AdvancesinSemiotics GeneralEditor, ThomasA.Sebeok The Role of the Reader Explorations in the Semiotics of Texts UMBERTOECO INDIANAUNIVERSITYPRESS Bloomington F".' M,dland Edit,on CQPyr;&ht 1979 by UmMrtO Eoo Allrightsrnoervcd No pan ofthis maybercproduud oru!ilindin .ay form 0' by anymeans,electronic or mechanical,includ,nll pbollxoryinl andrcoord,n&.orbyanyinformation StOrace.ndrenieval s)'Stem, ";thoulpermIssionin " "itinghomth.publishe,. TheAssociation of.. mcric.nUnivcnnyP,cu..'Resolution onPermi ..ions conOl,t .. ltS lhe only uception 10Ihisprohibition. ManuhcturcdintheUnitedSlateSofAme,;ca LibraryofConi'." Catalosin.inPublicalionEoo.Umbtrto. The rOlc of the rude. (Advanc" in ..miotics) 8ibliOIaphy:p. In,ludes index. I...... ylecwres. 2Di.couf1e.".Iy.i"anouspases 0nda secOnd--Therefore OedipusRexhas afirst_Ievelltory(detecl1on)a.gee'"' levelone.Obviously,asfarastheprocessoffurtherAtilereader i. oppro;lthingthe dupest inte?sional ,,,hoP intermedialelewelbeforeentrytobox8ISthereducttonIeltb" into a seriC$of narrative structures a la AShallo\\erb assimilation of the lobulll to the binary disjuncllons proposed) (1973)or a lirstreduction10standardor mOlrves. "h' .le"ct" 0.7.1.2.ItseemsthatIhere aretexiS\\jthoutanarra!l\'eilout questionscommandsminimalOOnvcr1!3tionpieces.Infact. ., Introduction[29 ',,'II can summarize the content of the upression .melcome.. ordenng.newanlingmetogothere.orsomethmghkethat . ...... erc)'someo,,.. . as '".' hacropropositionislongertantemlcrOproPOSlllOn Oncedllaln,Irm manifesting it. ersationalte)(tS.considerthe following: Asfor(17)Pllul; WhereisPeter? Mary: Out..' Paul:' sec.' thought he war stl/l slupurg. ,(17)one canastorytellingthat(i)intheworld From.,fi". h,'" 01Paul'sandMary'sIenllaewuI.erca one). Ihere oS a certainPeter;(11)Paulbelievedp( = . Peter ISs.t.I.1Isleep-ing)whileMaryassumedshe knewthat q(- Peter IS out); (m)Mary P.ul about qandPaul did notbelieve anylonger thatpwasthe case and toknow thatqwasthe case. Once this has beenascertained. allthe other problems concerningthis dialogue(presuppositionsaboutthefactthatPeterisaIT.alehuman being.thatheisknownboth to MaryandtoPaul,t hatthe conversation takesplacewithina house or anyother closedspace,t hatPaulwantsto knowwme:hinli\aboutPcter,andthatthetimeoftheconversationis probably lale morning)are a matter of semantic disclosure. In text(17)the labll/a canbe the one I ha\'e triedto ext rapolate.but a moreabslractmacroproposilionmaybe.PaulislookingforPeler. , .Paul isaslingMaryaboutPeter _,or_MarygivesPaulunapecledin-formation .Laterit",illbecomeevidentthateachofthesethreesum-mariesinlo1vesother (thethirdsummaryfor involves bQIIO).,. by Inthe salle wayallthe examplesof conversationalimplicature gi,en ....Gnce(.967)carryonavirtualStory.Thepragmaticnlueofim-".,catures O)nsists onl'", h Y Inat tey oblige the addressee to outlinea story '"erethereBpp,, COnle'rentywastheaccidcntalormaliciousfloutingofa l'IatlOl1almaxim: ItS)A,lamoUIOfpClrol . B'The. ,reIS0garageroundthecomer 1St'. ory,Afteedspetr1, thaIu'llall)g0anB wantstohelp him.B knowsthatAknows ....... _ sell--trolk. and ln...nowsthatthereISB earageroundthe 1dILUv.stor hopes)th,. ...,heinfoatIISgarage isopenandhaspetrolto IJo,.rm, A abouttheI.f S\lco;n'fully the su,DCallon 0the garage.Will 0/ ",ill notA PGtc:r.UllTite ofnart'ggCSlJonof B?)As yousee,this Storyhas also a all'-esuspense. "_1.30 ne .hould accepteith. Q,A reMricted,fi"er alarge or amorereslTlcted deflnition enillonof a. narralLvestructure asa desCTiption 30)T HER OLEOFT HER EADER ofactionsrequi res,forinstance,foranylctionanin/tntion,aPt, (agent),aslateor possible world,achang!,itscause,andaPlHpOf 'CO!towhichonecanalsoaddm""lal slaus,emotions,andcircUntsltl/r t-A description Ofan action should then be complete and ,deWlflt .... hi]actions described should be difficult, the age11should "01on Ob:.t cholet!of"'hichcourseofactionstotake inordertochangeThewhichisinconsistentwi thhiswishes,thefollowingc\"cntsshouldunex,"cud,andsome of themshouldbe Ilflusualorsirange(vanOil, 1974 ),J Many other requi rements could be addedBul this strict definition l whereaisthe offerofamaXimalfreedom,anwte ...y(asar request of conformity. Atextcanrank at a gJ"en!Xlslhon........rd b . intentions of itsauthor are concerned)and 0tamaresu.hOl",icJl ingeither toafailureinitsstrategy or t2> the culturalandp5)C background of the addressee. 0.7.4.The sememe Dndthe tabulaficlionalt( 1 This dialectic of proposals and expectations rulesIlisonon Consider thisminimaltextual stimulus: (20)Rob;'1jJ a bachelor, (l$.( .(Ube Ot>'1 which can arouse at least four possible chOices(only one Wi aut henticated bythe further textualcourse): IntroductionJ35 derIheswndard of Bmmlln. ,Jt'"ingun . ,ZI)he I!:.tunlrelarionwllhBatmlln . h }u2; Ilhomose .CII .:z)eRA,llllheGorhllmCIIY.oege. Il' thischoicebeingonty lor alex,,,llsl). 'IHaSelli .. '- hisadifferencebetweentheexpectation!dtspla}ed 1 lizethattere..'h1 Idthosearousedbythemamfestatlon0:eexeme . ft(I ,Tnthissecondtase Iheinterpreter onlyexpects toastertam ,d' coded senses of / bachelor/(youngkmght.unmar- of the area)6 11' tedseal)willbetextuallyutareliesure edB,A.Rnma..1 n'._. ofa storY somethlllg differenthappens?Ast:lrYactua-th3ItntheCilu,,,,'J " .oded narrativefunctIOns,that IS.lIItertexluaumes . ..:es pre-o, e. c., TheWa)in"hiehsemanticdisclosuresandnarratJ\'eo"ecastsare 11rictlyInter:lcpendent, and co-dependent on the same stor.age of encyclo-pedicknoll ledge,is demonstrated "cry wellbythe f0l10WlOg(rather ele-mentary)eMTllple.. InCyrus S.Sulzbergcr'sTheToothMerchant,thenarrator begmsby saling that hewas sleepingin Tstanbulin a brothel wilhaprostitute,lITet, {25)when wddenfy Ihere WIlSa scream at the doorfollowed by atlwmp a" thestairs."Aollaaaiiiiieee,IheAmericanFleel,"lI10lllledIDer, hauling the flyblownsliee/about her head as Ihe policeImrstill. Wthave.heto havcalsoat our disposalthe Italian translation o!this text.A t1311slationis anactualized and manifested interpretation-Ihcrdoreanimportantwitnessforourpurposes.TheItalian translation readsasfollows: (26) qUllni10fummoris'eglilllidisoprllSSlllwdas/rilligil)illbllSso, stgul/l douno Kalpiccjo super IesCIl/e."Ahiahilli,la/lo/Iaameri. ClUUl"gfmflle 10et coprendosi la /eSIIl collenzuolo.lrnppe invece lafllltTbe,lranslator(hereafter our ModelReader)hasmadethefollowing Inthatlh.. tL.....,.e narrator ISspeakmg inthe firstperson. Ihathewas andthat hbl bcotn......e 15ae 10repon about Ihe $Creammeans thathe has aAe1edb,'Ih tht:ModelRd'eSCream.FromashortSurfacemicroproposition. z -ashasextrapolated amore analyticalmacrop:uposition: ScreaDtih te;;therewasa$Cream,thenxwokeup, .f heard -.kerted her erencewastothecommonframe.10 ."..Menly anUI:)C.(in\,I. I:{)ntCDtp.lrdneit)0vlnga very subtle timeorder,withrelations lit'Suddctf?S'd'Inwhyalthemanifestationlel'eIwasthe 1'udenw"h age:it1$n"'hrespe'er ic:u: 1Ito\-' ....nlQeI.CQk' .....o;;;.-,':"'."'1boPoetq >e;udcllcPOC /""''''''r/Munu/i](19'59). 4)n .. 0the.Open":ork."T ...Cllliclh S'uJ;C$ vc .... onofthetranslaliotl (47} 48] THEROLEOFTHEREADER SC:Dmbiisnot so muchacompositionasafitld0/ pouj/lj exphcit;ovitali!)ntouer.tile Th"personaworld10theemOllonalworld

nnIS,s .al1themoretrueof poeticworksthatare h e "'ol1,!"f Ih"ad_ 'sllleetete)(tn",tostimulate tere'see III order thathecandraw frominside " that'h

mlrron;te Subtlerresonances under-rer. InC(>ntcm t ,porary literature follow,thisusera1ely th''. I LILes. asonemighteltperieDceby .,:: of dlrechonof hISperception,bytumin, h.1eyes ..cr,nr by lakin, ...h:ptOIWlrdor sldewa)'I,and thattheexit. ientobjectcanneverbereducedtoagiven ICQntinuoIauseeach of theseisboundtostand inrela. usY alteringsubject.Notonlydoesanobject (or profiles), butalso differentpointsof 60)THEROl.EOFTHER[ADER viewareavailablebywayofthesameAbschallung.Inordertobe fined, the objcrt must be related b,u;k 10 the total series of whichby of being one possible apparition. IIis a member.In Ihi s way thedualism between bymbo/(NewYorlc.:ColumbIaUOI\,e.-1955)_For ananalysISof theaestheticimportanceofthenOlonof Dt.rf'les;iusefulobservahonsandbibliographicalreference'inGill0 SEdd" ,t""edtlltarti(Turin:Einaudi1959)pp51ff W,lson,CtJsrlt(London: Library, POl!Sscur, p.25. 66]THEROLEOFTHER EADER 7.J.Scherer.uderuhuches surdesdoc". menls in edits)(Paris:Gall imard,1957);seeinparticularthethirdcha "Physique dulivre."PIer, 8.Werner Heisenberl/:.Physics "tid PhUosophy(London:AllenMd Un. -, 1959).chapter 3. 9.Niels Bohr, in his epistemological debate with Einstein(see P.A.Sehl; ed.,AlbertEinstein:Philosopher-Scientist[Evanston.Ill.:Libraryofli:' Philosophers,1949]). Epistemological thinkers cormectedwithquantumodoJogyhaverightlywarnedagainstantranspositionofphYli,o.I categoriesinlothefieldsofethicsandp!ychology(forexample.IhcideDti. ofind.etcrminacywithmoralfreedom:P.Frank.Pruem Role 01SCIence,Openmg Address \0 the InternallO:l,alof PhilOSOphy, Venice,September]958).HenceItwouldnotbeJustIfiedtomy fOlmulationasanalogybetweenthestructuresofthewOlkofartand!he supposedstructuresoftheworld.Indeterminacy.complementarity,non. causalityIrenotmoduofbeinginthephysicalworld,butsymmsJor itina convenient way.Therelatiolt5hip whichconcern. myexpos;_ lionisnotthesupposednexusbetweenan'onlOlogical'situationandamor_ phologicalfeatureinthewortofart.buttheIelltionbetweenanoperati" pr(X;ooureforexplainingphysicalprocessesandInoperativeprocedurefOl explainingtheplocenes of aruStlcproductionandreception.Tnother""ords, herelationship betweena scientific muhodology andapottics. 10.EdmundHusserl, Mldiutions Carlesl'enner,Med.2,par.19(Paris:Vrin, 1953), p, 39:the translation of thispassage isbyAnneFabre-Luce. I!.J. P. Same, L'hre et It nlar1/(Paris:Gallimud,1943), chapter I. 12.M,Merkau-Ponty. Phinomenulogie de laptrception(Paris:Gallimani, 1945), pp,381-83. 13.Ibid.p.384, 14.Onthis"o;clatementmultidirectionneldesstructures',seeA.Boucou rechliev,"Problemesdelamusiquemodeme,"'.VouvelleRevueFranrllis< ( December-January,t960-1). 15.LuigiPareyson,eSUlica--Troriudel/aformulivitil,2dcd.(8010gn>=Zanichelli.1960),pp.194ft,andingenelaltheof chapter8,"Lellura. interpretazioneeclitica," CHAPTERTWO The Semantics of Metaphor 2,1.Foreword If a codeallowedusonlytogeneratesemioticjudgments,alllinguistic s)"stemswouldserve to enunciate exclusively that whichhas alreadybeen determinedbythesystem'sconventions:eachandeveryutterance (ry)global.Thisin,'est;ga takesasitspointoforiginaspecificmetilphoricslJbstitlJtion FinnegansWakl:'andonlythroughtheexposure01I metonymicchainbeneaththemetaphoriclevel.Asecondched()I11 typicalloyeean mOl- IuIi5l:'(\\o ' more vastand articulatenetwork of metonymies thaIhave been,uaprlinsilence or rel'ealedinanother part of thework. Finl1l:'gOI1SWake, at this point.presents itself as an exeelleOlmodel GlobalSemanticSystem(sinceitpositsitself.quite ... Ersatzofthehistoricaluniverseoflang13ge)andconfrontsUS". methodological exigency of the $Ortfound in a study of general semall proposing10illuminatethewaysinwhic1languagecan "'" phoTs.Theconclusionisthatthemechanismofmetaphor. thatofmetonymy,relicsontheexistence(or onthehypothem 0 istence)ofpilrtialsemanticfieldsthatpermittwotypesof relation:( i )thecodifiedmetonymicrelnion,inferable structureofthesemanticfield;(ii)thecodifyingmeton)ffilCbornwhenthe struclureofasemanticfieldisculturallydeficientandreorganizesilselfinordertoproduceanother': "' " Relations of type(i) imply semiotiCjudgmel1ls,\\ hereas relallon (ii)imply lactual judgmel1ls,1ta['lll Theusefulnessofsuchananalysis,... hichtraceseachnit... 5ubstitutionbacktoametonymicchainfoundedoncodIfiedOCtfields, is as follows:any which restores language 10mt" In' or whichshowsIhat,inthedomainofla:lguage,ilispoSSIbleto The Semantics of Metaphor[69 illStoananalogical(andhencemetaphorical)explana-rctuand presumes an idealist doctrine of hngtllsticcreati\'ity. t lllf' j1. uag{... IiO]II 0hr hand,the CAplanatlonof the creatlv,ty of languai;e(pre-!f.0t' ,he 01, :htof mctllphors)isbasedonmetonymicchains pll'po-cdbyonidentifiablesemanticstructures,itisthenpossibleto ba>tdIf'turnbltm of creati"itybacktoadescriptionoflanguagewhich bnngthepro,)modelsusceptibletotranslationinbinaryterms.In dcrend\upo. .dsitispossible(cvcnthoughfor purposesand partS oftheGlobalSemanticSystem)toconstructan onl)'OfI.dd Ionof generating anduneTStan109metaphors. autOma hddI h .\ imporantqualulcatlon:tISStu.II'sconcernenotonyWI1 lie butwithmetaphor ingeneral.The majorityof our mes-:So inClCI)'Caylifeor inacademicphilosophy,arelinedwitllmeta-phor.. Theprol'lem of Ihe creativity of language emerges,not only inthe domain ofpoeti.cdiscourse.buteachtimethat dder [0$OmetlungthatculturehasnotyetaSSImilated(and this'something' be externalorinternaltothecircleofmu.'tcombinatorypossibilitiesorsemanticcouplingsnotantici-JV.to:dbythecoJe. in this sense.appears asanewsemanticcouplingnotpre-cede!followingscheml" tJlrt"'" ooticehowthelexeme generates,throughaphoneticother 1exemes:meander/ ,lal(in German. 'valley'>,.a.nd"""" combine toformthepun / meandertale/ .Inthe cou The Semanticsof Metaphor I I Ii ! I ! I i 175 1 I ! ! ! -.. i I I , " I 76JTHEROLEOFTHERE"PER ever,intermediatemodescreatethemselves[romth present intext of FW.Here the associatiOJ.s can be of either:1 if! or a semantic type. II... h11x::nul,andsoon.Meanwhiletheverbalequ]\'alcn' ofwhatisactuallyscribbledontherockis_blue.and,COnsequenl _bad.,_inedible .Whata marvelous discOl'cry!It ccrtainly the whole force of ambiguity in the concept of uple. For hours on endandEvesitbackandcontemplatethosesignswrittenoulonIhe...b" E"e ",ould ... they are In an ecstasy of admiration. "How veryaroque.h to comment, but she eannot. She has no criticalmctalanguage alt r posaJ.But Adamisbursting tohave another go.Hewritesup (II)ABBBBBBA. 0"...Iheterms HerearesixB's.ThiSsequencedoesnoteXistIIIBA(rtd vocabulary,yetilisclosestofalltothe emrb Adamhas writtenup thewordred, butwlIhadded grapI,the It" .haralleB Perhaps this emphasis of Ihe formof expressIOnas. a p1 Arrd " of the form of tonlenl? Surely itis a heavily emphaSizedred'h ,til, ,.:lf:the sinfulnessoftheappleisunderlinedandemphasizedby11 kindoffor-malne, Reichenbachrecentlyrcdefinedthc order of timeastheorder of causes, theorderofopencausalchainswhichwesee'icrifiedinouruniverse, and the direction of time in terms of growing entropy(taking up interml evenofinformationtheorythethermodynamicconceptwhichhadreo currentlyinterestedphilosophersandwhichtheyadoptedastheirown in speaking of the irreversibility of time? Before causally determines after, and the seriel of these detenninationl cannot be traced back, at least in our universe(according to the epistem()o logicalmodelthat explains the world inwhich we live), but is irreversible That other cosmologicalmodelscan foreseeother solutions to this pro\). lem is wellknown; but, inthe sphere of our daily understanding of e.ents (and, consequently, inthe structural sphere of a narrath'c character), th'l concept of time is what permits usto move around and to recognize e.ents and thcir directions,,flie Expressingthemselvesinotherwords,butalwaysonthebaSIS0I'I ..h-oron theatC order of before and afterandof the causahty0:te"" orefI -theater, (emphasiZingvariouslythedeterminatIOnofthe'-""oreon,Onto ,.,'fdhblemofurne' e:!(tstentlahsmand phenomenology have shttetepro(on, ...d d''onsabout ae' the sphere of the structures of subJec!tvlty,anISCUSSI(IUrt ,T"casaslrU possibilityplanand liberty have beenbased on time.,mh.""' ,,.dfuture, of possibillly is, in fact, the problem of our moving towar,aCltoour behind usapast,whether thispastisseenasablockWIthres.r "hat "e freedom to plan(planning whichforces ustO,choose necess::;Jli1ies Ind have already been)or isunderstood as a bas's offuturepo",lh,n ,bthasbeen, thereforep05sibiliticsofconservingor waf ...,-,siti'C .h'Ihe 0 certainlimitsoffreedom,yetalwaysWliIn..Jt processes.,'of the,".llst Sartresaysthat"thepastisthetotality1 (lip!!\It d 'ble {uWIe,." whichweare," When 1 want totend IOwaraposS!.I cl100.,,misogyny,insatiable thirstformoney),NeroWolfeconducts ,_., in,e.stigations,rraster.picces?fpsych?logicalpenetratIOn,stll1ng.tn btSoffice,carefully ",eightngthe mformatlOnWIthwhIchthe enterpnsmg b,S_furnisheshim,studYlOgtheprotagon,stsofeacheventwhoare to"isithiminhisoffice,arguing withInspectorCramer(atten-obhghealwaysholdsamethodicallyextmguishedcigarinhismouth), withtheodiousSergeantPurieyStebbins;and,finally,ina setting fromwhichheneverveers,he summonstheprotagomsl>of thecasetoameetinginhisstudio,usuallyinthecvening,There,with slillfuldialect icalsubterfuges,almostalwaysbeforehehimselfknows thetruth,he drivestheguiltyone intoapublic demonstration of hysteria "KlthuS into gil'inglimself away, ThosewhoknowRexStout'sstoriesknowthatthesedctailshardly Kratch the surface of the repertoire of topoi,of recurrent stocksituations "hid animatethesestorics_ Thegamutismuchmoreample:Archie's almostcanonic,Irrestunderofreticenceandfalsetestimony; thelegaldiatribesabouttheconditionsonwhichWolfewilltake0[1a dient;thehiringof part-timeagentslikeS,lulPanzerorOrrieCarther; thepaintinginthestudiobehindwhichWolfeorArchiecanwatch, througha peephole, the behavior and reactions of asubject put tothe test 1/1 theofficeitself ;thesceneswithWolfeandaninsincerec1ient--one couldgoonforcwr,werealizc,attheend,thatthc listoftheseropeiis thatitcouldeXlaustalmost everypossibility of the events permitted 1I'ith-intio:n thenu,:,ber of pages allowedto each story,Nevertheless,there are telanatlonsofthethemc;eachcrimehasncwpsychologicaland e:onomtcmotivations,eachtimetheauthurdeviseswhatappears a Dew ",tuation,We say 'appear'; thefactisthatthe reader isnever brought the towhichsomething newistold,The noteworthymo-lOr whenWolferepeatshisusualgestures,whenhcgoe!up itadnthtnne tocare of his orchids whilethe case itself isreaching ramaticei' 1lQefl!1lax,whenInspectorCramerthreateninglyenterswith thedoorandthewall.pushingasideGoodwinand with ashake of hisfingerthat thistimethingswillno:go Iosicaiy,lhe attractIonof thebook,thesenseofrepose,of psycho. bin....tenSIonhh . wIeIt,Scapableofconferring,liesinthefactthat, _.''naneasY,h .h. -u1U}\l.oalT or '" tc seat of a tram compartment, theukslyrecovers,pointbypoint,whathealreadyknowswhathe 1&0.... vnow"'' fagain,that ,swhyhe haspurchasedthebook,Hederives tornthenonstory(ifindeedastoryisadevelopmentof 120]T HEROLEOFTHER E ADE'{ whichshouldbringusfromthepoint of departure10apointof l. wherewewould ne,er ha'e dreamed of arriving); the distraCtionintherefutation01adevelopmcnt01events.inawithdrawalf COrbI\js ,,,"'"V,,uf10Ih"U"anins'anl .whichrOlllt"-because itisrecurrent.154.7.The iterative scheme as aredundant mC.lSagc Itiscertainthatmechanismsof thiskindprolifcratemorewid" ...y inIhe popularnanal,,eoftodaythanIntheeIghteenth_centuryromantic feul?lelOn,where.aswehave seen,the evcn!wasfoundedupona d( l t l. opmentandwherethecharacterwasrequiredto'consumehimstlf throughto deat h. Pl.""Tha])llone of the firstinellhaustible characters dUrin the :lecli ne of the Il!uiflnon andbridging the two cemuries at the c1O$CJ In bt-lleipoqul!isFantomas.(Eachepisode ofFamomascloses\li tba kind of 'unsuccessfulcatharsis'; Juve and Fandor finallycometo gettheil han:lsontheelusive onewhcnhe,withanunforeseeablemove.foibthe arrest.Anot hersingular fact:Fantomas-responsibl: forblackmailand ki dnappings-at thebeginning of eachC?isodefindshimself poorandinneedofmoneyand,therefore.alsoofne" 'action' . In t hiswaythe cyclecankeep going.)With himthe epoch It remainstobeaskedifmoderniterativemechanismsdonOlsomeprofoundneedincontemporarymanand,therefore,do not=m morejustifiableandbettermotivatedthanwearcinclinedtoadmitat firsl glance. If we eJlamineIheiterative scheme froma structural point of"e realize that weare inIhepresence of atypicalhigh-rrdundanu mrmJgr. AbySouvcst rcand Allain orbyStoutisa message" hichIn-lornsusvcrylittleandwhich,onthecontrary.tt.ankstotheof .,... hiCh redundantelements.keepshammeringawayat the samemeanln wehavepeacefullyacquireduponreadingthefirstworkofthe (in the caseinpoi n! ,themeaningisacertainmecll1!1ismofdue to the intervention of 'topical'chameters). The taste fo r t heIteral ..forscheme ISpresentedthcnasa taSte forredundance.Tne hungerdaM' tainingnarrative based on thesemechanisms is ahUllger 10' , (dun. .r {If .., a nalrall' Fromthis viewpoint,the greater part of papular nam!'uve I redundance.",,.,1>< Paradoxicallythe same detecti,e story that one istempted 10 a., _, ,hsensa''''. to theproducts that satisfythe taste for theunforeseenor I.e.toI!IJI is.infact,readforexactlyIheoppositereason,asW1O"llaIlOO hothr whichistakenforgranted.familia r.I!Xpccled.No:",,,inl' texteel. guilty party is becomes anaccessoryelement.almost apre'01tllC itistruethatintheactiondetectiveStory(wherethe.ter8\10n The Myt hofSuperman[ 12 1 etriumphS asmuchasintheinvestigationdetectivestory),the ,;.an scsurrounding the guiltyone oftcn does note,enit isnota SUSreD discovering who committed the crime.but,rather,of following matler v .. ntopi cal'gCSIUfe$of 'top,ca]' chll.rac\crswhoseslockbeha",or ..e love.Toexp:ainthiS'hungerforredundance,Clltremelysubtle a1 thesesarenotneeded.Thelel/illelOIl,fou ndedonIhetriumphof b!,-pl'mation.representedthepreferredfareofasocietythatlivedinthe III of.h 'dh .dstofmessagesloadedWit hredundance;tesense0traIlion,te 1lIInns ofassoci ativelivi ng,moralprinciples.theval idrul esofproper :roportment in t he envi ronment of eighteenth-century bourgeois society, of the t)pical public whichrepresentedthe consumen of thefellil/elon-all this constituted a!ystem of foreseeable communication thatthe social tJo-slem provided for i:smemben andwhichallowedlife to flowsmoolhly withOUIunexpectedjoltsandwithoutupsetsinilsval uesystem.Tnthis !plItrethe'informati,eshOl;kofashortstorybyPoeorthecoupdl! rJrJdl,eDfronsonduTerroilacqui redaprecisemeaning.Ina contc:tl-pora!)iDdustrialsociety,instead,thealternationofstandards.thedis-solution oftradit ion,socialmobility,the factthatmodelsandprinciples art 'consumabl e-e\ crything can be summedupunder t he sign of a con-tinuousloadofinformotionwhichproceedsbywayofmassivejolts, implyingacontinualreassessmcntofsensi bil ities,adaptationotpsychO-logicalassumptions,andrequali fi cationofintell igence.Narrative01 a redundantnatureappear inthispanoramaas anindulgentinvita-liontorepose,t heonlyoccasionoflruerelall ationofferl!dtothecon-AIIlIer.Con,erscl y,'superior'artonlyproposesschemesinevolution, F"lnunars "'hi chmutually eliminate each othcr. and codes of continuous allernations. Is ilnot also nat uralthatthe cultured person whoinmoments of intel-lectualtenSion seeks a stimul us in an action painting or in a piecl! of serial IllusIC inmomentsofrelaxationandescape(healthyandineis-Ptnsablc)tendtowardt riumphantinfantilelaziness and turntothecon-illllnerproductforpaci fi cationinanorgyofredundance? toSOOnasweconsider theproblemfromthisangle,wearetempled ;,."owmoreindul gencetowardescape entertai nments(among whichis uded ouh-S.. .r"I yt...uperman) ,reprovrngourselvesforhavmgexer-Tn anac,d moralis m onwhatis innocuous andperha])ll even bencfic:a!. ho!t.n: problemchangestothede!l.reetowhichpleasurein '-ectancebreaks:heconvulsedrhythmofanintellectualexistence ,uponthereception of informationand becomesthenorm of e"cry Tn nahle acthity. isnottoas.kourselvesif ideologicalcontents iii it- .y the same narrallve scheme can ehcII different effects.Rattl!r -rat"eh' scemebecomesandremainsthatonlytotheextentthat 122]TilEROLEOFTHEREADER !heschemesustainsandexpressesawQrld;werealizethise\'en Qnceweunderstandhowtheworldhasthesameconfi, .",'more. " struclUrewhichexpressedIt.ThecaseofSupermanrttonfihypolhesis.If weexaminetheidCQIQg." .. 1 U.lllI""lloQtSU""rm. "'" rh " h nston .. we rea17.etat. on the one hand.that content sustains itself andI'-, ,,,UnctlOlli communicative y!hanks11.1 thenarrati\"estructure"Qnthe.,h h", .'erhand testoneshelpdefinetheirexpreSSI\estructureasthecircular.' con"cyance ofapedagogicmessagewhichissubstanlial1yimmob',.titlC

4.8.Civic c:onsciousness andpolitical consciousness Superman stories ha\'e 11 characteristic ineQmmonwithaseriesof O1h adventuresthathingeonheroes giftedwithSUplrPQWl'rs.InSuperm: thereal elements blend into amore totality,whichjustifit'; thefactthatwehavede\otedspecialattentiontohim;anditisnoacci-dentthatSupermanisthemostpopular of theheroeswetall his project for anhonest citizens'police force, which, just asthe law keeps the wicked under observation. arreststhemandbrings Ihe:ntowould keep a close watchonthe good, 'denounce' Ihem to the commum!) fortheir virtuous aClions,andsummonthemtothepubliccourts, their gocd deedswouldreceiveduerecognilionand reward.The baSIS Sue's ideologyisthis:10tryto discoverwhalwecando forthee (bymeansof brotherly collaborationbetweenclasses)whileleaving!C present Hructure of socielyunchanged...'IS .hddf"poJtllcalmen That Ihisideologyhas anght10econslereor)"11 ..h'csand "" quiteoutsidethe ofthescnalnovelISbotb0,IOU. ".ds d . hhi' Ite novelauOI knownWhetherilhas anything to0Wittepeasurh" ...dIlyandwe3 usISaqucshonthatshouldbelookcmlOmorecosc,.of ....questton alreadysuppliedthemeansofdomgso.Onceagam11 "a..I:>Olh .hIhdt'c s WallOn

reassuringthereaderbyshowmg1mt latterama13011,'.(london: (Milan:)lQmpianl,t96S) ,R- A.Downie,trans _,In.Th.B?,'dAD:"tndation, MacDon.!d,(966), Thi. chapt.' i. an extenSlvdyrev,,,,,dverSJOnoftra [ 144] I I Narrative Structures inFleming[ 145 except that, withinthe ambit of Casino Royale, either the character or his authorsolvestheproblembynontherapeuticmeans:Fleming e;o;c\udes neurosisfromthenarrativepossibilities.Thisdecisionwastoinfluence thestructureofthefollowingclevennovelsbyFlemingandpresumably (ormSthe basi, for their success. AfterhelpingtoblowuptwoBulgarianswhohadtriedtogetridof him,after sufferingtortureintheformofacruelabuseofhistestieles, afterenjoyingtheeliminationofLeChiffrebyaSovietager.!,having received from hima CUIon the hand, cold-bloodedly carved while he was conscious,andafter riskinghislovelife,Bond,relaxingduringhiswell-earnedconvalescenceinahospitalbed,confidesachilling doubttohis FrenchCOlleague,Mathis.Havetheybeenfightingforajustcause?Le Chi/fre, who had financedCommunist spicsamong the French workers-washenot "serving awonderfulpurpose, areallyvitalpurpose,perhaps thebestandhighestpurposeofall"?Thedifferencebetweengoodand cvil-isitreallysomethingneat,recognizable,asthehagiographyof counterespionage wouldlikeus tobelieve?At thispoint Bond isripefor the crisis,for thesalutary recognitionof universalambiguity,andhe sets offalongtheloutetraversedbytheprotagonistofIeCarre.Butatthe very moment be questions himselfabout theappearance of the deviland, sympathizingwiththeEnemy,isinclinedtorecognizehimasa"lost brother," Bondistreatedtoa salve fromMathis:"Whenyougetbackto Londonyouwillfindthere are other Le Chiflresseeking10destroyyou and your friendsand your country.Mwilltellyouaboutthem.Andnow thatyou haveleenareally evilman,youwillknow how eviltheycanbe andyouwillgoafterthemtodestroytheminordertoprotectyourself andthepeopleyoulove.Youknowwhattheylooklikenowandwhat theycandotopeople.Surroundyourselfwithhumanbeings,my dear James.Theyare easier to fightforthanprinciples... But don't let medOwnandbecomehumanyourself.Wewouldlosesuchawonderful machine." With this lapidary phrase Fleming defines the character of James Bond for the novels tocome.From CasinoRoyale thcre remains the scar on his cheek,the slightlycTIlelsmile,thetasteforgood food,anda number of subsidiarycharacteristics minutely documentedinthecourse ofthisfirst VOlume; but, persuadedby Mathis's words, Bond isto abandon the treach_ eroushfeofmoralmeditationandnfwilhallIhe dangersthaItheyentail.Bondceasestobeasubjectforpsy-chiatryandremainsalthemostaphysiologicalobject(e;o;ceptfora topsychicdiseasesinthelast,untypicalnovelintheseriesThe ' WIn.I' h "'1/,IheGoldenGun),amagnificentmachineastheauthorand Iebl', tC,aswellasMathis,wish.FromIhalmomentBonddoesnot medllateupontruthandjustice,uponlifeanddeath,exccplinrare 146 JTHEROLEOFTHEREADER mo;nentsof boredom,usuallyinthebar ofanairpurtbutal ..... aysinth forlllofacasualdaydream,neverallowinghimselftobeinfected dOl-bt(at inthenovels;he does indulge insuch intimate lUXuriesin thetioort stonC>l). FromIhepsychologicalpointof view,the convenionhastakenplace qui:e suddenly, onthe basis of fourconventionalphrasespronounced by Mathis,buttheconversionshouldnotbejustifiedonaPSychOlogical level.Tnthe lastpagesof CasinoRoyme,Fleming,i:tfact,renouncesall psychology asthemotive of narrative anddecidestotransfercharacters andsituationstothelevelofanobjectivestruct uralstrategy.Witl"lout knowing ilFleming makes achoice familiartomanycontemporary dis-ciplines:hepasses fromthe psychologicalmethod tc the formalistic one. TnCasinoRoyale there are already alltheelements for the building of amachinethatfunctions basically onasetof preciseunitsgovernedb) rigorouscombinationalrules.Thepresenceofthoserulesexplainsand determinesthe success of the '007 saga'-a success which,singularly, has beenduebothtothemassconsensusandtothea,preciationofmarc sophisticatedreaders.Iintendheretoexamineindetailthisnarrative machine in ordertoidenti fythereasons forits success.It ismyplanto adescriptivetable ofthenarrativestructure intheworksofJan Flemingwhileevaluating foreachst ructuralelementtheprobable inci-der.ctuponthereader'ssensitivity.Ishalltry,therefore,todistinguish sucha narrativestructure atfivelevels: (1)the opposition of charade!"! and of values; (2)playsituations andthe ItOryliSa'game'; (l)a Manichean ideology. (4 )lite..arytechniques; (5)lite..alUrt.s collage. .Irtedinorder of Myenquiry covel"!therangeof thefollowtngnove SIS..h publication(the date of composition is presumably 8yearIDcae case): eM;nO I/.Oyall(19S3); Live ,md Ltl Dit (l9S4); Moon.aKer(l9SS); l)'tJmoflds iJref'artvtr ( t 9S6), From1/.,."";tJ,WithlAve(l9S7); Dr.No (l9S8); GtJldfinger(19S9); (1961); 0 ..lIerSecrel (1963); YouOnly Twice(1964). Narrative Structures inFleming [147 IhallreferalsotothestoriesinForYourEyesOnly(1960)andto Mati..illl Gun(1965), but shallnOltake into considera_ tiOflTh( Spy Who Mt (1962), whichseems quiteuntypical. 6.1.Tbe opposition of characters and of values The no\CISof Flemingseem to bebuiltonaseries of which a1l0\\a limited number of permutations and interactions.These dichoto-miesconstitute invariantfeaturesaround"'hichminor couplesrotateas flee,ariants.Iha\esingledoutfourteencouples,fourofwhichare characteT'l.the others being opposing values,variously personi-bythefourbasic characters: (I)Jk>nd-'I; (2)Bondvillain; (3)Villain-Woman; (4)Womar.-Bond; (S)Free World-Sovict Union; (6)GreatIlrrtain-Non-Ang]o-S3!FC$ England and America; thatof On Her Ma;esl)'"s Secret Sl'f",'IU en'thetraininginamountainclinicofgirlswithsuitable 101lure dilionthemwspreadamortalintendedtoruinthe 810-andlivestockof theUnitedKingdom;aud inYou Onl)'/.i,'e T,,'''' Narrative Structures inFleming[ 153 f(e1 onlythelhi,dhasbeenviolatedbyuncle;Bondd".th bhV'".. the firstIStortUIC and thethird'thesecond iskilledy tel am,sonl' ,,b'dBondredeem-goldpaintthe secondandt!11TdarcLesIons,anfiriSon ,"- fthe ,roUP ag Ihe third' and so on)' more dIffuse anuncenal'!or "bBondinfactpo Piz Gloria(eachhashadanunhappypast.UIunhapf" "h'Twhosepastwashh>h>m-"jale s1'nWclle There are rules 0suu > >I>>dh,,>, rules compa:lblhty 0agll"enItem,antere are se ec lona0 M)l11eimmediate scmllnticcompntibilily,butIhese do flotgd beyondthenormal formatof a dictionary. Some haveasemanticrepresentationwithIheformatofanmcyc,opt'dw.an,.,> .he"hoel solutionseemstobetheonlyonecapableof t,." dresenlli.I formatIonentailed by agi\'enterm;butthe encyclopeiCCC:P .tures exetudes the possibility of establishing a finite sct of metasemlolle fea lindmakesthe analysis potentially infinite. Peirce and the SemioticFoundations of Openness[ 177 OtherapproachC:S have tried to ol"ercome these difficulties by rep-1.1.1. .the i!Cms of a lexiconas predicates with n arguments. Bierwisch, rese."UD"g cerepresents/alhu as"X parent ofY+ MaleX+ (Animate for ,nst,.. ,Adult X.AnimateY), and kill as' X, cause(X. ehan6eto(-y. .X )+AnimateX.)." Thiskindofrepresentationnot onlytakes AllIe.kC> IId>>) .accounttbeimmediate semanllc marerslOorm0aIdlonary, :to alsO theitemthroughtherelationsitcanwithin t:: ofaproposition,withoth?ritcms.,Inthis .perspective singlc semanticitems .areasalready IOserted10 .apoSSIbleco-text. GenerativesemantIcshas Improl"edtheuseofpredIcate calculus,but shiftingfromIherepresentationofsingletermstothelogicalstructure of the propositions(McCawley,Lakoff,and others).OnlyFiII:norehas lried,withhiscasegrammar,tounifybothinterpretive-compositional andgeneratil"eperspectil"e.FillmoreremarksthattheI"erbsasCt'ndand lift are both motion I'erbs and are both usedto describe amotion upward. butliflrequiresconceptuallytwo objects(the onemovingupward,Ihe other causingthemotion),whereas Il$cendisaoneargumentpredicate. This remarkleads one torecogniu that arguments,innaturalll'..llguages, ean be identifiedwithroles(similar tothe aClllntsinGreimas'!\fuctural !>emanti es ); forany predicate there isanAlI;ent.a Counterall;enl,anOb-ject,aResult , an(nst rumcnt,aSource,aGoal,anExpericnce:,andso 011.This kind of analysis solves I"erywellthe problem of the classification of features,followingasortof logicof action.Moreover,itsatisfiesthe CDC}cI.opediczequi remcntandtransformsapurelyclassificato:yrepre-W:lllalJonmtoanoperationalschema:thecompositionofthemeaning ofpredicatetellsushowtoactinordertogil"erisetothedenoted actionorinOldertoisolateitwithinacontextTo....alkforin""" should.,, . tbatthere is a human agent, using ground asa counteragent, lIIO\l ng hISbody m order to displace it(as a result)froma spacialsource loa s.I paelagOll,by usinglegs as instrument, and so on. Howeversom,b"L _', ..0leCl10ns can ue raIsed,( I)Whereas theroles can be asa set 01innateuniversalsexpressedbyafixedinventoryof expressions,thelinguisticfeatureswhichfillintheserolesare ....... nPOtent iallyinfi't(h>> Iee;n?)(""10l eowmanyklOdsofmstrumentcanbefore- II )prOposalofsucha'casegrammar'seemstowork _tatioof t redlcates,butrequiressomeadditionsasfarastherepre-k:iu__n 0argumentsisconcerned akni(ea, instrument1can .... rneonebth th,uwataboutthesemanticrepresentationofknife?It .. Ibisat,morethan apredicate argument structure,itcould be useful Ittothi/llCllSe toemploysuchcategoriesaswhoproducesit,....ithwhal to ",halIO'nullrulf"and for whlllpurpose. This kind recallsthe(ourAristoteliancauses(Efficient,Fonnal, ,andFma1);but therepresentationof an'object'couldaiM)be 178JTHEROLEOFTHERE"OEIt transformedintotherepresentationoftheactionrequiredtoproduce thisobject(therefore:notknifebut/0 make ak"ife).(iii)Acomplele theoryshouldal50takeintoaccountsynntegorematicterms $u _.IAdasfaT'" canlnd shouldbeinsomewaydefinedandrnterpreta>.n...f ,-.1htthe"""Slblllty0 icomareconcernedItshouldberememvd......tar-.illS makingdeductions byobservingthoseiconswhichl'recalleddlagran_ L.. _ .IddoarouseI depe.,dsonthe factthat dIagramsca.n"" mterpret= an in the mind of thei rinterpreters." Peirce and the SemioticFoundations of Openness[179 A sign-functioncorrelates a givenexpression to a content. 7.... 4.ntenlbasbeendefinedbyagivencultureirrespeclhe cf whether 1111$CO'tate cf the world corresponds 10 it.'Unicorn' is a sign aswell as is a f"endb'b 'do'.The act of mentionmg, or 01retemng to,them ISrnaey g.d ,caldevicesand'dog'canbereferredtoanmdlVldually sollieIn,. . tntobject.whereas'unicorncannot.Thesamehappen!WIththe eofadogandtheimageofaunicorn.ThosewhichPeircecalled Image. .c signsarealsorelatedto3\:Ontenl;Iftheypossessthe lcom.hh,.h properti esof(oraresim!larto)sometmg.t'ssometungISnOlIe beclorthestateoftheworldthatcouldbereferredto.butrathera OJ .f. structuredandanalyticallyorganizedcontent.TheImage0aunIcorn isnotsimilartoa' real'unicorn;neitherisrecognizedofour experi ence of 'real' unicorns.but has the same featuresdlspla)edby the definitionofaunicornelaboratedbyagi'enculturewithinaspecific contentsystem.Thesamecanbedemonstratedaproposofinduical devices(seeEco,1976). Theoftheuni'erseofcontent.providedl:yagiven culture,explainswhy5ignscanbe usedin ordertolie.Wehaveasign-functionwhensomethingcanbeusedinordertolie(andtherefore to elaboratei:leolol:ies.worksof art. andsoon).WhatPeirce callssi\:ns ( whichto standforsomething elseinsomerespectorcapac-ity)aresuchjustbecauseIcanusearepresentameninordertosend backtoafi ctitiousstateoftheworld.E,enancanbefalsifiedin ordertosignifyaneventwhichisnotdetectableand,infacl,hasnever causeditssu")poSctlrepresentamen.Signscanbeusedinordertolie, lor theysend backto objects or stalesoftheworldonlyI'icarious/y.In fact,they sendimmediately back to a cenain content.I am Ihus assening thaI therelationshipbet.... eensig"ifianlandsignifil(orbetween$ign- andsignifica/um.orbetweensignandml'a"ing)isautonomous ., llselfanddoesnotrequirethepresenceofthereferredobjcctasan eementof ;t, d' 'Th.,. I ...ellnJllOn.ereforeIIISpoSSIbletoelaborateatheory o"glllficalJononthdf... sa.I' grounsoa purely IntensIonal Iamnot ),In!!thatanext. ,.... .......enslonasemanllcsISdeVOIdofanyfunctiononthe ,' P'ntro sthecorrespondencebetwcena sign-functionanda "tn State of the.Idh. thin,wor,wen signsareusedinordcr tomentionsome-.Ut l am st.h elabordreSSmgtefactthatanextensionalsemanticscanbe ate(andtht Ild,cd)a...ofreferene8Ormentioncllnbee",al:>-Only because.. cienl c,',,anintenSIonalsemanticsispossibleasaself-sulli_ uraeonstfh. Can \\.ructIatIS.acode or asystem of codes), Ot,..;oust,sa)" thhatthe texts of Peirce entitle us 10 acceptthisJ>(TSpective'l lnte Pe;f.. iQpt,ri_,_Tceanrame.... ork, whens1gnsare appliedt()concrete or h il I'. 41)il i. clearly saidthat there isnOIa substanhal dIfferencebct"'ccn rusoning h)' obraJ soir. enentcndantMarguerite chanter 13jolic romance R,oO],un"II . I Hcnr.dEf'\)e. ctu colon!:. L'."eric. ....;;hgrenouil1c. Parfume 1cbois rajcuni. U: bois.il est comme Nini. Y'scntbonqunndys'dCbarbouilic. I ,.I'es'cuit ,'ure que la divineMarguerite(divaMargarita)n'ap-RaoulS- ,.. -endrailjamais itunautre homme qu alUl-meme. menageCuIete IeplushcureuxdetOU$Itsmenages,sansIefichu caracttrc des deoJ;conjoints... Pourunoui,pour unnon.erae!une aSSlcnecassee.une gLfte,uncoup de pird dans Ie col... A en broils.-"mourfuyal!cplorc,attendant.aucomdugrandpare, l'beure 10UjoufSproche dela reconcilialion. Alan, desba.serssans nombre,descaressessansfin,tend res1:1bien des a:deurs denfer. eftail acroi:equccesdeuxcochons-liIscdisputaienlpours'offrir l'oa:asion dese raccommoder. CItAPtTRET1SUr!pltIpi10dequi,$aru1erallacherdirectemenld/'acliandonnera 0114r' c 'tn/de line idle sur la laron dev;vrt de nos hlros. Amour e"/6/ill '"ie, tImor. Or dorn: pro";eM tI /" marl '. ptlleS........,. Lamainlevee,flrildur,lamoustachetelleceliedescha,f. RI..SunboneatMarqucrilc: (ii)he expectsRaouloClUally to beat /',onewonderswhatwouldhavehappenedhadthe authorofthepresentpaper( W. )nevermarried(W)Ch,. bb".I ,anslltr II: pr?a.InW,wouldnotcontamthepresentexample,but IhlSsh,flm kmshlpproperties wouldnOIseriou>ly affectthe p'-d dfi. ure of IentlIcallon:theauthorofthispaperinWowillbethesameasIh author of thispaper inW,.e Ithasbeenobjected(Volli,1978)thai,ifIpossibleworldisne'er complete and overlaps itsworld of reference,then,lI'henconSidering the .... orld of reference.one should take intoaccountthe entire content of the itrepresent!.Therefore,whenconsideringtheW,ofmy mother-m-law'scounterfactual,whereIexistasborrowedfromlhe ' actual'world.Ishouldconsiderallthepropositionsholdinginthe second one,namely,thattheEanhisround, 17isaprimeIhalHawaiiis inthePacific,and so on. Thissoundspreposterouswhencomparedtotheremarksofsection 8.5.Theabovecounterfaclualdependsonaspecificdiscursivetopic (mykinshiprelationwithIhallady)andthistopichasmade clearthat mypropertiesonlyafewmUStbeblownup(mainlyIhose01 belDganadultmaleandbeingmarriedtoacertainperson).AUthe othersarelIarCOfizedandarepotentially sroret!intheencyclopediathis speCIfictopic indirectlytrusts.J donOthavcto speCUlatewhether inW, I have IwolegsasinW., since in11'0itisnotI"'..quesledof metodecide whether I ha'-e two legs(I am simply alerted to shouldI be outli ned inW,asacripple or acul-de-latld.Bulthisisalwaysaps)'ehological pict ureof thesituation.AccordingtothetopicIheworl dstructureW .. reduced inindividuals andproperties,hasbeen huil!up so asto compare itto the equally reduced 8.6.2.Potentiall'llriants and supernumcnuie5 Letmeborrow fromRescher(1973)aseries ,..fsuggestions 10oLl tlineD simpl ifiedmodel of transwOrldidentity and of ao:essibility among worlds. Letosdefineapossibleworldasaconstructforwhicharcspecified thefollowing: LectorinFabula ( 229 I family of actualx"x", XI.',.;.. .'. family of properues F,C,M. , ., aHTLbuled10md",duals,. I'essentiality s ........ ification' for every individual, as to whcther th,s ).nr-- . . prope,ty is or i5not esunllalto 11;.. 1 " ,ations between properties (for instance,relatIons of entaIlment) . (ji,en all' ,with 111'0individuals X,and X2and three p.ropertiesF,C,M. 'gnmeansthatan individualhasthe correspondmg property,the :nSl_meanstha:it.not,andtheparenthesesmarktheessential properties,as shown In FIgure8.7. 11',FCM (+1 + (+1 + Figure8.7 (-I Sowleiusimaginea11'.inwhichareindividualswith as WLwninFigure8.8 . W,FC " " (+1(+1+ " + (-J " (+1(-J(+1 l0"'F'.SpOintthetwoworld .n'nIIIIgure8.17. ItISeasytounderstandthaI(accordinto8 areina.ccessibletoeachother.sincethei/ 'IdS.I)thesetwoworlds morphlc.Itisnotthatoneworldhas arenO!1-It 15cnoughtothinkofareaderwhojoins Oedipus'nrna\':' f?recastsaboUllhe J.lOssibleof events,tJdiscoverthatlionofthereaderISnotdIfferentfromthaIofOedipusn...ua , .IIh(.. d'.vneCOUld o.fCcatasmamtamem8.1.2)alllhe for-..cas!softhereadh , ,eral'c nOionyox;I1,RenatoGiovannoli.andBarbieriwrote.first.tentali,"e f'l"/fPrttalionto IlIhich Iam Feuly indebled(I like 10refer 10the title of Their iJII'.How10Castlllle OneselfwithOckham'sRazor").AthIrd...dmore ",per; nl,,,1app.OC1ch(athr ..... mnnlhwasdeveloped.1NewYork durina the fanJcmester ofConductedfora,;lass of linlSil'Frenchltterature.thescmlOarhelpedme10clarifymany.lyh.ltc htori"l pd 6.OnfictionalpossibleworldsseeSchmidt(1916:165-13)andIh 11973:399fl.)."'e 7.PhilO$(lphicallyspeaking.amoreatomistic... iewisevenPOSSible.ButI u, assumethoenOlienofpropertyasaprimilive(thusfollowinglhe onpossIble,,orld,). 8.SeelhcncMionof" 'orldasarclali"ized .semanticapparat. relation10.user outlinedbyVoUi(1913). SeealsoVanDiJk 3 I fI".)andh'$ nOllonof S.worlds(speakerbearer possible worlds). 9.10 of Hughes andCresswell (1968). if we thaiW=COnlallUIwoind,v,duals x, and whIleW,contains only x.IbrnW isfromW,whilethe oppositeis nOIpossible:"WeCdyelseandthatoeverthcle.thismnn "'ill bethe ineverypossibleworldbecauseheistheman[seeinthis precisemoment,OuTproblemissolved.AsmyquestionWhoisIhismanI amactually perceiving? hisooly es.entialprO!",rly hasalready been established bymyperspective on the worldandbymy material or empiricalneeds. IS.Quoted apropos of mybookA1"IIM'yof S,,,,j,,'ic,(1916)inTeresa DeLaurelis. "ScOliosis Unlimited," Journal for DUcripriu Portics (JIllIr heory of 2no.2(April1977). It>.UneOll,lItobjecttllat,t.. unlruethaiaWNIS ace"",slbltWWoullly whcnthe essentialpropertiesinWo aremaintained. We canima8ine B fantastic novelinwhich RicholieuisnotFrenchbutaSpanishsecretagent.Asamatter offact.itisal30possibletoimagineastoryinwhichRichelieuis001French, notaCardinaldidnotliveinthese.enteenlhcenhlTY,and, is notamanbil l lguineapig.If thisisa joke, itrepreseots aeBseofhomonymy (afriendofminecalledhisdogBeckett),Butitcanbesomethingmorese rious.Allthin,sCI:lowIhebelt)andcanw adifferent plot(iii )AllofIheabovedistu!.5ionmainlyconcernedaCCCSliibility260JT HER OLEOFTHEREADER .....orlds.nottrans.....orldsidemit)'.isnOdiffICUltyin Ih Broadway mUSl"a]d'Artagnanisindividualwho differsbothintile Chevalier d'Artagnallwho wrotehismblloiru inWo andfromd'Aromthe Dumas'IVA'.Thethree arelinkc