UnderstandingSudan.org University of California, Berkeley © 2006

SudanBrief historical overview of pre-colonial period to independence

Presentation material for educators and activists

developed by: UnderstandingSudan.org

latest version: March 11, 2006

UnderstandingSudan.org University of California, Berkeley © 2006

Outline

• Early history• Christian kingdoms• Islamization and

Arabization• Turkiyya and

Mahdiyya

• British rule• Independence• Islamist rule: 1989-

present• Civil war in Southern

Sudan• Darfur

UnderstandingSudan.org University of California, Berkeley © 2006

Early History• Numerous Nubian kingdoms along the

Nile: Kingdoms of Kush (Cush), known from pottery and Egyptian records

• Kush conquers Egypt (743bc and rule until 644bc). Largest unified state in the world at the time. Assyrians drive Kush pharoah Taharqo back to 4th cataract (Napata/Merowe)

• Arabs conquer Egypt 640ad. Treaty of baqt in 641ad with Nubia: Interpretation disputed, but seems to involve tribute from Nubia to Egypt

UnderstandingSudan.org University of California, Berkeley © 2006

Christian Kingdoms in Medieval Times

• Alwa, Makuria and Nobatia - three small kingdoms Christianized by 580ad

• Merge into Kingdom of Dongola, which survives as Nubian Christian kingdom until 1323ad; written records (in Greek) of emissaries from Church and of relations with Caliphs in Damascus attest to important power of Nubia, and tombstones (in Greek) are found in archeological digs

• Famous frescoes discovered in churches along the Nile when UNICEF rescued archeological treasures after flooding by Aswan High Dam

UnderstandingSudan.org University of California, Berkeley © 2006

UnderstandingSudan.org University of California, Berkeley © 2006

UnderstandingSudan.org University of California, Berkeley © 2006

Conversion to Islam and Shift to Arab Identity/Genealogies

• Process occurred slowly, no conquest or sharp turn, but continual (that is, over centuries, though with long periods of peace) conflict between Egypt and Arabs crossing from Red Sea

• Holymen, merchants, and camel herders came from Arabia and the Maghreb (Egypt/Libya/Tunisia/Morocco) and settled in Sudan

• Pilgrims came from West Africa on the overland route of the hajj

• Local rulers convert to Islam, as does local population

UnderstandingSudan.org University of California, Berkeley © 2006

Kingdom of Sennar (Funj)• A group known as the Funj conquer the

knigdom of Alwa (capital at Soba on the Blue Nile) in 1504

• Establish Kingdom of Sennar, rules much of central Sudan (but not Dongola) until 1821

• Established court bureaucracy and left a substantial amount of written records

• European travelers first visited in 1700s and recorded court customs

UnderstandingSudan.org University of California, Berkeley © 2006

Egyptian conquest: 1821• Mohamed Ali ruler of Egypt, nominally a province

of Ottoman Empire, but practically autonomous; Egyptian forces successfully conquer much of modern-day Sudan

• By many accounts, motive and rule is purely “extractive”: slaves, ivory, ostrich feathers, taxes are sent back to Egypt

• Northern, Muslim, residents of Nile basin, and European adventurers and traders participate in exploitation of Southern regions

• Beginning of Syrian and Lebanese diaspora in Sudan – clerks and military in Turkiyya, as Egyptian rule is known

UnderstandingSudan.org University of California, Berkeley © 2006

Mahdist revolt and Mahdiyya: 1881-1898

• The oppression of Egyptian rule (the Turkiyya) leads many to join a holyman named Mohamed Ahmed, who declares himself to be the Mahdi (“the expected one”) in revolt

• In 1885 defeat British forces in Khartoum

• The Mahdi dies shortly thereafter, and successor Khalifa Abdullahi rules

UnderstandingSudan.org University of California, Berkeley © 2006

UnderstandingSudan.org University of California, Berkeley © 2006

British Conquest and Rule: 1898-1956

• British conquer Mahdiyya in revenge for defeat and death of British General Charles Gordon in Khartoum, and to protect southern flank of Egypt (now under British control) and Suez Canal

• Rule Sudan in co-domini (the Condominium) with Egypt, though British rule through elite Sudan political Service

• Conquer Darfur in 1916• In reaction to British rule, “Sudanese”

identity and Sudanese nationalism is developed

UnderstandingSudan.org University of California, Berkeley © 2006

UnderstandingSudan.org University of California, Berkeley © 2006

British Rule North Sudan • Indirect rule: Built up authority of different

tribal leaders (Nazir and omda and sheikh)– If no convenient tribe, then created one by

amalgamating smaller tribes

• Cultivated close relationships with religious leaders (descendants of Mahdi and Khatmiyya); the families of those leaders are still the most important ruling families in Sudan

• Promoted more schooling in the North – Gordon College – and encouraged a growing Sudanese civil service to replace Egyptians

UnderstandingSudan.org University of California, Berkeley © 2006

British Rule – South Sudan• More direct rule by British District

Commissioner (so-called Bog Barons)

• Southern Policy initiated 1922• Ostensibly to stop southern groups from

domination by northerners• English and not Arabic became formal

language• Christian missionary education promoted• Northern merchants kicked out• Wearing of northern Sudanese jellabiya

discouraged

UnderstandingSudan.org University of California, Berkeley © 2006

Resources• Ancient Nubian history

– http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/ht/02/afs/ht02afs.htm

– http://rumkatkilise.org/nubia.htm