UNESCO and U.N.E.P. established the UNESCO-UNEP International
Environmental Education Programme (I.E.E.P.) which organised the
International Workshop.on E.E. in Belgrade in October 1975.
A revised form of the papers presented at the workshop have been
published, Trends in Environmental Education, UNESCO 1977, and
they illustrate the somewhat euphoric optimism felt by many of
the participants from sixty-five nations. The need to think and
act in new ways in order to resolve environmental problems was
a unifying theme
of E.E. was :-
"To develop
of the workshop and one of the identified goals
a world population that is aware of, and concerned about, the environment and its associated problems, and which has the knowledge, skills, attitudes, motivations and commitment to work individually and collectively toward solutions of current problems and the prevention of new ones". The Belgrade Charter : A Global Framework for Environmental Education; produced and adopted at the International Environmental Workshop at Belgrade, Yugoslavia, October 1975.
The objectives of E.E. were also summarised as :
"1 .
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Awareness : to help individuals and social groups acquire an awareness of and sensitivity to the total environment and its allied problems.
Knowledge : to help individuals and social groups acquire a basic understanding of the total environment, its associated problems and humanity's critically responsible presence and role in it.
Attitude : to help individuals and social groups acquire social values, strong feelings of concern for the environment and the motivation for actively participating in its protection and improvement.
Skills : to help individuals and social groups acquire the skills for solving environmental problems.
Evaluation ability : to help individuals and social groups evaluate environmental measures and education programmes in terms of ecological, political, economic, social, aesthetic and educational factors.
Participation : to help individuals and social groups develop a sense of responsibility and urgency regarding environmental problems so as to ensure appropriate action to solve these problems". The Belgrade Charter op. cit.
The workshop recognised that most people in the world consider
that education is a potent force for bringing about change and
development and thus E.E. was of paramount importance in
developing an environmental ethic based on ecological balance,
man's quality of life and the needs of future generations.
As stated previously, optimism ran high ".....because environmental
education is for everyone, a great variety of individuals and
institutions have rallied to the cause. There is a growing
momentum accompanied by the kind of healthy excitement and
controversy that occurs with any such reformationtt. Schneider,
Allen. The nature and philosophy of environmental education :
goals and objectives. Trends in Environmental Education op. cit.
The Belgrade workshop and the resulting Charter was important in
that the nature and philosophy of E.E. was examined and the
6
fundamental aims of such an education for differing groups within
society such as teachers, adults and out-of-school youth, were
identified. In addition, there was a clear acceptance of the fact
that the relevance and efficiency of teaching programmes dealing
with environmental issues depend on their being specifically
adapted to the differing socio-economic conditions within each
country.
This theme was further developed in a series of meetings organised
by UNESCO-UNEP International Environmental Education programme
(I.E.E.P.) and also in the Intergovernmental Conference on
Environmental education, organised by UNESCO in co-operation with
UNEP, which took place in 1977 in the city of Tbilisi, Georgia,
U.S.S.R. The Conference was a landmark in that it identified, in
great detail, the role, objectives and guiding principles of E.E.
and also recommended to member states courses of action which would
lead to the realisation of such goals. The deliberations of the
Conference were crystallised in forty one (41) recommendations, the
most important of these being that E.E. involves the development of
critical thinking about integrated environmental problems and that
they can be resloved by participation at the community level
(Tbilisi 1977).
An examination of the UNESCO literature produced since the Tbilisi
Conference indicates that a great deal has already been achieved;
every three months, for example, specific progratrxnes from many
countries are highlighted in CONNECT. But much more remains to
be done and it must be accepted that, in many parts of
7
the world, the goal of producing an environmental ethic within
society is a long way from being realised. Consequently; if
we are to resolve our environmental problems then we must
continue to learn and think and act in new ways.
The successful management of the environment depends upon the
co-operation of various governmental agencies, industry and
concerned, informed citizens acting either individually or
through elected officials. Whilst it could be argued that the
latter group is the most important influence on the environment,
the problems of producing an informed citizenry must not be
underrated. Intelligent and effective citizen participation in
environmental conservation requires knowledge from the sciences,
social sciences and humanities. It further requires the development
of practical skills which assist people to live in a manner which
enhances environmental quality and reduced environmental degradation.
The most significant problem in environmental education today is
how to translate, in simple terms , such concepts as interdependence,
limitation of finite resoruces, human population growth and energy
flow. In addition the economic advantages of carrying out simple
measures associated with the conservation of renewable resources,
the planning of land use and the prevention of pollution must
also be highlighted. These are not easy tasks. Firstly we must
critically examine existing educational practice, we often
disregard the extent to which formal education may be a cause of
our problems. Many educators today can be accused of using
classical elitist approaches which are old fashioned and irrelevant
to the vast majority of school children. Many children throughout
the world should be receiving an education which uses the richness
of the environment to develop a wide range of cognitive skills
rather than focussing on disciplines and SpehaliSatiOn for
selection purposes.
A further problem is that environmental education often requires
teachers to adopt new techniques in their classroom teaching.
Thus an environmental studies approach to teaching should involve the
children in such things as working outside the classroom; enquiring,
exploring, comparing, 'contrasting and making decisions and value
judgements. It should be based on scientific enquiry whilst not
ignoring th emotional response that can come from the child being
closely involved with the biotic features of his environment.
But for many teachers, adopting the above approach would entail a
complete rejection of existing practice and philosophy; they have not
been trained to think or act in this manner.
The traditional approach to education is also challenged by the
process of environmental problem solving. The complexity of most, if
not all, environmental issues means that they do not fit within the
boundaries of any one discipline but are trans disciplinary in nature.
Cnce again teachers are expected to deal with a situation which is
radically different from their own experience and training. It is
not surprising, therefore, that, worldwide, the response of the formal
education sector to the environmental challenge has been slow and
piecemeal. It has to be accepted that the educational system, like the
rest of society, has not been able to adapt quickly enough to rapidly
changing environmental conditions. This situation is unlikely to
change dramatically in the next decade and the world cannot wait for a
new generation of politicians and decision-makers to emerge. It may be
necessary to develop an educational strategy that is prepared to
challenge existing economic principles and practice, which questions
traditional social and political goals .and also critically examines
the personal ethics that are considered the norms of many societies.
To achieve this in target groups other than pre-primary, primary,
secondary and tertiary level students, it is necessary to develop
an effective nonformal environmental education process.
Envirorrnental education must be envisaged as a lifelong process and
consequently nonformal education is of the utmost importance in
creating a society whose citizens are knowledgeable enough to make a
valid contribution to the decision making process.
All countries in the world should consider how they can extend the
educational opportunities for all members of their society; people
must learn that the envirorPnent determines and shapes their life
styles, their expectations and future hopes. Such an insight can only
lead to a more concerned and accountable populace for one becomes
responsible for what one knows.
10
III. 1. Environmental brdems and their resolution.
III. 1A. Environmental problems
On a global scale projections concerning the environment,
population growth and levels of pollution are pessimistic.
If present trends continue the world in 2000 will be more
crowded, more polluted, less stable ecologically and more
vulnerable to disruption than the world we now live in.
Barney (1982) predicts that for hundreds of millions of the
desperately poor the outlook for food and the necessities
of life will be no better in the year 2000. This assumes,
of course that there is no change in public policies,
institutions or rates of technological change.
The major issues and problems confronting man include population,
energy, resource depletion, pollution, deforestation,
desertification, extinction of species and ecosystem degradation.
Population
The planet is being called upon to support about 175,000 extra
people per day - 1.2 million per week. This means that the
earth's population is doubling every 20-25 years. The United
Nations estimates that about one third or one half of those alone
are hungry or malnourished; three quarters of them do not have
either adequate housing or safe water supply. The great majority
of human beings in the world today have to live on $100 per year
(Miller and Armstrong 1982) and many spend most of their waking
hours and 60-95% of their incomes just trying to get enough food
for themselves and their children to prevent starvation or
debilitating diseases.
11
No completely technological solution to this complex problem exists.
However, food supplies can increase by putting more land under.cultivation,
cultivating freshwater and oceans and raising yields by using new seeds,
increased irrigation, use of fertiliser etc. However it is necessary to
develop integrated plans for reducing world population birth rates,
controlling agricultural pollution and mounting a massive attack on global
poverty.
Energy
The world energy consmption is rising steeply, increasing almost 600%
between 1900 and 1965. The demand for energy is doubling every 14 years,
and most of the energy is consumed by industrial nations; whilst they
only have 30% of the world's population, they use 80% of the world energy
(Miller and Armstrong 1982). Many forms of agriculture today are dependent
upon substantial energy subsidies i.e. the addition of fossil fuel energy
to supplement the input of energy through photosynthesis to agricultural
systems.
Many environmental problems have arisen due to huge energy consumption,
particularly that of pollution. Concentrations of carbon dioxide in the
atmosphere have ensued and may possibly lead to a warming of the earth's
climate. Increased levels of sulphur and nitrogen oxides lead to the
formation of acid rain and the loss of trees and animals in forests and
lakes. An increasing level of radiation in the environment due to accidents
associated with nuclear power; nuclear fission is potentially the most
hazardous of all sources of energy.
Alternative non-polluting energy sources such as hydroelectric, wind, .
tidal power, geothermal solar energy etc. must be explored for other use.
12
Bioenergy
Bioenergy can play an important role in providing for future energy needs.
Biomass (plant material) is a widely available resource that can be produced
renewably and inmany situations at low costs. Not only does it reduce
dependence on costly oil imports, but its low sulphur, low ash and high
oxygen content makes biomass clean and easy to convert to high quality
synthetic fuels (Williams 1985).
The development of Biogas in India and China has met with varying degrees of
success (Moulik 1985). China in particular is very comnitted to continued
promotion of Biogas and it has been declared a principal alternative to cope
with the fuel crisis of rural Chinese villages, however there is some apprehen-
sion concerning the future of Biogas, due to the threat of modernisation.
Many developing countries are forced to pay a large proportion of their foreign
exchange earnings to secure oil, hence slowing down development. A large
proportion of the oil is used in transport. One feasible substitute for oil is
ethanol which is made from carbohydrate producing crops. In countries such as
Brazil, Zimbabwe and Kenya ethanol has been used for petroleum substitutes or
extenders. In Brazil, the development of a National Ethyl-Alcohol Program has
resulted in savings of $1.15 billion per year in petroluem imports
(approximately 30%) (Goldenburg, Moreira, dos Santos and Serra 1985).
13
Resource deDletion
Resources may be classified as renewable and non-renewable.
Renewable resources are those which can maintain themselves and can be
replenished by crops, forests, wildlife, air water and soil.
Other resources such as oil, natural gas, coals,phosphates and metal
ores are non-renewable. However, the usefulness of certain resources
changes with our technological progress e.g. increase in synthetics vs.
non-synthetics such as rubber. A substance becomes or remains a resource
because technology makes it available for a reasonable cost. The Techno
centric view is that some technological wonder will save us regardless
of what we do. EkooentricistsX 4.11 view things differently and they
would hope to conserve resources for future generations and adopt
alternative "softU technological techniques in order to develop a
sustainable world.
Pollution
Pollution occurs when excessive amounts of waste accumulate in the
environment and affect humans and plants or animals in an undesirable
way, usually by causing environmental stress. Pollutants can range
from those producing high environmental stress such 'as heavy metals,
solidor radio active wastes to those raising a lower level of stress
such as litter, noise and low levels of carbon monoxide. It is very
important to understand how a pollutant behaves within the environment,
especially at what concentration it is stressful. The level or
threshold at which a pollutant can harm varies widely between pollutant
and with different organisms. Pollutants may combine and have a more
severe effect than the sum of the two acting separately @ynegism)-
14
Pollutants such as DDT and heavy metals (e.g. Mercury) may be concentrated
in food chains (Biological Magnification). It can be appreciated that
problems of pollution may be global (e.g. carbon dioxide build-up in
the atmosphere) and warrant intergovernmental regulation, National
(e.g. toxic waste) or .local or regional (river pollution,land fill).
-Deforestation, extinction of species, ecosystem degradation
One of the most rapidly vanishing living natural resources the tropical
rain forest is disappearing at a rate of 7.3 million hectares a year
(Myres 1984). Half the world's plants and animal genetic diversity is
concentrated on only 60% of the land surface, mostly in the tropical
rain forests. If present trends are not reversed, mankind may witness
the elimination of one million of the planet's S-10 million plant and
animal species by the end of the century. Through their genetic
resources, these species provide essential materials for agriculture,
medicine and industry and other economic uses. Most of the loss is
occurring in the humid forests of Africa, Asia and South America.
Deforestation and mismanagement of the land (e.g. poor soil conservation
and badly planned irrigation schemes) have a very significant effect on
water availability.
Urban explosion
From 1900 to 1975 the number of inhabitants in cities with populations
over one million has increased tenfold and that of cities with over
five million inhabitants multiplied by twenty. During the same time,
the population of the twenty five largest cities is more than quadrupled
15
and will be increased eight to ten times by the year 2000, increasing
their average size from two to sixteen million inhabitants. Before the
year 2000 the world will have more town dwellers than country dwellers
(UNESCO Courier March 1985).
In the metropolitan areas of the developed countries with low growth
or falling pollutions, the problem today is one of reviving activity,
preserving the cultural heritage, preventing the depreciation of
certain districts before they are transformed into ghettos and making
the best possible use of existing infrastructures. The metropolitan
areas of developing countries, on the other hand are seeking to control
their demographic growth, to organise urban extensions, to make good
their lack of facilities and services and make productive use of the
available labour force.
In order to reduce some of the social and environmental problems in the
cities, green belts can be.maintained to halt blanket urbanisation;
urban renewal is an essential factor in improved integration of
inhabitants; planning must be smaller in scale and better adapted for
the urban environment and implemented after community participation;
energy conservation techniques must be developed. All these developments
have to be appropriate to local technical, administrative and financial
contexts.
All environmental problems differ in their extent, diversity and
complexity. Procedures for implementing changes vary from country to
country and location to location; hence it is essential that participation
of citizens in environmental issues and planning procedures is advocated
in order to produce the best chance of success for the projects.
16
III i. b RZSOL;IING ENVIRONMENTAL PRWLEMS
Community participation can be either defensive mitigating against
change or developmental in which the participants attempt to alter the
situation. The type of participation depends upon the nature of the
problem and it is often a mixture of both defensive or developmental
participation. One aim of participation would be to broaden the base
of participants, for instance increasing the social activity of women
or illiterates. Groups may be clearly recognised and have a firm
structure or less clearly recognised and incidental (e.g. local community
action groups). Much depends upon the permanence of the problem.
In community participation projects, decisions are made in the best
interest of the groups and not individuals; however much depends upon
the political framework, in some countries defensive groups are treated
with deep suspicion and intolerance. In countries operating a democratic
parliamentary system, many environmental protest groups have made an
impact on the power structure by directly lobbying members of parliament,
in some cases, due to insensivity of governments the same groups have
concentrated on more direct action or publicised their protests by
attracting extensive media coverage (e.g. Greenpeace).
In developing countries, community participation has been important in
their development. This idea was incorporated into the International
Development Strategy for the United Nations Second Development Decade
adopted in October 1970. Harrison (1980) suggests that participation
in implementing projects reduces their cost by mobilising unused local
resources and free human energy. Participation in decision-making
provides planners with much better information on peoples' wants and
dislikes. It helps to avoid disastrous errors which may result if the
supposed beneficiaries are not consulted. It can boost morale, increase
productivity and reduce negative and destructive conflicts between
. - - “ ” _ , . . . I , . _. . . . _ , . ”
17
managers and the managed. In many cases, the poor live in a state of
passive inertia because of their total powerlessness in the face of
entrenched elites. Primarily, participation is an educative process.
It produces confidence in the participants especially in their ability
to control circumstances instead of being controlled by them. It can
also increase political stability by reducing sectional interest.
Increased participation will mean a considerable measure of self help
but the necessary technical skills, materials and finance have to be
provided so assisted self help is required.
Environmental pressure groups in the developed world
The development of awareness and participation of adults forming an
environmental pressure group and their influences on the course of
events leading to the prosecution of a factory for illegal contamination
of the environment can be seen in figure 1 . The groups are composed
of fairly well educated , aware citizens. Generally the group has a
minimal budget and is self financing (mainly from individual contributions).
There are several stages in the development of environmental awareness,
participation and action.
The siting of a factory resulted in an air pollution which caused the
local community to be exposed to smoke, steam, dirt and most
controversially incompletely burnt toxins. This was initially perceived
by the local residents as a nuisance, they then formed a small community
protest group which discussed the problem collected and clarified
information. They published their activities by holding meetings in
schools and developed a publicity drive, which involved contact with .
local radio, television, producing posters and organising demonstrations.
18
I Increased awareness & I
Perception of a Industrial develoment I
Rarticipatidn
ormation of groups of concerned
International involvement
Figure 1 shows some of the spheres of interest and involvement
influenced by the formation of environmental pressure groups.
19
This resulted in enhanced public awareness and greater support.
The momentum of the protest increased and involved the concern of
local politicians, and administration including the local environmental
and health departments. The issue developed political weight and there
was a call for a public enquiry, which resulted in national awareness
manifested as national T.V. and radio and newspaper coverage.
Although a public enquiry was not held, the local government authority
subsequently attempted to prosecute the factory under existing
legislation.
The formation of a local environmental pressure group resulted in the
development of awareness by providing information, mutual support and
motivation which was relevant, significant and interesting.
Development of alternatives
The above example illustrated how the existing system in the developed
world accommodates environmental concern. It might be argued that by
maintaining the existing industrial or socio economic system, problems
will always arise. So it is not surprising that there has been a small
but qualitatively important search for alternative technologies more
appropriate for development.
The development of alternative technologies (AT) or soft technologies
which are characterised by ecological self sufficiency, smallness
(particularly in hard ware and soft ware> and suited to the economic
conditions in developing countries. The aim of alternative (or
appropriate) technology is to make the most economical use of a
country's natural resources and its capital, labour and skills that
20
further national and social goals; the objective is to foster the right
choice of technology.
In developing countries, the appropriate technology should create as
many jobs as possible-and enable and improve income. It must use scarce
capital wisely, using simple machinery and produce goods suited to the
local market. Environmentally, the technology should be hygienic,
conservational and non polluting; using renewable sources of energy and
raw materials with themaximum re-use of industrial and human wastes,
and farm residues. Alternative technology should satisfy basic needs
and involve popular participation. It must be technically sound, economic
to users and customers in comparison with the alternatives and be socially
acceptable in the light of local cultures and traditions.
The auto rickshaw is an ingenious adaptation of a clever piece of
western technology adapted to an eastern need (Harrison 1980).
Solar energy has a big future in the tropics. Alternatives to large
conventional energy plants, which are of little use to the poor who
cannot afford domestic connections are solar energy and planting of
fast growing fuel wood plantations such as eucalyptus.
Another appropriate fuel with considerable potential is methane gas
from the fermentation of animal and human waste.
Unfortunately research into appropriate technology is minimal while
that in developing new technology is far greater.
21
Resolution of enviroranental problems : A Case Study
The Mountain Ash Project and Research Centre is located in South Wales
and was initially sponsored by the local planning department.
In this area there has been a general run down of industry and many mines
have been closed which formerly employed vast numbers of the local people.
The Centre which provides advice on consuner and welfare problems also
acts as a focus for voluntary groups whose aim is the identification and
initiation of environmental improvement schemes. The original conception
was to allow young people to be involved in their own environment and
ideally therefore, to give them ownership. The latter was difficult to
achieve and work on the projects disappeared as the money did.
Initially, the centre set up a management group which attempted to use
local knowledge to identify groups and individuals who wanted to be
involved. A working group was subsequently formed which provided a source
of local knowledge and allowed a separate identity from the planning
department. Their aim was to raise funds and sponsor schemes on their own
behalf. The working group, at first, found it difficult to adapt to the
additional responsibility of freedom but was able to gain sufficient funding
to develop, along with volunteer assistance from professionals and the local
primary school, an urban environmental work prograxmne involving planting
flowers, urban regeneration and the painting of murals.
After considerable effort the working party were able to achieve and ensure
continuation after grant aids ended and develop into a company with charit-
able status, which under British law implies tax exemption. They were then
able to tap into further trust aid funds and set up workshops and fund.
activities all in the local community.
,- -- _---...
22
Environmental Implications in the Third World
Distilling the environmental significance of the non-formal educational
experiences of the Third World countries investigated can only be
satisfactorily undertaken within the context of the political
philosophies which inform those experiences. Any environmental ethic
therefore is also a political ethic with implications for man-man as
well as man-environment relations. 'Environmental implications' as a
concept must therefore be broadened to include the human or social
environment - at least some aspects of it! Thus, in China during the
period of the GPCR (Great Proletarian Cultural Revolution) dating from
1966, the moral-political element in education noted by Price (1970)
could be considered as a form of 'social environmental ethic'.
Elnanating then from this broadened social and physical environment
concept are a number of environmental consequences; of these the more
significant have to do with :-
(i) environmental understanding : It is suggested that the concern
with out-of-school or non-formal education as examined above is
likely to promote a deeper understanding of the environment as
a living, integrated and interactive system. Some quantitative
measure of this concern in Cuba can be gauged from the fact
that students in ESBEC schools (Secondary Schools in the
Countryside), currently cultivating approximately 300,OOOnectares
of agricultural land, equivalent to seven per cent of the total
cultivated area in the country, contributed 194,000 man-years
of work during 1975-76 or 6.7 per cent of the country's total 1
labour input in that year. Paraphrasing Jose/Mart< (1853-18951,
the Cuban writer and patriot, young Cubans must learn to handle,
I-1cI.“I^ ._ . - .“.. ,“-_. _.....
23
that is to understand and manage, the forces with which they
will struggle through life (see Gelman, 1981). Students in
ESBEC schools spend three hours of each school day in
agricultural pursuits; this can be seen as a most direct way
of operationalising Marti's belief and more particularly
developing in young Cubans at a relatively early age what is
hoped will be cumulative knowledge about that part of the
environment with which most schoolchildren, after leaving school,
will be most intimately concerned.
(iia) environmental conservation and development : One outcome
anticipated from combining intellectual endeavour with manual
work is to lay the basis for a more rational approach to the
use of the environment in general and the mode of development
of its resources in particular. This would help to conserve
and find the best use for resources or establish the best means
to exploit them, whilst at the same time minimising negative
environmental impacts. Chinese agricultural development is a
case in point. With a population, officially recognised as
having surpassed one billion by 1982, China nevertheless is
regionally self-reliant for nearly all its food, even though
the average area of agricultural land held is a mere 0.1
hectares per head (Zweig, 1984,221. Moreover, China achieves
this from only 12.5 per cent of its totalland area, whilst
ensuring a gross grain availability per head per day of 800
gramnes, a substantially superior position compared with the
'impoverished nations of Asia (Timmer et al; 1979,q26). .
24
(iib) There is a further aspect of this particular environmental
implication which highlights the political nature of environ-
mental ethics. Particularly in the cases of China and Cuba
for example, non-formal educational practice places emphasis
on training students as producers first and as consumers
second. Emphasis on productive work it is anticipated will
counteract the emergence of a consumer mentality amongst
future generations of Cuban citizens. In the long-term,
holding down the level of production of consumer goods and
items of conspicuous consumption should reduce the degrees of
environmental despoliation and degradation which have attended the
history of the highly competitive, laissez-faire economies of
western developed nations in which the environment has itself
been considered as a consumer good and sold to the hiaest
bidder - more often than not for industrial or manufacturing
purposes!.
(iii) rural and urban environments : the rural focus of development
in China, Cuba and Tanzania, and the nature of the non-formal
educational process subsumed within it has very pxitive
implications at both ends of the rural-urban continuum.
Thus, improving social and economic conditions in the country-
side, by making them more attractive places in which to live
and work, would help to reduce flows of migrants from the
relatively impoverished rural areas to the more attractive and
richer cities but which already have over-burdened social and
economic infrastructural facilities. Rectifying infrastructural
imbalances between town and country would in the long term
relieve some of the pressure of migration from cities and would
. . I _ . I I . . . _ . . . . - . . . ” , I I - - , . . . . “,__.j__ . , , . . . _ . I_ _- , . .__,_. . . ) _
25
improve the economic viability of rural economies by reducing
rates of abandonment of small properties, at the same.time
providing better access for small farmers to facilities such
as credit and rural extension. In this way they would be better
able'to sustain their small-scale agricultural economies whilst
at the same time making a more significant contribution to the
larger national economy.
Both rural and urban environments would thus, through time,
become more productive than otherwise : urban places, because
their economies would have to support fewer 'dependent' urban
migrants; and rural places, because by retaining more people
in the countryside with better supporting service back-up a
more rational and more extended pattern of agricultural land
use could be anticipated.
(iv> community and environment : both the Chinese and Tanzanian
approaches to (non-formal) education and development demonstrate
the importance of a grass-roots, community-focused, approach
to the education and development process and the (quantifiable)
benefits which can accrue from it. In China the foundation-
stone of rural social organisation in the period since 1949 has
been the production team, comprising between twenty and sixty
households which have traditionally undertaken certain
agricultural tasks in common and as a social unit reside as,
or as part of a village community (see Open University, 1983).
In Tanzania also, the ujamaa village and subsequently the *
villages established during the villagisation programme were
to provide the structure through which rural developemnt was to be promoted.
26
(VI
In China certainly the rural environmental benefits were
substantial. Not only did the productivity of the rural
environment rise quite phenomenally (see Maxwell, 1979 for
precise figures on increases in grain production for example)
during the Tachai campaign, but also, as a consequence of a
more rational use of local resources, land and water, a
significant overall improvement in the living environments of
rural inhabitants was achieved. All this was possible initially
without recourse to outside professional help- surely a lasting
tribute to the rural inhabitants themselves and to the potential
of development as a means of non-formal education when it is
projected from within the community rather than externally
upon it.
the human factor and the social environment : there is little
doubt that in the context of non-formal education and development,
the examples discussed in this paper implicitly or explicitly
acknowledge the gradual domination of the environment by man.
What then distinguishes the Third World countries examined here
from many western developed nations? Simply stated it is in
the purposes served by the dominion exerted by man over nature.
The concentrated urban-in&strial development characteristic
of modern western nations has given rise to conflictual rather
than harmonious social and economic relations; these, are manifest
for example in the antagonistic dichotomies between urban and
rural places and between industry and agriculture
27
In contrast, the non-formal education and development processes in Cuba,
China and Tanzania have been concerned to establish more even,, rurally-
oriented develoment patterns. Not only is this intended to focus
development in the Third World upon those who are most often overlooked
but does so in ways which encourage rural people themselves to participate
in the process rather than to be merely spectators of it. The non-formal
educational means by which this is achieved ought not to be underemphasised
namely principles such as combining intellectual with manual work,
bringing together students and rural workers and training students as
producers first and as consLPners second. In combination the nature of the
development processes and the means by which they have been carried
through, in China for example, have avoided creating the geographical
dichotomies of developed and undeveloped places and, amongst the population,
the antagonisms which have attended modernisation in the west.
IV
Methods, materials, training 'of personnel and evaluation in non-formal
Enviro,nmental Education
4.1 The variety of non-formal E.E.
The planning, organisation an3 methodology of non-formal E.E.
varies enormously from one country to another. In Nepal, for example,
Radio Nepal broadcasts a regular weekly programme on ecology with an
emphasis on the preservation cf forests, a particular problem in Nepal.
The Iraqui Environmental Protection Society has confined its activities
to the production of publications aimed at stimulating public awareness.
The Sahel-Vert operation, which was conducted in Senegal, was a
practical exercise in out-of-school E.E. involving nearly two thousand
young people in a tree planting programme cov ering almost 700 hectares
of the Sahel Desert. The Nature Protection League of Poland, in
co-operation with various youth and adult groups, has set u, schocl
nature camps and environmental research centres for young naturalist?.
Also many regional nature museums and gardens have special educational
rooms for E.E. In Indonesia, the Government accepted that a non-
formal E.E. programme was needed to enhance public awareness of
environmental problems. Consequently a team of non-formal educators,
based its campaign on local environmental issues.
The public is reached through a regular series of lectures to youth
and womens' organisations and these are augmented by an imput from the.
mass media - radio, T.V. and the press where the particular target
group is children outside the formal education system. In Wales, the
29
Prince of Wales' Committee, a charitable organisation, is responsible
for the supervision of a large number of environmental improvement
projects, often using the labour of the young unemployed. The financing
of such projects is provided by Government sponsored agencies such as
the Manpower Services Commission and the Welsh Development Agency.
The above examples, along with many others which could have been cited,
illustrate the variety, complexity and versatility of educational and
practical activities which could be classified as non-formal E.E.
Thus many programmes are obviously Governmental inspired and controlled,
others are sponsored by non-governmental organisations (NGO's! wt;ilst
some are a combination of both. Even within the Government organised
programmes, ministries other than that for Education are often involved
e.g. Agriculture, Employment and tivironment. This flexibility of
approach is an important feature of non-formal E.E. and is advantageous
because there is a need to vary the approach to meet the needs of
differing target groups and their specific situations. Great flexitility
also brings problems however. It may result in the fragmenti:% of
effort at Government level and a coherent strategy for non-formal E.E.
may also be lacking amongst the NGO's.
4 .2 The methodology of non-formal E.E.
In general terms the type of non-formal E.E. may be classified as
either participatory or non-participatory. The latter are those in
which target group members are merely passive receivers and would
include radio and T.V. broadcasts, press articles, visits to institutions
such as museums, zoos, aquaria etc., and alsolisteningto the occasional
30
lecture at a local club. These non-participatory forms of non-formal
E.E. are very prevalent throughout the world, particularly so in the
developed countries. During the last decade, the increased incidence
of T.V. programmes dealing with environmental problems such as
conservation, pollution, famine etc., is a measure of the concern felt
by the general public for these important issues.
It is difficult to assess the value and effectiveness of the learning
situation in these non-participatory activities because little research
has been undertaken. The research that has been accomplished clearly
illustrates that learning can, and does, take place. If we consider
visits to zoos and museums then Wright (1980)) Borun and Miller (1980)
and Rosenf'eltl (1984) have demonstrated that both adults and school
children can benefit educationally from such visits and the ability to
grasp certain concepts is enhanced. The impact of T.V. programmes on
the development of an environmental ethic has not been studied but it
would appear that such prograrrmes have been instrumental in creating a
groundswell of public opinion that has manifested itself in such NO' s
as Greenpeace and Friends of the Earth. The goal of these, and similar
organisations throughout the world, is to sensitise the general public
to environmental issues, to raise the level of environmental awareness
and understanding and also to encourage active participation in
environmental problem solving. In West Germany the "Greens" (die
Crunen) have been able to give a political dimension to this environmental
concern and were able to win a number of seats in the elected parliament.
31
It appears, therefore, that non-participatory programmes in E.E. are
widespread and common throughout the world and although the main concern
of these programmes is to entertain the viewing audience, they are also
instrumentai in bringing about attitudinal changes in a large number of
the world's population.
It is interesting to record that in a regional conference on "Environmental
Education in ASEAN Universities and its Transfer" held in the Universiti
Partanian, Malaysia in 1981, educators, researchers and officials frcm
the ASEAN countries (Indonesia, Malaysia, Philippines, Singapore and
Thailand) recommended that "... ..the mass media should be encouraged to
educate and not merely to disseminate information of environmental
concern" (Connect Vol. VII No. 2, 1982). Rut this is precisely the
dilemma faced by the mass media; if‘ pt-OgrmITES are too educative then
they often cease to be entertaining to a large majority of‘ the popuiation
and their value is lost. If such programmes are only entertaining then
the environmental message is not clearly transmitted. A further
recommendation from the ASEAN conference states ".....although the mass
media have proved to be an effective instrumer,t for public E.E.,
personal contact, too, must be augmented for the substantive transfer
of environmental education, taking into account the culture and
educational levels of the target group" (Connect op. cit.).
This augmentation of non-participatory E.E. programmes with those that
are more structured, educative and interactive, is most important for
those countries in which environmental issues are imnediate and relevant
to the day-to-day lives (or deaths) of the people. In such countries
the formal education system is often disadvantaged by lack of resources,
high drop-out rates and insufficient placements at secondary school and
32
subsequently the non-formal E.E. programmes of a participatory
nature assume an increased significance. Each region of the
world offers numerous examples of such programmes and it would
be salutary to examine some of the more comnon methods of
instruction used in non-formal E.E. with particular reference
to the various target groups.
'Ihe talk or lecture as part of an extended programme
This type of teaching involves one person (the teacher, the
extension worker, the community worker etc.) talking to an
audience on a particular subject. The technique requires little
active participation by the audience and is, therefore, probably
the least significant in helping the learning process. It is
also the teaching technique which most closely mirrors that used
in formal education; it highlights the distinction between
teacher and taught and this could be disadvantageous if the
audience has a high percentage of individuals who have not
experienced success in the formal sector e.g. school drop outs
and early school leavers. Paradoxically, it may be a good
technique for a class of adults who are experiencing a traditional
classroom situation for the first time. Whatever the audience
however, there are certain features of the technique which should
be borne in mind by all educators.
33
lhe class environment
Wherever possible the classroom should be adequately ventilated,
well lighted and be at a reasonable temperature. Students
should be comfortable but not pampered. The seating arrangement
will depend upon the size of the class but it should be such
that all the class can see the face of the speaker.
The technical competence of the speaker
Ihe speaker must be aware of those features of the talk that
encourage the audience to continue listening and avoid those
which do the opposite i.e. send them to sleep. The most common
fault is that the speaker talks too quickly. This is often
because too much is being attempted; most non-formal classes
can only cope with a small number of ideas at any one time.
Adult audiences in.particular, need time to consider and under-
stand what they are hearing and often the same point or idea
needs to be repeated in a variety of ways.
Another comnon fault is that the speaker reads from a prepared
text in a boring monotone. The soporific effect of such a
delivery can be counteracted by the speaker consciously
introducing variation in volume and pitch and also pausing at
significant places during the lecture. In general it must be
appreciated that the span of attention for most classes in non-
formal E.E. is very limited, probably some ten to fifteen
minutes. After this period of time, involuntary breaks in
34
attention become increasingly comnon when little of what is
heard is comprehended. The speaker must not confuse interest
with understanding. Many of the environmental issues which need
to be considered by non-formal classes are very relevant and of
immediate concern to the audience and thus motivation may be high.
But such issues may also be very complicated and the process of
identifying and understanding an environmental problem and
exploring alternative strategies of solving it, may be a long,
slow and often frustrating experience.
The speaker, therefore, when planning a talk should ensure that
not too much is attempted with the significant points being made
early in the talk. Frequent recapitulations should be made in a
variety of ways and the end of the talk should contain an
effective and stimulating sumnary.
4.24 Ihe class discussion
The term 'discussion' can be used to describe a great variety of
verbal exchanges between people. In the context of this paper
it is used to describe 'I . . . ..a group seeking to put together
their knowledge, ideas and opinions about one subject in a
co-operative endeavour to learn from each other, to learn from
each other, and by working together to reach a little nearer to
the truth or to the solution of the problem....." (Legge 1971).
35
This form of teaching is obviously more participatory than the
talk or lecture and is, therefore, potentially a more effective
teaching and learning strategy. It is also a technique which is
particularly suitable for non-formal E.E. because many adults
can learn best in a social context. Participation in a group
discussion can often boost the confidence of students, an
important factor in self development. It would be irresponsible,
however, to suggest that discussion as a teaching technique has
no drawbacks. Very often a discussion session in a non-formal
class provides the opportunity for people to express firmly held
prejudices or irrational arguments and little, if any, dialogue
occurs. Similarly the discussion may be monopolised by a few
vociferous class members which may accentuate or produce a
feeling of inferiority in other members of the class. It is
most important that the teacher or group leader, in particular,
does not assume a dominant role in discussion sessions, a
tendency all too apparent in many non-formal classes.
Discussion, as a teaching strategy, is not appropriate where
practical skills are being acquired such as the use of unknown
agricultural implements e.g. crop hand sprayers or the application
and use of simple environmental monitoring equipment. Under
these circumstances, clear, unambiguous instructions need to be
understood by the class and a discussion on the relative merits
of one machine versus another may be counterproductive.
Discussion, per se, is also inappropriate when there are a large
number of people in the class. It would appear that good
discussion practice becomes very difficult when class numbers .
exceed twenty five with an optimum number between ten and fifteen.
36
Probably the greatest difficulty with this teaching technique
is the fact that, on many occasions, either the members of the
class have nothing to contribute or they are incapable of
adequately expressing themselves in a group situation. In such
circumstances the discussion session must be seen as part of a
total teaching strategy. In Botswana, for example, the Ministry
of Education initiated Iketleetse, a multi-media, inter-departmental
extension project aimed at disseminating information and
stimulating action amongst the rural poor. It was hoped that
tne Project would supply information about services and
institutions concerned with rural development; provide the
knowledge and skills to help community members use resources to
improve their health, welfare and standard of living and that
it would provide support for local extension workers by
developing a system of communication in remote areas. In the
teaching of the target groups both distance teaching methods
(radio and printed material) and face-to-face approaches were
employed. As part of the latter component Iketleetse employed
a group discussion method which followed a set agenda viz :-
listen to the cassette programme
look at the flip chart pictures
discuss the questions
complete the report forms and
decide upon action
(Byron and Garforth 1979).
'Thus the discussion session followed on from one in which
limited information was presented in a variety of ways. It was
possible therefore, to confine class comments to the particular
-l__l_ I . . _ - . . - -.__ . . _ . , _ . .
37
issue under consideration. Used in this way, discussion can be
a most effective teaching strategy although it tends to be time
consuming and slow in achievement of educational objectives.
As a teaching technique it is best used as part of a problem-
solving approach in which varied opinions and interests, all of
which are relevant, need to be considered before planning
appropriate action. Most, if not all, environmental problems
fall into this category.
Problem solving
The concept of 'problem solving' as a teaching technique is a
recurring theme in much of the literature on E.E. It is
frequently referred to in the report on the Tbilisi Conference
and subsequently in other UNESCO/UNEP publications ".....since
the Tbilisi conference, environmental education has been considered
essentially as education for discovery and action. This implies c
a teaching methodology that gilres equal importance to the
analytical and theoretical-approach of the scientific method as
well as to the more synthetic and pragmatic problem-solving
approachrr (Connect Vol. VIII NO. 3. September 1983). Tne appeal
OP :;his t,ec;i,liqu: is not difficult to untierstand for problem-
solving not only provides a basis for a relevant and meaningful
curriculum, it is also highly participatory and allows individuals
to develop critical tininking skills which are transferable to
many other situations. Furthermore success in a problem-soiving
situation, no matter how small and insignificant, can lead to a
much improved self image. People begin to reaiise chat they
38
can become change agents for the benefit of themselves and their society.
But the persistence of many environmental problems indicates that there
are a limited number of people who are trained to identify and effectively
solve complex environmental problems. It also indicates that problem
solving is a difficult process and, furthermore, using problem solving as
a teaching technique equally arduous. Some of the latter difficulties
arise from constraints within existing formal systems and may be overcome
by developing problem solving programmes in the non-formal system.
For example, learners can be encouraged to deal with controversial issues
and develop interpersonal communications skills and values which aid the
handling of complex issues. Teachers and leaders who are not well versed
in the art of problem solving can be made aware of how controversy may
spark learning if handled effectively. Many educational programmes could
be designed around a problem solving format and involve an integrated or
interdisciplinary study rather than academic subjects involving competency
testing. A more flexible timeperiod, rather than easily administered
time blocks, may facilitate a problem solving approach (see Cowan, Denzer,
Deutsch et al 1984).
Briefly, participants in the problem solving exercise must :
39
(1) Recognise and define the problem
(2) Collect, organise and analyse the information
(3) Generate, evaluate and select alternatives
(4) Develop, implement and evaluate a plan of action
(5) Evaluate the process.
(Stapp and Cox 1981).
The first two stages rely on the experience and perception of the target
group, for example, the problems of overpopulation may not be a suitable
topic for young school drop-outs.
The second stage calls for the development and application of reference
skills whilst stage 3 demands certain analytical and comparative skills.
Stage 4 and 5 require the group to be self critical and recognise factors
causing most environmental issues. In all the above stages the ability
to listen with comprehension and communicate effectively is essential,
furthermore, each member of the group must be prepared to understand
and be prepared to accept alternative views to their own.
The methodology associated with environmental problem solving will, of
necessity, vary according to the target group and with the size and
complexity of the problem. There are guidelines, however, which should be
standard practice in all situations.
Firstly the role of the teacher/group leader is critical. Problem solving,
perhaps more so than any other method in E.E. should be the one that
involves the maximum participation. Illich (1971 ) suggests that ".....most
learning is not the result of instruction. It is rather the result of
unhampered participation in a meaningful setting". The teacher's role is
to guide, clarify, co-ordinate, encourage and if possible, determine the
boundaries of the problem study. The latter is important because the
group should experience scme degree of success in its project.
40
Secondly the selection of the particular environmental problem to be
examined should come from discussions within the target study group.
The teacher or group leader may wish to suggest alternative problems
to be considered, ensuring that such alternatives are of a practical,
pragmatic nature and capable of being solved, but in the final analysis
high levels of motivation can only be maintained if the group determines
the problems to be investigated. Thirdly, the teacher/group leader should
ensure that the maximum use is made of the knowledge, expertise and
experience possessed by members of the group. The problem to be examined
will be of a local nature and this will require local knowledge and local
experience. As indicated previously the teacher should ensure that
contributions from the local officials of various Government Agencies
e.g. Health, Water, Agricultural Extension Officer, Wildlife Ranger etc.,
are received and understood by the target group but the fund of relevant
information collectively possessed by group members should never be
underestimated.
Problem solving in Ghanaian children : a case study
Knamiller and Obeg Asamoah (1979) found that primary school children in
rural areas possessed a great wealth of environmental knowledge that could
be used and developed in a variety of learning situations. For example,
they discerned that children in the village of Akrokerri, Ghana :-
" (a) have a great deal of knowledge about local water resources,
where the best quality drinking water can be found at any time
of the day and in whatever season of the year.
41
(b)
cc>
Cd)
(e> Had experience in growing food crops. Many of them had their own
gardens and worked closely with their parents on the family farm
and vegetable plot. They also knew many food crop pests, both
animals and weeds, and often participated in local attempts to
control them including the indiscriminate use of chemical
deterrents".
On the basis of this information and particularly that associated with
the local water supply, Knamiller and Obeng-Asamoah were able to
involve the children in a problem solving exercise. They noted that
no one was collecting water from the local stand pipes and were able
to discover from the children, the number of stand pipes in the area,
how long they had not been working, the name of the man responsible
for their maintenance and the advantages of using piped water.
The children knew that the pump for drawing water from the bore-hole
to the main water tank was broken and they suspected that there was
no money available to purchase a replacement part for the pump.
Knew a tremendous amount about firewood, the local varieties,
burning qualities, who gathers it, where to get it, how much
you can sell it for, its use in local industries such as charcoal
making.
Have a great deal of inside information about local, small-scale
industries. Many of their families engage in these.
Had a lot of experience with infants, particularly l-5 year olds.
They carry them, play with them, toilet them, cook for them and
feed them.
42
'Ihe teaching /learning potential in this situation was now exploited
and this involved the children in mechanics - how did the pump work?
economics - who paid for the water? and civics - what government agency
was responsible for maintaining the water system? It was also suggested
that the class find out if the community perceived the problem and if,
in fact, they wanted the system working again. lhus the aim of this
problem solving exercise was to gather information about the water
system, assess the attitude of the community regarding the problem and
suggest a scheme to get the system working again.
Although the above example is concerned with children in the formal
education sector, it cannot be considered as a typical programme and
illustrates a number of points which are of great significance to non-
formal education:-
(1 1 'Ihe starting points for acquiring knowledge and learning skills
came from the children's own out-of-school experience and knowledge.
(2) If children of primary school age had acquired such a find of
local knowledge then it is highly likely that considerably more
information and expertise would be possessed by parents and
older siblings.
(3) The procedures adopted in the study are very relevant for all
target groups in non-formal E.E.
Thus Knamiller (lot. cit.) lists the objectives of "environmental
education for development" as helping people to:-
(1 1 become critically aware of issues and problems in their own
community; to question why things are as they are,
(2) develop an ability to consciously make decisions; to take a
stand on local issues and problem,
(3) explore alternatives for Social action; to consider possible ways
of solving local community problems.
Furthermore ffiamiller suggests a following curriculum model for the
study of local environmental issues.
43
Environmental issue/problem e.g. “Are chemical herbicides and pesticides used indiscriminately in local homes and gardens?19) .
Inquiry into What is the current ai tuation” ,gathering factual infomat ion analysing informat ion evaluating
Inquiry into What ought to be”
gathering information about attitudes and beliefs analysing information evaluating informatlon
Decision-Making (llYea, there is a probleW or “No, there is not a problem”.)
Deciding on Social Action
. identifying alternatives
. ordering alternatives
. considering consequences
Thus a problem solving approach in E.E. can make individuals aware of
those features in their environment which are detrimental to individual
and collective well-being. It can also teach them how to analyse the
causes of a&h problems and take appropriate counter measures.
Hopefully it also shows that by working together comunltiw do have
the abfllty to plan for sustainable development within the context of
living rmource conservation.
^__-- _-__ ,------
44
4.26 The use of drama/popular theatre
The use of popular theatre as a communication medium for
development projects hasa,long history. In the late 40's,
teams of field-workers toured villages in Ghana using drama
and demonstration to educate and involve people in campaigns
for such topics as family planning, child care, cocoa disease
eradication etc. Thus it has long been recognised that theatre
can
11(a>
(b)
cc>
Cd)
be an effective tool for non-formal education because.....
as entertainment it can engage and hold the interest of
large numbers of people, many of whom have been alienated
by traditional approaches to adult education and development
as an oral medium in local languages it can involve many
people who are left out of development activities because
of their literacy or lack of understanding of the official
national language (e.g. English or French or Portuguese)
as a means of cultural expression which everyone in the
community is capable of it can be kept within the control
and use of the local people
as a public or social activity3tbrings a community
together and creates the context of co-operative thinking
and action" (Kidd, R. 1979).
The early use of popular theatre as part of a mass education
programme was characterised by the fact that the programmes
were mainly designed to impart information and skills.
They were planned and prepared by headquarters staff of various.
government departments such as agriculture, and health and
..__,._^ -).-” “I . ^ .,,. _._* ” .-...._.
45
little, if any, consultation occurred with the rural clientele.
Such prorammes have been criticised because they were II.....
conceived primarily as a way of putting across information in a
one-way fashion about topics chosen by central-decision makers
rather than as a way of engaging the villagers in authentic
dialogue about their own priority problems" (Kidd lot. tit).
tiring the last decade there has been an increasing use of popular
theatre as part of a two-way communication process. The purpose of
such programmes is not simply to impart information but also to develop
a critical awareness and generate a comitment to collective action.
An example of this new approach is illustrated by the Laedza Batanani
('Wake up - let's get together and work together') festivals in
Botswana. Started in 1974 by extension workers in Northern E!otswana,
the festival is a mixture of socio-drama and group discussion and
provides a forum for the expression of feelings and an analysis of the
major problems faced by a community. Each year local community leaders
and extension workers meet in a workshop situation to choose the issues
to be examined and planthwfestival. Such issues have included
agricultural production, nutrition, the effects of migrant labour and
various health problems. The criteria for selecting issues could include:
popularity
the perceived severity of the problem
the scale of the task
the seasonal nature of the problem.
_ ..“.- _ - a-
46
A smaller group then prepares songs, dances, perhaps puppetry and a
drama production and this is performed by the extension workers in the
main villages of the area. After the performance there is an organised
discussion in which the villagers consider the problem presented and
decide on a plan of action. The performers in the festival i.e. the
local extension workers and community leaders, then provide the
organisational support and technical advice to support the plan of
action. The success of Laedza Batanani has led to other groups in
Botswana adopting this approach and in Uganda, Kenya, Tanzania, Zambia
and Malawi the University Theatre Departments also organise tours
through village districts as a means of developing a critical awareness
among the rural poor.
As a result of these, and other experiences in popular theatre it is
possible to offer,the following guidelines for consideration by those
planning programmes of non-formal E.E. :-
(1 > popular theatre can be very effective in increasing public
awareness of environmental issues such as health and nutrition,
agricultural production and management of fuel reserves
(2) popular theatre should be organised on a local basis with the'
aim of involving all aspects of the local society in a meaningful
dialogue.
(3) It must be expected that sometimes the issues raised may be
beyond the understanding and/or competence of local government
workers. This can lead to incorrect information being transmitted
and inappropriate action being taken.
47
(4) The issues to be examined should be carefully chosen; an
increased social awareness and social conscience with no
resulting action can lead to frustration and social unrest.
(5) Sometimes the excitement and enjoyment of participating in
the performance may be such a distraction that the intended
message is not transmitted.
(6) Popular theatre is at its most effective when the resulting
motivation and enthusiasm can be harnessed to an existing
organisational framework. This is particularly true if the
issues raised and the work undertaken can be integrated into
that already being undertaken by extension workers.
4.3 E.E. and existing non-formal education programmes
Many of the techniques indicated above are currently practised
by some programmes of non-formal education. The scale and
range of existing programmes in the non-formal sector of
education are enormous and offer a great opportunity for the
spread of E.E.
For example, many countries throughout the world are attempting
to deal with the problem of illiteracy by mounting adult,
functional literacy projects. Such projects are fertile ground
for introducing those environmental issues which are of
immediate concern and relevance to the participants.
This must go beyond the obvious teaching ploy of ensuring that
readers, flashcards, booklets etc. deal with everyday features
of adult life and work.
48
The subject matter under discussion must be such that it
lends itself to the introduction of an element of evaluation
and concern. 'Ihe acquisition of adult literacy is enhanced
by the participants considering environmental problems that
affect the lives of themselves and their families.
Thus an examination of how to improve the amenities of a
village such as a constant water supply and adequate
sanitation arrangements, or how to improve the economy of
an area by increased agricultural yields and better marketing,
would appear to be ideal topics for an adult literacy class.
But there is a need to introduce a more penetrating holistic
view to such topics, for example excessive use of pesticides
and fertilisers may give short term crop yields but what are
long term costs?
An ecologically balanced view must be given and this may pose
problems on two fronts. Firstly it is more difficult (but
not impossible!) to produce simple reading materials on complex
environmental issues and, secondly, the teachers may not
understand the concepts underlying such issues.
A broadly-based environmental approach is also needed in other
programmes of non-formal education such as agriculture and
health studies.
In these areas, in particular, it is imperative that an
environmental perspective is not perceived as an esoteric,
abstract notion, counterproductive in some way to local
developmental strategies.
49
It rust be explained, simply and clearly, how environmental objectives
can contribute, both in the long- and short-term to such development
programnes. Once again this presupposes that the teachers or extension
workers engaged in such programmes have a background in E.E. which
enables them to give this broader view. In order that this is achieved,
a more radical approach to the training of adult education personnel
is needed. Instead of being trained to teach courses which may be
narrowly conceived e.g. use of fertilisers, prevention of specific
diseases, pre- and ante-natal care; all adult education tutors should
be trained in the broader perspective of E.E.
4.4 Suggested Training Programme for Teachers in E.E.
In order to devise effective training programmes for potential teachers
of E.E. in the non-formal sector, it is essential to identify the
needs and requirements of the different target groups and thus plan
the appropriate training programmes. Whilst it may be argued that
the main goal of E.E. is common to all situations i.e. a sophisticated
understandirg of how the environment functions, the I'..... failure to
break down the 'general public' into identifiable target populations,
with a number of defined common denominators from the educational view,
may be one of the reasons for the inadequacy of environmental education
for adults" (Fmmelin 1977). Thus any schedule for training personnel
involved in non-formal education should include items which are of
significance to the particular target group. For example, any programme
concerned with teaching E.E. to young school drop-outs should illustrate .
how features of the local environment can be used to develop the
50
basic skills of literacy and numeracy which will, almost
certainly, be lacking in the pupils. Similarly, training
programmes for those teachers of unemployed young adults should
contain a large element of outside project work in which a
variety of jobs can be experienced. For adults, particular
consideration should be given to the problems of adult literacy
ensuring that the methods and materials are relevant and meaningful
at an adult level; I1 . . . ..any adult can begin to read in a matter
of forty hours if the first words he deciphers are charged with
political meaning (Illich 1971). In addition E.E. for civic,
corrnnunity and political competence and also the particular
needs and the potential of women in society would seem more
appropriate at the adult level.
Apart from the needs of specific target groups, a detailed list of
competencies for teachers of E.E. has already been prepared viz :-
Level I : Ecological foundations
The effective environmental education teacher should be
able to :-
apply a knowledge of ecological foundations to predict
the ecological consequences of alternative solutions to
environmental problems;
be sufficiently literate in ecology to identify, select
and interpret appropriate sources of scientific information
in a continuing effort to investigate, evaluate and find
solutions for environmental problems;
communicate and apply in an educational context, the .
major concepts in ecology.
51
Level II : Conceptual awareness
The effective environmental education teacher should be
able to select, develop and/or implement curricular
materials which will effectively make receivers aware of:
how man's cultural activities (e.g. religious, economic, political, social, etc.) influence the environment from an ecological perspective;
how individual behaviours impact on the environment from an ecological perspective;
a wide variety of local, regional, national and international environmental issues and the ecological and cultural implications of these issues;
the viable alternative solutions available for remediating discrete environmental issues and the ecological and cultural implications of these alter- native solutions;
the need for environmental issue investigation and evaluation as a pre-requisite to sound decision- making;
the roles played by differing human values in environ- mental issues and the need for personal value clarification as an integral part of environmental decisionqaking;
the need for responsible citizenship action (e.g. persuasion, consumerism, legal action, political action, eco-management) in the remediation of environmental issues.
Level III : Investigation and evaluation
The effective environmental education teacher should be
competent to investigate environmental issues and
evaluate alternative solutions and to develop, select
and/or implement curricular materials and strategies
which will develop similar competencies in receivers,
including :
the knowledge and skills needed to identif and investigate issues (using both primary an c? secondary
_-... ._- I --.---- ----
52
sources of information and to synthesise the data gathered);
the ability to analyse environmental issues and the associated value perspectives with respect to their ecological and cultural implications;
the ability to identify alternative solutions for discrete issues and the value perspectives associated with these solutions;
the ability to autonomously evaluate alternative solutions and associated value perspectives for discrete environmental issues with tespect to their cultural and ecological implications;
the ability to identify and clarify their own value positions related to discrete environmental issues and their associated solutions;
the ability to evaluate, clarify and change their own value positions in the light of new information.
Level IV : Environmental action skills
The effective environmental education teacher should be
competent to take positive environmental action for the
purpose of achieving and/or maintaining a dynamic equi-
librium between quality of life and the quality of
environment, and to develop, select and/or implement
curricular materials and strategies to develop similar
competencies in receivers to take individual or group
action when appropriate (i.e. persuasion, consumerism,
political action, legal action, eco-mamagement, or
combinations of these action categories).
'Ihe above list represents the ideal qualifications for teachers of
E.E. and were prepared as guidelines mainly for those entering the
formal education sector. Many of the features mentioned above also
have great significance for the non-formal sector but it must be
53
accepted that many E.E. teachers, both in the formal and non-formal
sectors of education will possess only a fraction of the expertise and
skills listed above. Furthermore the length of time available for the
training or retraining of teachers or extension workers for non-formal
E.E. will almost certainly be of a limited duration and, therefore,
deciding the priority of content in a training course is inevitable.
Obviously it is of paramount importance that teachers should
have a sound knowledge of ecological principles and conservation
practices but of equal importance is the need for teachers to
be sympathetic to the aims and objectives of non-formal E.E.
Thus they must have experience in their training which helps
them to develop a sensitivity to the needs of the target group
and to the individuals who compose it. They must learn to
identify with, and be sympathetic to, the difficulties and
problems faced by members of their class. In establishing
relationships with, class members they must learn to recognise
the virtues inherent in every human being. Pride is the
besetting sin of teachers and they must understand that the
flaunting of a superior intellect is counter productive to the
aims of non-formal E.E. Because of the complexity of many
issues in E-E., most, if not all teachers, will find themselves
in situations that are beyond their own expertise and experience.
Under such circumstances teachers must be prepared to admit
their ignorance and this can be difficult if the teacher has
adopted a highly autocratic posture with the students.
54
Humility, integrity and sincerity are the behavioural
characteristics that underpin the best human relationships;
such relationships based on a mutual trust and confidence are
the keystones of learning in non-formal education.
,When considering possible guidelines for a training programme for
educators of non-formal E.E. it might be useful to identify two
extreme roles that they may play in society - as "environmentalist-in-
residence and environmentalist-as-facilitator11 (Knamiller, personal
correspondence). The former's brief emerges from 'Western' type approach
to the environment i.e. it is concerned with imparting the concepts of
ecology, it is conservation based and a chief concern is the preservation
of plant and animal species.
The environmentalist-as-facilitator's brief emerges from community
development school; his/her concern is with controversy, political
activism and the general raising of public consciousness. Althou&
these may be construed as polar opposites, the conflict of conservation
versus development is a very real one and what is needed are environ-
mental educators who can listen to, and be sympathetic with, the
concerns of communities but who can translate and interpret this
concern in terms of sustainable development. It is hoped that the
following training programme would serve to produce non-formal teachers
who were skilled in performing this difficult task.
I”__~..^ 1. I . - - _ . - . . , “ “ ^ . - *_ l̂ “ , . - . . . , . .
55
Guidelines for a training programme for teachers/extension
workers in non-formal E.E.
Main Objectives
1. To ensure that environmental educators have some under- standing of the complex relationships that exist in the environment.
2. To ensure that environmental educators realise that human activities in the environment must be managed to ensure the sustainable utilisation of resources.
3. To give a variety of first hand, practical activities in the environment.
4. To ensure that environmental educators understand the way in which the learning process differs with specific target groups.
5. To give the opportunity for environmental educators to practice relevant and varied teaching methodologies.
Unit 1
(a>
(b)
Man and the Environment
The Biosphere
(i> Plant and animal communities and the concept of an ecosystem
(ii> The circulation of substances and energy in the environment
(iii) Self regulating mechanisms in the biosphere.
Environmental care and management
(i> Man's exploitation of and impact on, ecosystems such as soil, forests, coastal and fresh water habitats. Suggestions for the improved management of these life- support systems
(ii) Harmful substances in the environment, their source, effect and strategies for their reduction
(iii) Specific studies of local environmental problems e.g. overgrazing; wood collection; urban stress; acid rain. etc.
--
56
Unit 2 The aims and methodoll_ogy of non-formal E.E.
0) Ihe learning process in (a) adults (b) children
(ii> Aspects of group dynamics to illustrate the importance of inter- and intra-personal relationships
(iii) Critical examination of specific E.E. programnes which use a variety of methodologies in differing combinations
(iv> Problem solving = on-site activities in a village/town situation to include :- (a) information gathering from villagers/townspeople/
extension workers etc.
(b) problem analysis and problem solving to include .small-scale constructive work
cc> consideration of various schemes aimed at environmental monitoring.
(VI The production of teaching schemes, including audio- visual aids, based on specific local problems (see iv above).
Unit 3 'Ihe political dimension of E.E.
(i> Simple management techniques to ensure of effort with particular reference to
How to influence
(ii) government policy - the administrative local level, state and national level; power groups
co-ordination problem solving
system at the role of
(iii) aspects of environmental Law : the interpretation and enforcement of environmental legislation at national and local level.
57
4.43 Suggested training programme
The training programme for future tutors/extension workers in non-formal
E.E. should be such that due consideration is given to the type of
person who may wish to become an adult tutor. Often they will have
jobs outside the formal education system and part-time evening study
is likely to be the pattern of attendance. In order to meet these
particular requirements it is suggested that the training programme
is arranged in a number of stages with each stage divided into a
series of modules (see Fig. >. In stage one there are three inter-
related modules which aim to give students an initiation into basic
teaching skills and an insight into the major issues emerging from a
study of the biosphere. This stage should involve at least 30 hours
of course instruction and be followed by some teaching practices
with adult groups. The modules suggested for stages 2 and 3 are meant
to provide for an increasing professional training both in the pedagogic
and environmental fields, and it is envisaged that a further 70 hours
of instruction would be necessary to complete these stages.
The interval between stages could be varied during which time there
would be an opportunity for further teaching practice. The division
of the course into stages and modules is based on the principle of
ffcredit-accumulationff and ensures that part-time adult students are
not overburdened with the problems of long, continuous studies and
extensive examinations.
Finally the course aims at providing an increasing local perspective
which is the key to effective non-formal environmental education.
Fig. Suggested programme for the training of tutors/extension workers in E.E.
Stage 1
1. The learning process in children and adults. Adult psychology.
2. Group dynamics - the importance of inter- and intra-personal relationships.
3. The Environmet& the concept of an ecosystem. Energy in the biosphere, self- regulating mechanisms.
Minimum 30 hours.
1 *
2.
3.
Stage 2
Specific E.E. programmes, various methodologies in adult education.
Harmful substances in the local environment, sources effects and strategies for reduction.
Environmental Law - environmental legislation.
minimum 30 hours
1 .
2.
3.
stage 3
Production of specific, local teaching programmes including audio-visual aids.
F \ \
Man's exploitation of and \ impact upon the environment. \
\
4. Problem solving, on-site activities
Examination of local including simple
environmental problems management
interoretation and techniques.
enforcement of I
environmental legislation, 3 J/ evaluation at local level. 0
0 minimum 40 hours
59
4 -5 Evaluation
The evaluation process is an integral part of the education
process and one cannot be adequately carried out without the
other. The most appropriate definition of evaluation, with
particular reference to non-formal E.E. is given by Popham
who states that If . . . ..systematic educational evaluation consists
of a formal assessment of the worth of educational phenomena"
(1975). Such phenomena would include a wide variety of
educational processes and practices in E.E. and could range
from the evaluation of a particular course for extension workers
to assessing the role of a NGO in promoting E.E. to a particular
clientele. Such diverse evaluative needs have been fully
considered by Bennett (1977) when presenting a synthesis of
evaluation models in E.E. Furthermore a list of general
objectives and performance indicators in E.E. have been published
by the Maryland State Department of Education.
This section therefore, will attempt to offer guidelines on the
evaluation of specific programmes or projects in the field of
non-formal E.E.
The purpose of evaluation is to find out to what extent the aims
and objectives of a programme or project have been achieved.
In non-formal E.E. such aims and objectives may be wide searching
and the evaluation exercise could
factors such as.....
. . . ..the design of the project or
. . . ..the cognitive, affective and
involve an examination of
programme.....
skills aspects of the goals to be achieved by participants.....
. . . ..the financial, cultural and political conditions for its feasibility.....
60
. . . ..the acceptability of content to learners, teachers and organisers.....
. . . ..the methodologies used by the teacher/group leader.....
. . . ..the teaching learning materials.....
. . . ..the recruitment and training of the teachers/group leaders....
. . . ..the effectiveness of the programne in preventing/reducing environmental abuse.....
All evaluation measures the change in, and influence of, variables and
these fall into two major categories - independent and dependent
variables. When considering some of the factors mentioned above, some
aspects such as the methodologies employed, the teaching and learning
media used, the amount of money allocated, the length of the course etc.,
can all be varied and the degree of influence on the course can be
evaluated. Such variables are termed independent. Other factors which
can be evaluated are such things as student achievement in understanding
certain environmental concepts, performing various skills and in
developing a concern for the environment. These variables which indicate
the amount of change that may or not have taken place are termed depender
One of the most difficult tasks in any evaluation exercise is to
establish clear, measurable objectives in the programme. Another major
problem is to decide how evidence may be collected which will indicate
if the programme is moving towards such objectives. Usually a
combination of techniques is used for data gathering; those participating
in the programme such as teachers, students, administrators, extension
workers, may fill in a questionnaire and/or produce written or oral
statments. They may also be observed carefully noting behavioural
changes or they could be interviewed by an outside assessor. Written
work that is presented on a regular basis may also help in assessing
students. In general, techniques employed must be matched to the
educational situation. If, for example, the teaching progrme includes
61
practical activities in the environments such as building a dam or
planting trees, then the evaluation exercise should attempt to
measure improvement in manual skills and also, perhaps, co-operative
effort.
The easiest evidence to Qandle is that which can be counted in
some way, but much of it will be in the form of simple
descriptions which may be difficult to categorise. When all the
evidence has been gathered it needs to be critically examined
with regard to its validity but it will almost certainly shed
some light on the efficiency of programmes and indicate where
problems are occurring.
The Iketleetse Rural Extension Project in Botswana provides us
with an example of the role and importance of evaluation in
non-formal E.E. The project had evaluation built into the
I program design both to monitor the operations and also as a
summative exercise. The evaluative exercise indica:ed that the
following were important for the success of any project :-
. . . ..detailed topic research
. . . . . inter-departmental design and planning which involved village, district and central levels of participation
. . . . . careful pre-testing of draft materials
. . . . . feedback and evaluation.
The evaluation of the methodologies employed indicated that :-
. . . . . there were insufficient practical demonstrations
. . . . . the extension workers did not integrate group activities into their routine work
. . . ..group meetings tended to decrease in frequency
. . . ..there was a need to integrate media material with face-to-
face demonstrations
62
. . . ..there was an over-estimation of the impact of the media, especially on illiterates.
When considering the overall success of the Project, the
information gathered showed that co-ordination at district level
was important for non-formal activities in E.E. Such co-ordination
was instrumental in.....
. . . . . recruiting group leaders
. . . . . helping to plan the educational content of the programme
. . . . . following up ideas transmitted
. . . . . supporting group and individual action.
The above example clearly indicates the importance of evaluation
when considering the wide-ranging aspects of an educational
programme.
Some specific guidelin,es,,on evaluation
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
Evaluation should be accepted as a fundamental aspect of non-formal E.E.
When planning any programme or project, specific measurable objectives should be established and evaluative techniques considered.
The greaterthe complexity of the objectives then the more difficult it is for them to be avaluated.
It: is easier to evaluate a formal education prograrrPne than a non-formal programme.
Data may be collected in a variety of ways but it is important to consider its validity.
Evaluative procedures should enhance programme planning and provide information for relevant innovation.
Evaluation is not easy but some attempt must be made.
Some aspects of non-formal E.E. which are of no great significance
may be easy to evaluate, other aspects which are of great
significance may be very difficult to evaluate.
63
The media and non-formal environmental education
Radio
The use of radio in developing an awareness of the environment and
environmental issues has been a characteristic of the medium since its
origin. However, most programme producers, outside the traditional
formal school framework are often more concerned with education by
stealth rather than signposting progrxrxnes as environmental education.
This approach is certainly common in developed countries, but there is
evidence that producers in developing countries are prepared to transmit
progrmes which deal with environmental issues of immediate relevance
to the listeners.
Improved technological and production processes have ensured that portable,
transistorised radio has become the most widespread and commonly used
invention of the twentieth century. Thus radio has been, and is likely
to be for some time, the main medium for non-formal education in the
developing world. One of the major problems of using radio for educational
purposes is that of ensuring that the message reaches, and is understood
by the target audience and many strategies have been tried to increase
feedback from listeners.. These strategies have been fully considered
by Moemeka (1983) and include the use of a forum approach in Ghana and
Benin and using radio in a spec'ific instructional way which has been
attempted in Tanzania and Nigeria. In these latter countries the
listeners were organised into groups and the aim was to teach a variety
of cognitive skills as well as work skills which could lead to an
increased standard of living. The radio programmes were aumented by *
64
written materials and a local teacner or extension worker provided an
element of interpersonal corrmunication. Feedback from the teacher was
important in terms of programme amendment but the audience was not
necessarily involved in this process. This is in contrast to the forum
approach previously mentioned. Here, the emphasis was on group discussion
and listeners views and questions formed the basis of much of the
programmes. This strategy of using listening/discussion groups also
included the use of written materials and the participation of a
completed monitor or extension worker to direct the activities.
In Ghana and Benin this approach was used some fifteen years ago to
discuss such environmental issues as health and sanitation and modern
agricultural techniques.
The evidence of these and other educational initiatives using radio,
have shown quite clearly that success depends upon the involvement of
the target group in the planning and execution of the progrannnes and
also upon a teacher using other teaching/learning strategies to re- 9
inforce the broadcast.
Although there are examples where the success of radio in non-foraml
education has been striking, in general, the impact of radio programmes
has been minimal in nearly all of the countries where this strategy has
been attempted. The reasons for this are numerous and include lack of
finance, an absence of a support infrastructure and, perhaps, an
overemphasis on literacy and basic education. Another factor affecting
the widespread success of the radio learning group strategies is the
lack of message specificity. People, both in rural and urban areas are
motivated by issues that have significance to their day-to-day lives. .
Many environmental problems are localised, or have a local manifestation,
65
and need to be discussed and, hopefully, solved by local people and
local officials. It is often not appropriate to confront people with
problems that are at a worldwide or even national level; they need to
examine the problems of their village or their town such as their water
supply, the use of fertilisers on their fields, the graffiti in their
town centre etc.
tioemeka (lot. cit.) suggests that this important local perspective can
best be achieved by setting up local radio stations
II . . . . . local radio strategy, with its demands for grassroot
participation, and staff rapport with local communities, has a very strong potential for making a success of non-formal education on a national level if sufficient stations are constructed. It is a strategy that will surely help to improve for the better the social, economic, cultural, environmental and political conditions of the rural communities" (Moemeka lot. cit.).
Television
If radio is the most important mass communication medium in the developing
world then television is the medium of the developed world.
The impact of television in motivating people has never been more clearly
demonstrated than by the recent appeals for famine relief in Africa.
The pictures of undernourished children in the relief camps of Ethiopia
triggered off a wave of concern in the Western World which resulted in
tens of millions of dollars being donated to the relief charities.
In addition, governmental aid to the Third World became a public issue
and many people, for the first time, faced the reality of a divided world.
This example illustrates both the advantages and disadvantages of tele-
vision in non-formal environmental education. Television has enormous
potential to inform, fascinate, stimulate and challenge people's views
on environmental issues but, even more so than radio, it lacks a local
66
perspective. The costs of producing television prograr;;mes and the
concern of the producers with viewing ratings means that it is
unlikely that coverage of Small-Scale, local enviromental issues
will occur and even major environmental problems which are not
newsworthy will be ignored. Thus television, as with radio, has to
be localised and people who traditionally are the "object audience"
have to become "subject participantstl in the message (see Lewis 1977).
Video, i.e. small gauge, portable T.V. units and its associated
equipment, can provide the answer in that it can be the means whereby
television is used in a locally-based participating style of non-formal
environmental education.
In the developed world, video has become a major tool at all levels of
formal education but its use in non-formal education is not widespread.
In the developing world, althou& its use was at first spasmodic and
ill-defined, it is now being used more extensively to train extension
workers of various government departments. For example in The Gambia,
Phillipines and India video has been used extensively in family
planning programmes.
It is possible, therefore, to envisage video being used in much the
same way as local radi0.i.e. as a flexible media resource responsive
to local needs and aspirations.
Guidelines on the use of the media in non formal E.E.
In recognising that radio and television are probably the most effective
media for influencing public opinion, it is proposed that they can be'
used more effectively in non-formal E.E.......
67
1. . . . ..by presenting regular, e.g. daily programmes, in which
envirPnmenta1 issues are presented in an interesting and lively
manner. A diary, for example, broadcast every morning for five
minutes could inform farmers of such things as weather prospects,
commodity prices, new techniques in fertiliser treatment, optimum
planting times etc.
Environmental concern could also be incorporated into programmes
which are more clearly designed to be entertaining. It is well
known that regularly presented programmes on either the radio or
television in which the audience can identify with people and
situations can be very popular and command eTy3rmous audiences.
In such programmes environmental issues could be woven into the
story to maximum effect. For example, a series based on the
everyday life of a family could naturally include such topics
as publich health and family planning.
2. . . . ..by ensuring that the educational potential of documentaries
and other specialist programmes are maximised. In many countries
television programmes concerned with natural history are very
popular but often the producer fails to realise the contribution
that E.E. can make to the quality of such programmes.
For example, in many programmes the emphasis is on spectacular,
unusual photography which, obviously, many people find fascinating
and entertaining. But an examination of environmental problems
such as water-borne diseases, pest control and urban decay can be
equally fascinating, of immediate relevance to the audience yet
still exploit the specific, motivating characteristics of the
mediun.
3. . . . ..by making sure that the regular news programmes in both
television and radio, local and national, inform people of
current enviromental problems and issues. This should not
68
be confined to the reporting of major envirorznental disasters
but should constantly remind the public that environmental
degradation, in all its manifestations, is a constant and
pressing problem for most societies.
4. . . . ..by incorporating an environmental perspective into existing
educational programmes. In many countries a sophisticated
system of educational broadcasting exists at both a formal and
an informal level. Such a system could be the vehicle for much
continuing education and it should be possible to utilise it so
that current environmental issues are brought to the notice of
the general public.
5. . . . ..by focussing on environmental subjects in those programmes
which rely on audience participation. There has been an
increasing tendency, particularly in developed countries, for
the views of the listening audience to-be incorporated into
discussion programmes. This may take the form of a direct
telephone link between selected listeners and the presenter
or a survey of opinion which is gained by many people phoning
into a central switchboard. Occasionally the topic under
discussion is environmentally based but there is a great
opportunity to use this programme format more effectively in
examining environmental issues, particularly at local level.
6. . . . ..by ensuring that producers of radio and television
programmes are aware of, and have some understanding of
the environmental problems faced by their local societies
and that they inform themselves of the role that non formal
E.E. has in solving such problems. It would be unrealistic
to propose that all producers undertake an in-service course
in environmental studies but it is desirable that at least
one person in the local or national broadcasting organisation
69
is trained in E.E. The task of such a person would be to
examine, with programme producers, how environmental awareness
could be incorporated into existing programmes and how it may
be extended by new broadcasting strategies.
The multi-media approach
The existing use of television, video and radio, and its further use as
suggested above, indicates the great potential that the media has in
promoting non-formal environmental education. In all cases however,
the impact of television and radio programmes can be consolidated and
extended by the use of suitable written materials. 'Ihus associated
teaching aids such as posters, flip-charts, field guides, instruction
manuals etc; are of great importance in all forms of non-formal
education.
Such a multi-media approach has been shown to be most effective in
disseminating knowledge, attitudes and skills to the general public.
An essential element in their production is the need for pre-testing
and this should be seen as an integral part of the production and
implementation process. Whilst this is often accepted, the time and
resources which are allowed for the pre-testing of materials are often
underestimated.
'Ihe teaching materials, however, no matter how well they have been
produced, are no substitute for the benefits that are gained by inter-
personal contact. People, in general, need the help, guidance and
encouragement that comes from relating to a teacher or extension worker,
and this is particularly true for the non-formal sector of education
70
Environmental Ethics
Environmental attitudes and ethics vary from culture to culture and
are influenced by societal, theological and environmental factors.
An environmental ethic is composed of three main elements :
1. Harm to people
'2. Harm to plants and animals
3. Harm to natural systems.
It is not possible to review the whole range of ethics and their
cultural, political and theological influences. It is, however,
worthwhile to realise that an environmental ethic has been present
from the original speciation of man, and is inherent in all religious
beliefs. A chief observance of Buddhists is the role of sanctity of
all life forms. One example of an ethic developed in a culture which
was ecologically harmonious was that of the North American Indians.
The various indian tribes had a deep respect for the environment,
indeed they recognised that the earth had a spirit. When Black Elk, a
holy man of the Oglala Sioux, speaks of "the beauty and strangeness of
the earth" he speaks of reverence for the everyday environment, an
environment which was interwoven with Indian life. The closeness to
which the indians felt attached to the earth is mirrored in Indian
sayings and statements from their people. Chief Luther Standing Bear
born in 1868 says,
The Sioux were true naturists. They loved the earth and things of the earth, the attachment growing with age. The old people came literally to love the soil and they sat or reclined on the ground with a feeling of being close to a mothering Fewer. It was good for the skin to touch the earth and the old people . liked to remove their mocassins and walk with bare feet on the sacred earth. Their tipis were built on the earth and their altars made
71
of earth. The birds that flew in the air came to rest upon the earth and it was the final abiding place of all things that lived and grew. The soil was soothing, strengthening, cleansing and healir-@. (McLuran 1971).
In this culture kinship with all creatures of the earth, sky and water
was a real and active precept. For animals of the world there existed
a brotherly feeling. The Sioux believed that man's heart away from
nature becomes hard and that a lack of respect for growing, living
things soon led to the lack of respect for humans as well.
While this deeply spiritual environmental ethic may exist in many
cultures in less developed countries, it has declined in the western
world. Despite this many are aware of the loss, particularly the
dehumanising and desocialising effects of rapid industrialisation and
urbanisation and its effect on the environment (O'Riordan 1978).
This concern has not only manifested itself in the formation and
expansion of environmental pressure groups, but, admittedly, in more
academic circles, the development of an environmental philosophy which
evaluates the relationship between man and his fellow beings and their
relationship to the biophysical surroundings. Environmental philosophy
provides an important contemplative perspective to a mode of thinking
that is concerned with the application of management techniques and
political activism motivated to sustain. Often the formulation and
development of an environmental philosophy involves the resolution of
contradictory elements which are considered e.g. the environmental
curtailment of freedom, protection of sovereignty and questions of
moral and cultural rights.
72
The aim of environmental philosophy is to develop an ethic which
facilitates a prudent attitude and practice towards the environment.
A variety of different views are held within the western world.
O'Riordan (1978) recognises two basic types of thinking, ecocentricism
and technocentricism. The ecocentric attitude is one which has little
faith in large scale technology, believes materialism for its own sake
is wrong and in the intrinsic importance of nature for the humanity of
man and has a high regard for the idea that ecological laws dictate
human morality. The technocentric attitude has a strong faith that
man will find a way out of difficulties either politically or
technologically.
One form of ecocentric thought is the self reliant soft technologist
which has much to offer developing countries whose people have the will
to develop independently, The soft technologists have little faith in
large scale technology and its associated demands on elitist expertise,
central state authority and inherently anti democratic institutions.
They emphasise smallness of scale and hence community identity in
settlement work and leisure, the integration of concepts of work and
leisure through a process of personal involvement and communal
improvement. They place importance upon participation in community,
affairs and guarantees of the rights of minority interests.
Participation is seen both as a continuing education and political
function. In order to counter the distressing tendencies of western
development, environmentalists and economists such as Schumacher
(1973) and Pirages and Ehrlich (1974) have developed ideas based upon
small scale sustainable, self reliant communities largely governed .
through cmnity participation.
73
One of the most pressing environmental problems is to maintain the
sustainability of finite ecosystems. Many believe a solution to this
problem lies in a harmonious collaboration with nature and control
based upon ecological understanding and the ethic of stewardship.
In order to transform a destructive attitude towards the environment to
one resulting in a sustainable earth it may be necessary to develop a
number of approaches, ecological, humanistic and theological.
The exploitation and development of a better understanding of these
approaches may formulate or emphasise environmentally prudent values.
Miller and Armstrong (1982) suggest a series of questions that can be
evaluated : Is humanity the source of all value? Does nature exist for
the purpose of exploitation? Is success based upon material wealth?
Are material sources unlimited? Humans do not have to adapt to the
environment but merely control it by using science and technology.
A different set of questions may apply to a different cultural system.
It would be interesting to discover how the man vs. nature attitude of
each culture arose historically, but more challenging and vital, cultures
may attempt to develop environmentally aware attitudes and to seek
alternatives. These must evolve towards forming a partnership with
nature based upon ecological understanding and co-operation; with an
emphasis on preserving and encouraging physical, biological and cultural
diversity, while preventing the deterioration of the quality of the
environment. The ideal human goal is that of caring and sharing, not
complete individualism and domination. No individual or group has the
right to an ever increasing share of earth's finite resources.
74
Teachers and the curriculum
Teachers and leaders express their environmental concern in various
ideologies and this is expressed through the curriculum, both in formal
and non formal education. Huckle (1983) suggests that three general
ideologies exist : conventional environmentalism which attempts to
develop environmental management incorporating applied ecology. Its
main emphasisis that major ecological dangers can be avoided without
major social change provided that ecology can be incorporated into
existing decision making frameworks.
Utopian environmentalism uses peoples' concern about the environment
to gain support for utopian alternatives to prevailing conceptions of
society, e.g. alternative energy techniques, holistic living.
Such environmentalists believe that nature not only helps us to under-
stand ourselves and our world but is itself a source of moral values
which imposes limits on economic development.
Radical environmentalism regards disparities in environmental well-
being as examples of more general disparities in social justice and
maintainsthatenvironmental abuse results from the normal operations
of institutions in societies where economic needs generally dominate
peoples' needs for high quality surroundings. One major criticism of
western industrial development is that it is rarely prepared to put
the environment before profit and so transfers the cost of its
environmentalal damage to its citizens.
75
Education about the environment reflects conventional education and
treats the environment as a subject of education thereby creating an
understanding of environmental issues and thus contributing to sound
environmental management. Education from the environment uses
environmental studies as a rationale for pupil centred, topic based
learning which deals with rural and historical environments and emphasises
social concensus rather than conflict. Education for the environment
regards environmental well being as its goal. It is designed to ensure
the target group's awareness of the moral and political decisions
shaping their environment and to give them the knowledge, attitudes and
skills which will help them form their own opinion and participate in
environmental politics.Oftenthe problems are issue based and need to
ensure awareness and understanding and culminate in some form of
community action. Bnphasis in developing an environmental ethic within
target groups should centre upon helping them to understand the way in
which they interact with the environment and that they can vary the
quality and sustainability of the environment by altering their material
needs.
76
VI Co-ordination in non-formal environmental education
1. International co-ordination and co-oneration
A number of international organisations which have been involved
in non-formal environmental education includes the Food and
Agriculture Organisation (F.A.O.), World Health Organisation
(WHO) and the Meteorological Organisation (WO). The United
Nations Childrens Fund (UNICEF), in particular, have emphasised
the role of non-formal education in helping people interact with
their environment in mutually constructiveways.
UNESCO plays a key role both in general environmental education
in all its aspects (both formal and non-formal). The purpose of
its long term programme is to facilitate joint planning and pre
programming activities essential for an international programme;
promote the exchange of ideas and information, co-ordinate
research, design and evaluate materials, train and retrain
personnel and provide an advisory service.
Within the United Nations Environmental Programme (UNEP)
environmental education is one of the four supporting measures
for environmental programmes (the other three being training,
technical assistance and information). UNEP has established
international networks receiving contributions from strong
national and regional institutions.
77
The International Environmental Education Programme (I.E.E.P.)
has contributed greatly to the development of environmental
awareness, particularly by initiating a series of international
and regional meetings which led to the governmental Conference
at Tbilisi in 1977. The Conference laid the basis for the
development of national strategies and the promotion of
international co-operation. Regular periodical information on
non-formal Environmental Education has been published in Connect
which appears in five languages and is distributed to 12,000
individuals and institutions of five world regions. I.E.E.P.
programmes have been involved in the clarification of concepts
and methodology of Environmental Education stressing the inter-
disciplinary approach and problem solving within the community.
Dyasi (1977) has reviewed international and regional co-operation
in environmental education and concludes that except in the case
of the environmental education programme spearheaded by UNESCO
and UNEP there has been virtually no dynamic interaction among
the organisers. Eight years later some progress has been made
but clearly a major initiative is required for the co-ordination
and co-operation of non-formal environmental education.
Many problems have to be overcome. One of the major difficulties
is that educational goals are defined in different ways by
different groups and different processes are thought to be
essential for their attainment. One way to partially resolve
the problem is to consider the perception of environmental
education as a transaction in which everyone should have a role
78
to play. It is necessary to develop a forum for non-fonal
environmental education where all representatives can interact
and consider suggestions for action. A forum can be developed at
national levels to allow participation by a greater number from the
grass roots of each nation. Another for policy makers at national
and global levels.
2. Non-formal environmental education at national levels
Envirornnental education has an inextricable place within the
concept of non-formal education particularly in the developing
countries because of its link with basic needs and development,
Voluntary and governmental organisations tend not to be well
co-ordinated, although co-operation between voluntary organisations
is growing e.g. Council for bvirorpnental Education in Britain.
In order to co-ordinate national organisations in an efficient
and structured manner, it is necessary to be aware of the
develoment of non-formal environmental education in a variety
of countries. In a few cases, their links with international
organisations is discussed.
Asia
In some less developed countries national and international action and
co-operation take on a different form. Non-formal environmental
education is being developed in Asia in a variety of ways fran fundamental
literacy and numeracy programmes based on the local environment to
special seminars and courses for decision and policy makers.
For teaching the mass of the population, there is no role more important
than that of the mass media - radio, television and the press. Due to
their greater flexibility and power of penetration, they constitute a
79
particularly suitable means of reaching not only wide audiences, but also
certain social groups which for a variety of reasons - geographic
inaccessibility, language difficulties, remain outside the mainstream of
the educational system.
A media workshop jointly sponsored by the Asia - Pacific Institute for
Broadcasting development, the Econanic and Social Conmission for Asia and
the Pacific and the UNEP was conducted in Kuala Lumpur in 1982.
'Iheir objectives were to increase the involvement and utilisation of the
media, familiarise broadcasters with E.E. problems, and provide practical
experience in production and furnish a general background.
In India, non-formal education has been addressed to youth and adults, in
both rural and urban areas. Youth centres have been specifically treated
for this purpose in towns, cities and villages. Youth weeks are organised
which involve young people in nature protection and environmental improve-
ment on large scales. Adults are involved in the prograsxnes but more time
is given to environmentally appropriate tools and technology.
self sufficiency in tools is one of the goals, so as to reduce population
flow into the city. B-E. activities deal directly with local environmental
problems and their solutions involving concerned SeCtiOnS Of the comunitY
ad the support of the local media.
In Bangladesh during 1981 a national workshop on the theme "Environment and
the role of Nongovernmental Organisations I1 was held under the auspices of
the National Federation of UNESCO Clubs. A special ccmmittee was formed to
raise the level of the local population awareness and concern.
,--- -- -- ~- --
,-
Africa 80
In Africa the mass media plays a dominant role in non formal education.
Radio is an important medium in all member states and television is
used extensively on the Ivory Coast, in Guinea, Kenya, Senegal and Zaire.
In addition, community organisations for development and youth associations
are directly involved in campaigns such as reforestation (Cap Vert,
Central African Republic, Ethiopia, Ghana, Guinea, Madagascar, Mauritania,
Nigeria, Senegal, Seychelles and Tanzania). Similarly local populations
are involved in public health campaigns.
In Senegal non formal environmental education has involved a number of
training and other activities. Key personnel were trained by the former
Office of Environmental Protection of the State Council. In addition
cadre were trained technically for local, state and sectoral envimrmental
management posts. In all during 1979 to 1981 nearly 20, 000 cadre were
involved in some 375 training programmes with courses on water and air
analysis and monitoring, envirorxnental quality evaluation, contaminated
water treatment, smoke elimination and other new envirorxnentally sound
technology. In addition in 1980-81 a vast number of public information
programmes were launched. This scheme highlighted the relationship between
environment and population growth; between economic development, national
resource protection and ecological balance; between isxnediate and long
term developent and local and national interests. The programme involved
the press, radio, television, cinema, scientific research, academic
circles and general community activities. During the information month of
March 1980 alone, 2,000 newspaper articles appeared on envirorxnental
protection.
In Sierra Leone, an integrated envirorxnental approach is increasingly
taken within adult or community health prograxnes. The principal :
ministries involved are health, education, agriculture and forestry,
tourism and culture, energy, power and lands. The mass media are used
to the maximum, particularly radio and television.
81
Arab States
Schemes have been organised by Egypt's Arab Office of Youth and
Environment, a non governmental youth organisation and the Youth Service
Clubs of Sudan to promote active participation by Arab youth in the
protection and preservation of the environment. Participants from twelve
Arab States : Egypt, Iraq, Jordan, Kuwait, Lebanon, Morocco, Cxnan, Qatar,
Somalia, Sudan, Tunisia and the United Arab Emirates attempted to
establish co-operative relationships among Arab youth groups and to
develop discussion of major environmental problems in the Arab region
and what is being done to solve them plus the development of a work plan for
regional E.E. and environmental youth activities. Subjects discussed were
environmental education, conservation strategies, sea water pollution,
energy,overpopulation and the environment, rural development regional
and international environmental activities.
The Ministries of Culture and National Education of Syria organised an
environmental education workshop in 1983 with the collaboration of UNESCO
Regional Offices for Education. Six modules were developed for non formal
E.E. on (1) various forms of urban poilution (2) diseases transmitted
by worms (3) by insects (4) public health and the environment
(5) nutritional hygiene (6) environmental diseases attributed to
unsanitary archaic practices.
82
Caribbean
Protection and care of the envirorxnent as well as the rational use of
natural resources are considered tasks of such importance that they
receive special attention by the State of Cuba and are embodied in its
fundamental laws and regulations. To this effect the Council of
Ministries created the National Commissions for the Protection of the
Environment and the Conservation of Natural Resources. This law has
specifically established environmental education as a concern of the
National System of Education. Environmental education of the general
public is a primary concern and the responsibility of the mass media.
Special television shorts have been created for this purpose as well
as educational films for local projection. A number of goverrxnental
and non goverrnnental organisations participate actively, as well, in
non formal E.E. of the general public.
Latin America
Some non formal environmentai programmes are often treated in the
functional literacy programmes, as in other countries such as Africa
and Asia, while others are more specific.
Non formal environmental education in Argentina has generally involved
promotion and participation in World Ehvirorxnent Day - posters, primers
and packets of didactic material were distributed to some 3,000
establishments during a recent celebration. Audio-visual materials have
been developed for use inside and outside the s&&l. Other instructional
materials have been prepared by the Direction National de Ordenamiento
Ambiental as a part of its EE programme, these involve leaflets, special
83
didactic materials and guidelines, technical publications and general
information booklets. The support of the mass media in the celebration
of World Environment Day has been invaluable.
The Costa Rican National Fark Service, created in 1970, has produced a
permanent programme for giving information to schoois and the general
public. The Ministry of Agriculture has an Environment Education
Department and the Ministry of Culture, Youth and Sports conducts a few
activities in the environmental field throu@;h the National Youth Movement.
In 1980, the Costa Rican Electricity Institute collaborated with U.N.E.P. 3,
in sponsoring a course on 'Environmental Impact Evaluation'.
The Municipal Advising and Promotion Institute serves as a support
organisation for local government and offers training courses in
municipal policies, conducts studies on trash and biodegradation techniques
and has co-operated in the training of other state officials in
environmental contamination matters and materials recycling.
Many other institutes such as the National System of Cultural Radio and
Television, the Costa Rican Tourism Institute, the National Committee for
Scientific and Technical Research and the Costa Rican Institute for
Nature Conservation play an important role in non formal Environmental
Education.
84
U.S.A.
Non formal EE constitutes an exceptionally important part of E.E. in the
U.S. Environmental organisations, museuns, aquaria and the mass media
in general reach a majority of the population. One of the largest
conservation societies, The National Wildlife Federation, produces
a periodical which reaches the reading public beyond its 4.6 million
members; the society sponsors a Wildlife Week and has developed projects,
materials and runs workshops. The National Audubon Society provides E.E.
through its education centres, adult ecology camps, field programmes and
film/lecture series. Recently it has become concerned with the urban
environment. Many of the 6, 700 museums of the country have initiated
environmental interpretetive programmes.
The contribution of the mass media - press, radio and television has been
so marked that it is now taken for granted and environmental educators
are now developing audio visual technology, e.g. the combination of
television set, videoscope and microcomputer, which allow direct
individual participation in environmental games and simulation.
85
U.S.S.R.
The U.S.S.R. has a highly developed system of environmental
legislation based upon its constitution which declares that
'Natural Resources belong to the people and all citizens should
maintain them in good state', environmental education is well
developed and supported but it is largely concerned with nature
conservation education. Societies with concern for nature
conservation are present throughout the Soviet Union and possess
power in all matters concerned with conservation. The societies
act as watchdogs and check on the local observance of conservation
laws. They also perform an important role through envirorrnental
publicity campaigns to make people conservation conscious by
distributing information.
Non formal education is developed as an out-of-school activity for
their students and there are also societies of young naturalists.
There are nearly 60 million members of Societies for the safe-
guarding of nature. Lecture teams have been formed for public E.E.
which have organised several million educational talks and
encounters. The mass media and especially radio and television are
playing an increasingly important role in non formal E.E.
As for audio visual E.E. materials, from 1977 to 1980 alone there
have been 150 films produced.
..- __-. ---
86
Non-formal education in the Czechoslovak Socialist Republic
The central body of State administration in the field of non-
formal education is the Ministry of Culture. A wide range of
installations, institutions and organisations, which are controlled
and organised by the school, carry out their activities outside
the teaching process. Certain schools have an extended educational
regime involving non-formal education; these include:- after school
facilities, school clubs, hobby groups,
youth and parent teachers associations.
of the Socialist Union of Youth is very
formal education. One concrete example
activity was carried out by the Pioneer
libraries, houses of
The Pioneer Organisation
active in the area of non-
of nature conservation
organisation in 1979
when it planted over 1 million trees. Other activities have
been carried out by various groups including Union of Co-operative
Farmers, Czech Angling Union, Czech Union of Gardeners.
The organisational bases of non-formal teaching are long term,
regular group forms of education whose advantage is th.at they
have direct and indirect educational impact on education and
youth. Non-formal E.E. seeks to develop and further deepen the
interests and talents of children and youth in particular activities
and to broaden and improve the specialised knowledge and skills.
The Pioneer organisation is primarily orientated to practical
activities and to developing collective feeling and behaviour
and participating in collective decision making. Within this
group the most active are the young friends of wild life and
groups of young nature conservationists.
87
Portugal
The initiation and development of non formal environmental education in
Portugal has been undertaken since 1975 by the National Service for the
Participation of Peoples (NSPP), an organ of the National Commission for
the Environment. This action has involved both the conceptualisation and
implementation of E.E. itself as well as the clarification of the role of
schools in E.E. activities outside of the school. The result has been a
fluid cDmunitY based structure responding to the needs and demands of
various departments of the Ministry of Education, school boards, teachers
and other individuals and institutions.
Noteworthy among the NSPP activities have been exchanges, the establishment
of a document centre, organisation of study sessions on people and their
environment, meeting for natural science teachers and nurses, preparation
and acquisition of films, slides and other audio visual materials and
publication of newsletters.
Finland
Non-formal E.E. in Finland is being conducted in several ways. Well over
100 civic and workers' institutes are carrying out some form of environmental
education with emphasis on biology and agricultue. Three of the 88 "folk
high schools I1 have courses in ecology and environmental protection , many
more have included environmental themes in their social science studies.
Ten more study centres have been organised by various cultural and
educational organisations. Materials have been produced by environmental
protection organisations as well as by Adult Education Prograsrnes of the
88
Finnish Broadcasting Company. The study centres have also produced
their own materials. In addition to the nature protection organisations
there are various groups such as the Energy Policy Association, Society
for Soft Technology and the Antinoise Society, which produce E.E.
teaching and learning materials.
It is concluded that on a national basis, planning, organisation and
conduct of non formal E.E. may be governmental, non governmental and/or
a combination of both. Aspects of, or an entire prograsxne may fall
officially and formally under the ministry of education or another
ministry e.g. agriculture, tourism etc.
In order to reach the objectives of non-formal Ehvironmental Education
quickly and efficiently, it is necessary to embark on action considered
as priorities at international and national levels. These actions need
to be identified and elaborated at national level with appropriate
co-operation and co-ordinationinthe following areas :
(a> co-ordination of initiatives
(b) co-ordination of expertise and exchange of information on different experiences
cc> exchange of information on techniques and materials
Cd) co-ordination of training initiatives.
89
Legislation
One of the most important factors influencing the implementation of
non-formal environmental education is legislation. Many countries
such as Indonesia and the Netherlands have laws regulating environmental
mamagement for the purpose of protecting and enhancing environmental
quality. Others such as Korea have developed Charters for the
protection of the envirorxnent and have stressed the importance of
active participation in the solution of environmental problems.
Not only is it necessary to develop a national development plan, but,
as in Colombia, educational reform is necessary. Legislation must
include specific laws protecting the environment and a specific charter
for the development of nonformal environment education. In the U.S.A.
much environmental legislation has been formulated, this includes both
a National Environmental Policy Act (1969) as well as an Environmental
Education Act, the latter leading to the formation of the Office of
Environmental Education.
China has been very concerned with the relationship between environmental
protection and the modernisation programme, specifically, knowledge
about the environment has been popularised and linked to decision making
particularly during the Period of Readjustment of the National Economy.
In Poland, the law requires compulsory introduction of environmental
education into all on-the-job training courses for workers.
'Ihe Tbilisi Conference recommendations on envirorxnental education at
the national level are contained in the country's 1980 Environmental
Protection Act.
CONCLUSION 90
The concept of environmental education is now well defined and its importance,
role and direction has been clearly elucidated at the Tbilsi Conference. The objectives
of n on-formal environmental education are similar to those in the formal system, that
is, to increase awareness and knowledge and to develop skills and attitudes conducive
to a harmonious relationship with the environment. To do this, it is necessary to
evaluate both environmental education programmes and the efficacy of decisions involved
in environmental management. There are strong arguments that suggest that prudent
environmental decision-making and educational programmes must involve a higher degree
of participation in order to develop a sense of responsibility and urgency within the
learners.
A variety of environmental problems has been reviewed. All countries have some
problems and they may be very severe in many Third World countries. Yet, in almost
all cases, there are alternative strategies such as more appropriate technological
developments or alternative agricultural practices. An attempt has been made to present
guidelines of methodologies which can be made available in order to develop the
objectives of non-formal environmental education, these include both participatory and
non-participatory types. It is argued that both methods are extremely important and
that different techniques can be tried in specific situations, depending on such factors
as the availability of teaching resources, cultural context and the kinds of target groups.
Suggested training techniques have been described which develop informational, foundation
and conceptual awareness, powers of investigation, evaluation and finally action skills.
It is particularly important that environmental leaders evaluate educational programmes
with regard to the need, relevance and degree of participation of the learners.
Finally, a review has been made of the extent of international and national co-
ordination and legislation of non-formal environmental education. A number of
organisations are involved in non-formal environmental education. Key roles are played
by F.A.O., W.H.O., M.M.O., U.N.E.P., U.N.I.C.E.F. and U.N.E.S.C.O. There is clear!y
a need for interaction between these organisations and a major initiative is required for
improved co-ordination. At the national level, the countries reviewed here appear to
have a mixture of governmental and non-governmental organisations involved with non-
91
formal environmental education. In many cases, there is a much greater need for
improved co-ordination and interaction and this may be achieved by formulating a
specific charter for the development of non-formal environmental education within these
countries.
It is inevitable that there will be a great variety in the form and practice of
non-formal environmental education. If the rapid growth in communications technology,
which more areas of the world have experienced in the last decade, continues for the
next decade, then it is not difficult to envisage systems of teaching/learning evolving
that are fundamentally different from those of today. Such developments would
profoundly influence the format and the importance of non-formal education and if
environmental degradation continues at a similar pace, then environmental issues wi II
*become increasingly important.
In the short term, however, it would be prudent if education administrators
reflected on the essential features that characterise non-formal environmental education
i.e. it should be concerned with local issues (but I’ . ..think globally and act locallytlj,
it must involve all levels of society and, above all, it must be active and participatory.
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DOCUMENTS IN THE ENVIRONMENTAL EDUCATION SERIES
No.
1 Trends in Environmental Education since theTbilisi Conference
2 Guide on Gaming and Simulation for Environmental Education
3 Module Bducatif sur la conservation et la gestion des ressources naturelles
4 Educational Module on Environmental Problems in Cities
5 Environmental Education Module for Pre-Service Training of Teachers and Suoervisorsfor Primary Schools
6 Environmental Education Module for In-Service Training of Teachers and Supervisors for Primary Schools
7 Environmental Education Module for Pre-Service Training of Science Teachers and Supervisors for Secondary Schools
8 Environmental Education Module for In-Service Training of Science Teachers and Supervisors for Secondary Schools
9 Environmental Education Module for Pre-Service Training of Social Science Teachers and Suoervisors for Secondary Schools
10 Environmental Education Module for In-Service Training of Social Science Teachers and Supervisors for Secondary Schools
Year
1983
1983
1983
1983
1983
1985
1983
1983
1985
1985
No.
11 L’energie : theme integrateur en education relative a I’environnement
12 Guide on Environmental Education Evaluation at School
13 Guide on Environmental Education Values Teaching
14 Interdisciplinary Approaches in Environmental Education
15 A Problem-Solving Approach to Environmental Education
16 Environmental Education Module on Desertification
17 A Comparative Survey of the Incorporation of Environmental Education into School Curricula
18 The Balance of ‘Lifekind’: An Introduction to the Human Environment
19 Analysis of Results of Environmental Education Pilot Projects
20 Environmental Education: Principles of Teaching and Learning
21 Environmental Education Module on Health, Nutrition and the Environment
22 Procedures for Developing an Environmental Education Curriculum
Year
1985
1985
1985
1985
1985
1985
1985
1985
1985
1985