UnderstandingPhilosophyofReligion€¦ · ‘five Ways’ (Quinque viae), which were ways...

Understanding Philosophy of Religion

testing your skill in assessment rather than description, so make sure that you

include evaluative commentrather than just a presentation of what Gaunilo said,

Do you think Gaunilo was makinga fair point? When Anselm replied to Gaunilo, did

he give a satisfactory response or does Gaunilo's criticism still stand? You might Want

to argue that there have been othercriticisms (such as those of Kant) that have been

more successful than Gaunilo’s; this would be a valid line of argument,as long as you

also deal with the issues explicitly raised in the question.

x

or

The basis of the cosmological argumentis that the universe cannot accountfor its own

existence. Why do things exist at all — why is there something,rather than nothing?

There must be a reason, the argumentsays, for the existence of the universe, andthis

reason has to be something which is not part of the physical world of time and space,

This argumenthas a very longhistory. Plato, in Timaeus, arguedthat everything must

have beencreated by somecause.Aristotle arguedthat behind the series of cause and

effect in the world there must be an Unmoved Mover,and the Kalam argumentin Islam

is an attempt to show that the universe must have a cause and is not the result of an

infinite regress (an endless chain going back forever).

Cosmological arguments ask:

why is there something,

rather than nothing? Whyis

the universe here at all? They

conclude that there must bea

cause for the existence of

everything — and that cause

must be God.

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Middle Ages, cosmological arguments were used by Thomas Aquinas in hisIn the‘five Ways’ (Quinque viae), which were ways of demonstrating the existence of God

thirough inductive argument, based on observation and evidence.

Aquinas (1224/5-74) is generally accepted to be the greatest of all the mediaeval

philosophers and theologians. He lived at a time when the works of Aristotle had

recently been rediscovered by Europeans — they had been forgotten, but preserved by

Arab philosophers, and in Aquinas’ time they had only recently cometo light because

of Christianity’s contact with Islam. Aristotle’s work was (andstill is) immensely

impressive, both becauseof its range and becauseofits common-sense appealto logic.

It was seen by many mediaeval church leaders as a threat, because it offered an

alternative, and very attractive, way of understanding the world — a way which did not

depend at all upon Christian doctrine. Aquinas was among the thinkers who believed

that it was necessary to find out where Aristotelian thought and Christian thought

could be compatible; he could see the dangers of putting believers in a position where

they were forced to choose between Christianity and commonsense. A key goal for

Aquinas was to show how faith and reason could work alongside each other. He was

an enormously intelligent man (and apparently an enormous man, too) with an

attractive personality. He soon became well-known within the Church, working as an

adviser to the Pope as well as producing a huge amountofwriting.

In Aquinas’ view, knowledge of Godcould be reached in two very different ways. One

is through revelation, where God choosesto reveal the truth to people, for example

through the words of the Bible. The otheris through our own human reason (which

Aquinas thought was given to us by God for this very purpose). Aquinas thoughtthatifWe applied reason to the evidence that we see aroundus, we can reach valuable truths.

Aquinas Presented five ways of showing that God exists, because he was convinced that

although the existence of God was notself-evident, it could be demonstrated withlogical thought. He wrote about the Five Ways in his book Summa Theologica, which™as Written for Christian believers rather than with the intention of persuading others

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to convert. The book, which was never finished, is over 4000 pages long, andonly two

of these pages are devoted to the arguments for the existence of God, but these have

become some of Aquinas’ most famous ideas.

Of Aquinas’ Five Ways, the first three are different variants of the cosmological

argument. Aquinas based his argument on two assumptions:

(a) the universe exists

(b) there must be a reason why.

All but the most sceptical would agree with (a); however, notall would agree with (b).

Some people, such as Bertrand Russell and Richard Dawkins, are happy to acceptthat

the universejust is, without moving to the conclusionthat there should be some reason

for it. Aquinas, however, took as a starting point the view that there must be some

explanation of why anything exists atall. In his First Way of establishing God’s existence, Aquinas concentrated on the existence

of change, or motion, in the world. He considered the ways in which objects move,

or grow or changein state (for example, become hotter or evaporate). His argument,

closely following that of Aristotle, was that everything whichis in motion, or changing,

has to be put into motion, Or changed, by something else. In this way, Aquinas (and

Aristotle before him) produced a kind of pre-Newtonian understanding of the physics

of motion. Things stay the same unless some force acts upon them to make them

change or move. As things are, to our observation, changing and moving, then they

must have beenset in motion by something; Aquinas thoughtthat this sequence of one

thing moving another could notbeinfinite, but that there must have been an Unmoved

Movertoset the wholething off.

Aquinas argued that nothing in the

universe would be in motion unless it

was being moved by something else.

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Understanding Philosophy ofReligion

Aquinas also arguedthat if a change is brought about in Thing A by Thing B, then

Thing B must have the characteristics of the change it brings about. For example,

if Thing B makes Thing A hotter, then Thing B mustitself be hot, or if Thing B makes

Thing A darker, then Thing B mustitself be dark. Peter Cole, in his book Philosophy

ofReligion (Hodder Murray, 2004), explains: ‘What is potentially x is not actually x,

yet the actual x can only be produced by something thatis actually x’.

This is how Aquinas writesit:

The existence ofGod can beprovedinfive ways. Thefirst and more manifest way

is the argumentfrom motion. It is certain, and evident to oursenses, that in the

world some things are in motion. Now whateveris in motionisput in motion by

another, for nothing can be in motion except it is in potentiality to that towards

which it is in motion; whereas a thing moves inasmuch asit is in act. For motion

is nothing else than the reduction of something from potentiality to actuality.

But nothing can be reducedfrom potentiality to actuality, except by something in

a state ofactuality. Thus that which is actuallyhot, asfire, makes wood, which is

potentially hot, to be actuallybot, and thereby moves and changesit ...

Therefore, whatever is in motion must be put in motion by another. If that by

whichit is put in motion be itselfput in motion, then this also must needs be put

in motion byanother, and that by another again. But this cannot go onto infinity,

because then there would be no first mover, and, consequently, no other mover;

seeing that subsequent movers move only inasmuch as they areput in motion by

the first mover; as the staff moves only because it is put in motion bythe hand.

Therefore it is necessaryto arrive at afirst mover, put in motion by no other; and

this everyone understandsto be God.

The emphasis ofAquinas’ argument was on dependency, rather than going back in time

until a beginning was found; he was using the idea that God sustains the universe, and

trying to show that we would nothave a universe of change,vitality and motion without

a First Mover. The continued changes and movements are because of the continued

existence of a mover “which we call God".

This argumentis very similar, except that it replaces the idea of change and motion with

the Concept of cause. Every ‘effect’ has a ‘cause’, Aquinas argued; infinite regress is

Impossible; therefore there mustbe a First Cause ‘which wecall God’.

Here : $ bs > ë 3tere, Aquinas concentrates on the idea of‘efficient cause’, borrowing terminology


directly from Aristotle. Aristotle had been very interested in the question of why things

Key term exist — not only whythey exist in the form that they take, but also why theyexist at

all — and Aquinas was enthused by the same ideas. WhenAristotle had considered the

infinite nature of causation, he came to the conclusion that ‘cause’ works at four different

regress — a chain levels, which he namedthe material cause, the efficient cause, the formal cause and

(in this case, a the final cause. By ‘efficient cause’, Aristotle meant the agent which makes some-

chain of causes thing happen — so, for example, the baker kneading the dough is the efficient cause

andeffects) of the bread, or the musician pulling the bowacross thestringsis the efficient cause

goinginfinitely of the music.

back in time with

no beginning, The second wayisfrom the nature of the efficient cause. In the worldofsense we

ratherlike the find there is an orderof efficient causes. There is no case known (neitheris it,

chicken and the indeed, possible) in which a thing isfoundto be the efficient cause of itself; for so

egg idea. it would be priorto itself, which is impossible....

Nowto take awaythe cause is to take awaythe effect. Therefore, if there be nofirst

cause among efficient causes, there will be no ultimate, nor any intermediate

cause. ...

Therefore it is necessary to admit a first efficient cause, to which everyone gives

the nameof God.

Aquinas used Aristotle’s ideas about

‘efficient cause’, where Aristotle had said

thatfor every cause, there is an agent which

brings it about. The efficient cause of violin

music would be the violinist.

Aquinas took up Aristotle’s understanding of causes, to argue that things do not cause

| themselves in this way — they cannot be their own agents. Therefore, he said, there

must be

a

first efficient cause, and this would be God.

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In his Third Way, Aquinas argued that the world consists of contingent beings, which

are beings that begin and end, and which are dependent on something else for their

existence. Everything in the physical world is contingent, depending on external

factors forits existence. Things are contingentin two ways: they depend on something

having brought them into existence in the first place (for example, volcanic rock

depends onthere having beenthe right minerals, sufficient heat and so onto formit),

and they also dependon outside factors for the continuation of their existence (for

example, plants dependonthelight from the sun). Since the time ofAquinas, we have

become more aware of the existence of ‘eco-systems’, and have learned more about

how the existence of one species depends very muchonthe existence of another and

on natural resources; some would argue that these discoveries add support to the

points Aquinas made.

The third wayis taken frompossibility and necessity, and runs thus. We find in

nature things that are possible to be and notto be, since they are found to be

generated, and to corrupt, and consequently, they arepossible to be and notto be.

Butit is impossiblefor these always to exist, for that which is possible not to be at

some time is not. Therefore, if everything is possible not to be, then at one time

there could have been nothing in existence. Nowifthis were true, even nowthere

would be nothing in existence, because that which does not exist only begins to

exist by something already existing. Therefore, if at one time nothing was in

existence, it would have been impossiblefor anything to have begunto exist; and

thus even now nothing wouldbe in existence — which is absurd. Therefore, not all

beings are merely possible, but there must exist something the existence of which

is necessary. But every necessarything either hasits necessity caused by another,

or not. Nowit is impossible to go on to infinity in necessary things which havetheir necessity caused by another, as has been alreadyproved in regardto efficientcauses. Therefore we cannot but postulate the existence of some being having ofitself its own necessity, and not receiving it from another, but rather causing inothers their necessity. This all men speak ofas God.

Aquinas is arguing here that we can agree that everything in the universe isContingent, Contingent things need something else to bring them into existence, soNothing would have everstarted — there wouldstill be nothing — unless there is someOther being, capable of bringing other things into existence but being independent of

Everything else, or necessary. It would have to be a being which is not caused, and—depends on nothing else to continue to exist — and this, Aquinas thought, would

€ God.

Key term

contingent —

depending on

somethingelse.

Key term

necessary— in this

context, the word

necessaryis used to

meanthe opposite

of contingent.

A necessary being

has no cause and

depends on

nothingelse forits

continued

existence.


Onecriticism of Aquinas’ argumentis to do with the idea of infinite regress. Many

have argued that there is no reason why the cause and effect chain cannot be

infinite. We do not have to look for a beginning and a time when it must have

started. However, some scholars, including Leibniz (see page 93), have answered

in response to this criticism, that even if everything moved the next thing in

an infinite chain, there would still need to be an explanation of the whole chain’s

existence.

Some have argued against the idea that actual x can only be brought about by what

is actual x — the philosopher Anthony Kenny wrote in his book The Five Ways

(Routledge, 1969) thatthis is not alwaystrue; for example, Aquinas argued that fora

stick to becomehot, this had to be caused by actual heat, whereas Kenny arguesthat

it could be causedbyfriction, and electric current can generate heat. Kenny makes

this point by saying, ‘it is not dead men who commit murders’. This part of

Aquinas’ argumentis not true often enoughto be sustainable. We might argue, using

our own commonsense, that we can be the cause of anger or jealousy in other

people, without being angry or jealous ourselves.

Some havecriticised the idea of God as an uncausedcauser, saying that the whole

cosmological argument dependsonthe idea that nothing cancauseitself, and thenit

is sel£contradictory by saying that God does exactly what it just claimed was

impossible. In answer to this criticism, which was being made during Aquinas’

lifetime, he answered that this criticism makes the mistake of considering God to be

a ‘thing’ like other objects in the universe, whereas Godis not an object butdifferent

entirely. Aquinas argued that Godis unique and exists in a unique kind of way.

There is evidence to suggest that everything in the universe is contingent, but this

does not necessarily mean that the universe as a whole is contingent. Some ofthe

findings, orat least the theories, of science have suggested that matter, for example,

may be eternal, or energy. However, these suggestionsare still being explored by

scientists; questions about the possible eternity of matter remain unanswered.

Some writers, including Hume, argued that logically, the cosmological argument

need notleadto onefirst cause; there could be a variety of different causes, and

neither is there a logical reasonto link this to the Christian God. The samecriticism

could be made of Aquinas’ cosmological argument as can be made ofteleological

arguments.


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vs l The Kalam argument in Islam is a version of the cosmological argument. Muslim

A philosophers developed the Kalam argument using the thinking of Aristotle, just as

at Aquinas was to do from a Christian perspective. Kalam means ‘speaking’ in Arabic,

ae and the Kalamtradition in Islam relates to seeking theological principles through

af debate and argument. Twothinkersin particular, called al-Kindi and al-Ghazali, studied

| Aristotle and saw how his ideas about cause could be applied within the Muslim faith.18eh

The Kalam argumentclaims that everything which begins to exist must have a cause to

ied make it come into existence. The universe must have had a cause, because there must

it | have been a time whenit beganto exist: ‘It is an axiom of reasonthatall that comes to

AI be must have a cause to bring it about. The world has cometo be. Ergo the world must

a have a cause to bring it about’ (Al-Ghazali, TheJerusalem Tract, as quoted in William

a Lane Craig’s The Kalam Cosmological Argument, Wipf and Stock, 2000).

ntAl-Ghazali argued that there must have been a real point at which the universe began,

is rather than an infinite regress, because althoughinfinity is a mathematical concept,

it cannotexist in actuality.1e

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by = 5 = Air er:

William Lane Craig, a modern American philosopher,is a supporter ofthe logic of theKalam argument, althoughhe writes as a Christian. He explains the view that an infinite

Fegress (or an infinite anything) could notexist in reality, using the example ofa library

With an infinite numberof books. If one of the books were loaned out, the libraryWouldstill have to contain an infinite number - if every other book were to be taken

‘way, the shelves wouldstill have to be full ... ‘Suppose we add an infinity ofinfinite


collections to the library ... is there actually not one more single volumein the entire

collection than before?’ (William Lane Craig, The Kalam Cosmological Argument).

William Lane Craig argued in favour of

the Kalam argument, using the example of

a library with an infinite number of books, to

showthat infinity could not exist in actuality,

The Kalam argument continues by saying that we can now see that there must have

been a time when the universe did not exist, as it cannot have existed infinitely long |

ago. This meansthatthere wasonce the possibility of a universe coming into existence,

or a universe not coming into existence — and there must have been something to have

made the choice between those two possibilities. There must be some personal,

intelligent agency to choose that the universe should exist, andthis personal intelligent

agent must exist outside space and time.

+ Some people argue that the Kalam argument misunderstandsthe nature of infinity,

and that infinity has to exist in actuality even if we cannot imagineit.

+ It could be arguedthat there is no need for there to have been an agent making 4

choice between having a universe and not having one — the universe could just have |

begun, at random,byaccident, without any conscious choice being made.

° Evenif the Kalam argument is accepted, it does not provide evidence for the

existence ofa God withall the qualities and characteristics that theists claim God has.

+ It might be argued that the Kalam argumentis self-contradictory, since it denies the

possibility of infinity existing in actuality, but uses this as part of an argumentto

demonstrate the actual existence of an infinite God.

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Understanding Philosophyof Religion

Gottfried Leibniz (1646-1716) offered an alternative form of the cosmological

argument, in which he tried to avoid the problems raised by the suggestion of an

infinite regression. He arguedthat evenif the universe has alwaysexisted,this still does

not give us an explanation of whyit exists. According to Leibniz, everything has to have

a sufficient reason. The principle ofsufficient reasonstates that there must be reasons

to explain facts, even if we do not know what these reasons are. There must be an

explanation, known or unknown.

Ss existence?

David Hume, however, argued that we could not logically move from the idea thateverything in the universe has a reason, to say that the universe as a whole must have

a reason. Bertrand Russell made a similar point in the twentieth century, by saying that

Just because every human being has a mother, this does not mean that the human

Species as a whole has a mother. It is overstepping the rules of logic to move fromindividual causes of individual things, to the view that the totality has a cause.

Hume also argued that we can imagine something coming into existence withoutA cause: it is not an incoherent idea. But others have objected that just because youcould imagine something existing without a cause, it does not follow that in realityit could exist without a cause; the twentieth-century philosopher Elizabeth AnscombeSave the example that we can imagine a rabbit which had no parents and just existed,but obviously this would not be an actual possibility just because we could imagineit.

Understanding Philosophy of Religion |

Immanuel Kant (1724-1804) is usually regarded as one ofthe greatest philosophers of

modern Europe.

Kant argued that our ideas about order and design and causality come from the way

that we perceive the world around us. Our mindslike to put things in order, and to see

patterns and sequences. Perhaps the order in the world is something that we impose

onit, when weperceive it, rather than something that is objectively there. In his book Critique ofPractical Reason, Kantrejected the views of thinkers such as |

Leibniz. Kant considered that the teleological and the cosmological arguments were

essentially linked, because both arguments ultimately depend on the idea that God

is necessarily existent — in other words, that God exists without a cause, does not |

come into existence or go out of existence and does not depend on anything else in |

orderto exist. |

Theteleological argument depends on the view that there must be a Designer, existing

outside the world in the same way as the First Cause or Unmoved Mover of

cosmological arguments. These arguments, when followed to their logical conclusions, J

make the assumption that there is a God who‘necessarily exists’, by definition. But

Kant did not think that this was sound reasoning. (See Kant’s criticism of ontological

arguments, pages 80-81).


In 1948, the BBC Third Programme brought together two eminent philosophers with

very different views, to debate live on radio someof the issues of the existence of God.

Frederick Copleston (1907-94) was invited to argue the case for theism. He was

brought up as an Anglican, but converted to Roman Catholicism and became a Jesuit

priest, leading philosopher and scholar. Copleston was well known for his immense

and erudite nine-volume work, A History ofPhilosophy, and also for the publication

of several other works including a biography andappraisal of Aquinas (Pelican, 1955).

In opposition to him was Bertrand Russell (1872-1970), an aristocrat who had made

a name for himself as a philosopher of mathematics, and who went on to become

arenowned opponentofwar and of nuclear weapons. Russell took an atheist position,

although he said thatstrictly speaking he was agnostic. He followed the thinking of

the logical positivists, arguing that discussion of God was beyond the scope of human

reason or experiment, and was therefore meaningless.

Copleston arguedthat, unless one accepts the existence of a first cause, an Unmoved

Mover, there is no explanation for the existence of the universe at all (he combined

the thinking of Aquinas and Leibniz in his argument). He said that without such

an explanation,the universeis ‘gratuitous’, using the words ofJean-PaulSartre: ‘Everything

is gratuitous, this garden, this city and myself. When you suddenlyrealizeit, it makes you

feel sick and everything begins to drift ... that’s nausea’ (Jean-Paul Sartre, Nausea, 1938).

Russell replied that he did not accept the need to find an explanation for the existence

of the universe; he rejected Leibniz’s principle of sufficient reason, stating firmly:

‘I should say that the universeis just there, that’s all’. Russell went on to explain his

point of viewin his 1957 book Why I amnot a Christian. Copleston’s view ofRussell’s

position was to suggest that Russell was denying the importance of the argument:

‘If one refuses even to sit down at the chess-board and make a move, one cannot,

of course, be checkmated.’

In the radio debate, Copleston defended the cosmological

argument, usingpoints made by Aquinas and Leibniz.

O


In the debate, Copleston presented an argument which was very similar to that of

Aquinas seven hundred years before.

1. Copleston argued that each object in the universe is dependent (contingent) on

the existence of other things, andrelies forits existence on ‘a reason externaltoitself’,

He gave the example of himself, dependentfor his existence on the previous existence

of his parents, and on the continued existence of air and of food. He argued that since

nothing in the world contains the reason for its own existence, there must be an

external explanation, something outside the objects in the universe which accounts for

their existence and for the existence of the universe as a whole. In order forthis

explanationto be found, there mustbe ‘a being whichcontains within itself the reason

for its own existence’.

2. He asserted that, despite the views of those whodisagree, it is meaningful to talk

of a ‘necessary being’ whoseessence involves existence.

3. He also claimed thatit is meaningful to talk of there being a cause of the universe.

4. Copleston agreed with Leibniz, saying that every existent thing must havea sufficient

reason for its existence. Copleston said: ‘God is his own sufficient reason; andheis

not cause of himself. By sufficient reason in the full sense I mean an explanation

adequate for the existence of some particular being.’ God is his own sufficient reason,

but everything else is contingent.

Russell’s position in the debate wasto

argue that concepts such as ‘cause of

the universe’ and ‘necessary existence’

held no meaning.

Russell’s responses to Copleston includedthese points:

1. The concept ofa ‘necessary being’ had no meaning for him; the term ‘necessary

cannot be applied to things, only to statements in logic, where B necessarily follows

from A becauseit is part of the definition (for example, if Peter is a bachelor, then

ES

RE


peter is necessarily an unmarried man, because that is the definition of bachelor).

Russell said that ‘necessary’ in this sense is appropriate only for statements of

definition, and that it does not makesenseto talk of God as‘necessary’.

2, Also, the concept ofthe universe as a whole having a cause was meaningless for

Russell. His view was that we cannotgrasp the conceptofthe entire schemeofthings,

and then hope to find an explanationforit.

3, Russell said that the concept of cause is not applicable to the universe: ‘I should

say that the universeis just there, and that’sall.’

4, He also claimedthatscientists (in 1947) were discovering‘first causes which haven’t

in themselves got causes.’ So the whole notion of everything having to have a sufficient

reason and a Prime Mover was undermined.

By the end of the debate, Russell and Copleston concluded that they had very little

ground in common, and could not even agree on whether they were discussing

a question that had any meaning — so they might as well move on to anotherissue.

ON Develop your knowledge

In recent years subatomic physics has suggested that things can exist without a cause,

and that motion does not have to be the result of a mover. Investigations in quantum

Physics Suggest that electrons can pass in and outof existence without any apparent“use; although some would say there seems to be no cause because of our limitedUnderstanding, rather thanthat such things are causeless in reality.

Understanding PhilosophyofReligion

Peter Atkins, Professor of Chemistry at the University of Oxford, dismissed the

cosmological argumentfor the existence of God:

f

There is of course one big, cosmicallybig, seemingly real question: Where did it all S

comefrom? Here we see most sharply the distinction between the methods. Religion t

adopts the adipose answer: God madeit — for reasons that will forever remain ‘

inscrutable until, perhaps, we become one with Him(that is, until we are dead). s

Such an answer. while intrinsically absurd and evil in its implications, appears to t

satisfy those for whom God is a significant part of their existence. Science, in I

contrast, is steadily and strenuously working toward a comprehensible Z

explanation. Witness the extraordinary progress that bas been made since the €

development ofgeneralrelativityat the beginning ofthe twentieth century. Though i

difficult, and still incomplete, there is no reasonto believe that the great problem, (

howthe universe came into being, and whatit is, will not be solved; we can safely {

presume that the solution will be comprehensible to human minds. Moreover, that | (

understanding will be achieved this side of the grave. (Free Inquiry magazine,

Volume 18, Number2, 1998).

The cosmological argument, then, is by no means closed, but continues to be debated |

in universities. It does not present a proof of the existence of God, since there is the

possibility that the universe is a brute fact and ultimately unintelligible; but it supports

the possibility that the universe does have an explanation, and that this explanation

could be God (although it need not necessarily be the God described by major |

world religions).

Practice exam questions

(a) Examine the cosmological argument for the existence of God.

Notice that the question asks you to ‘examine’ratherthanjust ‘give’. You need to look

carefully at the different aspects of the argument, and explain key terms andkey

concepts, such as the concept of an ‘infinite regress’ and the difference between

‘necessary’ and ‘contingent’ existence. For high marks, you should make reference to

some different thinkers who have supported cosmological arguments — Aquinas and

Copleston would be obvious choices. This question assesses yourskills of knowledge

and understanding, rather than yourevaluative skill, so the key here is to showthat you

know and understand the logic and structure of the cosmological argument. Try 1

demonstrate that you understand clearly how the argument is structured and how

the conclusion is supported.

(b) Commentonthe view that the cosmological argumentis convincing.

Here, yourcritical ability is being assessed. You need to showthat youcan sustain 41


argument, draw a conclusion based on that argument, and show that you are aware of

different points of view. In orderto do this, you should think about why some people

found cosmological arguments convincing, and whyothers have rejected them (Hume

would be an obvious choice here). However,if you simply explain ‘some people think

this ... because ... while other people think that ... because ...’, then you are really just

giving more description and explanation, rather than evaluating. Instead, when you

show awarenessofdifferent points of view, try to make somecritical comment about

them. Do you find yourself agreeing with one view or another, and if so, why?

For example, you couldsay‘... andthis is a valid criticism to make of the cosmological

argument, because it showsthat there are alternative plausible explanations for the

existence of the universe other than God’, or ‘... however, this criticism is weak because

it assumes that we have to choose betweenscientific and religious accounts of the

origins of the universe, whereas there are no strong grounds for dismissing God as

the cause of the Big Bang’. When you give your own opinion, try to show howyour

outlook has been formed by the strength of one of these points of view, rather than

simply listing different possible points of view and then adding your ownto thelist.

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