The remains of a fertilizer plant burn after an explosion in West, TX (near Waco) Photograph: Mike Stone/Reuters

A relatively small fertilizer retail and storage facility – NOT a manufacturing facility

Close proximity to a surprising # of institutional facilities

More than 150 people were treated for injuries at the local hospital as well as at Waco, 18 miles away, and Dallas, 80 miles

away.

Units from 30 fire departments brought the blaze at the West Fertilizer Company plant under control by midnight.

Fears that a second fertiliser tank might explode receded but

authorities continued to evacuate residents amid concern about toxic fumes.

David Argueta, vice-president of operations at Waco's Hillcrest Baptist medical centre, said staff had treated lacerations and

orthopaedic-type injuries. "We are being told that we have seen most of the patients, and it's now turned into a search-and-

rescue operation on scene."

Texas City Disaster 1947

On April 16, 1947 – 66 years and one day to yesterday’s explosion – the

Grandcamp was being loaded with ammonium nitrate as well as tobacco and

government-owned ammunition. Cigarette smoking, although officially

banned, was a common practice by longshoremen on the docks. Just two

days prior to the explosion, a cigarette had caused a fire on the docks. On the

morning of April 16, smoke was spotted deep within one of the Grandcamp’s

holds.

Some water and an extinguisher were used to fight the fire, but hoses were

not employed for fear of ruining the cargo; there were already 2,300 tons

loaded on the ship. While the ammunition was removed from the ship, the

crew attempted to restrict oxygen to the hold in hopes of putting out the fire.

Apparently they did not realize that because of ammonium nitrate’s chemical

composition, it does not require oxygen in order to burn.

By 9 a.m., flames had erupted from the hold and within minutes it exploded.

The blast was heard 150 miles away and was so powerful that the ship’s 1.5-

ton anchor was found two miles away. The force of the explosion lifted

another ship right out of the water. People working at the docks were killed

instantly.

Pieces of flaming debris damaged the oil refineries in the area. A

nearby Monsanto chemical storage facility also exploded, killing 234 of

the 574 workers there. Nearly all of the survivors were seriously injured.

A residential area of 500 homes was also leveled by the blast.

Another ship, the High Flyer, which was carrying similar cargo, was

pushed completely across the harbor. The crew fled when it came to

rest, failing to notice that a fire had started and the next day their ship

also exploded. Two people died.

In all, 581 people died and 3,500 were injured. The explosion caused

$100 million in damages. A long-disputed court case over the cause of

the blast was resolved when Congress granted compensation to 1,394

victims. They received a total of $17 million in 1955. The port was

rebuilt to handle oil products only.”

The Port Neal fertilizer plant explosion occurred on December 13, 1994 in the ammonium nitrate plant at the Terra International, Inc., Port Neal Complex, 16 miles

south of Sioux City, IA. Four workers at the plant were killed by the explosion, and eighteen others were injured. The seven-storey building at the seat of the blast was

completely destroyed, leaving only a crater, and significant damage was inflicted to the surrounding structures. Four nearby electricity generating stations were disabled by the explosion, and the effects of the blast were felt up to 30 miles away. A high-voltage line

running adjacent to the plant and over the Missouri River was damaged, disrupting power in the neighboring state of Nebraska. Two 15,000-ton refrigerated ammonia storage tanks were ruptured, releasing liquid ammonia and ammonia vapors which

forced the evacuation of 1,700 residents from the surrounding area. An investigation conducted by the United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA)

concluded in 1996 that the explosion was initiated by an accelerated thermal decomposition reaction as "a direct result of unsafe operating procedures and

conditions" at the plant. The EPA had conducted a safety audit at the plant just eight months prior to the explosion. The plant was Iowa's largest producer of nitrogen-based fertilizers and its loss contributed to a national 50% increase in the cost of fertilizer by

the following year (NEED TO FACT CHECK).

SIOUX CITY, Iowa, Dec. 23 1997 /PRNewswire/ --

Terra Industries Inc. (NYSE: TRA) announced today that it

has reached a settlement with Industrial Risk Insurers (IRI)

on its insurance claims for property damages and business

interruption losses arising from the 1994 explosion at Terra's

Port Neal, Iowa fertilizer plant. IRI is one of the six insurance

carrier defendants Terra sued in April of this year in Sioux

City federal district court to recover on its claims. Under the

settlement, IRI agreed to pay Terra its proportionate share

(50 percent of the overall insurance coverage) of a total claim

fixed at $321 million. Previously, Terra settled with all of the

other five insurance carrier defendants, who collectively paid

the other 50 percent share of a $321 million settlement.

Inspections of the West Fertilizer Co. by various agencies in recent years resulted in fines of more than $12,000 for

lax compliance in developing risk management and security plans.

In 2006, the Environmental Protection Agency fined West Fertilizer $2,300 after discovering the company had failed

to update its risk management plan, which includes an analysis of the potential consequences of a worst-case accident as well as its emergency planning information.

The following slides contain publicly accessible info that needs fact checking but suggests that the West Fertilizer company had a poor track record with respect to record

keeping and state and federal program compliance

The EPA requires such plans of all facilities that store large quantities of ammonia. The company was supposed to update its plan in 2004, but didn’t do so for another two years, inspectors found. Inspectors also found that the company kept poor training records, had not developed a formal written maintenance program, and had operating procedures that failed to address the “consequences of deviation.” According to the EPA, the company “certified they corrected the deficiencies,” and filed and updated plan in 2011 as required. Last summer, the company was fined $10,100 by the U.S. Pipeline and Hazardous Materials Safety Administration after an inspector determined that it transported anhydrous ammonia in non-specification unauthorized cargo tanks and did so without the required security plan. Such a plan is aimed at thwarting theft of a material that could be used to build an explosive. West Fertilizer paid the government $5,250 after asking to pay a lower amount because of problems with “finances,” according to agency documents.

In Texas, commercial fertilizer operations must register with the Office of the State Chemist’s Feed and Fertilizer Control Service. The agency, part of Texas A&M AgriLife Research, appears primarily to test quality of fertilizer content.

Recent records show West Fertilizer had nine samples tested in 2011, failing two.

State Chemist Tim Herrman also said the plant was inspected recently, but declined to provide details.

The Texas Commission on Environmental Quality also collects air quality

complaints against businesses. Two have been filed against West, according to state records. One, filed in 2002, was descriptive: “THERE IS A CLOUD OF DUST. PARTICLES ARE FALLING LIKE SNOW AROUND TOWN. PEOPLE ARE AFRAID TO

COMPLAIN, HOWEVER THIS IS EFFECTING NEIGHBORS HEALTH WITH SCRATCHY THROATS, COUGH AND SNEEZING.” It’s unclear how this was resolved.

The second complaint, filed in 2006, was of a strong smell of ammonia coming

from the plant.

Fertilizer is regulated at both the federal and state levels. Federal agencies of

jurisdiction include the Department of Homeland Security, the Environmental Protection Agency, the Occupational

Health and Safety Administration and the Department of Transportation. At the state

level, fertilizers are regulated by state departments of agriculture,

transportation, environmental protection…

Facilities storing anhydrous ammonia in quantities of 10,000 lbs.

or more are required to have an Environmental Protection Ag ency (EPA) approved Clean Air Act Risk Management Program plan to address accidental releases of ammonia. Each facility

covered under the act is required to conduct an offsite consequence analysis for a worst case accident, a hazard

assessment and an accident prevention program.

Facilities storing ammonium nitrate in quantities of 400 lbs. or more are regulated under the Department of Homeland Security.

Additionally, The National Fire Protection Association (NFPA) code 490 sets standards for the storage of ammonium nitrate.

Ammonium nitrate is also regulated by the Department of Transportation

.

According the American National Standards Institute’s (ANSI) Standard for Storage and

Handling of Anhydrous Ammonia, ammonia is extremely hard to ignite and is a relatively

stable compound. The conditions favorable for ignition are seldom encountered during normal operations due to the high ignition

temperature required.

Each purchaser and seller will be required to apply for an Ammonium Nitrate (AN) Registered User Number with the Department, and each applicant will be screened against the Terrorist Screening Database (TSDB). Following the screening process, approved individuals will be issued an AN Registered User Number, which will allow them to engage in the sale, purchase, or transfer of ammonium nitrate. Transactions involving the sale or transfer of ammonium nitrate will be regulated at the point of sale and procedures for reporting a theft or loss of ammonium nitrate will be established. Ammonium nitrate sellers will be required to deny sale or transfer of ammonium nitrate to individuals who: 1) Do not possess a valid AN Registered User Number accompanied by a valid photo ID; or 2) Are not authorized by a person possessing a valid AN Registered User Number to act on their behalf as an agent. The regulation will require businesses to keep records of all ammonium nitrate transactions for two years, and DHS may inspect and audit facility records to ensure compliance.

In 1991, there were 58 U. S.

ammonium nitrate plants located in 22 states producing

about 9 million tons of ammonium nitrate.

Approximately 15 to 20

percent of this amount was used for explosives and the

balance for fertilizer.

Public comment by CF Industries representative (CF is the largest US manufactor of fertilizer grade AN) on 4/4/2013: “Even though it (AN) has always made up a small part of total U.S. nitrogen fertilizer usage, over the last decade, and especially over the last six years, the ammonium nitrate market has contracted substantially. The principal reason for this is that new security regulations governing the handling of ammonium nitrate by distributors and dealers have led many of them to decide not to carry it. In those regions where ammonium nitrate is not strongly preferred, many distributors and dealers have stopped buying the product. Today, the U.S. market is down to around a million short tons, almost half of what it was just a few years ago.”

Ammonium nitrate

AN sold in the market contains an average of 33.5

percent of nitrogen. This compound is very soluble in

water; and if the water which AN was dissolved at is heated, the by- product will be nitrous

oxide which is commonly referred to as laughing gas.

The processes involved in the production of ammonium

nitrate in industry, although chemically simple, are

technologically challenging. The acid-base reaction of

ammonia with nitric acid gives a solution of ammonium

nitrate: HNO3(aq) + NH3(l) → NH4NO3(aq)

For industrial production, this is done using anhydrous

ammonia gas and concentrated nitric acid. This reaction is

violent and very exothermic. After the solution is formed,

typically at about 83% concentration, the excess water is

evaporated to an ammonium nitrate (AN) content of 95% to

99.9% concentration (AN melt), depending on grade.

The AN melt is then made into "prills" or small beads in a

spray tower, or into granules by spraying and tumbling in a

rotating drum. The prills or granules may be further dried,

cooled, and then coated to prevent caking. These prills or

granules are the typical AN products in commerce.

When a person has inhaled AN, move him or her out to an open area so that fresh air can be inhaled. In case of large dose inhalation, professional medical help must be called immediately. While waiting for the help to arrive, it is important to take the victim away from the site and transfer him or her to an open area where the air is clean. If the patient is not breathing, CPR and mouth to mouth resuscitation must be performed as soon as possible. Once the ambulance has arrived, oxygen will be administered to facilitate the respiration. For eye contact, the affected eye must be flushed with running water for at least fifteen minutes. When ammonium nitrate comes into contact with the skin, flush the area with running water for at least fifteen minutes as well. You can wash it with soap, and then an emollient can be used to cover the irritated area. It is very important to get the soiled clothing away from the body and they should be washed thoroughly before allowing the person to wear them again. The ammonium nitrate MSDS is very clear that in any of these conditions, seeking medical attention is always part of the protocol and should not be missed.

Derived from the Ammonium Nitrate MSDS

If someone has ingested AN, call medical help immediately. As stated in the ammonium

nitrate MSDS, you should not induce vomiting. Always wait for the medical team to arrive and always tell them how much has been ingested and what time the incident had happened. If the patient is unconscious and unresponsive,

do not give anything by mouth.

Ammonium nitrate has an LD50 of 2217 mg/kg, which for comparison is about

two-thirds that of table salt.

The dissolution of AN in water is an endothermic reaction. There are two main reactions that occur. When the polar molecules of the water separate the nitrate

ion from the ammonium ion, this produces an endothermic reaction. Heat is being absorbed so the person may feel cold. But when the ions that have been

separated are now suspended in the remaining water in the solution, they become hydrated and this process is an exothermic reaction. An exothermic reaction produces heat since it gives off energy. More energy is required to

separate the ammonium and nitrate ions than to hydrate the ions, so the only reaction that is physically felt is the endothermic one.

AN is used in instant cold packs

There are two major classes of incidents involving AN that result in explosions: 1) explosion happens by the mechanism of shock-to-detonation transition. The initiation happens by an explosive charge going off in the mass, by the detonation of a shell thrown into the mass, or by detonation of an explosive mixture in contact with the mass. 2) explosion results from a fire that spreads into the ammonium nitrate itself or from a mixture of ammonium nitrate with a combustible material during the fire. The fire must be confined at least to a degree for successful transition from a fire to an explosion (a phenomenon known as "deflagration-to-detonation transition", or DDT). Pure, compact AN is stable and very difficult to ignite, and there are numerous cases when even impure AN did not explode in a fire.

ANFO (or AN/FO, for ammonium nitrate/fuel oil) is a widely used bulk industrial explosive mixture. It consists of 94 percent porous prilled ammonium nitrate (NH4NO3), (AN) that acts as the oxidizing agent and absorbent for the fuel – six percent number 2 fuel oil (FO). ANFO has found wide use in coal mining, quarrying, metal mining, and civil construction in undemanding applications where the advantages of ANFO's low cost and ease of use matter more than the benefits offered by conventional industrial explosives, such as water resistance, oxygen balance, high detonation velocity, and performance in small diameters. It accounts for an estimated 80% of the 6,000,000,000 pounds of explosives used annually in North America.

ANFO under most conditions is cap-insensitive, and so it is classified as a

blasting agent and not a high explosive.

It reacts through detonation rather than deflagration with a velocity of about 3,200

meters per second.

It is a tertiary explosive consisting of distinct fuel and oxidizer phases and requires confinement for efficient detonation.

AN prills used for explosive applications are physically different from fertilizer prills; the prills

used for explosive application contain

approximately 20% air. These prills are generally called explosives grade,

low density, or industrial grade ammonium

nitrate. Charging a hole with ANFO for rock blasting

The ANFO car bomb was adopted by the IRA in 1972 and, by 1973, IRA operatives were using > 20 tons of

AN/yr.

ANFO was also routinely used by groups such as the Revolutionary Armed Forces of Colombia (FARC), and

Basque separatists (ETA).

Ramzi Yousef used ANFO to try to destroy the World Trade Center in 1993.

A more sophisticated variant of ANFO (ammonium

nitrate with nitromethane as the fuel called ANNM) was used in the 1995 Oklahoma City bombing.

The popularity of ANFO is largely attributable to its low cost and high

stability. In most jurisdictions, ammonium nitrate need not be

classified as an explosive for transport purposes; it is merely an oxidizer. Many mines prepare ANFO on-site using the

same diesel fuel that powers their vehicles.

Ammonium nitrate (AN) – produced by reacting nitric acid, an intermediate chemical feedstock produced from ammonia, with ammonia to form a concentrated, watery solution that is subsequently solidified in a prilling or granulation process. Ammonium nitrate is a solid fertilizer (containing approximately 34 percent nitrogen) typically applied in solid form. Ammonium nitrate is water soluble and used in various fertilizer solutions. Calcium ammonium nitrate (CAN) – a mixture of AN and calcium or magnesium carbonate (containing 25-28 percent nitrogen), produced by mixing calcium and/or magnesium carbonate into an ammonium nitrate solution before the solidification process. The lime content of CAN also helps to neutralize soil acidity. Calcium nitrate (CN) – produced by dissolving a calcium salt such as limestone or the calcium phosphate of phosphate rock in nitric acid. In the latter case, it is a co-product with nitrophosphate products. CN is used to remedy plant deficiencies in calcium and ameliorate soil acidification. It contains 15.5 percent nitrogen in nitrate form and 19 percent water-soluble calcium. The product is water soluble and particularly suited for water-born fertilizer application systems. Potassium nitrate (PN) – produced by reacting sodium nitrate with potassium chloride. Potassium nitrate is used as a potassium and nitrogen fertilizer. Potassium nitrate contains 13.5 percent nitrogen and 45 percent water-soluble potassium as K2O. The water suitability makes it particularly suited for liquid-based applications.

NITRATE FERTILIZERS

AN vs. Urea – understanding their participation in the N cycle

More data from YARA funded studies

CAN (and AN), due to a higher bulk density and lower nitrogen concentration,

has more homogeneous spreading characteristics than urea. Wind degrade

spreading homogeneity with urea more than with AN/CAN, resulting in

significant local over- or under supply.

What is this blue thing on the top of the tractor?