Undergraduate students’ self-directedness in relation to ...

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© Unisa Press ISSN 0256-8853 Progressio 35 (2) 2013 pp 34–57

Undergraduate students’ self-directedness in relation to their examination preparation styles in Open Distance Learning

M. Coetzee*Department of Industrial and Organisational Psychologye-mail: [email protected]

J. Botha*Department of Human Resource Managemente-mail: [email protected]*University of South AfricaPretoria, South Africa

AbstractThis article investigated the relationship between undergraduate students’ self-directedness and their exam preparation styles as well as the implications these have for teaching practice in the open and distance learning (ODL) context. A quantitative cross-sectional survey design was used, involving a stratified proportional random sample of 1102 predominantly early career black and female undergraduate ODL adult students in the field of economic and management sciences. Canonical correlation results indicated that the students’ level of active engagement in their academic studies was significantly influenced by factual-practical and abstract-theoretical study strategies. Multiple regression analyses revealed the examination preparation styles to be significant predictors of the participants’ self-directedness. The findings suggest that balancing factual-practical and abstract-theoretical learning strategies may be most important in enhancing students’ engagement with their academic activities, the amount of time they actively devote to their studies and their use of ODL-related study materials (study guides, tutorial letters, textbooks and assignment feedback) in preparing for their examinations. Recommendations are made for future research and teaching practice in the ODL context. Overall, it is concluded that teaching practices should aim at enhancing ODL students’ levels of self-directedness in line with their preferred examination preparation styles in order to increase their chances of success in an ODL environment.

Keywords: adult learners, andragogy, exam preparation styles, student self- directedness, open distance learning teaching practice, academic engagement

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Undergraduate students’ self-directedness ...

INTRODUCTION

Teaching and learning practice in the higher education context have become important in a globalised knowledge-driven world which creates new demands for education in terms of producing employable graduates (Lo 2011; Pityana 2009). However, the pass and throughput rates of students in the South African open and distance learning (ODL) context have become a major concern (Prinsloo and Subotzky 2011) in spite of ODL providing open access to learning opportunities. The concerns about throughput rate and student success appear to persist notwithstanding the fact that ODL also provides flexible learning options that are supported by a student-centred approach in the construction of learning programmes which aims to enable students to succeed (Pityana 2009). Nonetheless, student absence from the final examinations has been pointed out as a key factor affecting student pass and throughput rates in the ODL institutional context. A survey conducted by Tladi (2009) at a South African higher education ODL institution indicated non-academic, psychological and metacognitive factors as having the most influence on students’ absence from the final examinations. In addition, students’ unpreparedness for the examination was a major factor, mostly resulting from a lack of confidence and motivation leading to not spending enough time on their preparation for the examination (Tladi 2009).

The ODL context makes education easily accessible to working and non-working adults and provides them with the freedom to select what, where and when to learn in an agile, student-centred and responsive learning environment (UNESCO 2002). Although the freedom and flexibility of ODL allow people to combine work and family responsibilities with educational opportunities (UNESCO 2003), ODL demands a high level of self-directedness from students (Botha 2012b; De Ture 2004). Learner self-efficacy and learner autonomy appear to be important in dealing successfully with the challenging nature of an ODL experience (De Ture 2004).

Research further provides evidence that students’ examination average is significantly influenced by their learning styles in preparing for the exam component of a course (Ng, Pinto, Williams and Williams 2011) and their academic achievement (Naimie, Siraj, Abuzaid and Shagholi 2010). Although researchers continue to underscore the critical need for research on how students’ learning styles influence their academic success (Holtbrügge and Mohr 2010; Naimie et al. 2010; Ng et al. 2011), there seems to be a paucity of research in the South African ODL context. In view of the fact that in the South African post-apartheid context, the demographic profile of the ODL adult learner has shifted towards predominantly black and female early career students, more research

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M. Coetzee and J. Botha

is needed on the way the self-directedness of students in their capacity as adult learners is influenced by their exam preparation styles.

STUDY OBJECTIVE

The aim of the study was to investigate the overall relationship between undergraduate ODL students’ sense of self-directedness and their examination preparation styles, and whether students’ examination preparation styles significantly and positively predicted their sense of self-directedness. The study also aimed to identify the implications of the results for teaching practice in the ODL higher education environment. The ODL teaching context presents unique challenges and opportunities for teaching and learning practice, requiring students to be more self-directed. However, more research is needed on how students’ sense of self-directedness relates to their exam preparation styles and how these influence ODL teaching practice. As previously pointed out, these constructs are under-researched in the South African ODL higher education context.

Student self-directedness

Student (or learner) self-directedness is characterised by a sense of inventiveness, autonomy and persistence in learning. Ainoda, Onishi and Yashuda (2005) define self-directed learning in terms of four criteria - namely the adult learner’s willingness to (1) engage in individually identified and defined learning activities, (2) search independently for information (based on a sense of autonomy), (3) learn by personally searching and probing for information and facts, and (4) engage in self-managed, autonomous study. Self-directed learners are eager to participate in learning opportunities, and are ingenious, resourceful and future driven. They take responsibility for their learning, can set and chase goals and have acquired the study skills, interest and self-assurance indispensable to their success (Botha 2012b; De Bruin and De Bruin 2011).

Botha (2012b) identifies four cognitive-behavioural dimensions that underpin student or learner self-directedness in the higher education ODL context. These behavioural-cognitive dimensions were used as the conceptual framework for the current study:

• Strategic utilisation of traditional officially provided learning resources. Typical behavioural characteristics include the when, how and for what purpose adult learners utilise the official learning resources (i.e. tutorial letters, study guides, assignment feedback) provided by the university in their role as active students (Fowler 2008; Jones and Healing 2010; Linnenbrink and Pintrich 2003).

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• Success orientation for open distance learning (ODL). Typical behavioural characteristics include the self-confidence and related problem-solving behaviours of the adult learner in the successful pursuit of academic achievement in an ODL environment (Bashrina 2009; De Ture 2004; Luckett and Luckett 2009; Moneta, Spada and Rost 2007;Vansteenkiste, Lens and Deci 2006).

• Engaged academic activity. Typical behavioural characteristics include the intentional, purposeful actions of adult learners that are directly related to devoting their time and efforts to advancing their academic achievements or improving their competence, including their preparation for the exam component of a course (Bashrina 2009; Jones and Healing 2010; Linnenbrink and Pintrich 2003; Luckett and Luckett 2009; Smith, Zsidisin and Adams 2005, Vansteenkiste et al. 2006).

• Academically motivated behaviour. Typical behavioural characteristics include displaying either intrinsic or extrinsic motivation related to students’ academic endeavours such as searching for more information and dealing with problematic ODL study-related matters (De Ture 2004; Henderson-King and Smith 2006; Richardson 2002; Smith et al. 2005; Vansteenkiste et al. 2006; Zimmerman 2000).

The concept of self-directedness is the first of five assumptions that Knowles (1984) attributed to adult learning. According to the classic work of Knowles (1984), self-directedness in adult learning (andragogy) is the ability and willingness of learners to take initiative in and control of the learning process, either with or without the assistance of others. Self-directedness is a natural progression of adult development that stems from the profound psychological desire of adult learners to be seen and treated by those around them as people skilled in being accountable for themselves (Knowles 1984). De Bruin and De Bruin (2011) and Carr (2000) put learner autonomy at the heart of self-directedness. Ellinger (2004) also considers conscientiousness in the form of personal responsibility (autonomy) and agency (action) to be the mainstay of learner self-directedness. Self-directed adult learners are active agents, autonomously setting individual learning goals and managing their own learning. They practise critical thinking and reflect on their own learning, assess their own mastery of the learning material and their goal achievements, and are able to solve problems because they possess and use their meta-cognitive abilities successfully (Carr 2000; De Bruin and De Bruin 2011).

In the classic work of Long and Agyekum (1983) and Long (1989; 1990), the ability of adult learners to take and maintain control of the learning experience


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is highlighted as a significant factor in self-directed learning. Hammond and Collins (1991) describe critical self-directed learning as the capacity (or even gift) of adult learners to not only be in command of their own learning, but also to develop their personal individual and social awareness in order to critically appraise and dynamically reflect on their situation in order to improve on it. In this way, adult learners not only empower themselves, but also act as a mechanism for others to empower themselves which, in turn, may drive social change (Hammond and Collins 1991). This is similar to transformative learning theory which posits that adult learners should develop an outlook that is more open to scrutiny and transformation in order to better understand and appreciate their environment and each individual’s unique place in it (Taylor 2008).

The notion of student self-directedness is supported by Bandura’s (1999) general social cognitive theory. According to this theory, individuals are seen to have some active control over both their environments and themselves by drawing on their knowledge and cognitive and behavioural skills to produce desired results (Bandura 1989; 1999; Converse, Pathak, DePaul-Haddock, Gotlib and Merbedone 2012). In the context of the present study, it was expected that students’ sense of self-directedness would be significantly influenced by their examination preparation styles which are assumed to serve as cognitive resources in managing personal learning and achieving the desired results in an ODL environment.

Examination preparation styles

In this article, examination preparation styles are viewed as the cognitive behavioural strategies preferred by students when preparing for examinations (Williams, Rudyk and Staley 2004b). As shown in Table 1, these include eight cognitive learning strategies that students prefer to use when preparing for examinations. The eight cognitive learning strategies are categorised in terms of four domains: (1) students’ need to be energised by (or preference to minimise) environmental stimuli and preference (or not) to communicate and discuss exam material with students and lecturers (environmentally-interactive or environmentally-reflective); (2) the type of information (abstract-theoretical or factual-practical) that students prefer to focus on and how they approach learning and understanding information; (3) the processes for deciding how to order and organise course information (analytical-logical or personally-valued); and (4) students’ approach to organising and managing their examination preparation time (organised-planful or open-ended spontaneous). Research shows that the eight examination preparation styles interact and students will use combinations of these styles (Williams et al. 2004b). The present research was therefore


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interested in investigating the link between all eight examination preparation styles and students’ sense of self-directedness.

Researchers generally agree that the nature of examination preparation information and learning styles should be included in student learning materials (Williams et al. 2004b). The eight exam preparation styles mentioned here have been shown to indicate the likelihood that an individual will engage in certain behaviours, thereby enabling one to predict the probability of a student’s preferred study behaviours, areas of interest, and potential success. As shown in Table 1, the strategies incorporate study skills identified by educators and textbook authors, and cognitive learning strategies identified by students (Williams et al. 2004b).

Table 1: Overview of the eight examination preparation styles

Exam preparation style Description

Environmentally-Interactive strategies

Students need to be energised by environmental stimuli (i.e. communicating and discussing exam material with classmates or peer groups, background noises from music, television, family activity, or student activity in the library). Students with a strong preference for environmentally-interactive strategies frequently discuss the course material with someone else, initiate and/or study in a group, recite material aloud, have someone quiz them, study near or with others, listen to music, and take frequent breaks.

Environmentally-Reflective strategies

Students need to minimise any external stimuli that might distract them or interfere with their concentration and ability to focus internally on the course material. Students with a strong preference for environmentally-reflective strategies frequently study alone in a quiet, private place, ponder and reflect on the course material, study for long stretches at a time, prepare by writing and rewriting in preference to discussing, and may study with a close friend after individual preparation time.

Factual-Practical strategies

Students focus on learning the facts and details and on how they can be practically applied. Students with a strong preference for factual-practical strategies frequently learn, memorise, and drill themselves on the facts and details, study only what the lecturer or teacher recommended, avoid studying theory and complicated material, make practical tools (i.e. flash cards), use old exams, and attend to their physical comfort while studying.


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Abstract-Theoretical strategies

Students focus on course content that is abstract and theoretical and attempts to identify the underlying pattern of relationship. Students with a strong preference for abstract-theoretical strategies frequently diagram or mind map to discover relationships, make associations between facts and ideas, and predict exam questions. They persist with complicated material until they achieve understanding, they prefer to study new material, work to understand the underlying themes and patterns, and focus on theory and abstract concepts.

Analytical-Logical strategies

Students approach the course material in an objective manner and attempt to make logical sense out of it. Students with a strong preference for analytical-logical strategies frequently make outlines to find the logical organisation of material, analyse their past mistakes, study the underlying principles and basic truths, identify the best approach for studying the material, and maintain their objectivity about the exam.

Personally-Valued strategies

Students focus on what material to study for the exam, a decision based on what the student personally values and on what he or she dislikes. The student may allow his or her concern for and valuing of a relationship to have a higher priority than exam preparation. Students with a strong preference for personally-valued strategies are frequently motivated to prepare for an exam if they share the same values with those of their lecturer or teacher, or what was inherent in the course material. They are motivated by their enthusiasm for the subject, study first the topics they like most and leave until last those they like least, allow their emotional state to interfere with studying, and allow their concerns for significant others to interfere with their preparation.

Organised-Planful strategies

Students follow a structured, organised and planned approach. Students with a strong preference for organised-planful strategies frequently begin preparing 2-3 weeks before an exam. They complete other assignments early or postpone them until after the exam, continue to attend all classes, assemble all materials prior to study time, set and prioritise study goals, make and stick to a schedule, study for one exam at a time, and prepare thoroughly.


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Open-ended-Spontaneous strategies

Students follow a spontaneous, unstructured and open-ended approach. Students with a strong preference for open-ended-spontaneous strategies frequently underestimate the amount of time required for preparation, begin one or two days prior to the exam, rely on textbook readings and lecturer notes, allow outside obligations to interfere, get sidetracked by other interesting information, drift from one task to another, and lose track of time.

Source: Based on Williams et al. 2004a.

In the context of the present study, it was expected that students’ sense of self-directedness would be influenced by their preferred examination preparation styles. Sternberg (1997) also posits in his theory of mental self-government that people tend to have different ways of managing their own activities and that they tend to choose cognitive styles they are most comfortable with when they interact with environments or people. In addition, research provides evidence that students differ in terms of their success at taking examinations (Holtbrügge and Mohr 2010; Naimie et al. 2010; Ng et al. 2011) and that students’ success and performance are influenced by their study skills and cognitive learning styles (Williams et al. 2004b). Therefore, assessing the cognitive-behavioural learning strategies students use to prepare for exams, could be invaluable to academics, professionals and students alike (Williams et al. 2004b) as these could point to specific teaching, learning and assessment strategies that may enhance students’ chances of succeeding in an ODL environment.

METHOD

Participants

The research project formed part of a larger project on assessing the graduateness of undergraduate ODL students and the factors that may potentially influence their success in an ODL environment. Following a quantitative cross-sectional survey design, a stratified proportional random sample (Terreblanche, Durrheim and Painter 2006) of n = 1 102 undergraduate (first to third-year level) adult students at a South African ODL higher education institution participated in the study. The participants were enrolled in further studies in the economic and management sciences field. The sampling approach ensured that a representative sample from all levels of undergraduate students per module, department, qualification level and school in the College of Economic and Management Sciences could be obtained. The sample predominantly consisted of 92 per cent black students


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between 18 and 40 years, 63 per cent females and 57 per cent employed.

Measuring instruments

Student self-directedness was measured by the Adult Learner Self-Directedness Scale (ALSDS), developed by Botha (2012a) for the South African higher education ODL context. The ALSDS is a self-report measure consisting of four sub-scales and 53 items. The ALSDS uses a five-point Likert-type behaviourally-anchored format to measure respondents’ responses to each of the items. The sub-scales described the following attributes and behaviours: strategic utilisation of traditional officially provided resources; engaged academic activity; success orientation for ODL; and academically motivated behaviour. Exploratory factor and Rasch analyses by Botha and Coetzee (2012) provide evidence of internal consistency reliability and construct validity of the ALSDS. In terms of the present study, Cronbach’s alpha coefficients (internal consistency reliabilities) ranging between .60 and .77 were obtained.

Students’ examination preparation styles were measured by the Examination Preparation Style Inventory (Williams et al. 2004b). The Examination Preparation Style Inventory (EPI) is a self-report measure that identifies 115 item-based behavioural strategies (clustered into eight sub-scales) that students use when preparing for exams. The EPI yields eight scores measured on a five-point Likert format. The eight sub-scales include: environmentally-interactive (EnIn), environmentally-reflective (EnRe), factual-practical (FaPr), abstract-theoretical (AbTh), analytical-logical (AnLo), personally-valued (PeVa), organised-planful (OrPl), and open-ended-spontaneous (OpSp) examination preparation styles. Test-retest reliability coefficients for the eight scales ranged from .70 to .87. The EPI shows proven predictive validity with students’ Grade Point Average (GPA). Overall, research by Williams et al. (2004b) provides supportive evidence of the validity and reliability of the EPI as a measure of exam preparation strategies. In terms of the present study, Cronbach’s alpha coefficients (internal consistency reliabilities) ranging between .70 and .85 were obtained.

Procedure

Ethical clearance and permission to conduct the study were obtained from the management and research ethics committee of the ODL higher education institution that participated in the study. Questionnaires were mailed to a stratified proportional random sample (n = 4 850) of students enrolled for studies in the College of Economic and Management Sciences. The sample was stratified by module, qualification, department and school. The survey yielded n = 1 102 useable questionnaires (response rate = 23%). Each questionnaire included a


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cover letter to obtain informed consent from the participants to use their responses for research purposes only. The cover letter explained the purpose of the research, procedure, potential benefits, confidentiality, anonymity, voluntary participation and withdrawal. Participants were requested to complete the questionnaires and return them by mail to the researchers using the self-addressed envelope that was enclosed.

Statistical analyses

Descriptive statistics (means, standard deviations and Cronbach’s alpha coefficients), canonical correlations and standard multiple regressions statistical analyses were performed. In line with guidelines by Hair, Black, Babin and Anderson (2010), the cut-off criteria for canonical factorial loadings (≥ .30) were used to interpret the relative importance of the canonical loadings. The r² type effect size (1 – .λ) was also considered for assessing the magnitude of the overall correlational relationships between the two variates of a canonical function and the practical significance of the predictive ability of the canonical relationship (Hair et al. 2010). R² values of ≤ 0.12 (small practical effect), ≥ 0.13 ≤ 0.25 (medium practical effect) and ≥ 0.26 (large practical effect) (Fp ≤ 0.05) (Cohen 1992) were considered in the interpretation of the multiple regression results.

RESULTS

Means, standard deviations and internal consistency reliabilities: student self-directedness and examination preparation styles

In terms of the participants’ sense of self-directedness, Table 2 shows that the participants obtained the highest mean scores on the academically motivated behaviour (M = 50.42; SD = 7.21) and success orientation (ODL) (M = 37.25; SD = 6.46) dimensions of the ALSDS. Low mean scores were obtained for the engaged academic activity (M = 15.85; SD = 3.98) and resource utilisation (M = 19.58; SD = 3.50) dimensions of self-directedness. In terms of the participants’ examination preparation styles, the highest scores were obtained for the exam preparation strategies associated with the abstract-theoretical (M = 50.98; SD = 11.10), factual-practical (M = 43.51; SD = 10.32) and organised-planful (M = 43.24; SD = 9.28) styles. The environmentally-interactive exam preparation strategies were the least preferred by the participants (M = 29.94; SD = 8.06). Overall, acceptable internal consistency reliabilities were obtained for the ALSDS (student self-directedness) and EPI (examination preparation styles).


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Table 2: Means, standard deviations and internal consistency reliability coefficients: ALSDS & EPI

Scale Mean SD Cronbach Alpha Coefficients

ALSDS (student self-directedness)

Resource utilisation 19.58 3.50 .60

Success orientation (ODL) 37.25 6.46 .77

Engaged academic activity 15.85 3.98 .60

Academically motivated behaviour 50.42 7.21 .68

EPI (examination preparation styles)

Environmentally-Interactive 29.94 8.06 .80

Environmentally-Reflective 39.23 8.41 .72

Factual-Practical

43.5110.32 .83

Abstract-Theoretical 50.98 11.10 .85

Analytical-Logical 31.72 6.88 .68

Personally-Valued 31.81 7.50 .69

Organised-Planful 43.24 9.28 .74

Open-ended-Spontaneous 33.08 7.99 .80

Note: n = 1 102. ALSDS: Adult Self-directedness Scale. EPI: Exam Preparation Inventory.

Canonical correlations: assessing the overall relationship between students’ sense of self-directedness and their examination preparation styles

As shown in Table 3, the first function of the canonical model was statistically significant: overall Rc² = .24; moderate practical effect; F(p) = 4.99 (p = .0001); Wilks’ Lambda (λ = .69; p = .0001; r² type effect size: 1–.λ = .31; large practical effect). The canonical function explains the relationship between the two canonical variates comprising the ALSDS (students’ sense of self-directedness) and EPI (examination preparation styles) variables. In terms of the independent (EPI) canonical variate, Table 4 shows that the exam preparation styles variate construct was most strongly explained (Rc² = .15; moderate practical effect) by the factual-practical (Rc = .66) and abstract-theoretical (Rc = .66) variables, followed by the analytical-logical (Rc = .39), and environmentally-interactive


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(Rc = .32) variables. All four of the ALSDS self-directed variables were important in explaining the self-directedness canonical variate (Rc² = .30; large practical effect).

Table 3: Examination preparation styles in relation to self-directedness – stan-dardised canonical correlation analysis results for the first canonical func-tion variates – EPI (independent variables) in relation to the ALSDS (depen-dent variables)

Variate/variables Canonical coefficients

Canonical loading (Rc)

Canonical

cross-loadings

Set of independent variables (EPI): Examination preparation styles

Environmentally-Interactive

-.09 .32 .16

Environmentally-Reflective -.22 .05 .03

Factual-Practical .70 .66 .32

Abstract-Theoretical .71 .66 .31

Analytical-Logical .16 .39 .19

Personally-Valued -.25 .06 .03

Organised-Planful -.26 .29 .14

Open-ended-Spontaneous -.58 -.19 -.09

Independent canonical variate:

Average canonical loading Rc² = .15

Redundancy Index = .04

Set of dependent variables (ALSDS): Self-directedness

Resource utilisation .17 .57 .28

Success orientation (ODL) .15 .59 .29

Engaged academic activity .48 .69 .32

Academically motivated behaviour .75 .60 .29

Independent canonical variate:

Average canonical loading Rc² = .30

Redundancy Index = .07


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Overall Rc² = .24

F(p) = 4.99 (p < . 0001); df = 45;2593.1

Wilks’ Lambda (λ) = .69

r² type effect size: 1 – .λ = .31 (large practical effect)

Note: n = 1 102. ALSDS: Adult Self-directedness Scale. EPI: Exam Preparation Inventory.

The examination preparation styles canonical variate accounted for 24 per cent (Rc² = .24; moderate practical effect) of the overall variance in the self-directedness canonical variate. In terms of the magnitude of the predictive ability of the canonical variates, the exam preparation styles canonical variate explained only 7 per cent (Rc² = .07; small practical effect) of the variance in the ALSDS variables while the self-directedness canonical variate explained only 4 per cent (Rc² = .04; small practical effect) of the variance in the EPI variables. Table 4 shows that engaged academic activity was most strongly explained by the factual-practical and abstract-theoretical exam preparation styles.

Overall, the results showed that the participants’ examination preparation styles are useful indicators of their sense of self-directedness, and in terms of the research aims, provided evidence of a significant overall relationship between these variables.

Multiple regression analyses: examination preparation styles as predictors of students’ self-directedness

Table 4 shows that statistically significant regression models were produced in terms of all four of the ALSDS variables. In the first regression model, the EPI factual-practical, abstract-theoretical and open-ended spontaneous exam preparation styles explained 7 per cent (R² ≥ 0.07; small practical effect; p ≤ 0.001) of the variance in the resource utilisation variable.


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Table 4: Examination preparation styles as predictors of self-directedness – sig-nificant multiple regression analyses: EPI (independent variables) versus ALSDS (dependent variables)

VariableUnstandardised

Coefficientt p F

Adjusted

R SquareR

Resource utilisation (ALSDS)

(Constant)

b

18.03

SE b

0.88 20.44 0.0001

6.25

***

0.07+ 0.09Factual-practical (EPI)

0.07 0.03 2.61 0.01

Abstract-theoretical (EPI)

0.06 0.03 2.17 0.03

Open-ended spontaneous (EPI)

-0.11 0.03 -4.22 0.0001

Success orientation (ALSDS)

(Constant)

b

36.47

SE b

1.54 23.69 0.00017.07

***

0.08+ 0.09


0.15 0.05 3.30 0.001

Open-ended spontaneous (EPI)

-0.24 0.05 -5.04 0.0001

Engaged academic activity (ALSDS)

(Constant)

b

11.43

SE b

1.02 11.25 0.0001

9.29

***0.11+ 0.13

Factual-practical (EPI)

0.10 0.03 3.46 0.001


0.15 0.03 4.80 0.0001

Organised-planful (EPI)

-0.07 0.03 -2.01 0.04


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Academically motivated behaviour (ALSDS)

(Constant)

b

46.52

SE b

1.72 27.09 0.0001

7.19

***0.09+ 0.10

Factual-practical (EPI)

0.19 0.05 3.86 0.0001

Analytical-logical (EPI)

0.17 0.07 2.64 0.01

Personally-valued (EPI)

-0.11 0.05 -1.94 0.05

Organised-planful (EPI)

-0.19 0.05 -3.64 0.001

Note:

n = 1 102

ALSDS: Adult Self-directedness Scale

EPI: Exam Preparation Inventory

***p≤0.001

**p≤0.01

*p≤0.05.

+ R² ≤0.12 (small practical effect size)

++ R² ≥0.13≤0.25 (medium practical effect size)

+++ R² ≥ 0.26 (large practical effect size)

In the second model, the EPI abstract-theoretical and open-ended spontaneous exam preparation styles explained 8 per cent (R² ≥ 0.08; small practical effect; p ≤ 0.001) of the variance in the success orientation variable. The third regression model shows that the EPI factual-practical, abstract-theoretical and organised-planful exam preparation styles explained 11 per cent (R² ≥ 0.11; small practical effect; p ≤ 0.001) of the variance in the engaged academic variable. The fourth regression model shows that the EPI factual-practical, analytical –logical, personally-valued and organised-planful exam preparation styles explained 9 per cent (R² ≥ 0.09; small practical effect; p ≤ 0.001) of the variance in the academically motivated behaviour variable. The open-ended spontaneous, organised-planful and personally-valued exam preparation styles showed an inverse relationship with ALSDS variables.

Overall, the results provided evidence that the examination preparation styles significantly predicted the participants’ sense of self-directedness.

DISCUSSION AND IMPLICATIONS FOR TEACHING AND LEARNING

The aim of the study was to investigate the overall relationship between undergraduate distance learning students’ sense of self-directedness and their


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examination preparation styles, and whether students’ examination preparation styles significantly and positively predicted their sense of self-directedness. The study also aimed to identify the implications of the results for teaching practice in the ODL higher education environment. The results provided evidence of a significant overall relationship between the participants’ sense of self-directedness and their examination preparation styles. The results also showed that the examination preparation styles significantly predicted or explained the participants’ levels of self-directedness.

As shown in Figure 1, the learning and study strategies relating to the way students gather and use information (factual-practical and abstract-theoretical) appear to have significantly strengthened the participants’ engagement with their academic activities and their utilisation of academic resources. The abstract-theoretical learning strategies also significantly predicted the participants’ success orientation in an ODL context, while the factual-practical and analytical-logical exam preparation study strategies also significantly predicted their academically motivated behaviour in resolving the problems that hamper the successful accomplishment of their studies. Research has shown that students’ active engagement in their studies enhances their study satisfaction and the perceived meaningfulness of their studies (Coetzee and Oosthuizen 2012). Perceived meaningfulness of studies is a key factor for sustaining the motivation of successful students (Boyd 2004). A research report on ODL students’ exam absence (Tladi 2009) indicated a lack of confidence and motivation as factors resulting in students not spending sufficient time on exam preparation. High levels of study engagement have also been shown to lead to persistence in achieving academic success and completing qualifications (Viljoen 2012).


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Figure 1: Recommended ODL teaching practices to enhance student self-directed-ness in relation to their examination preparation style25

Figure 1: Recom

mended O

DL teaching practices to enhance student self-directedness in relation to their exam

ination preparation style

Resource utilisation

Success orientation (O

DL)

Engaged academic activity

Academically m

otivated behaviour

Factual-practical (positive)

Abstract-theoretical (positive)

Open-ended spontaneous

(negative)

Organised-planful

(negative)

Analytical-logical (positive)

Personally valued (negative)

Practices that enhance gathering and using inform

ation in studying and learning: practical applications; concrete, real-w

orld exam

ples, theories, models,

learning transfer to new, real-

world scenarios

Matching O

DL teaching practices w

ith learner exam

preparation styles Enhanced adult learner self-directedness in an O

DL environm

ent

Practices that enhance decision-m

aking and guide balancing personal and O

DL academ

ic needs and dem

ands: rationale for studying, clear short-term

and long-term

objectives, m

eaningfulness of studies ito personal life, constructive feedback

Practices that guide organisation and tim

e managem

ent (work-life-

study-balance): OD

L study m

otivation; building confidence; affective, cognitive and academ

ic O

DL learner support

Significant predictorsPerform

ance outcome (criterion)


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An organised-planful approach to managing one’s study time negatively predicted the students’ engagement in their academic activities and their academically motivated behaviour. This finding suggests that having a strong preference for a highly structured study schedule, organising and structuring both learning materials and course content in manageable chunks and completing assignments ahead of deadlines (Williams, Rudyk and Dunning 2004), actually lowered the participants’ sense of active engagement (i.e. frequency of time devoted to their ODL studies) and their motivation to actively obtain the information and feedback they need to help them to deal with obstacles hampering the successful completion of their ODL studies. This finding can most probably be attributed to the strong need for structure and guidelines to tailor study sessions, complete assignments and write exams, and to balance these with other work-related or family responsibilities which are not easily accommodated in an ODL environment. Considering the undergraduate profile of the participants, the findings could also be attributed to the participants’ lack of prior knowledge and lower sense of competence in their fields of study and accomplishing their studies in an ODL context. Brusilovsky (2003) indicates that students with lower previous knowledge of a subject or topic prefer more structured guidance than those with higher previous knowledge. Students’ levels of learning activity have been shown to influence their willingness to adapt to a learning environment (Kelly and Tangney 2006). Metzger (1997) regards mental adaptability in terms of the demands of a learning environment and the suitability of a learning strategy as important facets of learner self-directedness and success.

Balancing ODL studies with other responsibilities appears to be quite a challenge for students who prefer a highly structured and organised approach to their exam preparation. The deadlines for assignments and exams are usually set by the university and ODL students therefore need to adapt the responsibilities and commitments of their work and personal lives to fit in the structure and timelines of their ODL studies, which may be experienced as problematic by the student who prefer a highly structured and organised approach to their exam preparation. The findings further showed in this regard that a personally-valued exam preparation style also lowered the participants’ sense of academically motivated behaviour.

Students who evaluate study information and make decisions using a personally-valued style demonstrate a subjective and situational exam preparation style (Williams et al. 2004a). They tend to identify personal reasons for learning certain material and relate their studies and academic activities to their personal needs and situations. However, the demands of the ODL context may not always accommodate these needs. Caffarella (1993) indicates the type


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of learning environment as a key variable influencing learners’ self-directedness. Boyd (2004), Coetzee and Oosthuizen (2012) and Tladi (2009) emphasise the importance of the perceived meaningfulness of higher education studies in increasing students’ motivational levels for completing their studies successfully.

Similarly, following an open-ended spontaneous approach (i.e. preferring flexibility and less structured learning activities) appears to have lowered the participants’ success orientation, that is their confidence and sense of responsibility in dealing with the obstacles (for example workload, obtaining needed information, and meeting assignment deadlines) that hamper the successful completion of their ODL studies. People with an open-ended spontaneous learning style are generally energised just before examination time, or just before an assignment is due, which may negatively affect their academic performance (Williams et al. 2004a), especially in an ODL environment.

LIMITATIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS FOR FUTURE RESEARCH

Since the present study was limited to black and female early career undergraduate participants in the field of economic and management sciences, the findings cannot be generalised to other disciplinary fields, age, race or gender groups. Furthermore, given the cross-sectional nature of the research design, this study can yield no statements about causation. Associations between the variables have therefore been interpreted rather than established. These findings therefore need to be replicated with broader samples across various disciplinary fields before more comprehensive conclusions can be drawn about the relationship between the variables. Future research could also consider longitudinal studies on how ODL teaching practices improved students’ performance and self-directedness.

CONCLUSIONS AND IMPLICATIONS FOR TEACHING PRACTICE IN OPEN LEARNING SETTINGS

This study provided new, original insights and knowledge regarding the self-directedness of ODL adult learners and how it relates to their examination preparation styles. The significant relationships that were observed between the participants’ self-directedness and their examination preparation styles point to the importance of adopting teaching and learner support practices that are relevant and suitable to the unique needs of the ODL adult learner. The results of the EPI have implications for efficacious exam preparation strategies relevant to the demands of an ODL environment in relation to the demands of one’s personal and work life, learners’ educational and motivational attitudes, and the tendency


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for procrastination and rigidity in terms of exam preparation style preferences. Students should be guided to develop mental resiliency in adopting alternative strategies to help them improve their examination preparation and sense of self-directedness while having to juggle the demands of various commitments pertaining to their study, work and family roles.

Overall, the findings suggest that balancing factual-practical and abstract-theoretical learning strategies may be most important in enhancing students’ engagement with their academic activities (the amount of time they actively devote to their studies) and their use of ODL-related study materials (study guides, tutorial letters, textbooks and assignment feedback) in preparing for their examinations. This suggests that students should be helped to link what they have learnt to practical real-life applications and to provide relevant, concrete, ‘real world’ examples of what they are learning. Students should also be guided to integrate information from many sources and focus their learning, rather than merely memorising facts and data, to produce generalisations, abstract ideas, theories, models and concepts. Adult learning theory (Kolb 1985; Loo 2002) further posits that experience (practical application of theory in real-world contexts) is vital for successful learning in that the adult learner constructs knowledge by understanding and changing or altering experience. The adult learner can live through experiences (concrete experience and illustrations) or can experience them theoretically (abstract conceptualisation). Experience can be transformed through contemplative scrutiny (reflective observation) or through dynamic testing (active experimentation). The theoretical ideas or concepts give rise to fresh consequences or ramifications, which can be actively investigated, analysed and checked in order to be used as directions or pointers for novel, real-life experiences (Coetzee, Botha, Kiley, Truman and Tshilongamulenzhe 2013; Kolb 1985; Loo 2002). Students should also be guided to transfer their learning in one course or topic to similar ideas and concepts in another. Teaching them to use mind mapping, which provides a non-sequential way to summarise information, may also be useful (Williams et al. 2004a).

Figure 1 provides an overview of the key practices that are recommended based on the findings of the present study. Teaching practices should consider the particular profile of the ODL adult learner (level of study, prior knowledge, socio-demographic background, personal career goals and interests) along with their preferred examination preparation styles and level of self-directedness. ODL teaching practices should aim at enhancing students’ levels of ODL self-directedness. In this regard the examination preparation styles provide valuable pointers for the type of practices that could be integrated with current practices.


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Overall, it is concluded that teaching practices should aim at enhancing ODL students’ levels of self-directedness in line with their preferred examination preparation styles in order to increase their chances of success in an ODL environment. It is trusted that the findings of the study presented here provide deeper insights into the enhancement of the ODL student’s self-directedness. The study is original and contributed new knowledge to teaching practice in the higher education ODL context.

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