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doi:10 3723/ut'30.187 IntmationolJoumal af the Socie)for Llndmatu Tbchrclog, Vol 30, No 4, pp 151-182, 2012**4=7".""ftat*{TECHNOTOGY

Scientific diving: towards European harmonisation

:

=o5(EcooLoA

n the European Ur-rion,almost half of the populationpresentlr- lives rrjthin 5G-60km

from the sea. and ntarine andcoastal zone resolllces producemuch of tire EU's economicrvealth. \\hi1e fishing, shippingand totirism industries all com-pete for rital space along theestimate d 90 000km of coastline,coastai zones contain some ofEurope's most fragile and valua-ble natural habitats and archaeo-Iogical heritages. Surveying andassessing the status quo and thefuture changes of coastal habi-tats are therefore key prioritiesfor marine science in the com-ing decades. This is particularlyimportant in the light of tremen-dous forthcoming challenges,such as:

r fast changing humarr demog-raphv resulting in a rise irrcoastal populations and rapidcoastal urbanisation;

r increasing tourism, resultingin coastal zone developmentand degradation;

r increasing demand and over-exploitation of living andnonJiving resources;

o conflicting uses of the marineenvironment (e.g. fish/shell-fish farming, boating, recrea-tional diving, mineral/oill gas

extractions, wind farms) ;

o global change (i.e. increasingfrequency of extreme eventsand rise in superficial rvatertemperatllre, sea level rise, sea\\-ater acidificatiou, diseasesand mass mortaiin' events).

Another key priorityfor marinescience is to support all the ambi-tious efforts within the EU Sus-tainable Developmenr Strategy(SDS) and the Marine StraregyFramework Directive (MSFD).All these issues require advance-ment in marine biology, geology

and archaeolog,v that improvesour knowledge of natural proc-esses affecting biodiversity andfunctioning. It must also addressthe human impact and improveways to mitigate it (e.g. designineecologically active coastal andmarine infrastrrrctures, and devel-oping innovalire restorationstechniques), as well as developinnovative technologies whichsupport these actions.

The European Scientific Div-ing Panel (ESDP) of the MarineBoard of the European ScienceFoundation and the Italian Aso-ciation for Scientific Divers(AIOSS) convened the 3rd Inter-national Symposium on Occupa-tional Scientific Diving (ISOSD)in November 2011 in PortoCesareo, Lecce (Italy). This eventrvas organised in collaborationrvith the Italian Federation ofUndenvater Archaeologist (FAS) ,

and l-ith the patronage of thePorto Cesareo MPA, PugliaRegion and Tourism PromotionAuency of Lecce. More than70 delegates. lrom nine counrries.attended the biennial errent topresent new research and todiscuss the future of scientific div-ing as a tool for scientists involvedin a large field of studies - frombiology and geology. to innora-tion technology and archaeolow.

The symposium focused onfour main topics: (rz) scientific div-ing techniques and experimentalapproaches to inr.estigate bio-ecological processes; (D) scientificdiring as a tool in remote or dif-ficult places; (c) new technol-ogf in undernater science; and(d) maritime archaeologl, andcoastal landscape. Overall, 33 oralcommunications and 15 posterswere presented and are summa-rised in the book of abstracs.available for free on the AIOSSwebsite (www.aioss.info) .

Massimo Ponti, PhDMarine ecologist, prestdent of the ltalianAssociation of Scientlfic Divers (AIOSS)

since its foundation, co teacher of ScientificUnderwater Besearch ai the Universlty ofBologna, ltaly, and master diving instructorof the ltalian Federation of UnderwaterActivities. He is reviewer of several scrent frcjournals and member of a number of sc en-tific associations, lncluding the Reef CheckItalia Association, the Estuarrne and CoastaSciences Association, and the Marne Bio-logical Assooation. Massimo has carriedout underwater ecological research onbenthic assemblages, species inieractionsand human impact tn various oca::c-s andhas pa'ric,paled in serea --=.."'..-dprojects. As visitlng scientist he a s: ,',:-<e:aL the Netherla^os tnsTT.-t - =::-j.and at the University of Plr,,r:-:- .-{

The succe ss of rhc evellt.compared to tl-rose helcl in preri-ous years, testifres tr-r rhe {r-orringinterest ancl ar' J.reltess of theEuropean scienrific cornmuniq.towards scienrillc clir ing. Indeed,the sr-n-rposrunt \\'as also the occa-sion for nio srintulating and ani-mated round table cliscussior.rsorr leqi:larion anci safen. ilnd onthe approptiare trainins pzrth forscientific dircrs. locusir-rg on glo-ballr lruilelrle. r'or kirrq \cer)alio\.

Scientific dir-ing is norr,adaysrrjdelr recogtised br the scientificcor-r-rrlnnin' as a valuable andelfective ulldelrrater research

tool, rrhich allolr,s for directobserr.ations, accurate samplingand experimental manipulationsthat would otherwise be impos_sible. Nevertheless it is .i.u.that there is a lack of harmonisa_tion under several aspects (e.g.training, standards, methods andapproaches) and among coun_tries ar-rd/or disciplines. Despitethe efforts of the ESDp and of thenational offices, this undoubtedlvstill poses limits to the exchangeof researchers and to the collab_orations both within and outsideEurope.

Several countries do not havea national authority, regulationand / or governmental agencyproviding the legal backgroundfor scientific diving. For initance,in Italy there is a long traditionconcerning scientific diving, andin May lggT aEuropean scientificdiving course was held at ElbaIsland (Italy), gir.,ing one of rhefirst contributions to the strategyof the European Scientific DivingCommimee (ESDC). It also suglgesred a drafr srandard for Euro_pean Scientific Divers (ESD) andAdvanced European ScientificDivers (AESD), rrhich rvas formal_ised during the rlorkshop of theESDC held at Banruls sur mer(France, October 2000).

. Ar hough legislarir e propos_

als are under discussior.r. in itut_u

there are no national regulationsfor the conduct of scientificdives, so insteacl local rules. setand enforced by porr authoririeswhenever available, are appliecl.Italy has become a full memberof the ESDP in 2010 by estah_lishing a national scientific dir.ingsteering body, NOSS (formallvAsociazione Italiana OperatoriScientifici Subacquei), whichrepresents the scientific divingcommunity through a numberof major institutions of the coun_try. Among the individual mem_bers are technicians, researchersand academics from universities,research institutes and publicagencies, operators and manag_ers of marine protected areai,nature reseryes, marine archae_ological siles and aquariums,as well as freelancers andemployees of private studies ofenvironmental consulting, engi_neers and doctors.

AIOSS liaises with the Work_ing Committee of the Chamberof Deputies ancl other associa_tions to promote legal recogni_tion of scientific diving in ttalv. Itreleases rhe ESD and AESD cer_tificates based on the rigorousapplication of the ESDp stand_ards. These standards simplvdefine the minimum basic train_ing of a scientific diver as needed.for mobility and as a basic trainins

Pontt. ScimtiJic diz.ing tra,ards Eurcpeart hamonisation

level on which the employer canbuild further rraining modules.

In realiq', scientific diving is nota prerogative of academies and,as a discipline, involves a widerange of occupational scientificdiving, as demonstrated by theintervenrions ar rhe gra ISbSn.While in most cases the ESD andA-ESD certificates are issued tomembers of permanent and con_tract staff, research students, tech_nicians and ffainees of researchinstitutions, in Italy the requestsof these certifications often comefrom freelancers and employeesof consulting companies. This ver_ification process involves a care_ful evaluation of the curriculaand of the scientific backsroundoF applicanrs. which is morerestrictive of what is provided inthe ESDP standards.

The training of the next gen_eradon of scientific divers stronglycalls for international -.rttidisciplinary and complementarytrain i ng programmes. Consider_ing the needs of scientific diversfrom different Eurcipean colllt_tries. it rr-ill be e\-en more Llrgentto implen-rent :r shar-ecl approach[o guaranlee stanclardisation indiiing activities. This can beachier e cl br joir-rt nefir.orks, involr.irrg horh l,tiblic arrd privare sec-tors. rihich could be supportedbr Errropean actiolts.

doi:10.3723/ut.30.183 IntmtiorulJouml of the Socieg for Undmato Tbchnolog, Vol 30, No 4, pp 183-188, 2012

?ifi1-*3-1e74t'Js"{ttau !a ?v +qL g

TECHNOTOGY

Surveying black bream, Spon dyliosomacantharus (L.), nesting sites usingsidescan sonarKJ Collins* andJJ MallinsonOcean and Earth Science, Uniaersity of Southam,pton, I{ational Oceanography Centre,

Southampton SO14 3ZH, LrK

LoCLct4G,9troP

AbstractBlack bream, Spondyliosoma cantharus (L.), are summer

visitors to the south and west coasts of the UK, overwinter-ing in deeper waters and migrating inshore to breed from

April to June. Bream are demersal spawners, with the eggs

laid in a nest excavated by the male as it creates a depres-

sron in a sandy gravel substrate. To build their nests, male

bream expose bedrock and gravel by using their tails torerrove the surface layer.

The present study, using sidescan sonar and SCUBA

diving, extends the known occurrence of extensive nestinggrounds off the West Sussex coast to the lsle of Wight and

Dorset. The nests are typically circular craters 1-2m wide,and 5-3Ocm in depth, which can clearly be seen using side-

scan sonar as groups of circular depressions. Several thou-

sands of eggs (1-2mm) are attached to bare rock in thecentre of these structures. All the eggs hatch by July.

The species is valuable and particularly vulnerable toexploitation by both sport and commercial fishermen duringits nesting season. With no minimum landing size and noprescription for Total Allowable Catch or the InternationalCouncil for the Exploration of the Sea (ICES) stock assess-ment, they are suitable for protection under spatial planning

measures, such as through the use of marine protected

areas (MPAs).

Keywords: black bream, Spondyliosoma cantharus, SCUBAdiving, sidescan sonar, spawning, fisheries management,English Channel

1. lntroductionBlack bream, Spondyliosoma cantharu.s (L.), belongsto the family Spariclae, which has a maximumlength reached of 51cm, though most adult speci-mens are -35cm (\\-leeeler, 1978). In the presentpaper, 'brean' refers to this species. Adults are sil-

ver in colour irith blue hints, and may have goldenlongitudinal lines. although these are more pro-nounced in juveniles (\{iller and Loates, 1997).

Nesting males are usualh' almost black in coloura-tion (Dipper, 2001; Carleton. 2009).

Black bream are protogynous hermaphrodites(Reinboth, 1962), maturing as males at approxi-mately 20cm and remaining male until they reach30cm. At this Iength they may change into females,with any fish over 40cm being female (Pawson,

1995) . Mouine et al. (2011) describe the reproduc-tive characteristics of bream, as well as the changefrom female to male for a population off T[rnisia.The ecological advantage of sequential hermaph-roditism in animals, including Sparidae, is discussed

by Warner (1975).The species can be found in northeastern Atlan-

tic shelf waters, ranging from Norway and theOrkney Islands south into the Mediterranean andthe Canary Islands, and are most plentiful in theEnglish Channel and south to the MediterraneanSea (\Aheelea 1978; Pawson 1995). In the UK,Rogers (1998) found the species to be more plenti-ful along the south coast rather than the North Sea

coast, and in mostly shallower than 15m deep water.Depth range is 5-300m and the fish ma,v be four-rd

in a variety of habitats including over seagrass(Zostera marina) beds (Lythgoe and Lvthgoe. 1991;

Jackson et al., 2002; Kay and Dippea 2009 ) and rockror sandy bottoms (Bauchot and Hureau. 1986).

Around the British Isles, bream are generalh'sLlm-mer visitors and are found off the south and rrestcoasts during warm periods. Nthough sone tag-

ging of black bream has been carried out (Pa\rson,

1995), minimal returns have be en recorded, result-ing in migration patterns to be inferred from fish-ery data and analysing the distribution of maturing.ripe and spent fish.

Adult bream overrtinter in cleep rvater (50-100m)west from Nderner. Nora Scotia, to Start Point.Devon (Pal-son. 1995 t. -\ the temperature rises ther-

migrate east. reaching Sussex in \'Iarcli rthere ther"

take to the shallort inshor-e \raters (<5rn; . k has beenproposed tl-rat these migratioris follorv tire eastwardmovernent of the 9'C isothemr (Parvson, 1995).Durins April thev usuallr-move into an area off the

Colliru ad \Ia.llimn' Sur'ainq blach bmm' spond'liosorna canthants (L.), nesting sites using sidescan sonar

posiri\-eh-identified as a breeding ground (Carleton,2009). Sp_awning in the English dfrannel occurs Mayto |une (Perodou and Nedelec, 1gB0), April to May(Soletchnik, 1983). outside otthe .i;"i;;;;.*.iApril to May period, pawson (lgg5) ,lo*, u spawningrecorded in the Baie de Seine cluring Septemberand October.

Bream are demersal spawners and the males lavtheir eggs in a nest excavaied by creati"g "

O"pr.rr,"?in a gravel substrate. Juveniies are fJund inshorearound the Channel Islands, port en Bessin, the Isleof Wight and in the Solent, suggesring thar rheyremain close to their spawning

"g".o.,.rcl"s e;*;;;l1995). young fish remain ir-rrhJ.! fo, between moand three years, by which point they become

approximately 20cm in length. They are then sexu_ally marure and recruir inl the uj.rfi pop.rlarion(Carleton, 2009).In order to builcl their nests, male bream usetheir tails to remove the surface tuy., n.a.ock andgravel. The process may also be used to auract afemale. The nests themselves tend to be l_2m rr,ideand 5-30cm in depth, and can clearly be seen onsidescan sonar as groups ofcraterlike depressions.

f,": u" appropriate nesr is selecred by the f.emale,s,he lays a,thin layer of eggs within its'a;ea, whichthe male then fertilis., $iL., .t at., ZOib).

Surveys for the aggregate industry (SouthernScience 199b; EMU, ZOOS) identinJd spawninggrounds on near-shore (-10m depth) ,urrartrl.urrichalk reefs berween Bognor and W".rni"g Zr_5Okmeast of^the study, as inclicated in Fig t.'.Ih. p..r_ence of nests in this area was furtheiconfirmed by

James et al. (2010). Sussex Sea Fisheri., Urtri.tCommittee officers, Dapling and Ctu.t< (pers.

comm.), considered this to be a significant fincl.and that catch data suggest there weie also centresfor breeding sourh of tlr. Isle of Wighi urra f.r.tt ".west.

.,th: present study seeks to exrend the known dis_tribution of bream nesting sites westwa.J iio_ th.Isle of \Arighr ro Dorser.

2. Methods_Jroescan sonar with integrated GpS was used(Humminbird 99Zc Combo) in single_Leu_ _oa"ar 800kHz, with a swarh width of ZO_ (1b0ft) to

:urvey the study sites shown in Fig 1. This was usedln two modes: (c) snapshot, recorcling the screenimage (portable pNG format) *hllf_," was subse_quently adjusted for vessel speed and removal ofthe \\-ater colurnn section of tne i_ug", ,otuted tomatch the le,ssel heading ur.d g.,r_rlf"renced in-\rc\ierr- 8.2: or /D) recordl.orru.itirrg the files withtire Son2xtf program from HummiriU.a SON for_mat ro the rridell usecl XTF format. DeepView pub_lisher 3.0 rlas Ltsecl to convert the XTF files toCoogle Earth L\IZ formar. A disadvantage of rhiseas\:to-Llse progr:l'' is that removal of the watercolumn belorl the lessel is not possible. The widthof the nest \ras rtreastrred f.o_ th" a."r, ,o crest of.the bank surrounding the depression.

*_j-t::-r l'..e inre.1tg21sa Uy SCUne diving ro con_

l_1"] ,,lu,,n.rLs ancl eqgs \rere present, plus recorded

uv orgltat Ca.ntet.d: and Video (Contour high clefi_nition rHD, iir a \\arernrn^l .."^ ,:--^.di'er s -u,i.,,."p, {::iil'.::jiT.:T,1J:,j::permittecl errracrion of acceptable still frames(Fig 2 r.

-i{ "{ <l4:ti 4--- 't \8

z*'z /#,* a',

{'f}^." -,' I<.t ) 1-.r.} \

{**-\}; (- '\\-/ i .-i -1

-.f' I a, a--\E ,t-^ -, lsz+tJ

t-..wj >_-^-t-,-J-

-,J -^\*: -./ :j-'<v)t

KimmeridgeDancing Ledge

Location of the bream nest study sites off the centrar sorth coast of the uK

L! tld *i":r"a i *:TECHNOTOGY vor 30, No 4. 2or2

Fig 2: Photograpb sf a diver examrling a brear .eS. onSouthbourne Bough 3f 3,1119 bedrcct< c eareC of Sandygravel by rhe brean^ tc form a craf.er 2m across, The inseishorrys a detail of eggs (2mm) adhering to the newly exposedbedrock

3. Results

gravel and shell, cobbie and buried boulders. Thebream exca\.ate craters that completely clear sub_surface flat boulders tr-pically 0.b_lm wide.

Tanville Ledge is a single 500m_long ridge ofsteeply inclined sandstones surrounded by sand.Fig 3a shows rhe crest of the ridge (at the top ofthe figure) to the flat seabed at rhe botrom, rviththe nests concentrated in a narrow band aiong therock/sand marsin. Here the sediment is sufficienth,shallow to allow exposure of the bedrock. At theDancing Ledge site there are bands of shallolr4,vinclined limestone strata $dth narrow and shallowsands between ridges. In Sandown Bay the sand_stone reefsurface is very irregular.

The most extensive occurrence of bream nestsr,vas found off Kimmeridge. Here, there are manysquare kilometres of faulted shales producing asaw-tooth section that has rock ledges interspersedwith pockets of sand/gravel/shell sedimenr (Brachiet al., 1978). Fig 3b shows a central low rock ledgeseparating two bands of the sediment that have beenextensively excavated. To the right of the figure,the deeper sediment is formed into sand_waves.

Analysis of the nest crater widths from the proc_essed sidescan images is shown in Fig 4 and Table 1.Kruskal-Wallis one-way analysis of variance onranks of width shows significant difference betlveensites (P : <0.0001). The Kimmeridge nesrs are

Sidescan sonar studies described in the presentpaper lvere undertaken in May 2010 (Dorset) andJune 2011 (Sandown Bay), while the diving srudieshave been undertaken over the past decade. TheSouthbourne Rough bream nestins site was firststudied by the authors and collaborarors (Markeyand Baldock) cliving in 19g0 and reporred byCollins (2003).

Poole Bay contains a number of low, small patchreefs (typically <100m across) composed of iron_rich sandstones surrounded by silq, sand seabed. Inthe months of May and June, over many yearsbream nest craters (Fig Z) have been found at theperimeter of these patch reefs r.vhere the sedimentcover is thin, enabling the bream to clear to thebedrock on which a single laver of eggs (2mmdiamerer; is laid.

The ability of bream to rapidly excavate sandsand gravels was observed directly in research aquar_ium display tanks, where a male bream repeatedlyexcavated craters 20cm deep and g0cm wide in lessthan 30mins by viuorous tail and body wafting ofthe substratum. These patch reefs are the focusof iriter-rsive sport angling specifically rargering rhebr-earn from April to June. Diving was Jifficult

^tsome of the Poole Bav sites simplv because of thenumber- of anslins boats targeting the bream.

The nestiirg site in the centre of poole Bar. rvasrevealed br- a single specrilarir-e siclescan trackacross the bar-(James et al..2t)10). br-rr not inr.esrj_gated as part of that stuch. Titis rras r-rnexpectecl asthere are no reef olrtcrops in this area. Diring inMay 2010 revealed that the seabed seciimenr i-s len.mixed rvith a firll ran,t" nf nr"ro,.i-1. "il,. ---r^

(a)

I

Collins md Mallinson. Suruqing blach bream, Spondykosoma cantharus (L.), nesting sites using sidescan sonar

Table 1: Comparson of bream nest width by Mann Whitney Bank Sum Test (P =) show ng a number ofsamples and depth of sites

depth (m) -10 18

7a 2a2327

I107

23166

t531

Tanville SouthbourneLedge Rough

PooleBay

DancingLedge

Kimmeridge Sandown

Tanv le LedgeSouthbourne RoughPooe BayDanc ng LedgeKlmmeridgeSandown

<0,001X

0 650 <0 00.1

<0,001 0 896x <0,001

X

<0,001<0 001

<0,001<0,00.1

X

0 -rB0

<0,0010.471

<0 00'1

<0,001X

Kimmer dge Daf cing L rocation

Fig 4: Average wdth (t'1 srandard deviation) of bream nestsat the locat ons shown n Fig -1

significantly larger (using the Mann Whitney RankSum Test, P : <0.001) than at the other study sites.This is attributed to the wide extent of flat bedrockrvith shallow sediment cover. Southbourne Roughand Dancing Ledge sites are limited by the size ofthe reef and the extent of sediment patches, respec-tively. The steeplv inclined strara of Thnville Ledgefurther constrain the useable area available to thebream. Both the central Poole Bay and Sandownsites are restricted bv irregular rock surfaces, boul-ders and bedrock, respecti\.ehi

Over a number of vears transparent eggs werestill present in June on the central bare rock atseveral Poole Bay, Southbourne Rough and Sand-own Bay nest sites. ByJuly each year no eggs wereobseru'ed and itwas assumed that they had hatched,since juvenile specimens were seen swimmingaround the reefs.

The circular crater-like nests are readily detecta-ble by sidescan sonar. One salutary lesson waslearned reviewing a recent February sidescan sur-vey from Brixham Harbour. There was a distinctpattern of circular rings on the seabed. Analysis ofthe sonar trace showed these to be less than 1m indiameter and identical in size. Drop-down videopror-ed that these were actually scrap car tyres.

4, Discussion

Each nest contains several thousand eggs repre-senting a valuable food resource which the authorshave observed being exploited by Corkwing (Crenilabrus melops) and Goldsinny \,vrasse (Ctenolabrusrupestris). Wilson (1958) describes male bream inan aquarium driving away intruders until the eggshave hatched.James et al. (2010) similarly refer roguarding of the nests by the males. While suchparental care by male Corkwing wrasse (Collins er&1., 1996) and tropical damsel fish has beenobserved, close guarding of the bream nests hasnot been lvitnessed. The exhalation bubbles fromdiring with open-circuit SCUBA is known to deterfish, so closed-circuit gear has been used for fishobservation studies to reduce this potential distur-bance (Lobel, 2001). Another technique that couldbe emploved is deployment of a fixed video cam-era. Lott (pers. comm.) has supplied the authorswith such video of the seabed behaviour of breamand Spicara tnaenain the Mediterranean.

Bream are commercially valuable. Pavlidis andMylonas (2011) documenr the rapid growrh inSparidae aquaculture. Analysis of 1999-2007 land-ings of black bream for the International Councilfor the Exploration of the Sea (ICES) recrangle30E9 shows that thev are mostly to the local portsof Shoreham and Netvhaven. Annual landings haveconsistently been -200 tonnes occurring from Aprilto June, with a peak in May coinciding with thesparvning season (EMU, 2008).

Bream are not subject to ICES stock assess-ment or classed as a pressure stock for EU fisheriesmanagement purposes, and no Total AllowableCatch is prescribed. There is also no minimumlanding size under EU technical regulations, how-ever, as protogynous hermaphrodites this would becounter-productive. The EU places restrictions onany towed gear used for sea bream fishing, as itmust have a mesh size >BOmm and sea bream musrform a minimum of 70% of the catch (EU, lgg8).This at least protects the.juvenile stock.

Kimmer dge Daf cing L

I

I

"r1*&#.f#t-*tTECHNOLOGY v"r 30, No 4, 2012

In Sussex bream are targeted by {ixed nets(Cooper, 2005) and pair trawlers, 10-14m length.In order to gain Marine Stewardship Council (MSC)

certification for the pair trawling bream fisheryDapling et al. (2010) concluded that suitable stockassessments and implementation of associated man-agement measures are required. In addition, theseabed impacts must be quantified and mitigated.

The r,rrlnerability and limited known extent ofnesting sites suggest that the fish are suitable forprotection under spatial planning measures, includ-ing marine protected areas (MPAs) . Both theKimmeridge and Dancing Ledge sites are withinproposed Special Area of Conservation (SAC) ofthe Studland to Portland (Natural England,2011),however, the presence of bream nest sites withinthis SAC is not acknorvledged. The SAC is part ofthe requirements of Natural England, relating tothe conservation of natural habitat types and spe-

cies through identi{ication of SACs in UK waters(EU, 2007).

In southeastern England the marine aggregateindustry is more important than in other regions -a result of land-based supplies being used up andrelatively lower costs for marine transport. Theextraction of marine aggregates is a complex proc-ess bringing with it a number of enl'ironmentaleffects and responsibilities, man1, of which are poorlyunderstood, although knowledge is constantlyincreasing (Haskoning, 2003; see also ICES, 2000).

Dredging often affects the composition of thesediment, as coarse material is removed and finesediment is deposited. Bream make their nests ingravel substrates, so if this depositine of fine sedi-ments occurs within an area previously used by thebream as a nest site, they may consider the area as

unsuitable for further spawning. If alternative sites

are unavailable, then this will clearly negativelyaffect the species.

A further problem arises even if changes causedby dredging are not sufficient to cause abandon-ment of a nesting site. It is possible that spal,r,ned

eggs may be smothered by depositing of sediment.Although they may be resistant to a certain level ofthis as experienced naturally (by storms for exam-ple ). the increased duration, extent and frequencyof dredging-related clepositing mar- bring fr.rrtheradler-se effect-s. inchrcling t1-re ir-rhibition of embn.onic developlrlent rHa:konirrg. ltlt,t3 r.

Climate change appears to be haring a positireeffect on bream stocks in the Enslish Channel.Arkley and Casiake (2004) foi-ind that the rneanannual frequency of occurrence of bream off Plr-mouth has increased with rising sea temperatrlrefrom 1913 to 2003. Similarlr', rhe Centre for Erni-ronment, Fisheries and Aquaculture Science (Cefas)

eastern English Channel beam trawl survey suggests

an upl-ard trend ir-i bream abundance from 1993 to2001 (Parker-Hr-rmphrevs, 2005).

Bream, rlhile aggregated around their nestingsites, are particularlv vulnerable (given the absence

of stock management) to exploitation by both com-mercial and sport fishing, as rl,ell as impact fiomaggregate extraction. Special measures should beconsidered to protect such regions during thesparvning period. \\hile information on the distri-bution of nesting sites is limited, sidescan sonar has

proved to be an excellent tool for detecting thesesites, and further surveys to inform fisheries man-agement plans are recommended.

AcknowledgementsThe authors wish to thank their fellow divers MikeMarkey and Dr Lin Baldock, who supplied photo-graphs and observations over the past decades. Theboat charter for the sidescan survey was funded byDorset Wildlife Trust. Rob Clark and Tim Dapling,Sussex Sea Fisheries District Committee, suppliedmany of the technical reports cited. David Pearce,

Universitl' of Bournemouth, analysed the Dorsetsidescan images and undertook a literature review.

Alan Deeming alerted the authors to the presenceof bream in Sandown Bay and supplied his vessel

for the sidescan survey of that site. Christian Lott,Hydra Institute, Germany, supplied video sequencesfrom studies in the Mediterranean.

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ing techniques for the sustainable exploitation of non-pressure stocks in Cornish inshore \'vaters. Report by theMarine Biological Association of the United Kingdom,Plymouth for the Sea Fish Industry Authoriq/, 89pp.

Bauchot ML and HureauJC. (1986). Sparidae. In: \Vhite-head PJP, Bauchot ML, Hureau.fC, NielsenJ and Tortort-ese E. (eds). Fishes of the north-eastem Atlantir and the -\Iedi-tel'ranean, vol 2. Paris: UNESCO, 883-907.

Brachi R, Collins K and Roberts C. (1978 t. -\ rrinter surr"elof a serni exposed rockv coastline: sLln'e\ strategr andfield techniques. Pro-g'rc-ss in L-ttdentnter .\cience 4: 37-47.

Carleton CTL. (2009). Pre-assessrnent of 26 {rsheries to theMSC standard. The Inshole Fishe ries Sustainability Pilot,Stage 2 Report. Nautilus Consultans, Food CertificationInternational.

Collins K- (2003). Dor-ser mar-ine habitat surveys: maerl,rr'orn reefs. brearn nesLr. :ezr fans and brittlestars. 2003>Lrrrer resLrlLs. Report to Dorset Wilcllife Trust andErreli'lr \.rrue. Iipp.

C.ollin: KJer.rsen -\ and \IallinsonJ. (1996). Obserlationsof rtrasse on an artificial reef. In: Sa,ver N'I, Treasurer Jarrd Costello \,I (eds.). Wrasse: Biology and Use in Aquacul-lioz. Oxford: Blackwell Scientific, 47-54.

Cooper Il\I. (2005). Cumulatir,e effects of marine aggre-

sate extraction in an area east of the Isle of \{ight - A

doi:10.372j/ut30.189 IntemationalJomaloftheSociegforUndmatuTechnolog,Vol 30,No4,pp189-194,2012

-.27{z**'tr/.{&t*{TECHNOTOGY

GPS diving computer for underwater trackingand mappingBenjamin Kuch*1, Giorsio Br-rrtazzol. Elaine,Vzopardi:lScuolo, Superiore Sattt'-\nna - RETIS Lob. Itatt2Scottish ,\ssociatiott for Jlctrine Science. L-K

)Institute of )ticro and \-ctnotechnotog.; (DIEGO AB1, Sueden

+ Seabear Diuirtg Techn olog, Austria

Abstract

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Obtaining accurate and affordable geo-referencing is notstraightforward for divers because there is a lack of through-water penetration by global positioning systems (GPS).Although a number of commercially available systems exist,few are low-cost or operationally flexible enough for use in

scientific diving. The present paper details a new GPS divingcomputer that supports navigation and Global System forMobile Communications (GSM) underwater. The unit displaysthe distance and heading information to set points and tracksthe dive in three dimensions (position, depth and time).When downloaded, the tracked dive profile can be visualisedin 3D in Google Earth. By synchronising the dive computerclock to external recording devices (for example, cameras),any recording event can be geo-referenced with attacheddata relating to GPS position, temperature and depth.

Keywords: undenrrater navigation, diver positioning, globalpositioning system (GPS) Global System for Mobile Commu-nications (GSN/), diving compuier

1. lntroductionA major challenge for occupational divers is acquir-ing accurate navigation and positioning under-water mainly because the diver is moving in athree-dimensional space and, quite often, there arelimitations to being able to visualise referencepoints in conditions of lorv water clarity. Advancedtrrfir-rical solutions to this problem exist in the1r-iritr ,-,f rilrra-s1-rort baselirie (USBL; sometimescallecl sirscr-->:t, rr: ba:eline rSSBL)) and iorrg base-Iine rLBL .iLr-,r-L!Ljr lo:iri,-rr.rirrg s\srenrs. L SBLs allorr-for multiple subse.r iarEeLS r-,.r bc i.c,.lr-are1r' posi-tioned relative to a surfact ,,'ersel e.g. :-.nl(lchoperated vehicle (RO\-r. tor' fish ,. in'hile LBL-i pr(_F

vide a method of accurate positionir-rg over tr lridrarea using transponder separations from l[rr_rn-r toseveral kilometres. Invariably', USBL or LBL technol-ogies are used to position RO\ts or unmanned

\Iartin Saver: and ,\me Sieber3'a

underwater vehicles computing relatively basic tri-angulations behveen the vehicle-mounted transducerand an array ofseabed transponders (e.g. Scheireret al., 2000). Coupling USBL with an inertial naviga-tion system (INS) can enhance r,'ehicle position andorientation estimates (Morgado et al., 2006).

Another way to navigate underwater is to use anacoustic tracking beacon and a receiver station(which may have GPS positioning) with a ser ofhvdrophones (underwater microphones). The bea-con continuously sends out an acoustic signal,rvhich is received by the hydrophones. Distance isthen calculated by the signal runtime, and the tar-get direction is measured by the phase shift betweenthe different hydrophones (Gamrorh et al., 2011).Most of these systems require preparation time,since specific hardware needs to be deployed beforethe dive. In addition, inaccuracies can occur sinceacoustic signals may get disturbed by environmentalnoise, or may get blocked or reflected by largerobjects like wrecks or big rocks. Furthermore, thevelociq' of sound changes with temperature, salinityand pressure, all of which reduces accuracy as well.

Positioning of unmanned underwater vehiclestypically makes use of an inertial measurement unir(IMU) in combination with a Doppler velocin'1og(Lee et. al.,2005; Willumsen er. al., 2006: Huanget. al., 2010; Miller et al., 2010). The I\iU compuresorientation and heading i-rsing a three-arial gyro-scope. Since a gvroscope drift.s over tir-r-re. the valuesare corrected b_v a three-arial accelerometer and athree-axiai ntagnetometer r-aiues r-rsing advancedsisnal processing te c1-rniques like the Kalmanor Con.rplenlenran fiiter (\{arins et. al., 2001;\Iacls\'ick. 2010r. Il the direction is known, thepositior-r can be calculared by multiplyins the veloc-in proiided bv the Doppler velociry log. Such anarigation svstem also exists for divers (Hartmanet al.. 2008), but is bulky (31 x 37 x 33cm), hear,y

INS usesjust an IMU to calculate the actual posi-tion via dead reckoning, whereby accelerations andorientations are assessed in fixed time intervals (ft).INS calculates orientation using three-axial gyro,scopes, accelerometers and magnetometers (asdescribed earlier), which is then used ro project thelocal acceleration vector of the IMU local coordi-nate frame into the global earth coordinate frame.The global velocity vector can be computed. using agraviq'-compensated acceleration vector multipliedby tl; the final global position is the product of theglobal velocity vector, multiplied again by /1. Unfor-tunately, dead reckoning purely based on IMUsworks just for short time periods and only on fastaccelerating objects like rockets or airplanes. Deadreckoning of a diver in 3D and purely based oninertial navigation is extremely challenging, mainlybecause diver accelerations are small compared togravity (Kuch et al., 2011).

Current underwater navigation s,vstems that havebeen developed or adopted for diving applicationseither are not cost-effective for relatively small andmobile operations, or are based on evolving technol-ogies. The main objective of this study is to developan easy-to-use, lighnveight and cheap underwaternavigation s)/stem based on GPS, since GpS is notavailable underwater because the electromagneticwaves from its satellites do not penetrate water.Therefore, for any low-cost option, it is necessary tohave the GPS receiver on surface, floating abovethe diver. Pretious studies have used GPS receiversmounted in surface marker buoys above divers inisolation. Matching the time code of the GpS dorvn-loads to specific Lrnderwater 'events' generatedapproximate geo-referencing (e.g. Collins andBaldock, 2007).

The present studv aims to further develop thisapproach through developing an in situdive compu-ter that is able to communicate with the GpS receiverand record the whole dir.e track and depth profile.In doing so, it is intended that the diver lvould beable to enter GPS coordinates as set points, shor,v dis-tance and angle to these preset GPS set points whilealso providing a tool to incorporate GpS coordi-nates, temperature and depth into the InternationalPress Telecommunications Council (IPTC, 20lZ)metadata files of any photographs taken during thedive. Finally, the present study u,ill pror,'icle a tool bvwhich doltnloaded dive profiles from the computercan be visualised in 3D.

2. Methods2.1. System hardwareThe hardware consisted of a scuba buoy-systemrlith an attached modified divins computer (Fis 1).

Kuch et al. GPS diuing computtr for und,mattr traching md mappine

Fig 1: Hardv,ree a aJ,?.rl

The diving computer comprised mainlv of a micro-controlieq a pressllre sensor, a flash memory chipand a displa) (Koss and Sieber,2011). The compu-ter had one set'ial port for communication withexternal hardrtare as described by Kuch et al. (2010) .

The diving conprlter \vas mounted on a reel(diameter 12crn), rvhich carried the cable connect-ing the GPS transmitter to the diving computer.The transmitrer rlas the Telit GM862-GPS module.which aiso included a Global System for MobileCommunications (GSM) modem.

Communication befiveen the dil-ing computerand buoy-system rvas r..ia serial communication(four-wire cable: received data (RXD), transmitteddata (TXD), mass, on/offswitch). The .wire was norspecially shielded because of the lack of any elec-tromagnetic compatibility issues underwater. Thecommunication speed was 9600 baud and the over-all lorv po\{er consumption permitted the wholeunit to be powered by a single 3V A{ batrery. Thebuoy-system was powered by a rechargeable lithium-ion mobile phone bamery (1800mAh).

2.2. System software2.2.1. FimwareThe firmware of the device was developed in theprogramming language C in rhe IAR EmbeddeclWorkbench (IAR Systems) development enri-ronment. The diving computer acquired and dis-playecl data, and deoth. temDeratrrre znr'l fime urere

l

zzez&*rzgat.*rTECHNOTOGY v"r 30, No 4. 2or2

recorded. In addition, the GpS clara rr-ere receir-edby the computer unit over the serial interface. Amenu-based user interface could be used to set uptime/date, enter rhe PC transmission mode andhandle GS\l GPS acrions.

The basic GPS function of the diving compurer\\ras to store GPS data in the flash memory in lsecinten'als throughout the dive. In addition, evenrpositior"is were stored via the GpS menu. An inte_grated homing function allowed the user to choosepreset points forming reference points to whichthe diver could reverse navigate, with distance anddirection to that set point being shown on the dis-play (Kaplan, 2005).

The short message service (SMS) supporred twodifferent kinds of pre-definecl message to be sent toa pre-defined mobile phone number (configureclwithin the PC software). One tlpe was an ernergencySMS including the acrual deprh and GpS coordi_nates of the diver at the time of sending, and theother was the actual depth and GpS coordinates.

To be able to handle all necessary data tasks(acquisition, storage, visualisation and computation)simultaneously, the firmware contained a schedulingmechanism that handled time-critical tasks withininterr-upt routines. Depth measurements and displayupdates were made within a timer interrupt occur_ring in 250ms intervals. Receprion of GpS/GSMtasks was done in the USART (universal syn_chronous/as;archronous receiver/ transmitter) inter_r-upt. Position calculations, data storage and SMStransmission were done in the main loop.

2.2.2. PC softwareThe PC sofhr-are rras der.eloped inJava 1.6 under theEclipse SDK 3..1.1 and the Eclipse Standard WiclgetToolkit to keep it platforrn independenr. RXTX 2.1was chosen as the serial communication libraryThe software provided a management and configu_ration suite consisting of three major features. Thefirst was configuration of the narigation svstemwhich permitted all adjustments, such as GSNI set-tings and time synchronisation, to be set.

The second feature of the software converteddive data transfer into an output file that could sup-port visualising the data in 3D. The dive data wouldthen need to be downloaded via the pC softwareand converted afterwards. Dive profiles were con-verted into the keyhole mark-up language (KML)format. KML is the exrensible mark-up language(XML) notarion for expressing geographic anno_tation and visualisation data and had been spe_cifically designed for use with the Google Earthapplication. Google Earth was the chosen platformfor displaying the recorded data, as it already pro_vides a framework by which to visualise 3D objectsinside a map without further programming neces-sary. Irrespective of that, KML files can be importedto 3DS or Blender with some minor re-formatting.

Since only viewed parts of the ocean are mappedin Google Earth, the pC software converted thedepth profile inro an altitude profile (Fig 2).Nthough Google Earrh can display a depth profile,there is no method to correct the anomaly thatthe profile was showing above sea level. The dive

F -:-"* t'gt 6t4e'3 fii{ .e " '

1I

underwater navigation. In'. Proc. 9th Worhshop on Intelligent

Solu,tion.s in Embedded, Systems, 101-108.Kuch B, Koss B, Dr-1jic Z, Bttttazz.o G and Sieber A. (2010).

A novel wearable apnea dive computer for continuousplethysmographic monitoring of oxygen saturation and

heart rate. Diuing ancl Hlperbarit: MetLicine 40: 34-40.Lee PM, Jun BH, Choi HT and Hong S\\t. (2005). An inte-

grated navigation systems for unden'ater vehicles based

on inertial sensors and pseudo LBL acoustic tral'rspond-

ers. In: Proc. Oceans, r'ol 1,555-562.Madgrvick SOH. (2010). An efficient orientation filter fcir

incrtial and inertial/magnetic sensor arravs. Technical

report, Universiq' of Bristol, 32pp. Available athttp://sharenet-rvii-tnotion-trac. googlecode. com/downloads/1ist. last accessed <09 March 2012>.

MarinsJL, Yun X, Bachmann ER, il{cGhee RB and ZydaMJ.(2001) . An extended Kalman illter for quaternion-basedorientation estimation using N{-{RG sensors. ln: Proc. ofthe IEEE/RSJ In,Iernatir,tnal Conference on Intelligent Robrtts

antl System.s, vol '1, 2003-2011.

Kuch et al. GPS cliaing cornputu for undmatr tracking and mt

Miller PA, FarrellJA, Zhao Y and Djapic V (2010). '\r'i "

mous underwater vehicle navigation. IEEE Joun ttti

O ce an.ic En.sineeing 35: 663-678.Morgado M, Oliveira P, Silvestre C and Vasconcel' . r;

(2006). USBL/INS tightl,v-coupled integration techr-- ' .'"

for rrndenvater vehicles. ln'. Proc. 9th Intl. Conf. ott . 'mation Fusion. Nerv York: IEEE, t3pp.

Scheirer DS, Fornari DJ, Humphris SE and Lert.i.: '(2000). High-resolution seafloor mapping usine

DSL-I20 sonar system: Quantitative assessment of '- 'can and phase-bathl'metry data from the Luckv S:'- ' '

sesment of the Mid-Atlantic Ridge. Marine Geopi, I

fusearch 2l 1.2I-742.Schories D and Niedzrviedz G. (2012). Precision, accLr:-

and application of diver-to'w'ed under-water GPS rece '- . -

Enuironmental Monitoring rtnrl Assessment 184: 2359-!' --Willumsen AB, Hallingstad O andJalving B. (2006) . Intt--..

tion of range, bearing and Doppler measurement-q - -transponders into underwater vehicle navigation sr sr.

Prut. Ocpo,t' 2006: l-6.

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SuBsEA CoNTRoL AND

AcoutslrtoN2o^1 0Future Technology, Availability and Through Life Changes

Proceedings of the lnternational Conference held in

Newcastle, UK, 2-3 June 2010

tsBN 0 906940 52 4

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Hardback edition 2010

Published by SUT

176 pages plus CD-ROM

Price: f95* 10% discount for

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This long established internattonal conference dealrng exclusively with underwater instrumentation,

control and communtcation technology for subsea orl and gas production has been structured to cover

relevant experience and new thinking in subsea developments. Providing a unique forum for the supplier

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doi:10.3723/ut.30.195 IntmotionalJouruloftheSode\forUndmatrTechnolog,Vol 30,No1,pp195-199,2012

-,z3***T1t;'AT.*TTECHNOTOGY

Development of a head-up displayed divingcomputer capability for full face masksAn-re Sieberxr :, Benjamin Kuch3, Peter Enokssona and Milena Stoyanova-Sieberl1 Seabear Diuing Technolog, Puchstra,sse 17, 8020 Graz, Austria: \CREO AB, Araid Hedualls Bache 4, 11133 Gothenburg, Sweden

)Scuola Supenore Sant'Anna - RETIS Lab, uia Moruzzi 1, 56124 Pisa, Italy1MC2, Chalmers Llniaersity of Technology, Gothenburg, Sweden

Abstract

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Professional divers often dive ln conditions of very low visi-bility ln such situations, a head-up display has many advan-tages as water clarity does not affect the ability to see thedisplay. ln addition, a head-up display allows divers to con-tinuously monitor all relevant dive data without interruptingtheir work. The present paper details the development of anew diving computer that has been designed with a head-up display and integrated into an AGA type full face mask.The device includes a full colour display, depth sensor, tilt-compensated compass and a tank pressure sensor. Typicaldive relevant data (depth, time, decompression obligations)including tank pressure and heading are displayed andstored in the internal flash memory.

Keywords: diving computer, full face mask, head-up dis-play, AGA mask, head-up diving computer, tilt-compensatedcompass

1. lntroductionDiving computers are usuall,v integrated in a con-sole, or are wrist-worn and displa_v dir.e relel,antdata such as depth, time and decompression obli-gations (Azzopardi and Sayer, 2010). The continu-ous monitoring of such data can be extremelyimportant for safety when diving. However, a wrist-worn or console dive computer requires manualaction in order to read the display: the user hasto grab the console or twist the wrist-worn unit toview it.

In contrast, a head-up display (HUD) directlvmounted on a diving mask or on a molrthpieceoffers a hands-free solution to monitoring a diler'sstatus. The freedom of not haring to refer- to a rr-rist-

\\'orn or console-morinted displar is especiallrbeneficiai in cases rrhere a direr is performinghands-on undenrater rrork. a-s the rr-orkfloh is ltotinterrupted. -\n HL D can also be laluable ir-r baclvisibility and 'silt out' conditions. rrhere the risrbil-ity is impaired to such an exrenr that reading of a

diving computer even at distances of 20cm to 40cmbecomes impossible. An HUD has the potential tobe an essential tool for many sectors of the com-mercial diving industry and may increase divingsafety.

Full face masks are predominantly used by profes-sional divers. They offer a number of advantages overstandard half-masks: thermal protection of the face;protection in polluted waters; and the capability touse voice communications. Full face masks are alsosometimes used by rebreather divers because, inthe event of an oxygen toxicity accident, a full facemask remains fixed on the diver's face and wouldcontinue to provide breathing gas.

Irrespective of the reasons for wearing a fullface mask, it provides an obvious platform in whichto incorporate an HUD. The present study reportson the development of an HUD for a full facemask r'vith the specific design criteria of incorpo-rating a tank-integrated, Nitrox-capable dive com-puter. In addition, the design criteria requires thedisplay to have excellent readabiliq' independentof water visibility, with a virtual reading distance of1m, as lvell as adjustable optics, a tilt-compensatedcompass for hands-free underwater navigationand an interface for additional accessories, suchas the oxygen partial pressure (pOl) sensors of a

rebreather.

2. Methods2. 7, State-of-the-aft head-up displays\Iounting a traditional dile computer directly infront of the r-isor of a full face mask is theoreticallypossible. Horrever, a person rrirh normal sight abilitycannot focus on objects in such close vicinity, andso an additional optical system would have to beintroduced in order to achieve readability. In thesinrplest form, such a system could consist of a sin-gle corrvex lens in the optical pathway between thedive computer display and the eye. HUDs are typi-

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Sieber et al. Dnelopmnt of a head-up ilispldjed diuing computr urpabilitl for full face -,Lw

can be read at a more comfortable 'virtual' distanceof 0.5-1.0m (Koss and Sieber,2011a).

2.1.1. DataMask@ and CompuMask@ head-updisplaysTheAeris CompuMask@ HUD and the OceanicDa/a-MashP HUD are recreational diving computer:s thatare fully integrated into a traditionai diving mask,based on a liquid crystal displav (LCD), and have anoptical system. Hor,vever, they are both closed designsand, therefore, permit no additional accessoriesto be added. The masks are well designed but, atpresent, are only available in one size.

2.1.2. tlead-mounted displays for military divingmissionsGallagher (1999) and Belcher et al. (2003) devel-oped HUDs for countermine diving missions. Thedesigns are larger, are more expensive to produceand have high-power consumption. Designed as mil-itary equipment, they are not available to the public.

2.1.3. Head-mounted displays for rebreathersState-ofthe-art rebreathers are equipped with LED-based HUDs. These are simple devices mountedwithin the diver's field of vision on a support on therebreather mouthpiece. T1pically they consist of oneor more LED displays, but the information contentis obviously limited, as they usually can only displaythe pO2 of the loop. More advanced approaches alsouse coding of the LEDs, usually blinking sequences,to increase the information content. However, read-ing and interpretation of the sequences requireboth training and concentrarion.

2.1.4. Graphical head-up diving computerKoss and Sieber (2011a) mounted a graphical dis-play with an optical svstem directlv onto the mouth-piece of a rebreather. \A'ith a carefullv positioneddevice, good readability of standard dir,e data wasachieved. Howeveq mouthpiece movements resultedin optical misalignments lr,here tire displav partlvmoved out of sight. In the same srudr-, thev achier,edbetter results when the device rvas fitted to a fuliface mask when it was mechanicallr' fixed in a positionrelative to the eyes and outside of the diving mask.However, there was still water betrveen the ocular ofthe device and the visor of the full face mask, andso the readability of the display could be impairedwith bad water visibility.

2.1.5. Technical diving computer with secondaryhead-up displayKoss and Sieber (201la,b) der,eloped a rechnical 2.2.1. Basic HUD designdir,ingcomputerwithtrimixcapabiliq'incorporate.d The mechanical design of the HUD was ropr:

LED and shou'ed an identical copy of the scrc: r

of the primary handset. The device fearure -. -

unique optical design: the optical path of the svs:: r,

consisted of a solid polymethyl methacrylate b1,.. ,,

(PMN[A; a transparent thermoplastic), whicl'r ;

glued directly onto the visor of a diving mask. U.- :a prism-shaped lens mounted inside the mask p,: -duced a 400 x 200mm2 image of the displar' :. .

comfortable virtual reading distance of 1m.Along with the standard version of the displar :

traditional diving half-masks, a special design for - l

face masks was also developed. Both systems r,,t:.extensively tested in various conditions. AlthoLr:,the designs worked well, divers found the cable fi' : r

the primary handset to the HUD to be annoying -

addition, onlv very slight improper positionirrgthe glued-on display produced misaligned and r-.-torted imases.

Problems with misalignment can be avoided -,

introducing a multi-lens system, with at leasr ,- "

concave and one convex lens included in order -

facilitate adjusting the magnification of the rirr'" .

image. In theory, the optical parts required for ,,,'

adjustable HUD can be small (with the diamete :

lenses being -10-15mm) with a similarly comp:pressure-proof housing. Therefore, high press,. r"

resistance can be achieved with inexpensive desi:fabricated lrom plasrics.

A protorype of an independent HUD speci--designed for full face masks differed from prerr,approaches by har,ing the HUD connected via a cal "

to a primary handset (DC). The independent ei.tronics included with it comprised a microcontroi-."a 96 x 64 colour organic LED display, a digital pr..*sure and temperature sensor and an analog input, -

readout of a tank pressure sensor. The device -,.-^

designed to be mounted outside a full face m-.,Although the protot)pe worked well, the main pr, --lem again rvas the ability to adjust the device.

2,2. New design for fullface mask head-updisplaysThe current design for an HUD especially for f,face masks was basecl on the AGA mask (Interspr:previously part of the AGA Corporation). The ^\G -design is dominant in the full face mask mark.and has been adopted by several other manuf: ,

tures (e.g. Ocean Technology Systems (OTS) a:, -

Poseidon Diving Systems). These AGA-type ma..-featured a large polycarbonate visor with opac,', ,

side windows,lvhich permitted straightfonra:'retrofitting of a port.

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port on the mask ancl sealed rrith a standard nitrilebutadiene rr-rbber r\BRt O-ring located in a grooveon the port r Fies 1 and 2 ). The protot)?e was madefrom polninr.l chloride (PVC), and the cylindricalshape of tl-re deiice meant it would be simple andcost-effecrive to be manufactured.

Tlie optical path consisted of three parts: a con-ver lens u-ith a focal length of 40mm and diameterof 10mm that formed the eyepiece of the device,and a stainless steel mirror clirectly behind the lensthat redirected the optical path towards the finalpart, the 96 x 64 pixel organic LED display. A con-cave lens (/: -15mm, diameter : 13mm) was

added to the optical path at a distance of 12mm infront of the display in order to achieve an opticalmagnification equal to 1. The HUD could berotated, as well as moved in an axial direction, topermit easy and uncomplicated adjustment of thedevice to the diver's eye.

The aluminium tank pressure sensor was con-nected to the HUD diving computer via a six-core6mm poly:rethane cable. The battery compartmentfor a standard lithium ion (Li-ion) CR2 cell wasinside the tank pressure housing.

2.2.2. Eleclronic compassAn electronic compass \{as designed from twoorthogonally-mounted magnetometers (one of

Fig 1: Head up d ve computer, poft and v sor of an AGA-typefu fac-o mask

which is a trvo-axis magnetometer) that measurethe nvo-dimensional magnetic vectors used forheading calculations. There is the requirement forthe magnetometers to be mounted in the horizon-tal plane, hol-ever, this is problematic in compassesused for diving because of the lack of horizontalreference when the diver is moving in three dimen-sions. Any slight tilt with an electronic compass thatuses a single two-axis magnetometer rvill give incor-rect readings.

In cases of small tilt angles (also referred to as

pitch and roll) a compensation can be achievedwith a two-axis accelerometer. Since the accelerom-eter output is subject to gravity, pitch and roll canbe calculated directly from the acceleration vectot:.The angles are then used to calculate a tilt-compen-sated heading. However, the present design permit-ted the diver to rotate the whole unit, which wouldproduce larue pitch angles. Therefore, a three-axialmagnetometer and a three-axial compass were inte-grated, generating a true three-dimensional mag-netic and acceleration vector which coulcl be usedfor the tilt-compensated heading calculation(STMicrosystems, 2010; Kionix, 2007; Salhuana,2oo7).

Electronic compasses are subject to interferences/distortions, and so for the present HUD design, a

calibration of the device was required. Hard irondistortions only produce an offset of the magneticvectors, thus a calibration routine was implementedcollecting magnetometer readings while the devicewas randomly rotated in three dimensions by theuser. Maxima and minima readings were collectedfor each vector and used to calculate offset and gainfor each magnetometer axis (Honeyrvell, 2009).

Compass plots of an ideal compass without inrer-ference are of circular shape. However, soft irondistortions cause an elliptic deformatior-r of theshape and cannot be compensated for bl a simplecalibration routine. Therefore, the HUD designavoided having any soft iron in close ricinin' to themagnetometer. For instance, surface moLrltt der-icecapacitors or resistors lr,ere attached at a safe dis-tance because their contacts contain nickel.

2.2.3. Eleclronic designFie 3 shorrs the outiirre ol the electronics used inthe present HUD desigr-r. The core component\\ as an -\trnega644P\- ( \tn-re1) S-bit reduced instruc-tion set contpllter (zuSC) microprocessor, whichrr'as retained lrom pretious developments. A 0.96inred. green. blLre (RGB) display with 96 x 64 pixelstDensitron) \\,as interfaced via a serial peripheralinterface (SPI) bus. The digital pressure sensor\IS5541 from Intersema Sensoric SA measured pres-sures uD to l4bar with 15-bit resolution and corrld

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Fig 3: E ectron c co..ponefts of the head-up d v ngcomputer

also be used for \,vater temperature measurement.Dive-relevant data were stored on an internal flashmemory chip rvith 4Mbit (DataFlash).

All components were carefully selected to achieveextremely lorv power consumption in combinationwith a low minimum supply volrage of 2.5V. A stand-ard Li-ion batter\.tlpe \ras chosen for the porversupply. A described earlier, a three-axis magnetom-eter and a three-axis accelerometer were integratedin the design to provide the capabilitv to producetilt-compensated headings.

2.2.4. Software designThe firmware for the rnicroprocessor \vas developedunder Eclipse ancl a GNU C compiler (Wirr-A\R).The basic sofh{are f'eatures calculated the main phys-ical parameters of a dive (depth, time, maximumdepth) and estimated the main phvsiological obliga-tions related to the dii-e profile (remaining nodecompression time, clecompression requir-ementsmodified from the Buehhnanrr ZHL-I6 daraset withgradient factors and tnicro-bubble extension). Itthen calculated the headings arid conr.erted the readout from the tank pressure sensor. The unit facili-tated data storage equir..alent to 120 diijne hours.

For simple management and corrfigurarion ofthe head-up dive computer, a PC application ivasdeveloped. The first part of the applicarion rvasdedicated to permitting rhe dir-er ro configureand customise the HUD diving cotnputer, tvhereall adjustments like Nitrox mix, rirne sertings anddecompression conservatism ier-el could be set. Italso provided the capabilitv to personalise thedive computer with features such as a start-up pic-ture, the olr,ner's name and an emergency phonenumber.

The second part of the application r,yas a wpicaldiving computer logbook funcrion used for divedata download and r,-isualisation (Fig 4). Dive data\rere converted into extensible mark-up lansuase

Sieber et al. Daelopmmt of a head-up displayed rliaing computtr cqpability _for fuil ';

(XML) files. Besides the dive profile (depth ,.: _:

ceilins graph) and dive-specific data (diremaximum depth), the final tissue saturation .. ;:

end of the dive was also shown in a bar plot. ,-.

tional dive parameters such as dive conditior,. ..

information about the equipment could al,added by the user. The dive profiles were ca:,.of being converted into the Divers Nert \c-(DAN) DL7 Level 1 Standard (Denoble, !00r.l

The third part of the software suite was u:,upgrade the firmrvare of the dive computer. _

program memoq/ space of the dive computtr. ,

divided in a bootloader and an application se.During the firmrvare upgrade, the boorl,..received a new flrmware package from the PC . r

programmed the flash memory. Copy proteand manipulation safety was achieved by adr rr:

encryption standard (AES) of the firmware pac(Atmel Corporation, 2010). An automatic soi.update of the PC application itself was also 11..mented: after each program start, an XML re:procedure call (XML-RPC) (Apache Corpor.i.2010) r.vas sent to a corresponding web serr.check if a ner,v software version r,vas availabie .

any updated version was downloaded and in:r;automatically The PC software was developed lr: -

Eclipse SDK 3.4.1 in.|ava 1.6 and the Stan-,Widget Toolkit. This made the application piarindependent and permitted data to be compileWindows, Unix, Linux and Mac systems. Data t: -fer between HUC and PC was established lia s.communication at 115 200 barrcl.

3. Results

Fig 5 shows an HUD prototvpe mounted in an L , rfull face mask. The housing was fabricated i:. r:i

black PVC, and the port and tank pressure hoLr. ;iwere turned from seawater-resistant alumini-.

;::: - a,tu Idr r@4q @

;t;l'.r:*',j&,-*j,.g

Time

fJ Dk*dis5l ef Ndhtosda 6bh,ord6 I

h&v6r !@t*-**-*hddw F6i:ffi--*rB;Fo1 p:td--**-k.Nz l!]o6hil

*-"-* b

Fig 4: An examp e of the dive data display generated l:PC software fo ow ng a pressure chamber dive

zzzzdrrzt:+t*tTECHNOTOGY v"r 30. \o i. 2or2

Fig 5: Open water tests of the HUD

The optical path was filled with dry air in order toavoid condensation from humidity on the lenses;the electronic compartment was filled with siliconegel. The port was bonded to the mask side windowusing standard methacrylate glue. A finite elementpressure simulation lvas performed in SolidWorks2008 and indicated that the housing should with-stand pressures greater than 10bar absolute.

For software verification and validation, labora-tory test softr'vare was developed under NationalInstruments LabVEW 8.0. It allowed simulation ofdives either in accelerated or real time, l'hile tissuesaturations calculated b,v the dive computer weremonitored and stored on graphs produced bythe software. The compass was laboratory tested:an accuracy of *:2.7" was achieved in the horizontalposition, and at pitch/roll angles of 145', the accu-racywas reduced to t4.2" (Kuch et al., 2011).

Prior to real dives, the device was successfullytested in a small h;perbaric test chamber for pres-sure and water resistance up to 100msw. The devicewas used by three divers in a total 15 dives to a max-imum depth of 45msw. All divers reported excel-lent readability.

4. Discussion

A novel HUD for AGA-type full face masks wasdeveloped. The device was tested in the Mediterra-nean Sea and in Austrian lakes and was consideredto hale rrorked u'eil. The der-ice could be adjustedeasily b1'simph rotating the displar and 'or moringit in axial direction. The fr.rll face mask reqtiired a

hole to be drilled/milled for the port. Elen though

this task was not difficult to achieve for a trainedperson, it presents some problems from a legal pointof view, as any non-certified modification probablyinvalidates the mask CE accreditation.

Divers were satisfied lvith the new device, mainlybecause it provides a true hands-free solution formonitoring data relevant to dive management.This is especially welcomed in situations r.vhere a

diver is r,vorking underwater or where there is lor,v

visibility.

ReferencesApache Corporation. (2010). Apache XML-RPC.fava imple-

mentation. Houston: Apache. Available at http:/ /ws.apache.org/xmlrpc,/, last accessed <03January 2012>.

Atmel Corporation. (2006). Application Note AVR231:AISBootloader. Available at http: / / atmel. com / dyn/resources/prod_documents/doc2589.pdf , last accessed <03 Januar,v2072>.

Azzopardi E and Sayer MDJ. (2010). A revierv of the techni-cal specifications of 47 models of dir,ing decompressioncomputer. Underwater Tbchnology 29: 63-72.

Belcher EO, Gallagher DG, Barone.fR and Honaker RE.(2003). Acoustic lens camera and underrvater displaycombine to provide efficient and effective hull and berthinspections. In: Proc. MT-S/ILM Ocea'ns 200),1361-1367.

Denoble PJ. (2006). Project dive exploration - DL7 Stand-ard. Divers Alert Nenr.ork.

Gallagher DG. (1999). Development of miniature, head-mounted, virtual image displays for naw divers. M?S,/IEEE OCEANS' 99, Riding the Crest into the 21st Centurl,vol 3. 1098-1104.

Honel'r've11. (2009). Electronic compa-ss design guide usingTheHMC5B43 digital compass IC. Morristonn, NJ: Hone1well.

Kionix. (2007). Handheld electronic compass applicationsusing a Kionix MEMS rri-axis accelerometer, AN 006.Ithaca. NY: Kionix.

Koss B and Sieber A. (20l la). Development of a graphicalhead-up display (HUD) for rebreather diving. UnderwaterTechnology 29: 203-208.

Koss B and Sieber A. (20Ilb). Head-mounted display lbrdivin g computer platform. rlo urn al oJ' D i sp I ay Tb c hn olo g 7 :

193-199.Kuch B, Haasl S, Wagner M, Buttazzo G and Sieber A. (2011).

Preliminary report: Embedded platform for inertialbased underwater navigation. 9Lh Intgrn.ntional Worhshop

on Intelligent Solutions in Embedderi Systems, Regensburg,Germany.

Salhuana L. (2007) . Tiit sensing using linear accelerometers.Freescale semiconductor. Austin: Freescale Semicon-ductor.

ST\{icrosvstems. (2010). Application note AN3192. Geneva:ST\Iicrosvstems. Available at wrrnv.pololu.com/file/d ol'n I o ad,/LSM303DLH-co mpass-app-no te.pdf)file_id-0J+3+. last accessed <03January 2012>.

doi:10.3723/ut'30.201 IntqnationalJoumal of the Socie\ for Undmatu Tbchnolog, Vol 30, No 1, pp 201-206, 2012

Monitoring the effectiveness of re-establishingbeaches artificiallyr methodological and practicalinsights into the use of video transects andSGuBA-operated coring devicesM Vacchil'2, A Rovere*2, CF Schiaffinol,2 and M FerraritrDip.7b.Ris., Llniaersitd, cli Genoaa, Corso Europa 2G, Cknoua, Itall2S0'+mctp s.r.l., Enuironmental consulting, uia Greto r|,i Cornigliano 6R, 15152, Genoaa, Italy

Abstract

LoCLGo.(E

.9

()oF

Artificially rebuilding beaches is one of the main methodsused to stabilise or restore them after severe erosion events.Best practices should involve some form of monitoring priorto, during and post beach re-building. The most frequen|yapplied monitorrng techniques for ltalian (and Mediterra-nean) beaches are topographic and bathymetric surveyscarried out in regular time intervals in order to understandbeach evolution. Morphological studies, based on grain-size profile analyses, can indicate the sedimentary evolutionof the beach.

ln the present study, SCUBA diving techniques wereemployed in addition to traditional survey methods jn order tomonitor two study areas along the Ligurian coast (northwestMediterranean Sea): Ospedaletti and Genova Yernazzola. lnparticular, a diver-operated, cost-effective coring systemobtained marine sediment cores, and video transects andinspections generated information on the status of coastaldefence structures (e.9. groynes). Using those methods, themain vertical discontinuities along the submarine beach wereidentified, as were points of erosjon on the submarine partsof groynes. Such innovative techniques provided data that arenot easily achievable with traditional monitoring techniques.Future monitoring programmes should consider these newmethods as a way of improving assessment efficiency,

Keywords: underwater surveys, beach monitoring, SCUBAvideo transect, rapid coring techniques, GPS geo-referencing

1. lntroductionArtificial beach fill, sometimes referred to as beachnourishment, represents one of the primary toolsused to restore beaches after severe erosion or retreatevents. Artificial supplementarion is frequentlyassociated with coastal engineering works aimedat maintaining restored beach status over time(Browder and Dean, 2000; Dean, 2002; Hanson et al.,2002; Basterretxea et a\.,2007). According to King(2003), beach nourishmenr has considerable

benefits if carried out correctly. In fact, it is oftenthe most efficient method of shoreline protecrionas it provides the volume of material necessary torespond to wave impacts. If used in conjunctionwith other coastal defence methods, such as infront of sea walls, beach-fill will prorect the rvall toeand foundations preventing subsidence.

Monitoring the performance of artificial beachinterventions is essential to assessing and monitor-ing the levels of effectiveness. Best practice requiresmonitoring prior to, during and post interventionfor fi,r,o main reasons (a) it is obligatory because ofcurrent lau's on environmental impact assessments(ELAs); and (&) moniroring is useful to rhe beachmanagement process, as lessons learned can to beused in future interventions (Capobianco et al.,2002; Ojeda and Guill6n, 2006; Castelle et al., 200g).

In most cases, monitoring techniques of theunder-water part of beaches are based on topographicand bathymetric surveys carried out in regular timeinter-vals in order to study beach morphodlmamicevolution. This is often accompanied b1, seclimentsampling, usually carried out with Van Veen grabs,along the underwarer beach profile (Benedet et al.,2004; Corradi et al., 2008). Grain-size analyses ofthese samples are used to monitor the sedimentaryevolution of the beach (Benedet et al., 2004).

To date, the use of SCUBA diving techniques romonitor artificial beach renewal schemes has beenunderreported (Adachi er al., 2010). Nevertheless,different methods of dara collection using SCUBAdiving have proved efficient in the fields of marineecologv and geomorphology (Bianchi et al., 2004;Rovere et al., 201la,b; Vacchi er al., 2012). Under-water \.icleo obtained using SCUBA is a commonmethod employed in marine sun/eys, with over trvodecades of application in different environments(George et al., 1985; Kendall et al., 2005).

Coring operations are common in both coastal

Vacchi et al. Monitoing the ffictiumess of re-establi;hins beaches a* . " , :.M

Fig 2: (a) Corng eql pment I : PVC tube to be nsefted n the seclrment, 2 - valve to contro the opening/clos ng of the .3: SCUBA dvng tank; 4 - weghts to mprove the tark penetraton, 5 - roQe to connectthe tankto the surface; (b) posof the cor ng dev ce mmedlate y before the opening of the valve, (c) core nserled in the bottom mmediatelv after the Tlon . --

thetank, (d) extraction of the core aJterthe penetratoni and (e) core opened n laboratory

After sampling, the cores were transported backto the laboratory and extruded for srain size, shapeand petrographic analyses in order to quantify thecomparative percentage of original sediments againstthose introduced through the beach replenishmentprogramme (Fig 2e).

3. Results

3.1. Video inspections and vldeo transectsThe r,'ideo highlighted issues in the positioning ofthe different parts of the underwater strllcture,rvhich have been slightly displaced during rhe r,vin-ter storms. On the other side, the accumulation ofsediments in the inner part of the embavmenr pro-r,{ded er.rdence of the efficacv of the structure inretaining beach sediments.

At Genova Yernazzola, resuhs fiom the videotransects shorved that the filling material wasremarkablv different in q?e from the original sedi-ments. The filling material was composed of angu-lar medium to coarse gravels (derived from localquarries), whereas the original sea floor was char-acterised by large (>10cm) rounded pebbles.Video transects identified tl,vo breaks in slope, at-2 and -5m, characterised by diflerences ingrain size as rvell as in the morphology of the clasts(angular shape of the artificial material versusr-oundecl shape of the original sediments). These

discontinuities have been attributed to the dit.,ential re-distribution of the artificial beach s. _

lnents after the nourishment.

3.2. Rapid conngRapid coring techniques were usecl in b,Ospedaletti and Genova Vernazzola to obtain ci.,-on the distribution of sediments usecl for the be.,replenishment. For Genor,'a Vernazzola, rapid cor - _

did not work well as the grain size ar that locati(medium to coarse gravel) and the shallow clei_-of sediment limiting the coring strongly affec,.-the efficacy of this methodolog,v. Coring pipes rr.essentially empry in all the cores performed sj: .

lower than -2m.Conversel,v, rapid coring perfbrmed in Ospe c,. -

etti (rvhich has medium to coarse sancls and f,,..gravel) resuked in nine coring pipes compietr{rlled bv sedimenrs (Fig 2e). Grain size r,ariabil.along the cores significantly helped in assessing i: -

evolution of the beach nourishment in this stt:..area. In fact, the artificial material (fine flur .

gravel) was significantly different from the crrigir-..sediments of the beach (medium to coarse sartr-Therefore, it lvas easy to assess the percentaeeartificial sediments in the core along the bea.profile. The resulrs highlight the stability of se ,-:,rnents on the submerged beach, as the qlrantir\sediments derived from the nourishment shorvec:

'rZ;z*z*f-t:t;:!eZ'TECHNOTOGY vor:0, No 4, zor?

Fig 3: Functon ng of the rapd corlng device

regular trend towards the open sea (Table2011).

4, Discussion

1; Ferrari,

Diving techniques are often considered useful forunderwater environmental stlldies, but the impactof their role in sedimentological field surveys isoften neglected. The present study highlights horvSCUBA surveys based on video transects and rapidunderwater coring techniques can be used to obtaindata to assess the underwater evolution of beachnourishment. However, there are both adr-antagesand limitations in the two techniques emplor.ed inthis study.

SCUBA-based survey techniques present bothoperational and economical advantages when theareas to be surveyed are in shallow coastal areas(i.e. down to -25m water depth). However, theclesree to which divers can obtain good data can be

Table 1: Fes-r ts oi :ore analyses at Vernazzola s te

Core Sampling Weightdepth attributed to the(m) nourishment

(%)

C11

-otr(l

C5 (top)

C5 {bottom)C2C7 (top)

C7 (bottom)

C6C1

'/':2.1aa'.),/324.24.5454647

U+ /al.)Q 1'

1:a a,l1-

r031l /1

Traces

limited. For example, the video transects produceduseful and easy assessments of the spatial distribu-tion of artificial material and the reiative offshoretransport of the fill sediment (Ferrari, 2010). In theLigurian Sea, reasonable levels of under$,atervisibility increased the efficacy of video rransects.Nevertheless, this methodoloev can be strongl_vconstrained by water turbiditv, especialh' in r-en-shallow water (i.e. <-3m).

Any SCUBA-based undenvater sllrvey or map-ping programme is alrvays faced with issues relatedto acceptabie levels of accurate geo-referencinuwhich, in turn, may be influenced by the cost of thevarious undenvater positioninu systems (Kuch et al.,2012) . The efEcacl, of floating units torved by divershas been measured and modelled by Schories andNiedzr,r'iedz (2012). In their paper, they demon-strated the effects on accurac)/ caused by factors suchas water depth, and the forces caused by the mo\re-ment of u,ater and/or divers. In general, accuracydecreases rvith rlepth (length of line befil,een rhediver and the surface unit), although the impact onaccuracy can be partly offset by swimming speed.Field experience during this present studv sussestedthat the diver should advance at less than 0.5m/sec(approximately a fin stroke every second).

One of the main issues related to under\,vatersediment coring is the disturbance of the corecaused b,v compaction and the limited preservationof sedimentary structures (Emerv and Diez, 1941).In the fivo areas of the present studl,, Ospedalettiand in Genova Vernazzola. the sedimentary struc-tures h-ere not preserved in the cores separatelyfrom the overall stratigraphv of sediments. However,sediment compaction l'as sholvn to be negligible,probabl-v because of the sh<trtness and tightness ofthe tube. As a result, the rapid coring techniquelr,as r,rseful in augmenting the traditional approachesto beach nourishment monitoring. Holvever, theefficacv of this coring method was lirnited in veryshallow depths (i.e. < 2m) and where corins coarsesecliments (i.e. greater than medium gravel).

Diving weights 0.5m

Air

Pressure valve"closed"

PVC pipe

PVC cap

Pressure valve- "open"

. .: ^. :::" :. r t. rj_,.:-,,., :.:..t:.1.1 . :-,.,-:,

:.jr r.l :: '. 4 :- :i. :. :.-:l-.: :-;.,--.-.i,-.::, :-,:. . - . . :i . r.r1.r..1 .j1.1,,.: .:\,.r',.::..'.::-...-.....'.:::.' :..' .'... . : .- -,.

a:.:.. i... ..j..:.:. :.1::..1.:::j j:j-.t:'r. i,. .1 r. : r:..:r rl ::2.tti:i:::!firi.ri::i::11:a::;:i.i1;.r:. ai,;:t:a..,:i:::::.a.=::.:.: ;:.:a.--'-:..1 .:.,...-'.,. : ;.:. . :. : . .:'.

rloi:10'3723/ut'30.207 IntemationolJoumal of the Society for Undmatu Technolog, Vol 30, No 4, W 207-215, 2012

.1t *.- ;v 1-' 1+ -1".Lt 1,4t1 V} *! L iTECHNOLOGY

Ancient coastal landscape of the marineprotected area of porto cesareo (Lecce, ltaly):recent researchc Nfonso*r, RAuriemmal, T scaranol, G Mastronuzzi2,LCalcagnile3, G euarta3 anclM Di BartolorlDipartimento iti Beni Culturali, Lhiuersitd tlel Salento, aia Birago n 64, 73100 Lecce, Itall2Dipartimento di Scienze d'ella Tbrra e Geoambientali, Campus Llniuersitario, (Jniuersitd degli stucti ,Ak1o

Moro,,aia E. Orabona 4, 70125 Bari, Itall3Dipartimento di Ingegnena d,ell'Innoaazione, center Jor Dctting and Diagnostics ((EDAD), Ltniaersitd del salento,aia Monteroni, 73100 Lecce, Itafi

Abstract

LoctGo.(E

.9co

_oF

In the Porto Cesareo (Lecce, ltaly) coastal area, submergedand semi-submerged archaeological evidence has beenuncovered by recent preliminary surveys carried out inclose collaboration with the local marjne protected area(MPA): (a) a navis lapidaila wreck of the Boman imperialage; (b) various scattered and decontextualised finds; (c) abeached wreck, probably medieval; (d) some submergedbuilt-structures that are part of the Bronze Age Scalo diFurno settlement; and (e) remains of structures (walls, build_ings, burial areas), The last three pieces of evjdence allowfor the hypothesis of a significantly different ancient coastallandscape than that of the present and a ,dynam jc, scenarioover the centuries.

Keywords: coastal landscape archaeology, geo-archaeology,sea level changes, Bronze Age and Roman setilements. podoCesareo

1. Premise

The reconstruction of the ancient landscape andorganisation of the environmental system requiresa multidisciplinary approach. Archaeoiogists, geol_ogists, geochemists and physicists must contributeto surveys and data elaboration, with the aim to cor_relate their results in a reliable view of the relationsbetween cultural evolution and enyironmentaldynamics (Leveau et al., 2000).

Since the 1970s, archaeological data have beenlargely used to reconstruct sea level change duringthe Late Holocene (Schiemdt, Ig72; pirazzoli,1976; Flemming, 1979-1980; Antonioli and Leoni,1998; Scicchirano er aL.,2007; Sivan, 2007). Gener_ally, the data have been employed in one way: bygeomorphologists and/ or geographers to identify,

with undefined approximation, positions and agesofpast sea levei stands.

Later, collaboration with archaeologists allowedthem to reduce the error bar of chronological attri_bution and to determine, with precision, the func_tional elevation of anthropological remains aboveor belol, sea level (Sivan et al., 2001; Antonioliet al., 2007). More recently, the need to standardisethe use of archaeological markers in sea levelchange history led to the paper by Auriemma andSolinas (2009) in which every archaeolosical markeris considered in relation to its functional elevationon the relative past sea level.

From a chronological point of view, the archaeo_logical approach is absolutely precise in datingsome man-made artefacts like pottery or metallicobjects. Furthermore, written historic chronicles _rvhen available - permit large constructions, likeharbours or built structures, to be dated. On theother hand, classical archaeolosical study has limi_tations in the age attribution of rvood structures orobjects (pile holes, ships, fire remains), or organicremains (skeletons, paintings, clothes). In this casethe opportuniqr to use a geochemical approachwith C14 techniques is especially invaluable whencarrying oul an evaluation.

2. BackgroundThe presence of extensive archaeological remainsin the inlet of Porto Cesareo has been known of sincethe 1960s. In particular, the area attracted the atten_tion of researchers through the presence of theprotohistoric site of Scalo di Furno and the Romanwreck of a naais lapidaria, with a carso of monu_mental marble columns from Greece (Auriemma.

-{lfom et al" 'Tncint coastar randscape of the naine protected area of porto cesareo (Lecce, Itab): recnt Nes,iln

Prerions papers have aimed to describe theseerrergences, but havei,_r^ ^ ^__r. I not attempted to insert them

:::"": ::'"'.|1] ":"t ro n m en tat c on text. irr. p.",

",r,

Nelvdata, based oners rhe oppo,,;;i; ;J:X"d lHilffJ:l.j;the paleolandscape.

l'3ill instead, focuses on rhe numerous;i;;J:Ir"ffl^'.yins found along the Jr." *,.i:tr::::111" -

directly or indireJtly _ ;;;;"; ;.;#:strucdon of human history lr-, ."tution to environ_menhl dynamics.Various submerged and semi_submerged remainshave been detecteJ by ro_" .".#ffi;#il;

preliminary surve,vs in the M".i". p;;t".t.a ar.u,. scattered and dr. a beached,.".ifo"'"xtualised finds;

. submerged sfuctures, located between the local_iq'called Scalo cli Furno ""d ;; irl";pposite it;o remains of stnrctures (walls, buildings, burialareas) and findings of the Roman ug; luig f 1.

The evidence has allowed researchers to h;pothesisea significantly different ancient coastal landscapeto that of the present and a dynamic enr,ironmentover the centuries.The historical and archaeological capabilitiesinside the Marine protected A..a.-of po.to Cesareohave been uncovered by a series

"i..*", prelimi_nary surueys. Old and ne\,v recoveriar, _"ur,,a"mentsand reporrs concern isolated ". d;;;;;"ruatisedfinds, such as anchor

and cookin, o; ;;;;;'fiT,1?:i:,Im; *fHil:1"^T.l,r

( C o n ge d o, 1 gA +; e"o r.i..'Ii' -

ln' d Zu. ruriu,1995;Auriemma. 2004a) (FiS 1t. AX il;. remainstestify ro an inrense inhabila,i;";f-;il area inancient dmes, both along tfr. nrfri"g u'rra .our,utroutes.

l,/^"'.t:1"* rocky coasr lu"rr."""r]l'5il iil-lvrasrronuzzi et al., 200?) shaped by a seQuence ,,:Mesozoic limesto.

calcarenire u.torll ",er-c1PP3d by Pleistoce'i

('"' ;;;;;;;il il:.3r,lrl Yl?;; j,*?fi :Iast deposit did not show any *1a""." _ paleontc-logical or geo_chronologicai _ ,frui l,vo,rld pernri,allocating a precise age to it.

. The only chronological attribution seems to btderived by the ,r.u.ily ,,.,rurr'-i.i),nius, whicirernains at about 4m above present r.u i.u"f (ApSLnea.r Gallipori (Hearg. and Dai pra, 1gg2). Anorhe :attribution may be derived fry "'fr.".f, level a.6m APSL near cane Santa Maria di Leuca. Ihis i.allocared ro rh" -u .

- "i", :f y/ rh "s:'::,::;:ffi :xi,iYfJ*: :;et aL., 2007 ), so that the calcareo.r, o.rr..oppirrg i,,the Porto Cesareo bay can n. -."*g".ised

to :.generic MIS 5 but without tne posslt-iii-q, of differ_entiating between thFro m-rh e,".,;;l;;1?IJ :f

"l:1,' :i:?,, . o,,,..quence is that this area can be considered to bemore or less stable, characterisea Uy " "".tical dis-placement ranging from _0.03 anj +0.0?mm/,.(Ferranri er al.. zboor. rn" proJi",n, u;"* ,n.recognition of the e

h au"i..., r. ;; o ;" ;;,T'; i:: *t.Xi ::1 ,3: l:

1 Beached wreck2 Burial area [necropolis)3 Roman structures4 Prehistoric site

5 Navis Lapidaria6 Prehistoric submerged wall7 Medieval structuresB Isolated recovery : _? ":!f

Fig 1: Archaeoioc jcai map of recoveries in proto Cesareo 1A" 161 10/ N 1 7. 52t 45il E

absolutely certain in identif,ving the sedimentationdepth as a consequence of the past sea level eleva-tion. Therefore the chronological attribution andthe tectonic assessment are still questionable.

Horvever, here the local geological sequence has

been partly submergecl by the Holocene transgres-sion which occurred in the last 20ky. At that time,the sea level was 150m below its present position(Lambeck et al., 2004a) and onlv 6ky BP stopped itsfast rise to a felv metres belorv its current level (e.g.

Lambeck et al., 2004a,b; Auriemma et al., 2004b;Auriemma et al., 2005; Antonioli et al., 2009). TheIast 6ky were characterised by a slower rise in sea

level that reached the present zero, inducins theinland migration of dune belts (Mastronuzzi andSansd, 2002; Mastronuzzi and Romaniello, 2008)conditionins the development, and perhaps thepermanence, of human settlements.

4. Archaeological data

4.1. Scalo di FurnoThe Bronze Age site of Scalo di Furno is a proto-historic, coastal, long-term settlement occupiedalmost without interruption from the early middleBronze Age (17th-18th c. BC) to the late Iron Age(5th-6th c. BC). The archaeological investigations,directed by the Superintendence of ArchaeologicalHeritage of Apulia between 1969 and 1977, high-lighted the importance of the fortified Bronze Agesettlement.

During the excavation of the inhabited area, agreat quantity and variety of local handmacleimpasto pottery was unearthed in a good state ofpreservation, along with some Aegean-type sherds(LH IIIA-IIIC) and bronze objects (Lo Porto,1990). Many of these artefacts, a large number ofbones and stone tools, and faunal, malacologicaland botanical remains were often iclentified intheir functional position on the floor of the dwell-ing structures. Furthermore, the remains of a

larue dry-stone fortification wall, running north-west to southeast along the isthmus and possess-

ing a gate located on the southeast side of theinhabited area, were identified during the archae-ological excavations in the late 1960s. The u'all,possibly dating almost to the end of the 2nd mil-lennium BC, probably marked the settlementboundary on the landward side and defended theinhabited area.

The underwater archaeological survey of the areabetween Scalo di Furno and the islet produced fivoimportant results. First, a submerged wall (about17m long, 5m wide and 1m high) rvas found about100m southwest of the southern remains of the

Fig 2: Submerged wa n Scao di Furno (photo

by G Pcoo )

h-vpothesis is to consider this submerged structureto be a part of that protohistoric enceinte.

The second piece of evidence documented con-cerns a large area (about 2000m2) par,ed rl,itll a

flagstone floor lving on the bedrock and preserr,ingarchaeological soil with hundreds of local hand-made impasto sherds and many animal bone frag-ments (Fig 3). The pottery sampled (n-rostly handlesand rims) can be seen to derive from some incom-plete close- and open-shaped containers (cups, dip-pers, bou,ls, small jars, dolia and biconical r,ases)

dating mainly to the local middle Bronze Age archae-ological facies (late proto-Apennine and Apennine)(Scarano,2011).

Both pieces of evidence lie about 3.5m underthe actual sea level and mark a deep change in thecoastal g'eography of this area that probabll' beganduring the first half of the 2"d millennir-rm BC(Scarano et al., 2008). Some archaeological evi-dence suggests that both the submerged structures(as rvell as the fortification wall above the sea level)could date back to the early phase of occupation ofthe midclle Bronze Age settlement of Scalo di Furno.

Fig 3: The area paved wth a f agstone floor y ng on the

Alfonso et aI' Arcimt coastar landscalte ofthe marine protected area oJ p,r"to cesueo (Lecce, Itarl): recn

In the present da,v, the Bronze Age settlementof Scalo di Furno is a small peninsula about thawide, and the marine erosion produced by the sealevel rise has heavily modifiecl the morphologv ofthe ancient site.

4.2. Torre ChiancaAlong the stretch of coast betr.veen the TorreChianca headland and the narro\\,peninsr:la imme_diately to the west, the continuous receding of thecoastline has brought to light manr-ancient remainsthat attest to intense human acd\ir) in the area,especially in the Roman age. A ferv of these piecesof evidence were alreadv knou.n and had beenexamined by the research group of rhe Uniti Oper_ativa di Topografia Artica, Dipartimento di BeniCulturali. In the 1980s the gro.rp carried our somesurveys both on the Torre Chianca headland andon the islet near to it. In the area black gloss, greygloss, African red slip and dolia sherds, net weights,nails, hooks, besides relevant quantities of mala_cological remains (murices), were derected. Themarine shells forrnd lvere actually of a small sizeand not related to purple dye workirrg process.Only an archaeoiogical excavation couldverify theeristence of specimina usecl for this purpose (Guai_toli, 1997; Valchera and Zampolini iaustini , lggT).There were also dozens of artificial holes, alignedand of various diameters, that probably were associ_ated u.ith a sort of pile structure and could berelated to the protohistoric phase.

The whole promonton. of the tower knorvn asTorre Chianca and the small \,vestern peninsula,which has an archaeoiogical deposit up to 1m abovethe present sea ier,el in the pi.r..u"d part, has acorroded border from the action of the sea. Numer_ous porteryfragments (belongng to amphorae, tilesand coarse ware), together rvith remains of fauna,can be obsened in the section clearlv el.ident behindthe bare rocky bench of the inter-tidal srretch.These ceramic sherds are associatecl l-ith local late_republican amphorae, flat_bottomed amphorae(Forlimpopoli type, end of lst_2nd c. AD) andcommon ware. There is also one lamp presumablyrelated ro rhe high imperial age. Neiweights andnails by naval carpentry have been discovered also.

There are remains of wall foundations and a dou_ble curtain of limestone blocks. T$,o structureslocated near the tip of headland are particularly sig_nificant; they are perpendicular to each other anddefine a large room. Other archaeological evidence,such as remains of limestone sarcophagi, have beendetected along the western side, near the dunesr.vhich stretch to the north. They are represented bya dotrble slope lid with corner acroteri,which is fras_

preserved, only 30cm above sea level andble with caurion ro rhe 4th_5th c. AD.

- Other burials partially submergecl, togethr' ,,

the remains of at least three individuals]ar-e .,_-

in a simple grave cut into the rock near the sa:, r

agi. The bones are stuck to the bedrock becaus. ..were lying at sea level. The lack of srave gooi. , ,**not allow researchers to date them more pre -_.,"rubut the burials coulcl belong to the same ph4\r r

the late imperial sarcophagi. With regarcl :, r(chronological horizon, the few diagnostic tn?-:r-rtrscattered in this area seem to indicate ? riln-: r

periods from the late Republic to late Antiqurr

4.3. MedievalwreckThe nauis tapidaria rvreck lies on a bed of si,,_ ,-,

sediments of very compact texture. It is orir: ,". t

330' N with the bow facing north and is pe r-r., ,rparallel to rhe shoreline (Fig a). The boat, in -_pertains to the category of beached wreck ,,quently found along the coasts of Salento. I: _ -presence could be considered as a marker o: - .,nificant variations of sea level in the Late Holoi_ r,"(Mastronuzzi and Auriemma, 2007).

\A'hen determining how this vessel becan,. ;beached wreck, it is important to calculate , ,.vessel draft. In particular, the gross tonnage o: ,r "

vessel (based on Colbert,s formula on mutuai :: ,,tions of length, width and height: 1b x 5 x 1.gn.. rthis case), is estimated at about 20 tonnes. T:_:rusing a diagram reference that connects toltr.,:, ^

to water displacement according to Archime,:,principle (Charlin et al., 19Tg), the vessel drafr ,.,1be estimated (although completely approximart ,

at about 1.5m. This is in line with the estim:-.:.1drafts of boats of similar size and shape, and r.:*cially contemporary ones, such u, S"r.. Lir-,. ,

11th c. AD (Steffy, 1994).This draft explains the dynamics of hor, , -

wreck came to be stranded. Encountering i ,.ardous conditions, probably as a result of a stc,:_

TECHNOLOGY v"t ao, No 4, 2or2

the boat was dragged into a body of water (now at2m deep) similar to Porto Cesareo bay. In the1Oth c. AD, it is estimated this body of water wouldhave been about 1m deep, rvhich would have pre-vented the vessel's draft and therefore probablyremained aground.

It is unusual to come across a beached wreck ofthis type because of its unusual naval architectur-e.In fact, because of its chronological attribution, ithas only been possible to compare it to the ship-

wreck of Tantura Lagoon in Israel (Kahanov andRoyal, 2000). An interesting parallel can be foundwith that shipwreck: it concerns the rabbet (receir'ing groove of the first planking) . In both cases

there is a 'lip' that projects outward (lcm in PortoCesareo wreck and 3cm in Tantura B wreck) onboth sides of the upper face of the keel. It is likelyto be the r'vreck of a medium-sized cargo vessel, suit-able for a long coastal na\dgation and similar to theYenikapi vessels (Ward, 2010), coming from theSyro-Palestinian or the Aegean area.

Wood samples of the floor timber in the PortoCesareo wrecks were radiocarbon dated br accelera-tor mass spectrometry (AMS) . Conr-eutional radio-carbon ages (Stuiver et a1., 1986) r,vere then measuredby using the AMS beamline installed at the 3\IVThndetron accelerator of CEDAD (Calcagnile et al.,

2005). The selected wood sample was dated to 1128

+ 45 BP (uncalibrated radiocarbon age). The age

was then calibrated to calendar years bv using rhe

INTACAL04 calibration cun/e to 770-1020ca1 -\Dwith a probabiliq' of 95.4% (Fig 5).

5. MethodsThe coastal archaeological evidence can be corre-lated to geological data to determine changes in

Atmospheric data from Reimer et al (200,1):

OxCal v3.l 0 Bronk Ramsey (2005); cub r:5 sd:12 prob uspfchronl

600Cal AD 800Cal AD I 000Cal AD 1200Cal AD

Calibrated date

Fig 5: Convent ona rad jocarbon ages, wh ch were converlect

to calendar ages by us ng the INTACAI ca brat on curve and

the sea level in the recent past. The archaeologicalstructures that can be taken into consideration are

as follows: harbour infrastructure (quavs, piers, nar,,v

yards) ; fishponds; residential units (urllae nnritimue);caves (nlmphaea); prn-a[e and public buildings, ortown quarters (foundations, floorings, roads andpavements); thermal baths; plurnbing installations(wells, aqueducts, cisterns, se\'\rers, drains, eullies) ;

tombs; pre- and protohistorical settlemeuts; quar-ries; caves; beach rock; beached wrecks: andanchorag;es (Ikaft et al., 1985; Auriemma et al.,

2003; Auriemma and Solinas 2009).It is necessary to collect the archaeological data

directl,v from the field (documenting which n'polog'of er,idence, the constructive technique, presumeddating, functional elements). In addition, thegeologic/geomorphological data (beach/dunesdeposits, beach rock, bioconstruction or biocou-crection, inner margin, wave cut platforrn, tr-ottoir,notch, cave, speleothem) should also be recorded,although with different levels of approxinration(Ferranti et al., 2006). This will assist in correlatingthem and determining the period of constrttction,the chronological range of usage/frequentatioll,and the d,vnamics of its abandonment/destruc-tion/obliteration. This is possible only after a series

of survevs ranging from the prospecting of thearea, to the sampling of the chronological inclica-tors (ceramic {inds), and the detection and (par-

tial) excavation of part of the structure (sample).The surveys carried out in the area for the present

studv did not permit the discovery of any geologi-cal or geomorphological markers that lould per-mit direct correlation to past sea level stands l.ithprecision. Unluckily, lvidespread dune belt and\vave clrt platforms together were not enough toindicate more than a transgressive tendeno-l'hichhas occurred in the last 6ky; their analvsis did notsupply data about the age and position of past sea

level.

On the contrary archaeological evidence indi-cates an age when the area rvas frequented and,consequently if submerged, an age ex-ante whenthe sea level was lolter than it is toda-r,. It is prob-lematic to attribute the functional elevation thatcorresponds to the height at rvhich the structurer-orked without directly receil'ing breaking lvaves

or extensi\re aerosol effects. Together, the,v wouldnot have permitted human settlement. Thereforenvo parameters characteristic of the coastal land-scape mlrst be determined: the gradient of thesubmerged,/emerged slope; and the rvave-climatefeature. The first set of data can be easily derived bythe analysis of the present landscape in an area inwhich geological sequence and physical geography

I 5008P

.9 l400BP

'! r:ooep:fr rzooee

E ilooBP

3 roooep.9p oooee

SOOBP

LTL4157B: 1 128+458P

68.2% probability870AD (68.27c) 990AD95.,1% probability77OAD (95.47") 1020AD

Fcnc\.a?E rriihe maine prote.ted ared ofporto Cesareo (Lecce, Italy): ret:

Together these constraints need to con:functional elevation of at least l.5m (Table r

6. Results and discussion

.t-r- a;)a rri Lirc P,)t.i(-l c.esilreo area, a slope of no:r,,,ti. -lr,rir j' L .tn he qiretr corrfirientlr..

h rs rnore clifficult to hr-pothesjse the past urave_clintate fearnre. Obr.iousi1,, it is a function of thepast climate; horvever, since there is no record ofthe past rvinds and consequent \,vaves! the onlv l,r,avto approximate this is to consider the present wavesas representative of the rvaves of 3500 r,ears Bp (thesubmergecl pavement), 1500 vears gp ftn. t"-;riand 1000 BP (the rvreck). Of course this approxi-mation excludes any, possibility of consiclerinsoccasional extrelne events, such as an exceptionalstorm or a tsunami, whose impact is evident not f.ara\'vay (Mastr:onuzzi and Sansd, 2000).

Considering the constraints aclopted ancl ex1t..in the prer,ious sections _ ug. and funcelevation - the present stucl,v attempted to r:struct the sea level change bv builcling a seiicurve of the past b000 years. Ages and eler.:rri, ,

the sur-veyed remains have been ieported on rhr l

recent curves elaborated, accorciing to the nlproduced bv Lambeck et al. (2004"; ZOtl) rt::The horizoulal crror.har inclicates the sul)l

Table 1: lveasurement daia and ]nferred sea leve s for archaeoioglcai slie p pofto cesareoSite name Survey date Type, and

(yyWlmm/ measureddd, h) height (m)

Corrected Functionalheight height (m)

(m)

Age yrs BP s.l.change

(m)1 Flagstone 2011/10/01h Walking 3400 + 100 -3.85 1.5 a.m.s.l. + 0.60

2 Roman grave 2011/OZh6 nTorre Chianca 14.00 GMT

floor of Scalo 1 1 .30 GMT surface lfdi Furno flagstone

floor -3.S5grave cutinto the

rock -0.00beached

wreck

-2,47

2011/05/10 h12:00 GMT

1600 + 100

1128 + 45(14C uncatibrated)

1117 + 125(14C calibrated data)

'1.5 a.m.s.l. + 0.60

-1.5 a.m.s.l. + 0.60

-0.55

-2.773 Medieval

beachedwreck

supposed sea rever curve derilred frsm archaaorogicar data surveyed in pono cesareo1 1.s ? )<

time (ka)Dashed rine = sea rever position inferred using Masrronuzi and Auriemma (2007) mode,

i:ff"jt"?:loffiil: archaeclosicar data derrved rrorn Porlo cesareo ,ruith respect io the known curve by

ztrz**rzqaT*{TECHNOTOGY Vol 30, No 4, 2012

age, and the vertical error bar indicates the func-tional elevation on the correlated sea level for1 and 2. In the case of site 3, it indicates the depthof the beam for the medieval wreck.

As evident, the data from Porto Cesareo fit onlyin part r,r,ith previous curves from the two modelsproduced by Lambeck et al. (2004a;2011). Thepresent position of the rvreck and the Romanremains below and above (respectively) the presentmean sea level are in acceptable agreement withthese curves. Both of them permit researchers toestimate the position of the sea level 2000 years agoat about 1.5m below the present one, and a meansea level rise of about0.75mm/y can be calculated.This data explains the transgression recognised onthe basis of morphological markers, such as wavecut platforms and dune belts.

Conflicting scenarios were derived from the studyof the protohistoric submerged l'all and flagstonefloor. In the absence of more precise data, theirchronological attribution seems to range from thel8th c. BC to the end of the 2nd millennium BC.Considering the former, in relation to modelledcuryes and if the yellow line is correct, it is neces-sary to invoke an anomalous subsiding behariourof the land, which could be connecred to rhe tec-tonic. No other possibility can be hrpothesised,since a sediment load-induced subsidence arrd/ora sinkhole-like modelling are not supported br geo-logical or geomorphological evidence. Therefore,it is necessary to suppose a tectonic subsidence esti-mated at0.2/0.\mm/y, even though it is absoh,rtelr.in disagreement with the local geological back-ground. In fact, the tectonic behaviour of the entireItalian peninsula as suggested by the elevation ofraised marine deposits indicates tectonic stabilin'inthe area around Porto Cesareo, with a possible dorrn-lift estimated at about 0.0310.01mm/v and 10 orderof magnitude bigger (Ferranti et ai., 2006).

A different scenario is derived from a differentchronological attribution of the submerged tvalland flagstone floor. An age of 3800 years BP tendsto overlap the curves of Lambeck et al. (2004b) andis closer, but it is still far from rhose of 2011. It isevident that the chronological attribution of theprotohistoric remains cannot be conditioned by ageophysical model, no matter horv thorough andtested it may be. On the contrary a model must beverified by local data. Ar rhis srage it is er.ident thatit is not possible to calibrate the geophvsical modelusing archaeological data, since the precision ofthe chronological attribution needs improvement.

In general, the present study could affirm that inthe Porto Cesareo area archaeological data seem toconfirm the long-term tectonic downlift and thefranscrressirre frend nf the qeq lerrel hrrf are nrrita

different betrveen the last 2000 years and the previ-ous time.

7. Conclusions

The understanding of the ancient coastal land-scape helps researchers to determine the particularhuman choices connected to the exploitation ofthe ancient resources and the settlement in theancient environment.

At the beginning of the 2nd millennium BC, thecoastal areas of southern Apulia saw extensivegrorvth in human settlements in the first centuries.Frequentlv they were characterised by dry stone for-tifications and walls built at the top of morphologi-call1'elevated areas, useful in the recognition andcontrol of the surrounding landscape both seawardand inland. This choice indicates the need to be incontrol of the nearby food and water resources fromthe network of rivers, swamps andwoodland. Both thegeographical and temporal extensions confer uponthis phenomenon the digniq, of a cultural evolutionwith historic foundations (Scarano, 2010).

Regarding the successive phase of occupation,the geoarchaeological data render the image ofsettlement form to be completely different. Somecoastal farmsteads/small holdings or manufactur-rng rillages (zlcl), specialising in the exploitation ofthe maritime resources and probably related tomore extensive landed properties, appear in theRoman age near the shore. They were inhabitedonl-v bv small groups of people living on fishing andits proceeds, though probably only seasonalll,-.

Given recent research, this settlement patternseems to recur along the Salento coast from the lateRepublic, and particularly in the imperial age and inlate Antiquity, when it reaches a significant develop-ment. Examples can been found in the tr,ell-knownand investigated case studies of S. Foca, Frascone -Palude del Capitano, S. Maria al Bagno - and also inless well documented case studies, such as Saturo,Torre Ovo and Punta Prosciutto (Auriemma ,2004a).

Furthermore, the process of reconstruction ofthe ancient coastline, by the reading of the archae-ological data, is determined by the analysis of singlesites. This confers great importance on eacharchaeological site, along with the need to improveour scientific knowledge of it. In addition, accuratearchaeological information has to be supported byareal geologic and biological investigations inorder to better define in extension the reconstruc-tion of the ancient coastline and landscapes.

The particular coastal conformation of PortoCesareo and its numerous archaeological sites,covering a large chronological span of time, allow-^"^.--h^-. +^ l-^ -1-l^ r^ f-,-+1-^'^ ^^-l--^+ ^*-)r-.^

on the variations in sea level ot'er time, coastal shape

and erosion and the peculiarities of the ancient

population along the coast. It is possible to conclude

that more accurate data is necessary to compare

both archaeologically and geologicallv derived

uplift/dorvnlift trends, and to validate existing geo-

physical models.

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2.131i{3*i-1fJ27*.7TECHNOTOGY

A project for the creation of an underwaterarchaeological park at Apollonia, Libya

Claudia Pizzinato* and Carlo BeltrameStudio Archeotema, Cannaregio 233, Venezia, Italy

Abstractln 2008 and 2OO9 the Archeotema society (Venice, ltaly)

was contracted by the Libyan government to outline aproject for the management of the underwater archaeologi-

cal sites of Libya as places for underwater tourism, Theproiect was part of a general remit of Evaluation and Conservation of the Cultural Libyan Heritage.

A selected site was Apollonia in Cyrenaica. The ancientharbour with all its structures allowed for the visualisation ofa real park with an itinerary for divers and a glass-bottom

boat for people to see from the surface,

Keywords: underwater, archaeology, Apollonia, park

1. lntroductionAn 'under-water archaeological park' is a submergedarchaeological area open to the public and acces-

sible through prearranged itineraries. Such typeof park can be visited by both divers and visitorson-board glass-bottom boats.

To become a public park, an underwater archae-ological area must lirst be investigated. In addi-tion, it should not present any potential risk forconservation in situ of monumental architecturalremains or objects. Seaside ancient urban settle-ments, villas, harbours, fisheries and other ancientmaritime infrastructure, now submerged as a resultof bradyseismic or eustatic events, can be enhancedby the establishment of a park. Shipwrecks may beopened to public access if their contents comprisematerial that is not easily removable, such as marbleblocks and columns, iron cannons and concretedpottery.

An underwater archaeological park should beespecially useful for the protection and enhance-ment of the archaeological heritage, as requestedby the United Nations Educational, Scientific andCultural Organization (UNESCO) Convention onthe Protection of the Underwater Cultural Herit-age (UNESCO, 2012). Furthermore, such a parkusually creates new employment in towns and citieslocated close to the area. In fact, wherever parks

have been established and have worked efficiently,hotels and restaurants have sprung up. Also, a

number of small private business establishmentsthat deal with everyday and extraordinary mainte-nance of the park, sur-veillance and guided tourshave also come to those areas. In short, a new fron-tier for organised tourism has been created.

In addition, there is the potential in such areas

of setting up research projects in the field ofmaritime archaeology, marine biology and conser-vation, thereby creating new professional opportu-nities. Ultimately, the main goals in the creation ofunderwater archaeological parks should be to pre-serve both the natural and cultural resources of thesite and to attract visitors enjoying the cultural fea-

tures of the site (Davidde, 2002).

2. Examples of underwater archaeologicalparks and museums2.1. ltaly2.1.1. BaiaThe volcanic region of the Phlegraean Fieldsextends to the west of Naples and overlooks thewaters of the Gulf of Pozzuoli. It is well knor,r.n bothfor its numerous archaeological sites from theRoman period and for the bradyseismic phenom-ena that have radically altered the original struc-ture of the coastline over the centuries. AncientBaia was a bathing resort for Roman aristocracybut, because of bradyseism, began to sink intothe water around the 3rd c. AD. The ancient city,which is now almost submerged, rvas famous for itsIuxurious seaside villas, public offices, baths, shopsand coastal installations.

The zone of underwater Baia covers a 13 000m2

area of well-preserved ancient buildings where it isstill possible to see not only the wall structures, butalso some beautiful decorations such as paintings,stuccos, mosaics and marble wall-cladding. Thewhole park is divided into seven main underwatersites, which are positioned at a depth rangingbetween 3m and 24m under water. The local divingclub suides underwater tourists to the submerqed

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t:Pizzitrato md Beltrme' A p ruiect for the aeation of an uwrmattr archaeorogicar park at Aporonia, Lib,,c

ciqv. and they can read information about theancient remains on descriptive panels fixed close tothe structures. However, some of the sites can alsobe r,isited

limply by snorkelling. Visitors nor able rodive can admire the ancient underwater ruins froma special boat with a transparent hull.

2.1 .2. UsticaThe natural marine reserve of the island of Usticain Sicily offers to visitors an undentater archaeo_logical itinerary in the area of punta Gavazzi. -Iheitinerary ranges from a minimum depth of 10m toa maximum of 24m. Signs giving directions usingdifferent coloured lines und"er.#. _uk" it easy tofind all the archaeological remains. These includelead anchors, amphorae and other kinds of potter,v.Special panels describe the function, date and prov_enance of each find; general information on nar.i-gation in antiquity; the different rypes of anchorsand amphorae used and produced ai that time; andmaps of the itinerary and the rules *.ith rvhicrr risi-tors must comply. photograph" l, p.._irted andvisitors can also see the ,=-uir., or,, bourd a boatwith a transparent bottom.

2.2. CroatiaOver 500 archaeological sites are located in theCroatian waters of the Adriatic Sea. The ancientshipwrecks are protected by a -"tul .ug. that is theIess expensire arrd nth em. Dive r, .,rh. ;",;'.T;ff$'" ::: ;llT::ffiidive licence can risit the sites, but they.ur-r.ro, touchshipwrecks or their arrefacrs (Mesic, iOOSl.

2.3. lsrael2.3.1 . CesareaDivers are able to tour the sign_posted remains ofthe magnificent harbo.r. b.,jt t ,. Kng Herod tohonour his Romanrhe rargesr

""0 ;ilHL::i':.#:T:li;X H:Roman Empire and has been rr-idei.,"*.u.,ut"d o"..three decades. There is no other ur..i"r_rt port inthe world that is accessible to ordinary dil,ers.In fact, after only a half_hour,s instruction, diverscan dive with a guide to the ancient submerged

harbour, where 36 points of interest are markedalons 4 ffails in the sunken port, covering an areaof 95,000m2. They .u.r, ."..iue a \rarerproof.mapthat describes in detail each of the numlered sitesalong the way.

One trail is accessible to simple snorkelling. Theothers, ranging from 2m to 9m below the surfaceand close to the beach, are appropriate fbr anyinexperienced diver. In addititn, jiu"., can seeancient anchors, a ruined liehthouse, an ancientbreakwater and the remnants of the orisinal forrn_

dations that made this harbour one of the wondersof rhe Roman Empire.

2.4. USA and CanadaAcross the United States and Canada, numerousunderwater protection systems and parks have beenestablished since the 1980s and are managed byfederal, state, local, private non_profit or local diveshop entities. Some of these protection systemsinvolve complex circumslanc.r. ,u.h u, .rorringinternational boundaries, or involving multi_statebottomlands, and are located on rhe f,ottomlandsof oceans, rivers or bays. Some systems include onlyone site, while others comprise dozens of shipwrecksites and geological features over vast areas.

The National Oceanographic and AtmosphericAdministration (NOA{; ulro .r.ut.d three nationalmarine sanctuaries that are dedicated specificallyto the presenation of historic shipwrecks in NorthAmerican \{aters (Cohn and Dennis , 20II).

2.5. Australia and EuropeSince 1gB1 five shipwreck trail systems havebeen eshblished and iwo additio"uf lrr., are cur_rently being established. Each trail system is admin_istered by an individual state and, in most cases,the state maritime museum or maritime heritageunit oversees the trail system (Cohn and Dennis,201 1 ).

Other underwater parks and preserves exist inPortugal (Alves, 2006), Finland (Nationat eoard ofAntiquities, 2012),Scorland (non"rtror., iOos; urrathe Caribbean (Scort_Ireron, 2005)

2.6. EgyptThe submerged royal quarters of Cleopatra, oncelocated on an island that sunk in th"'+tt c. AD,were discovered in the l9g0s within the easrernharbour of A-lexandria. Scatter.d .._uirm of thePharos of Alexandria lighthouse, one oitt . SevenWonders of the Ancient World, *... ulro located".llby::...ounding the lbth c. AD Fort eaitbey.

. The Ministry of Culture of Eglpt has parrnered

rvith UNESCO to form an inteinational scientific

,Ttr ffi ;H jgi i';:: J;, i,fix'.':jly, *:1: ";in Alexandria featuring these internationally impor_tant sites in situ. Aconsiderabr....n,,rJr"'."r:T"[ ji;,:rtt:#1T",'jarchirecture, but the bay itseliis man_made andonly 5-6m deep.

2.7. ChinaThe Baiheliang Underwater Museum was createdas a.mediation project to protect China,s rare cul_

j'1133{a*Y-':dAt*'{TECHNOTOGY vor so, No 4, 2or2

result of the construction of the Three Gorges Damon the Yangtze River. The site is an ancient rid.gewith hydrological inscriptions thar record thechanges in the Yangtze River over the past 1200years. In addition, stone car-vings along the banks ofthe river are part of the exhibited sites. Construc-tion began in 2002 and the museum opened in2010. The facilities allow lisitors to view the inscrip-tions and canings from within submerged tunnelsthat are 30m below the neu, rvater surface (Cohnand Dennis, 2011).

3, Apollonia and its underwater and marinesites

The site of Apollonia is located along the coastabout 20km from ancient Cyrene in the region ofCyrenaica. In origin this site was a Greek colonyfounded in BC 631 by rhe citizens of the island ofThera. During the Greek period, it rvas exclusivelyused as a harbour for Cyrene but then, during thelst c. BC, it became a ciqrwith the name ofApollonia(Laronde, 1985, 1986, 1990). Regarding the archi-tectural remains, the theatre is the onlv monumentof the Greek period still visible on land, n hile thereis great evidence of Roman and especially B,vzan-tine buildings.

Apollonia is also the largest under.water city ofthe classical Greek period. The harbour comprisestwo basins. The western basin is protected by twoisles to the north and by the so-called Grotto Reefto the west. This reef has recently collapsed and, inthe past, has perhaps closecl this side of the port.Scholars suppose that this natural structure could.allow researchers to reach the ship sheds locatedalong the south side of the main island.

Bet\,veen the two basins, the r,vestern basin rvasprotected from the eastern winds b1' a pier anclwas accessible through a channel. At the beginningof the channel there 'lvere two to\\rers. The easternharbour was protectedjust by an island to the north,hosting a lighthouse. Only poor remains of thelighthouse are still visible. Along rhe south side ofthe basin, many buildings are present (Flemming,1971; Laronde, 1985, 1986, 1990).

The external basin to the east could have hostedcargo vessels. This hlpothesis could be supporred bva pair of wrecks with amphorae, dated to the laterRepublican period, which have been fbund. here(Laronde, 1990). Along the rocky coasr of this har-bour there is a big fishery of the Roman age, directlyquarried in the rock. Inside this {ishery, a marblestatue rvas found during the 1950s (Flemming,1971). Probably owing to both a phenomenon ofsubsidence, which has occurred along all the coastof Cyrenaica, and to the sea level rise. rhe harhorrr

of Apollonia now lies about 2.5-3m underrvater.This phenomenon started perhaps in the LateAntiquity (Flemming, 1971). As a consequencethe coast, where the cigv has been established, isnow engaged by a phenomenon of erosion thatis destroying the ancient buildings and the archae-ological deposits.

4. Previous researchIn 1957, the sea-bortom of the ancienr city of Apol-lonia was explored for the first time by CaptainD Forrou, (Goodchild et al., 1976). In the followineiears of 1958 and 1959, two campaigns of docu-mentation were conducted by the CambridgeExpedition under the direction of Nicholas Flem-ming. The team of divers made a preliminary planof the submerged site, which is still the only oneavailable. Using simple tools, they were able to posi-tion all of the structures visible underrvater andcould then propose a first interpretation of them.In particular, they concentrated their attention onthe fishery and the sliprvays, directly quarried inthe rock on the southern part of the main island.A general plan of these latter structures, whichwere used as ship sheds for Greek military vessels,was made b,v the English team (Flemming, 1959,1961, t965,1971).

In September 1959, they surveved the easternpart of the city; checked the position of the searvalls; established the existence of two harboursand defined the true entrance to them; discor.ered the foundations of a lighthouse; drew a sche-matic plan of the piscina bcuktta; discovered a ruin-covered island to the west of Apollonia; andestablished the probable cause of subsidence - allwithin ten days. This experience r,r,as one of ther-erv first of its kind in underwater archaeolog,v. Ithas the great merit of having made the first, andstill only, plan of the site and made pr,rblic one ofthe most important underwater sites of the worldn'ilh one of the most interesting ancient harboursof the Mediterranearr.

In 1986 and 1987, furrher exploration of the sitervas conducted by a French mission directed by,{ndr6 Laronde. A team from the Department forLlnderrvater Archaeological Research (DRASSM)of Marseille took part in the mission. The Frenchgroup discovered tlr,o Roman r,vrecks and excavatedone of them, which dated to the 2nd c. BC. A trenchnas also made by the team between the tr,vo towersat the entrance of the \,vestern harbour. Thc excava-tion uncovered that, between the 6th-7th c. ADthe entrance had been closed quickly by reusedbuilding material (Laronde, 1990; Laronde andSintec I OOR\

Pizzinato md Beltrame. A project for the reation of an undmatr uchaeological parh qt Apolloniq, Lib\a

More recent research carried out by the Frenchteam has allowed researchers to analyse the shipsheds (Sintes, 2010).

5. Prolect plan of an underwaterarchaeological park in ApolloniaThe project plan for the creation of an underwaterarchaeological park in Apollonia was included in awide project planned for a Scottish company by twoexperts in international planning. The fundingcame directly from the Libyan sovernment in 2009.The project, entitled 'Conservation and Restorationof the Cultural Heritage in the GreatJamahiriya',included all the mosr important archaeologicalsites of Libya: Leptis Magna; Sabratha; Tripoli;VillaSelin; Cyrene; Ptolemais; and Apollonia. Archeo-tema, which specialises in underwater works andprojects, was in charge of the planning of an under-water archaeological park in Leptis Magna, Apol-lonia and Ptolemais.

Considering the previous research made on thesite, Archeotema organised a mission to survey allthe underwater archaeological evidence previouslymapped both by English and French reams. Duringthe survey 29 points of interest r,r,ere identified andbetween those, the fbllor,ving paragraphs discussthe specialll, selected sites (Fig 1) .

N. 2 - the so called Cleopatra's swimming pool:A quarry in the rock completely flooded. It is a sortof L-shaped dockyard, and is 13m lons and 6m wide.It represents a perfect context for diving courses. Itis accessible only by boat or can be reached by builcl-ing a small staircase on the rocks.

N. 3 - submerged tower: This tower is made bysquared blocks, at the north side of the entrance ofthe harbour. To the south the door is closed byanother tower. The entrance \ras the terminationofa type ofharbour channel. It has been excavatedby A Laronde, who concluded that it had beenquickly closed by reused elemenrs during the6th-7th c. AD.

N. 4 - big island where a certain number of openair quarries are visible: There are also caves lvhichcan be visited. Flemming documenred the collapseof the central part of the northern limit of theisland. Here it is possible to view the slipways fromthe top. There is a natural access for the boat, but itis necessary to equip it.

N. 5 - big quarry: This quarry is located inthe rock and has circular silos connected to thesea. The big tank is connected to the sea with atunnel, which allows a diver to visit it coming fromthe sea.

N. 6 - a submerged pier: This pier is madeb-v squared stone blocks connectins the eastern

extremity of the slipways to a tower at the entranceof the harbour.

N. 7 - southern submerged tower of the harbourchannel made by squared stone blocks: It is so wellpreserved that it is still visible from the surface. It isalso a danger for navigation.

N. 8 - big submerged pier: This pier is made ofsquared stone blocks connecting the beach to thesouthern tower. It is about 90m long (Fig 2).

N. l2 - partially submerged ship she ds (neosoihoi):These ship sheds have ten slipways, 38.5m long and6m wide, which were already documented by theCambridge expedition in 1958 (Flemming, lgbg,1961, 1965, 1971) and recently by a French ream(Sintes, 2010). The building is a type of hangar forthe recovery in dry conditions of military oaredships of ancient Greece.

N. 13 - submerged fish pool (piscinaor uiuarium):This pool comprises a main big tank 44m long andthree small square tanks quarried in the rock.These structures are normally dated to the Romanperiod. This submerged fish pool is currently posi-tioned at a minimum depth of 1.9m and at a maxi-mum depth of 3.Bm (Fig 3).

N. 15 - submerged quays disposed in parallel:They are formed by parallelepiped carved blockson the sides and by round stones inside the quays.The square blocks were the wall foundation, filledwith simple small stones. The longest quay is about35m long and the entire stmcture is about 40m wicle.

N. 16 - submerged quarry: The quarry occupiesan area of about 1000m2 and consists of several reg-ular cuts into the rock, made in order to give a pre-liminary rectangular shape to the blocks. The sitehas been previously interpreted by Flemming as apossible shipyard, but there is no evidence to sup-port this suggestion.

N. 23 - submerged building: This building hasparallel walls dividing it into five long rooms: Therooms are 5.5m wide and are closed both to thenorth and to the south. The rvhole structure is about45m long and 30m wide. Because of its shape, itseems rather logical rhat a building lvith such longrooms closed on all sides is interpreted as a dock(or a warehouse).

N. 24 - submerged wall: This wall is about 60mlong, enclosing to the north part of the docks. Appar-ently it is contemporary with the docks.

N. 25 - submerged quarry on the rock: It is com-posed by four socles of rock - 20m long - divideclby three lanes where the rock has been excavated.The structure occupies an area of 20 x 16m. A dou-ble L-shaped wall was uncovered on the carved.rocks. It is made of three rows of stone blocks,having a maximum width of 4.5m. It is obvious thatthis building was built afrer the quarry. The site is

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positioned at a minimum depth of -1.5m and ar amaximurn depth of -3m.

6. Diving points

The follol'ving paragraphs outline some points ofinterest rvhich could be visited by divers and touristsaboard transparent-bottom boats. Some sites thatare similar to each other have be en grouped togetheras the intention is to create a thernatic touq and alsobecause some sites are situated close to one another.The fbllorving list contains some sires that rvere notdiscussed previousir,, as the present paper discussesonh the mos( siqnifir'anr sites.

Pool: site N. 2The so-called Cleoparra's sr,vimming pool could bea perfect natural swimming pool to train the newdivers. It is possible to reach it aboard a zodiac boatcarrying the equipmenr and the students. A fixedpanel advising that the passage of motor boats isforbidden and that it is a training site will be placedat the entrance. An adclitional panel will indicatethe number and the ID of the site rvith a shorfdescription of it.

A: sites N. 22, 23,21,26,27This archaeological area is onlv a pair of metres indepth and it can be reached bv the coast. It is pos-sible to visit a submerged square building (N. 26)along the remains of a pier or a ciry u,all (N. 27).

A long submersed rvall (N. 22) is present betrveenthis I'all and another submerged building (N. 23)with parallel rvalls dir,'iding five lons roonrs, inteFpreted as a dock (or rvarehouse). The depth rangeof this area is from lm to 3m undenvater.

B: site N. 16

The diver lvill be able to r,isit a submerged quarry.The depth is 3m underwater.

Pizzinato md Beltrme. A pruject for the aeatiort of an und.matu archaeological puh at Apollonia. L

Fig 3: A tank of the vivarium

C: sites N. 3, 6, 12, 21

Dive can begin on the site N. 12, which is a partiallrsrrbrnerged ship sheds (neosoihoi) r,vith ten slipwavsquarried in the rocky bottom and divided by r,valls oIr-rnquarried stone. Visitors can start the tour from the\vest and move to the east, where a long submergedstructurc in stone blocks (N. 6) and a submergeclpier are present. The pier is made of squared blocks(N. 21) and connects the eastern extremity of thesliprvays to a to\,\rer at the entrance of the harbour.

The submerged tolver (N. 3), made b,v squareclblocks, is located at the northern side of theentrance to the harbour. The depth range of thearea is from 2m to 4rn.

D: sites N. 7, B, 9, 10, 11,I5,17,18, 19, Z0A diver can easilv start from site N. 7, r,vhich corre-sponds to the southern tower of the entrance. Thediver can cclntinue the dive along a massir,e pier ofsquared blocks (N. 8), u'hich runs roward the beach.Along the route the diver will see other stone foun-dations of difficult interpretarion (N. 17, 1B).

The pier is connecred to a big plateau of squaredblocks (N. 9). Here the diver can turn tor,vard thelvestto follow a new possible pier (N. 10) that is east/r,r,estoriented, r,vhich ends near a submersed structure,made of stone blocks rvith circular shape (N. 11).

Moving further $,est the diver i,r,.ill see a bis struc-tur:e composed by presumed submerged quaysdisposed in parallel. Other stone structures arepresent along the western side of the quays (N. 19,20). The depth range of the area is from 2m to 4m.

E: site N. 28This dive is very short. It is possible to see a sub-merged qLrarry rvith unfinished stone blocksalisned. The depth of this area is 3m.

F: site N. 25This short dive will encolrnter a submerged quarrvon the rock comprising four socles of rock divided

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.r-'. - -i'-r'r'. :nrll sqllare tanks quarried in the rock.r-l-- --:-.: r,','e:r side of the pool, moving toward the: -1-ir. it is possible to dive under a tunnel I'hichLontlects a big quarry and circular silos, engraved

in the rock, to the sea (N. 5). Divers will have to exitfrom the quarry and return to the sea to finish theirdive. The depth range of this area is 1m to 4m.

7 . Crilical aspectsAccording to Flemming (pers. comm.), who has

extensive knowledge of the problems of the sub-

merged ruins of Apollonia, the main wave damage at

Apollonia appears to be related to the Grotto reef(N. 16) and to the 'west island' (site N. 4). For a thou-sand years or more, the northr'r,est side of the tor'r'rr

was protected from storms by the Grotto Reef, as wellas by artificial rubble breakr'vaters between the reefand west island. Gradually that breakwater was bro-ken down and flattened, and the rvaves now breakinto the ciq'area. In 1959 a large part of this overhanghad collapsed. Thus the whole tunnel feature, andthe flat, straight arch outside it, rvere being destroyedby the \,vaves. Currently the waves also attack themainland shore, but are not very dangerous because

the island creates a partial 'tombolo' effect.Flemming proposes the building of a breakwater

over the site of the Grotto Reef to prevent furtherdamage. On stormy da,vs, a nerv breakrvater, or even

a submerged or discontinuous n-pe, rrould maintainmuch calmer water over the cin', and thus r,ouldmake it much more attractive to tourists. Since therewas obviously a rubble breaklvater in this sector inancient times, it is even justifiable on the basis of'restoration'.

Two other problems, according to Flemming(pers. comm.), are the pollution of servage, rvhichstarted in 2003, and the Al Manara Hotel, which is

too close to the archaeological site and dischargesliquids on the rvest of the modern harbour.

B, Conclusion

The establishment of an archaeological park couldhelp conserve ancient submerged monuments andacquire funds for cleaning and restoring them. Anintegrated system of archaeological parks couldenhance the country torvards a new economy based

In order to create an underwater archaeologicalpark at Apollonia, it will be necessary to follow a

series of actions that cor.rid be summarisecl in thefollowing steps:

1. solve the critical aspects relating the archaeo-logical risk (sewage and erosion);2. clean the sites;

3. carefully document the sites;

4. carr v- out trench excar'ations for studying purposes;

5. delimit and equip the park;6. build a diving centre;7. build or bul,ships (with flat transparent bottomor simple zodiacs); and8. train local dive-guides, park guardians andrestorers.

These actions, if adequately carried out, ma,v leadto important economic, social and cultural devel-

opments, starting a dialogue between 'memory cul-

ture' and 'present culture'.

ReferencesAlves FJS. (200ti). Strategic options r'r'ith regards to public

access - awarcness raising in Portugal. In: Grenier R,

Nutlel'D and Cochran I. (eds.). Underwater Cultural Herit-

age Risk: L[anaging natura,l a.nd h'uman impacts. Paris: Inter-national Council on Monuments and Sites, 85-87.

Cohn AB and Dennis.fM. (2011). Maritime archaeolog]', thedive communi$', and heritage tourism. In: Catsambis A,Ford B and Hamilton DL. (eds.). The Oxlord Handbook ofMari.time Archaeologl. Oxford: Oxford Universiq' Press,

106r-1071.Davidde B. (2002). Underwater archaeological p:rrks: a new

perspective and a challenge for consen'ation - the Italianpanorama. International Journal of Nautical Arcluteolog 3l:83-88.

Flemming N. (1959). Underrvater adventure in Apollonia.Geo grap himl Magazin e 3l'. 49 7-508.

Flemming N. (1961). Apollonia re'".isited. Geographiral Magn,zine 33: 522-530.

Flemming N. (1965). Apollonia. In: Du Plat TaylorJ. (ed.).Marine Archaeologl: deaelopments d,uting sixtl years in the

IIediten'anean London: Hutchinson. 168-178.Flemming N. ( 1971) . Cities in the Sea.. Garden Citl', NY Dou-

bledar; 222pp.Goodchild RG, Pedle,vJG and \Arhite D. (eds.). (1976). Apol-

lonia, the port of Cyrene: excauations b1 the Uniuersifi of Miclri-gan 1965-1962 Supplements to LibyaAntiqua, IVTtipoli:Departmen t of Antiqrrities.

Laronde A. (1985). Apollonia de C,vr6naique et son his-

toire: neuf ans de recherches de la mission arch6ologiquefrancaise en Liby,e. Com,ples rendus des siances de I'Acadimiede.s inscriptions et belles-Lettre.s 85: 102-115.

Laronde A. (1986). Les ports de la Cyr6naique; Ptol6mais etApollonia. In: Mastino A. (a cura dt'). L'A;t'nca Romana.

Atti clel III Conaewn d,i stutlio, Sassari, 13-15 dicernbre 1985.

Sassari: \67-177.Laronde A. (1990). Recherches sous-marines dans le port

d'Apollonia de C,vr6naique: apercri Preliminaire. In:Giornata Lincea sulla Archeologia Cirenaica (Roma 1987) atti

doi:10.3723 :.: ' -- - 1.,: iIr. \o1. n 22'-216. 2012n!"Ir rf -r-Ea .a..a:r-1i

Lt***t'..Het*TTECHNOLOGY

=ooE.YootrScienffic lDivfrng

Techniques:A practicalgulde for thenesearch diverBy John Heine

Published by Best PublishingCompany

Second editionPaperback,2OlltsBN 978 193053 668 5232 pages

After more than ten years since itsfirst printing, the second editionof Scientific Diaing Tbchniques isnow available. The author, JohnHeine, taught scientific divingfor 18 years at the Moss LandingMarine Laboratories at CaliforniaState University, where he alsoobtained his master's degree inmarine science. During his careeras a scientific diver, Heine was

president of the American Acad-emy of Underwater Sciences(AAUS) and a member of thediving control board of the Officeof Polar Programs, administeredby the National Science Founda-tion. He is the author of scientificpapers for peer-reviewed j ournalsand several books and publica-tions related to diving techniques.

As the subtitle indicates, thisbook is intended to be a practi-cal guide for scientific divers, butit is also a valuable source ofinformation about using divingas a tool for scientific investiga-tions or starting a career as a sci-

entific diver.A description of all the possi-

ble scenarios and techniques of

encr-clopaedic work, but Heine'slong experience as an active sci-

entific diver and writer has

allowed him to condense all ofthe main topics into a managea-ble volume. The book is less than250 pages, is divided into eightchapters and is full of picturesillustrating the equipment used,the environments studied andthe techniques applied.

The first chapter focuses onthe history of scientific divingand its evolution through time.Amazingly, the very first scientificdiver seems to have been Alexan-der the Great when he decidedto be lowered into a glass bellto observe the underwater world.Even if this may only be a legend,it provides the scientific divingcommunity with a very prestig-ious ancestorl A detailed descrip-tion of the current panoramaol scientific diving opportunitiesand training, including universiq,and governmental programmes,follows. The only limitation is

that it is primarily focused on thescientific diving communiq,in theUnited States, with only a fewreferences being made to otherinternational scientific divingorganisations.

The second chapter describesthe different possible environ-ments that can be studied byscientific divers, including someerotic areas such as polar seas andh,vclrothermal springs. It showsthe great potential of scientificdiving as an investigative tool fora wide range of research.

The continuous evolution ofunderwater equipment needs tobe closely followed by profes-sional divers in order to stayahead of the innovations, thusensuring advanced diving activ-ity. In the third chapter, Heinedescri bes special ised divi n g equ ip-ment and procedures includingmixed-gas diving and rebreather

relatively new methods for scien-tific divers and are very useful ina number olspecific environmenssuch as deep water and caves.

Throughout the volume,Heine guides the reader througha variety of techniques that canbe used by scientific divers to per-form their research tasks. Topicsincluding underwater mapping.measurements of physical andbiotic factors, underwear photog-raphy, and video and archaeolog-ical techniques, with each havingone chapter dedicated to thetopic.

The structure of the chaptersincludes a clear and comprehen-sive description of the topics,followed by a detailed list ofreferences and, where appropri-ate, other information such as a

directory of equipment suppliersand training agencies. As evidentin the first edition, the largenumber of references is the back-bone of the book with more than700 references listed, giving thereader a very good source ofmore detailed information thatincludes several links to r,veb-

based resources.A large number of high-qualit,v

photographs support the descrip-tion of the different researchtechniques; there are close-upphotos to illustrate details of theequipment, and some examplesof tables and sheets for datarecording.

A this book is intended as a

practical guide, a series of twelvetraining exercises is illustrated,spanning from how to create areliable map, collecting and tag-

ging techniques, to how to per-form transects and even specificphotographic and video tech-niques. Each exercise includesa list of the necessary equipmentand clearly identifies the objectiveof the training before describ-ing how to perform the practical

rJohn Heine. Scimtifc Diuing Tbchniques: A practiml guide for the resetch diz'q

The overall design of the bookis user-friend\', with a good mixof text and images and an effec-tive table of contents and list ofthe training exercises at the begin-ning and an analytic index at theend. The printing quality, includ-ing the pictures, is very good withthe use o[glossy paper even in a

paperback edition. One minor

fault is the cover which, aftersome usage, becomes wrinkled.

In conclusion, this second edi-tion of Scientif,c Diurng Tbchniclues

represents an appreciable contri-bution to the knowledge of scien-

tific diving procedures. Onceagain the author,John Heine, has

produced a valuable collection ofinlormation through a massive

research effort, including contact-ing many scientific divers whocontributed to the book with pic-tures illustrating their research inseveral different scientifi c fi elds.

(Rzaiawd by Dr Giorgio

C aramanna, Ada ance d Europ ean

Scientif,c Diu e4 ltalian Association

of Scientific Diaers (AIOSS))

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