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Understanding the Importance of Kannada Cultural Practices through the Ages: An Overview

_Ramesh Aroli 1 __________________________________________________________________________

Abstract

The present paper makes an effort to bring greater subtlety to inquire and

understand the different substances that help out the formation of cultural history

of Karnataka and to understand those practices and their antiquity. However,

these substances had undergone a number of paradigm shifts, and drawn and re-

drawn by the individuals and ideologies through the centuries. Thus scholars

point out that the “Kannada identity movement encompasses a range of moderate

and progressive intellectual positions, which have of late been overshadowed by

the more strident voices”. While searching for such historical evidences it found

there is sturdy interrelationship between various essences and the material

production which could really help us to theorize the meaning or the signs of

human practices in general and cultural practices of Karnataka in particular.

1 Assistant Professor, Kamala Nehru College, University of Delhi, Siri Fort Road, News Delhi-49.aroliramesh@gmail.com

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At break of Day, whom do we pray?

Mother Earth, who grows our pepper and ginger

Let us, awhile remember her, ever!2

This is how a folk song in Kannada narrates the connection between belief system of people

and the origin of cultural practices. Indeed every form of art including literature, drama,

painting, music and all kinds of creative human expressions are an outcome of activities

related to production.

Though, scholars could trace the antiquity of Kannada literary history dating back to at least

1500 years but it is difficult to locate the origin of oral literary culture which began earlier,

still runs parallel to the written form. However, the history of Kannada literary practices has

not been historically divided absolutely into different time periods; for the convenience of

present study I have been categorized the period into below phases.

Hindana : Pre-colonial period

Naduvana : Colonial period

Nutana : During Nationalism

Prastuta : Post-Independent period.

Kannada, a Dravidian classical language is as old as Tamil, which is spoken predominantly

in the state of Karnataka in India. Construction of identity of this geo-cultural region called

Karnataka, one of the Southern states of India can be traced in the ideological debates

among the scholars who tried to create the notion of Kannada identity with different entities.

Though in India, generally, sense of belongingness is strongly ensured by the language of

concerned regions which is considered as a dominate substance. But, taking into account of

other entities such as, historical, political, religious, geographical and cultural, the literary

scholars and historians determine that the existence of Kannada Nadu (Kannada region) is

2 A folk song quoted in Janapada Karnataka, p.112, Ed: Nalluru Prasad.

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purely a geographical factor. Prof. Madhava Prasad, a scholar, noted that ‘there is no

substance in Kannada or Karnataka that guarantees our (Kannada) identity’. It is rather a

question of a set of identifications… ” But the question remains unanswered that how the

identifications which often ‘change’ or transform over a period of time can shape a

particular domain called identity.

Hindana Kaala : Pre-colonial period

Challenging construction of cultural identity of the geo-cultural region of this Southern

state; researchers trace the existence of Kannada by looking at Kavirajamarga (Kingly path

of poets), a first available Ninth Century written text in Kannada a treatise on poetics. At the

same time construction of Kannada literary and cultural identity can be traced in the

ideological debates that exist within the possible conditions under the specific social and

historical junctures.

The writer of Kavirajamarga illustrates the spread of Karnataka border as:

‘Cauveriyindamago

davarivaramirda nadada kannadol

bhavisida janapadam vasu

dhavalayavileena vishada visheya visham’

which means ‘the territory spread over the river Cauvery to Godavari known as Kannada

and the people due to their rich culture living in this region had a special status in the

universe’. Further, it describes the nature of Kannada people as ‘Kuritodadeyum kavya

prayoga parinatamatigal’ which mean that though they do not know writing and do not

engage in literary production but they could understand and enjoy the epics by listening. In

addition, it points out that they are fond of epics.

The researcher of Kannada literary history often quote the names of places of Karnataka

mentioned in the epics Ramayana and Mahabharata as there is astonishing difference in

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estimation of antiquity of Karnataka. But there are scholars who establish it by tracing the

empirical evidences such as inscriptions and the ancient texts available in other languages.

Karnataka Through Ages of R.R Diwakar is one among the significant such studies. In the

chapter Early period of Kannada he writes:

“Its (Kannada) antiquity is next only to that of Sanskrit and Prakrit and, perhaps, also of

Tamil. The earliest references to the Kannada country and its culture are to be found in

the Buddhist chronicles and early Tamil classics. The Mahavamsha tells us that Asoka,

the Mauryan Emperor, sent Rakkhita, one of his Buddhist missionaries, to Vanavasa

(Banavasi), and Mahadeva, another of them to Mahisha Mandala (Mysore), in the 3rd

century B.C. …Silappadikaram3 of Ilangoadigal (c465 A.D) refers to a dance of

Kannadigas witnessed by the Chera ruler Senaguttavan, of the second century A.D. An

illustrative extract ascribed to Avvaiyar of the 2nd century A.D. and quoted in a

commentary on Tolkappiam, the earliest extent work in Tamil, makes a rather

uncharitable reference to the Kannada people. The verse says that “wise men do not

approach these six: Vadugar (Telugu people), Aruvalar (Tamil tribe), Karunatar

(Kannada people), cremation ground, goblins and buffaloes”4

It is considered as new trend began with the Ratnatrayaru (Three Gems) of Kannada

literature, Pampa, Ponna and Ranna in the 10th century, where prose and verse were mixed

with the campu style. The three poets extensively wrote on episodes from the Ramayana and

Mahabharata and Jain legends and biographies. Chavunda Raya, Ranna’s elder

contemporary then came up with an elaborate work on history of all the 24 Jaina

tirthankaras (saintly teachers).

The Chola kings of Tamil-land got too aggressive around the 11th century and fought wars.

This meant a lean phase in literary activities except for the works of a few writers like Naga

Chandra, known for his Jain Ramayana, the Jain poetess Kanti, the grammarian Naga

Varman II who wrote Karnataka Bhasha Bhushana in Sanskrit sutras (aphorisms), and

Kirtti Varman and VrittaVilasa.

3 Ancient Tamil available text which has reference of Kannada and Karnataka.

4 See History of Printing and Publishing in India edited by B.S Kesavan. Pp5.

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The 12th century saw a sea of change in Kannada literature both in content and style. What

caused this is the growth of Veerashaivism which was essentially revolutionary in approach.

It derecognized untouchability and saw women as equals. It liberated Kannada from the

clutches of Sanskrit. The moving spirit behind this movement was Basavanna, who was a

minister in the court of Prince Bijjala. His Vachanas which can be called prose-poems, have

their moorings in folk-literature and folk-culture, and yearn to liberate man from the

bondage of untruth and ignorance. They seek to provide happiness here and elsewhere.

Allamaprabhu, Akkamahadevi, Channabasavanna, Madara Chennayya, Siddarama,

Madivala Machayya, Dohara Kakkayya, etc., were other Vachanakaras.

And the middle phase of Kannada literature saw the power of Puranic Hinduism over

Jainism. A very distinct phase of writing began in the second half of the 12th century in the

Vira-Shaiva phase with Basava’s Vachanas. There was a spate of writers like Harihara,

Raghavanka and Kereya Padmarasa writing fervently about Shiva in the 12th-13th centuries.

Rebellion against the orthodox rituals came from the brilliant poetess Akkamahadevi, a

harbinger of Bhakti poetry. The Jains, too, weren’t idle all this while; they composed

legendary histories of various tirthankaras (ford makers). In all, the 13th century was chock-

full with poems, literary criticism, grammar, natural science and translations from Sanskrit.

After Basavanna, the greatest influence on Kannada literature was Harihara, who used an

innovative form called 'Ragale'. His 'Basavarajadevara Ragale‘ and 'Nambiyannana

Ragale' are the examples of this genre. His nephew Raghavanka introduced yet another

form of poetry called ‘Shatpadi’ and apart from 'Somanatha Charithe' and 'Siddarama

Charithe' and his 'Harischandra Kavya' is considered to be a masterpiece.

The Sixteenth Century saw Veerashaiva poets of extraordinary merit. Sarvajna, a Vairagi in

that he had no settled home, and no religion, wrote "Sarvajna Padagalu' in Vachana (Songs

of Sarvajna) style. This work is really a compendium of wit and wisdom. Nijaguna Sivayogi

who was a ruler, saint and scholar wrote 'Viveka Chintamani' an encyclopedia in Kannada.

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Dasakoota or the Vaishnava movement was led by Purandara Dasa, who is also considered

the father of Karnatic music.

Through his Keerthanas, he propounded the Dwaitha Philosophy and gave an impetus to

Bhakthi movement. Kanaka Dasa, though hailing from the Kuruba community, followed in

the footsteps of Purandara Dasa.

Karnataka culture reached its zenith during the Vijayanagara empire. Naranappa's

(Kumaravyasa) 'Karnataka Bharatha Kathamanjari' or 'Gadugina Bharatha' as it is

popularly known is the finest example of the literature of this period. This was followed by

Lakshmisha's 'Jaimini Bharatha' which is also an immensely popular work. Chamarasa's

'Prabhulingaleele' is another notable work of this period.

Post-renaissance movement saw a four-lined folk-metre called 'Sangatya' which was

particularly suitable for singing. Nanjundakavi who wrote 'Kumararamana Kathe' proved its

multi-dimensional application. But it was Rathnakaravarni who, in 'Bharathesha Vaibhava',

explored its full potential.

Naduvana Kaala : Colonial period

The Wodeyars of Mysore gave a boost to Kannada literature. Particularly noteworthy is

Chikkadevaraja Wodeyar's period from 1672 to 1704. He himself wrote 'Chikkadevaraja

Binnapa'. Tirumalaraya's 'Chikkadevaraja Vijaya' has Mysore history as its theme and is in

Champu style. Singararya's 'Mitravinda Govinda', translated from Harsha's 'Rathnavali' is

considered to be the earliest Kannada play. Another noteworthy poetess of this period is

(Sanchi) Honnamma who wrote "Hadibadeya Dharma' in Sangatya metre.

Kannada literature took a strong Hindu bend with the orthodox Vijayanagara kings (14th-

15th AD). Some eminent names were Bhima Kavi, Padmanaka, Mallanarya, Singiraja and

Chamarasa. The Bhakti movement also affected Kannada literature in the 15th and 16th

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centuries. The Ramayana, Mahabharata and Puranas were translated afresh using the folk

meters satpadi and regale. Devotional songs of dasas or singing mendicants were compiled,

which formed an important part of popular literature.

The next two centuries were a busy period with many rulers and kingdoms such as the

Wodeyar kings, Bijapur Sultans and Mughals that led to much literary activity.

Bhattakalanka Deva’s Karnataka Shabdaushasana (1604AD) on grammar, Sakdakshara

Deva’s romantic campu- the Rajshekhara Vilasa (1657AD), the historical compositions of

the Wodeyar period (1650-1713AD), Nijaguna Yogi’s Viveka Chintamani of Shaiva lore

(mid 17th century), Nanja Raja’s Puranic works the Shiva Bhakti Mahatmya and Hari

Vamsa (circa 1760), were some of the notable creations. The popular Yakshagana,

dramatization of Puranic tales with much singing, was an innovation of the late 18th

century. A good mass of folk poetry thus came to be written.

Shishunala Sharif, was a saint poet, philosopher and social reformer of the period who

composed moral poems in Kannada called Tatvapada .He is recognized as the first ever

Muslim poet in Kannada literature. Shishunala Sharif was known to compose poems as per

the situation and sing them to spread the messages across.Though, he never penned down

his compositions, from the word of mouth quite a few them have been passed on to the next

generations. All his works are in colloquial Kannada language that is called Dharwad

Kannada.

The ideology of ‘Karnataka’ as a concept of ‘nation’ in its modern form was a historical

development, starting from the last decade of the 19th century elaborated by the intellectuals

and historians of early part of 20th century. By introducing printing machines and print

culture in to the vernacular languages in Indian states, the Christian missionaries too caused

for the spread and growth of Kannada consciousness in Karnataka as well. A ‘systematic’

historical study of Kannada literature, language and its cultural practices by the Christian

missionaries and European scholars as well as Kannada scholars helped Kannadigas to

‘imagine’ their past and appreciate their ‘cultural awakening’. Some scholars termed it as

‘cultural renaissance’ of Karnataka.

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Nutana Kaala : During Nationalism and Post-Independent period.

Duringthe 19th century, Western-styled education, Christian missionaries who depended

upon the local language to circularize their Gospels, and ultimately the arrival of the

printing press, incredibly sped up the development of modern period in Kannada literature.

A well-known Christian missionary, Hermann Mogling, had published the first-ever

Kannada newspaper named Mangalore Samachara in 1843. Mogling also had gone ahead to

publish Kannada classics as a series, referred to as Bibliotheca Carnataca during the period

from 1848-1853. British officers Benjamin L. Rice and J. H. Fleet also had begun to edit

and issue critical editions of surviving literary classics, contemporary folk ballads and

inscriptions. The first Kannada-English dictionary by Ferdinand Kittel was brought out in

1894.

Mummadi Krishnaraja Wodeyar continued the tradition of his predecessor.

Kempunarayana's 'Mudramanjusha' deserves a special mention. Wodeyar also started the

Raja's English School (1833) and this along with the expansion of Missionary activities,

increased the Western influence on Kannada literature.

Chamaraja Wodeyar's period saw a new era in Kannada literature. M.S.Puttanna's

'Madiddunno Maharaya', D.Venkatachalayya and Dr.B.V.Venkateshaiyya's detective stories

like 'Parimala' and 'Arindamana Sahasagalu', Galaganatha's social and historical novels,

Kittel's dictionary, Cha.Vasudevarayya's 'Bala Bodhe' belong to this period. Muddanna's

'Ramashvamedha' is an epic episode in prose. This has a tinge of modem writing. Translated

novels by B.Venkatacharya and Galaganath, mostly historical made a deep impact on

readers.

In 1921, Professor B.M.Srikantayya heralded the 'Navodaya' movement. His 'English

Geethagalu' was a free rendering of some great English poems. Around this period, and

unknown to him, K.V.Puttappa (Kuvempu) had switched over from English writing to

Kannada and the culmination of his work was 'Sri Ramayana Darshana' written in blank

verse. Puttappa's social novels such as 'Kanurusubbamma Heggadati' and 'Malegalalli

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Madumagalu' are equally well acclaimed. Among the works of the thirties, D.V.Gundappa's

'Manku Thimmana Kagga' stands out as a jewel. It is considered to be unique in the sense

that it contains ethical principles, philosophic truths and experiences of life. Samsa wrote

many plays in Halegannada, of which 'Vigada Vikramaraya' is the best example.

Another important factor influencing twentieth century Kannada literature is that Kannada-

speaking areas were distributed among Chennai, Mumbai, Hyderabad and Mysore provinces

in the first half of this century. Only in 1956 were predominantly Kannada-speaking areas

united to form the present Karnataka state. Till then, many writers felt that failure to bring

the Kannada-speaking areas under one state administration led to the lack of identity of the

Kannadigas. Therefore, in Karnataka, the freedom struggle meant not only freeing India

from the British but also freeing Kannada-speaking areas from the rules of Tamilians,

Telugus, and Marathas.

Discovering and propagating the best of Kannada literature of the past and present were the

ways of unifying the Kannada-speaking people and helping them find their cultural identity.

B. M. Srikantia, Alur Venkata Rao (1880-1930), and their disciples spent a considerable

number of years touring different parts of Kannada-speaking areas and lecturing about

Kannada language and literature. Thus, Kannada language and culture became important

instruments in making people aware of their identity and in helping them regain their self-

respect during the freedom struggle.

Modern education made a late entry in Karnataka as compared to other parts of India.

Works based on Sanskrit models, like Shakuntala of Basavappa Shastri, continued till the

late 19th century. With a little initiation from the Christian missionaries, the Academy of

Kannada Literature was set up in Bangalore in 1914. Gradually modern literature gained

tempo and translations were made from English, Bengali and Marathi. Kerur and

Galaganatha attempted the first novels in Kannada, followed by a host of novelists like

Shivarama Karanta, K. V. Puttapa, G P Rajaratnam, Basavaraja Kattimani, Nanjanagudu

Tirumalamba (the first major woman writer in modern Kannada) and others.

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K.S. Narasimha Swamy's 'Mysoora Mallige', a collection of poems with love and separation

as the theme is a landmark of the Navodaya period. G.P. Rajarathnam's 'Rathnana Padagalu'

perhaps stands unique in world literature in seeing truth a beauty in drunken man's gay

gibberish. Pu.Thi. Narasimhachar's 'Gokula Nirgamana' has Krishna's separation from

Radha as its theme and this again reaches spiritual heights. Gorur Ramaswamy lyengar

chose the easy form to portray the life of rural Karnataka his 'Halliya Chitragalu' is

considered the supreme example of his writings. His tradition was continued by A.N.Murthy

Rao in 'Hagaluganasugalu' and M.R.Srinivasa Murthy in 'Rangannana Kanasina Dinagalu'.

The period also saw a spurt of literary critisism. Of these T.N. Srikantaiya's 'Bharathiya

Kavya Meemamse' is considered to be a classic. A.R. Krishna Shastry nurtured a whole

generation of writers through 'Prabuddha Karnataka', a periodical brought out by the

Kannada Sangha of the Central College and later shifted the publication to Mysore

University. S.V.Ranganna, an English Professor, who had by this time established himself

as a Kannada writer through 'Ranga Binnappa', wrote on literary criticism in 'Shaili' and

'Ruchi'. V.Sitaramayya's output varied from 'Hana Prapancha', an economic treatise, to

'Pampa Yathre' a travelogue, to host of writings, from poetry to literary criticism. R.S.

Mugali wrote 'Kannada Sahitya Charithre' succinct and balanced history of Kannada

Literature.

The short story too made its advent with Panje Mangesha Rao and Masti Venkatesha

Ayyangar. A new trend in drama began with the use of colloquial language. Poetry, too,

wasn’t left behind; B. M. Shrikanthayya took Kannada poetry to great heights with

innovations like the blank verse. Literature in Kannada today is a big enterprise, with

bustling centres like the University of Mysore, the Karnataka University at Dharwar and the

Kannada Sahitya Parishad of Mysore.

As the Navodaya period mounted towards its summit, the Pragatishila (progressives)

movement headed by novelist A. N. Krishna Rao (also recognised as `Anakru`), gathered up

considerable thrust in the early 1940s. This school, primarily inclined towards being a

leftist, debated that literature must serve as a tool of social revolution and considered the

Navodaya to be the result of aesthetes, too straight-laced to be of any social significance.

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During the 1950s, even as the Pragatishila integrated back into the Navodaya stream of

thought, yet another new modernist school of writing named Navya came forth, as if in a

cyclic motion. Though formally ushered in by V. K. Gokak (Vinayaka Krishna Gokak, a

major writer of Kannada and English languages, winner of Jnanpith Award) with his Navya

Kavitegalu ("Modern Poems", 1950), in reality it was Gopalakrishna Adiga who best

illustrated the distinctive spirit of the movement.

Poetry and, later, the short story became the most efficient and valuable medium of

expression of the Navya movement, always considered an integral part in modern period of

Kannada literature. The most spectacular and extravagant (in a symbolic sense) playwrights

from the modern period in Kannada literature include Girish Karnad, P. Lankesh,

Chandrashekhara Kambara and Chandrashekar Patil. Girish Karnad`s Tughlaq (1964)

successfully tries to delineate brutality induced by idealism gone off beam.

It is interesting to note that except U.R.Ananthamurthy and Girish Karnad, all the five of the

seven Jnanapeetah awardees in Kannada, Kuvempu, Da.Ra Bendre, Shivarama Karantha,

Masthi Venkatesha lyengar and V.K.Gokak have been writing since the Navodaya period.

Da.Ra. Bendre won the award primarily for 'Naku Thanti' a metaphysical poetic work but

his popularity is based more on his writings drawn from folk culture. Shivarama Karantha's

writings range from encyclopedea to novels, essays, drama and poetry. 'Marali Mannige' is

his oft-mentioned novel, but 'Bettada Jeeva' 'Chomana Dudi' and 'Mookajjiya Kanasugalu'

are also noteworthy.

His works mirror the cultural ethos of Dakshina Kannada. Masthi Venkatesha lyengar is

primarily noted as short story writer, his 'Chennabasava Nayaka' and 'Chikaveerarajendra'

are historical novels dealing with degeneration of monarchy, and 'Subbanna' is a long story

which reaches metaphysical heights. V.K. Gokak began as a Navodaya poet but his magnum

opus is 'Bharatha Sindhu Rashmi' which seeks to find answers for the modern man's

dilemmas in ancient epics. Significantly, Ananthamurthy's 'Bhava' also seeks inspiration

from traditional wisdom.

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As earlier movements failed to address the different issues in their writing the oppressed

groups such as lower castes, Muslims and women stared coming in to the different forms of

creative expression that led entire Kannada cultural sphere to undergo a kind of vibrancy for

the first time in its history. Dalit and Bandaya are the two most (social and literary) radical

movements in the mid-1970s in Karnataka. Dalit writers are, mostly, from untouchable

castes. Bandaya is the movement of young leftist writers. Both schools of writing had

expressed anger towards several forms of social and economic exploitation.

Karnataka has a rich heritage of art and culture. From time immemorial this place has been

the origin and the culmination ground of Indian classical music and other form of arts. Folk

culture has its roots in this state and the art forms have heavily borrowed from them. By

utilizing the medium of performing arts artistes convey the various traditions and customs of

a particular community. Stories from epics are also portrayed on stage.

The performances are eye candy because of the vibrant costumes and make up. Narrators are

an indispensable part of these performances. Performing arts have always been a medium to

educate people. Through these art forms twin purpose of education and entertainment was

achieved.

FOLK DANCE FORMS

Yakshagana

Yakshagana is one of those art forms that is rooted in mythologies. In Hindu mythology

Yakshas are depicted as demi gods who attend to Kubera. This dance drama elaborately

portrays the stories from holy texts. A trip to coastal Karnataka is incomplete without

watching Yakshagana. Uttara Kannada, Shimoga, Udupi, Dakshina Kannada are the places

where this dance drama is performed. Yakshagana is a unique combination of dance, drama,

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dialogues, songs, music and resplendent costumes. This dance drama is performed in open-

air theaters where audiences are seated on three sides of the stage.

TogaluBombeaata

Togalu Bombeaata is a puppet show that is quite popular in Karnataka. In this ancient art

form leather puppets are used to enact popular scenes from epics such as Ramayana and

Mahabharata. In a world where puppet shows are fast disappearing this age old art form is

quite popular in this Indian state. Such shows were performed to ward off the evil powers

that bring diseases, epidemics and destroyed crops.

BhoothaAradhane

Bhootha Aradhane is a ritualistic dance in Karnataka. The origin of this art form can be

traced to the coastal parts of Karnataka and Kerala. This is a way of Tulu worship. This

form of folk dance is unique to Karnataka. Bhootha in India refers to ghost.

The references to these creatures are found in legends and myths. These creatures are Lord

Shiva`s attendants and known as Bhuta Ganas. Bhootha Aradhane is an extension of this

worship.

Nagamandala

Snakes have always mystified people. In India snake is seen to accompany Lord Shiva and

is thus considered holy enough to worship. Nagamandala is a folk art of worshipping snakes

and is prevalent in Dakshina Kannada and Udupi. The beats and movements of the dance

are quite attention grabbing. While worshipping the serpent the dance to depicts the

slithering movement of the snake. This exotic performance is a treat to watch as the dancers

are dressed up like serpents. Fear and ignorance about snakes also play a major part in their

worship.

DolluKunitha

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this is a drum dance that is quite popular in Karnataka. Dollu Kunitha is accompanied by

singing. This is performed by men of the shepherd community, Kuruba. Strong acrobatic

movements, drumming and synchronization are the features of this performing art. Other

than this, there is another ritualistic dance called the Puja Kunitha. There are very few

dances that are accompanied only by instruments. Puja Kunitha is, thus, unique in its own

way.

Karadimajal

This is a popular folk orchestra of the north Karnataka region. It is performed during various

auspicious occasions and in processions. The Karadi or Karade is the percussion instrument

that is used in the orchestra. It is a palm sized cymbal that produces metallic sounds while

the Shehnai is used to produce the melody

Krishna Parijatha

Krishna Parijatha is a folk theater that depicts legends revolving around Lord Krishna and

Indra. Though there are many theories related to Krishna Parijatha but the most popular one

is that of Krishna waging war over Indra. The two lords fell out over Parijatha tree that came

out of the ocean of existence. The entire chain of events is performed through this dance

drama.

JaggahaligeKunita

This is a folk art of the Hubballi Dharwad region, particularly of the 'Byahatti' village. It is

performed on occasions such as Yugadi and Holi. Jagghalige is essentially a percussion

instrument made of a bullock cart wheel with buffalo hides wrapped around. On the said

occasions, the village folk roll out the giant instruments and march in an impressive

procession. The entire performance is directed by a chief choreographer who himself uses a

much smaller percussion instrument called the kanihaligi which is made of clay and covered

with calf hide. The performance usually involves a group Of about 15people.

Bolak-aat

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This is performed by the Kodava men in front of an oil lamp in an open field. The men hold

the chavari(Yak fur) in one hand and the Kodava short sword "Odi-kathi" in the other while

performing this dance. Many regional variations of this dance exist. Sometimes performers

dance only with the chavari without the use of the short sword. When the short sword or the

"Odi-kathi" is also used, it is called kattiyaata. The dudi, an hourglass shaped drum is used

to provide the rhythm for the dance.

Veeragase

It is a dance form prevalent in the state of Karnataka, India.

It is a vigorous dance based on Hindu mythology and involves very intense energy-sapping

dance movements. Veeragase is one of the dances demonstrated in the Dasara procession

held in Mysore. This dance is performed during festivals and mainly in the Hindu months of

Shravana and Karthika.

Hagalu Veeshagaararu (Day Actor's)

Hagalu veshagaararu are a group of itinerant actors of Karnataka. Some populations of

these artists are native to Andhra Pradesh also. These artists are masters of the art of miming

and their performances are extempore. No formal stage or facility is used. The artists move

from place to place and pitch tents in places where they offer to perform their show.

CLASSICAL MUSIC AND DANCFORMS

There are various forms of dances in Karnataka. Bharatanatyam (Mysore), Kuchipudi etc

are the main classical dances here. Most of these dances are still learnt by people with great

zest. All these dances have different music, beat, movements, themes and costumes. Some

of the biggest names in Indian dance hail from these schools of dancing.

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It is worth to note here that legendary classical singers Bharat Ratna Pandit. Bhimsen Joshi

and renowned Hindustani vocalist Gangubai Hanagal both were Kannadigas, who lifted the

listeners to a divine experience with their unique styles.

Scholars says that Bhimsen Joshi’s music has been hailed by both the critics and the masses

with his performances marked by spontaneity and accurate notes, but his specialisation

came in for ragas most popularly Shuddha Kalyan, Miyan Ki Todi and Darbari raga.

FLORA AND FAUNA

In Karnataka the wildlife is well taken care of. This is the reason why animal world is at its

best in Karnataka. For animal lovers this is the best place to be. The dense forest combined

with the blessing of River Cauvery has helped the wildlife to grow in Karnataka. In certain

places the common men too look after the well being of the animals. Such factors have

helped Karnataka to promote its wildlife as a part of tourism. People from all over the globe

drop in with a desire to catch a glimpse of a lurking tiger, jumping cheetal, Indian bison,

rare species of birds and numerous other animals.

Flora and fauna of Karnataka is like a multi-cuisine platter! The wide range of flora and

fauna in Karnataka are indeed a source of delight for the tourists. The geography here boasts

of a wide variety of flora and fauna that are spread throughout its length and breadth. And

also, one can find many varieties of mammals, birds, a wide range of insects, fishes,

amphibians, reptiles, etc.

ARCHITECTURE

The state of Karnataka is renowned for the plethora of Hindu, Islamic, Jain and colonial

architectures. It has rich and varied architecture. The three cities of Gulbarga, Bijapur and

Bidar in the north have many structures reflecting south Indian Islamic architecture. Among

them Bijapur has a lot worth seeing and is referred to as the Agra of South India. Karnataka

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is also a chief Hindu cultural centre of the 18th century. Aihole and Badami in the north of

the state was the centre of construction activities during the middle Ages. The various

dynasties that had ruled Karnataka have left their imprint in the architectural style of the

buildings and monuments. Structures were built by the early Chalukyas in the 6th-8th

centuries.

The later Chalukyas built temples that were a blend of the north and south styles with a star-

shaped plan. It is referred to as the Chalukya style. Later the Hoysalas also developed the in

between style of architecture. The three temples in Belur, Halebid and Somanathapura, sport

the star plan and have highly decorated walls with exquisite engravings. Jain temples were

built on the west coast. Colonial architecture is scattered in the city of Mysore. Some of the

exquisite monuments of Hampi reflect a brilliant blend of Hindu and Islamic style of

architecture.

The Ramachandra temple of Hampi is in the heart of the palace grounds and is called

Hazara Rama. It was a medium sized prayer house of the royals. The temple plan is the

same as the later Chalukya type square mandapa with a three-sided entrance. The vimana

reflects the southern style and the decorations on it are harmonious. The Vitthala temple is

the greatest of Vijayanagara architecture.

KANNADA CINEMA:

The films made in the Kannada language comes from what is known as the Sandalwood

film industry; just as Hindi films emerge from Bollywood. While most of the films are made

in Kannada, there are a few exceptions to films being made in Konkani and Tulu, making

Kannada cinema an important aspect of Indian cinema. The most noted actor to emerge

from Kannada films was Dr. Rajkumar. He was well known for his captivating voice and

versatile acting abilities.

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Others who have received many accolades include Vishnu Vardhan, Gubbi Veeranna,

Balakrishna, Puttanna Kanagal, Prabhakar , Lokesh, Anant Nag, Girish Karnad, Manjula,

Ravichandran, Narasimharaju and Dwarakesh. Kannada cinema has lost many of its most

talented stars on grounds of different reasons such as accidents and people fading off screen

such as Soundarya, Kalpana, Manjula, Suneel and others. However due to lack of studios

and technical crews, financers backed away from film projects in the early stages of

Kannada cinema.

Sati Sulochana released in 1934 has the credit of being the first talky film in Kannada. The

1950's saw the emergence of Dr. Rajkumar. He formed a partnership with two others to

produce more Kannada films, but the partnership lasted for a few years before withering

away. Most films during this era revolved around mythology and historic events. The

golden period of Kannada cinema was seen during the 1970's and 80's where along with

Bengali and Malayalam cinema, the emergence of parallel cinema took place in Kannada

cinema as well. Films like Kaadu, Samskara, Hamsageethe, Ondanondu Kaladalli, Chomana

Dudi were some of the important films to emerge from this era.

Girish Kasaravalli, is considered to be the pioneer behind New Wave Cinema in Karnataka.

He has won the National award for best film four times. With the government of Karnataka

in the 1980's awarding a 50 per cent tax exempt fee for films made in all its entirety in

Karnataka, more interest was generated, bringing in much needed revenue into the Kannada

film industry. Shivarajkumar started off his film career with one success after another. Other

stars who shone in the spotlight were Vanitha Vasu, Devaraj, Jaggesh, Lokanath and

Anjana.

Gubbi Veeranna could be considered the doyen of Kannada cinema during the mid to late

forties. He brought his talent as an actor from the theatrical stage to Kannada cinema

through his Gubbi Veeranna Theater. From the mid-forties to late fifties, Gubbi Karnataka

Productions (of which he was a shareholder) produced movies such as Bhaktha Kumbara,

Gunasagari, Hemareddi Mallamma, Adarsha Sati, and Sadarame.

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The 1970s and 1980s also witnessed the rise of director Puttanna Kanagal. His movies

(Bellimoda, Gejje Pooje, Sharapanjara, Sakshatkara, Nagara Havu) pioneered a new style

of filmmaking which acted as a bridge between commercial and parallel cinema. In the

1980s, in a bid to popularise filmmaking, the Government of Karnataka granted a 50% tax

exemption to Kannada films completely made in Karnataka, and it increased the subsidy

amount to Kannada films.

The late 1970s were Rajkumar's peak period. He gave blockbuster movies which created

history and established the Kannada film industry on a firm footing. Bangarada Manushya,

Daari Thappida Maga, Mayura, Premada Kanike, Babruvahana, Baktha Kumbara, and

Krishnadevaraya were successes that gave Rajkumar an iconic status.

Shankar Nag made his own mark with the internationally acclaimed Ondanondu Kaladalli

and Malgudi Days, along with several commercial hits. Anant Nag, Ambareesh, Prabhakar,

Lokesh, Ashok, Srinath, M. P. Shankar, and Sunder Krishna Urs were other actors who

made their own mark in the industry. Puttana Kanagal paved the way for the

abovementioned actors as well as Ramakrishna, Kokila Mohan, and Chandrashekar.

Lakshmi, Padma Vaasanthi, Geetha, Madhavi, Saritha, and Jayamala were some of the

actresses who made their mark.

A tentative conclusion:

Unfortunately, even though Kannada society has contributed some of the great thinkers and

philosophers to the Indian philosophy but there is complete silence was maintained as for

the contribution of lower castes indigenous yogis’ is concerned. Especially, during the 19th

century they had to lose the battle where the world-view of the upper caste (as social

hierarchy continued) won. Apparently, the whole cultural or literary history of Kannada has

had been studied merely either considering text/author or religion (kriti/kartru

adharita=dharma adharita) as a base. As D. R. Nagaraj points out that in this period the anti-

caste social philosophy became the official slogan of Indian nationalism but it was unable to

address complex caste factors in different spheres that led other kind of social rage in the

20

later period “as the very cultural paradigm of the nationalist epoch did not accept the lower

caste cosmologies”5

General Notes:

While writing pre-history of Karnataka scholars quote this first available medieval

text written by Srivijaya in the court of Rashtrakoota king Nrupatunga. It was first

published in book form in 1898 (edit by K B Pathak). For details see M.

Chidanandamurthy’s Karnataka samskruthi, page 4. Aniketana, a quarterly journal

of Kannada language and literature, a special issue on the Kavirajamaraga, Apl-

Sept: 1999, Community and Culture, selected writings of K.V Subbanna (edit by

Manu Chakravarhty), 2009, and Rahamat Tarikere’s Kavirajamarga mattu

Kannada jagattu : Samskrutika mukhamukhi: 2000. It is important to critically

engage with the text. Many scholars, whenever there will be debates on land and

language, they emotionally recall the geographical entity that mentioned. Basavaraj

Kalgudi argues however, that the present-day scholars have not applied their minds

enough to trash out a solution to the critical impasse that the Kannada language

finds itself in. (Kalgudi. B 71) For details see Basavaraj Kalgudis essay in the

Aniketana, same issue above mentioned. Why not scholars look into the way of

negation or Anusandhana (a process of negotiation between “self” (native) and

“Other” (dominant migrates, or cosmopolitan) that has had been practiced within

the cultural and literary history, before claiming Kannadigas have been had

tolerated “others” who come for a life in the land? And as K.V Subbana explains

the nature of this text, has been seen as mainly a text of rhetoric which has

incidentally stated useful tenets about the Kannada language, culture and people”

.See, Aniketana, same issue.

The term Karnataka has been described as a Sanskritisation of Kannada, that later

became Kanara and finally, Kanarese in the speech of the westerner and that

explained as Kuru + nadu, Kar + nadu or Kan + nada to mention only the main

theories.

5 Flaming Feet, Pg;65.

21

Virashaiva movement is an important socio-religious movement of 12th and 13th

century in Karnataka, which was led by Virashaivas or heroic followers of Shiva,

like the other offshoots of the Bhakti movement that was characterized by the

combination of egalitarianism and spiritual excellence. As Saki, points out that it

was an anti-feudal democratic consciousness, that led artisans and untouchables to

fight against Kings, religious Mutts and bureaucrats. See Saki’s works Making

history Vol. I & II on history of Karnataka.

In Dharwad (earlier Bombay Karnataka region), Karnataka Vidyavardhaka Sangha

which was established in 1890 rendered an institutionalized service to the “ideology

of Karnataka”. The scholars of this region did an admirable job of encouraging

Kannada writers by initiating the publication houses as well as standardized the

usage of Kannada language by editing few journals. It also played a crucial role in

the history of Karnataka Unification movement. For details see, Gazetteer of

Bombay State: Dharawad district (revised edition) Vol.XXII, of the regional

Gazetteer of Bombay presidency relating to Dharwad, Bombay Govt Central press,

1959, p. 751.

Kuvempu, as an exception to the traditionalist literary production, campaigned for

social equality and the abolition of priestly class hegemony (Rao, H.S.Raghavendra:

2006), He illustrates the idea of Kannada identity as ‘Jaya bharata jananiya tanu

jaate’ a part of federal India, which appears as relationship between a mother and

daughter ; Kannada bhuvaneswari, who born to mother Bharatamaate, is seems

entilry different from the earlier scholars.

Dalit and Bandaya are the two most (social and literary) radical movements in the

mid-1970s in Karnataka. Dalit writers are, mostly, from untouchable castes.

Bandaya is the movement of young leftist writers. Both schools of writing had

expressed anger towards several forms of social and economic exploitation.

To begin with, an aggressive peasant movement in Karnataka, under the aegis of

Karnataka Rajya Raita Sangha (1980) fought for the cause of farmers problems. It

also made attempt to redefine the Kannadaness in its own way by organizing

convention such as Hosa Karnataka and Kannada Desha, a regional political party.

Due to internal conflicts and the duality in addressing the issues related to the land

distribution and caste, the movement confined itself to the point programs and could

22

not come out from the clutches of dominant such as Lingayat, Vokkaliga and

Kurubas. For details see Muzaffar Assadis’s recent work Karnatakadalli identity

rajakeeya :Raita, Raita horata hagu samajika chaluvali.

Saki, a Marxist historian and a social activist, was associated with a revolutionary

movement in Karnataka. He wrote extensively on Karnataka history, and problems

of coffee estate workers in Malnad region. His works Making history Vol. I & II, on

Karnataka’s history gives a Marxist perspective of studying the people and their

past.

Though, separate state movement in Kodagu (Coorg) began in the late 1960s, after

amalgamation with Karnataka, but there was no serious debate on the question of

separate state movement till the 1980s. As Vijaya Poonacha argues that the very

demand for separate state formation has been led by the upper caste land holding

communities that had “spread the outsider syndrome” under the aegis of Kodagu

Moolanivasigala Samrakshana Samiti. Later, a left oriented Karnataka Vimochana

Ranga in association with Liberation Warriors of Kodagu, articulated the movement

within Marxist framework. But, right from its inception, the movement has been

took several shapes, such as Gandhian model, fundamentalist and extreme left

frame. Now, the alliance of backward castes and Dalits witnessing an anti-separatist

movement too.

It is necessary to look at the changing linguistic pattern and the public sphere of the

state, which was quite complex and led to diverse in public. According to the 1971

census, Karnataka had a population of about 29 million with a density of 153

persons /km. Besides the strength of Kannada speaking population, residing in the

state during the period was 65. 94 %, whereas other non-Kannadigas such as Urdu

(9. 00 %), Telugu (8.17 %), Marathi (4.05 %), Tamil (3.76 %), Tulu (3.56 %),

Konkani (1.96 %), Malayalam (1.41 %), Kodagu (0.24 %), Gujarati (0.09 %) and

Hindi (0.44%) people were resided in the state.

23

References and further Reading

Assadi, Muzaffar. (2009) Karnatakadalli identity rajakeeya :Raita, Raita horata hagu samajika

chaluvali, pub: K.S Muddappa trust, Krishnapuramdoddi.

Bairy, Ramesh (1996) Competing Construction of Kannada Identity: A Study of Two Organizations,

Unpublished MPhil dissertation submitted at university of Hyderabad.

Chidanandamurhty, M (2006) Kannada samskriti : Namma hemme, Kannada pustaka pradikara,

Bangalore.

___________(2007). Karnataka samskriti, Kannada sahitya parishat, Bangalore.

Early History of Kannaḍa Literature Author(s): B. Lewis Rice Source: Journal of the Royal Asiatic

Society of Great Britain and Ireland, (Apr., 1890), pp.

Gundappa, D V (1996) Samskruthi, Kavyalaya Prakashana, Mysore.

History of Printing and Publishing in India, (1988) Ed: B.S Kesavan, Pub: National Book Trust,

India, New Delhi.

Journal of Kannada studies, Nove-2003: Apli-2004, Kannda University, prasararanga, Hampi.

Janapada Karnataka, p.112, Ed: Nalluru Prasad, Pub: Karnataka Janapada and Yakshagana

Academy, Bangalore, 1998.

Kannada Adhyayana, Winter issue-2002, Kannada university, Prasararanga, Hampi,

Karnataka Darshana (2007) Ed: R.S. Hukkerikar, Dept of Kannada and Culture, Bangalore

Krishna Murhty, Agrahara, (-2002) Ed: Samskruthi Kathana : Writings by D R Nagaraj, Kannada

Pustaka Pradikara, Bangalore.

Kuvempu. (2004). Vichara krantige ahvana. Udayaravi prakashana, Mysore.

Lankesh, P (2008) Sahity Sahitya Vimarshe: A collection of literary articles, lankesh Prakashana,

Bangalore.

Literary Cultures in History Reconstructions from South Asia, 2003 Ed: Sheldon Pollock University of California Press, Berkeley Los Angeles London. Mugali, R.S History of Kannada Literature, Sahitya Akademi, New Delhi, 1975.

Nagaraj, D R (2006) Sahitya Kathana: A collection of essays on Literary and Cultural Studies,

Akshara Prakashana, Heggodu.

24

_________ (1993) The Flaming Feet: A study of the Dalit movement in India, South Forum Press

Bangalore.

Nair, Janaki. (1996) Memories of Underdevelopment: Language and its Identities in Contemporary

Karnataka, Economic and Political Weekly, Oct-12-19,1996.

_________ (2007) The Promise of the Metropolis: Bangalore’s Twentieth Century, Oxford

University Press, News Delhi.

Narayana, K V (2007) Kannada Jagattu : Ardhashatamana, Prasararanga Kannada University,

hampi.

Prasad, M. Madhava ,A note on Theme –Kannada Identity, Journal of Karnataka Studies, Vol 1, No

1, Nov-2003 Aplril-2004, VIII-XIV

Rajashekar Shetty, V T (1978) Dalit Movement in Karnataka, The Christian Literature Society,

Madras.

Saki. (1998) Making history volume-I, Vimukti Prakashana, Bangalore.

__________(2004) Making history volume-II, Vimukti Prakashana, Bangalore

Srinivasaraju, Sugata (2008) Keeping Faith With Mother Tongue : The Anxieties of local Culture,

Navakarnataka Publications Pvt Ltd, Bangalore.

Tarikere, Rahamath , Kannada Adhyayana: winter issue, Quarterly, Vol IX-2, Oct-Nov-Dec 2006,

Prasararanga Kannada University, Hampi.

The Kannadas : The People, Their History, and Culture (5 Vols-Set) , Edited by R.A.P.

Narasimhacharya, Cosmo, 2002, 1572 p, 5 volumes,

Venkatarayaru, Aluru ( 2006) Karnataka Gathavaibhava, Dept of Kannada and Culture, Bangalore.

__________ (2007) Karnataka Samskruti, Kannada Sahitya Parishat, Bangalore.

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