Umayyad conquest of

Hispania

Done by: Leandro Queiroz Rodeia

The Moors and Muslims The Moors were a nomadic people from North Africa, originally the

inhabitants of Mauretania.

The term of “Moors” has also been used in Europe in a broader

sense to simply refer Muslims, especially those of Arab or Berber

descent, whether living in Spain or North Africa.

During the Colonial Era, the Portuguese (16th century) introduced the

names of “Ceylon Moors” and “Indian Moors”, in Sri Lanka.

Moors are not a distinct or self-defined people, but just a term

that Medieval and early Modern Europe applied to Arabs, Berbers,

Sub-Saharan Africans and most importantly, to the Umayyad Islamic

Caliphate.

The Umayyad Caliphate The Umayyad Caliphate* ( األمويةالخالفة ) was a major Islamic

Caliphate established after the death of Muhammad, Prophet of

Islam and Messenger of God.

The Umayyad Caliphate (661 – 750) begun the conquest of

Hispania in 711 ruled by the Visigothic People of the Kingdom of the

Visigoths (Present-day Portugal and Spain).

After Umayyad death, all his territories and the task to continue the

campaign, was given to his successor, the Emirate of Córdoba and

then, to the Caliphate of Córdoba.

*Caliphate: A person considered a political and religious successor to

the Prophet Muhammad and a leader of the entire Muslim people.

Similar to the title of Emperor in Europe, which was as powerful as

the Pope himself, the religious head representing God in Europe.

The Umayyad Caliphate

The Umayyad Caliphate at its maximum peak of territorial expansion around 750

Africa

EuropeHispania

Middle EastNorth Africa

(The white flag above

was the official flag of

the Umayyad Caliphate)

The star in the map

shows the Strait of

Gibraltar. The shortest

separation distance

between Europe and

Africa

The invasion of Hispania In 711, a raiding force from North Africa made of 1.700 soldiers

led by Tariq Ibn Ziyad landed south of Hispania at the Rock of Calpe

(Gibraltar), and the Visigoths didn’t observe the arrival, thinking that

the vessels crossing and recrossing the water, were simple trade

vessels.

The conquering army was made up mainly of Berbers who had

themselves only recently come under Muslim influence.

It is probable that this army represented a continuation of a historic

pattern of large-scale raids into Iberia dating to the Pre–Islamic

period, and it was also been suggested that the actual conquest was

not originally planned.

The invasion of Hispania To make things even worse, the Visigoth kingdom had already

political internal problems with civil wars happening often, and

now, the pressure of the invasion, made the Visigoth kingdom split

into client-dominions of the Umayyad Caliphate.

Due to all this quick division and lack of any actual organized

force from the Visigoths, over the following decade, most of the

Iberian Peninsula was further occupied and brought under Umayyad

sovereignty.

In 714 Musa Ibn Nusayr led an army to the northwest, up the Ebro

river to overrun the western Basque regions and the Cantabrian

mountains as far as Gallaecia, with no major opposition.

The invasion of Hispania

Visigoth soldiers killed by the Moorish invaders

The invasion of Hispania During the campaign that lasted 8-9 years (711-719), most of the

Iberian Peninsula was brought under Muslim occupation, save for

remote areas in the northwest (Galicia and Asturias) and largely

Basque regions in the Pyrenees.

The almost conquered territory of Hispania, now under the Arabic

name al-Andalus, became part of the expanding Umayyad empire.

Though Muslim armies dominated the peninsula for centuries

afterward, Pelayo of Asturias's victory at the Battle of

Covadonga in 722 preserved at least one Christian principality in the

north. This battle later assumed major symbolic importance later-on

for Spanish and Portuguese Christians as the beginning of the

Reconquista occurred.

The invasion of HispaniaThe Muslims tried to take the

region of Asturias, but utterly

failed at it. This because

Asturias was a mountainous

region, and due to the

territorial advantage, its

defenders had a great

advantage over invaders.

Coat of Arms of the Kingdom of Asturias (718 – 924)

The Reconquista

Charles Martel on a white horse leading the Frankish Christian army

The Reconquista The Reconquista is a vast and long period in the history of the

Iberian Peninsula (Portugal and Spain) , spanning approximately 770

years, between the initial Islamic conquest of the peninsula in the

710’s and the fall of the Emirate of Granada, the last Islamic state on

the peninsula, to expanding Christian kingdoms in 1492.

In shorter words, The Reconquista is a series of multiple battles and

wars which occurred in the Iberian Peninsula, between Christians of

Europe, and Muslims of North Africa and the Middle East.

It was the first biggest and longest period of conflicts between

Christians and Muslims, and also the reason for Europeans to

create religious orders such as the Templar Knights, and to call

for Crusades.

Battle of Covadonga Historians traditionally mark the beginning of

the Reconquista with the Battle of

Covadonga (718 or 722).

A small Christian army of 300 men, led by

the nobleman Pelagius, defeated an army of

the Umayyad Caliphate of 800 to 1400 men

in the mountains of northern Iberia which

followed by the creation of an independent

Christian principality in the mountains of

Asturias that grew into a powerful kingdom

in the north west of the Iberian Peninsula

and became a bastion of Christian

resistance to the expansion of Muslim rule.

Visigoth leader Pelagius, victor at Covadonga and first King of Asturias

Battle of Covadonga The Visigoths in 718 elected a nobleman named Pelagius as their

leader. He was a grandson of a former King in Hispania,

Chindasuinth, and son of Favila, who had been a dignitary at the

court of the Visigoth King, Egica.

After Pelagius refused to surrender to the Muslim forces, a Muslim

general named Al Qama sent his army to the mountainous region of

Asturias in order to kill all Christians and Pelagius himself. Due to the

lack of expertise in mountainous warfare, the Muslim led by alqama

army quickly finds itself under the rain of arrows, and is quickly

surrounded, killing not only his entire army, but Al Qama as well.

Despite only 10 Christians of 300 survived in that battle, numerous

Christian villagers, inspired by Pelagius success, have taken upon

arms to fight off the Muslim invaders out of the Peninsula.

Battle of Covadonga In the aftermath of Pelagius' victory, the people of the conquered

villages of Asturias now emerged with their weapons, and killed

hundreds of Al Qama's fleeing troops. Munuza, learning of the defeat,

organized another force, and gathered what was left of the survivors

of Covadonga.

At some later date, he confronted Pelagius and his now greatly

augmented force, near the modern town of Proaza. Again Pelagius

won, and Munuza was killed in the fighting.

And although the Muslims in their own histories called Pelagius and

his men "thirty Infidels left, what can they do", they never again

seriously challenged the independence of the Kingdom of Asturias.

The battle is commemorated at the shrine of Our Lady of

Covadonga.

Battle of Covadonga

Basilica and Shrine of Santa María la Real of Covadonga

Battle of Tours After failing to conquer the well defended mountainous region of

Asturias, the Moors now aimed at the Frankish Kingdom (Present-

day France) to continue their expansion into the depths of Europe,

but failed utterly against Charles Martel (A Frankish military leader) in

the battle of Tours in 734 which resulted in a permanent halt, to all

Muslim expansion in Europe.

The battle of Tours was fought in an area between the cities of

Poitiers and Tours, close to the present-day France territorial center.

Some estimates point out that the Frankish army was at a range of

30,000 to 50,000 men, while Arab sources point out that the Frankish

forces were about 400,000 while the number of the Moors invasion

army was also estimated to be around 50,000.

Battle of Tours After Charles Martel victory in Tours, he led a campaign with the

religious purpose and fervor to clear all moors out of European soil

while simultaneously trying to seek control over other regions in the

Frankish Kingdom such as Burgundy.

Sadly, Charles’s health began to fail in the late 730s, and in 741 he

retired to his palace at Quierzy-sur-Oise, where he died soon after.

Before his death he divided the Merovingian kingdom between his

two legitimate sons, Pepin III* and Carloman.

*Pepin III: Also know as Pepin the Short, he himself participated in the

Reconquista like his father, Charles Martel. He was also the father of

Charlemagne, who became one of the most powerful Emperors in

Europe and laid the foundations for modern France, Germany and

the Low Countries.

The Reconquista

Frankish cavalrymen charging on Muslim soldiers

Siege of Narbonne In 752, King of the Frankish Kingdom, Pepin III the Short, continued

his father crusade to the Iberian peninsula by laying siege (752–759)

to a major key stronghold defended by an Andalusian* garrison and

its Gothic and Gallo-Roman inhabitants forced to live under Muslim

rule.

Pepin finally lay siege to the Gothic-Andalusian Narbonne in 752

with a view to seizing it with no delay. However, Pepin suffered a

major blow when his main local, Gothic ally Ansemundus was killed

by a rival Gothic faction during the besieging operations in 754.

*Andalusian: Name given to the population living in the newly created

Islamic Kingdom of Al-Andalus, in the Iberian Peninsula. Today

terrorist groups like ISIS wish to conquer this portion of land that

rightfully belongs to both Europeans and Christians.

Siege of Narbonne In 759, Narbonne was not receiving reinforcements from Al-

Andalus, rife as it was with internal fights. Yusuf ibn 'Abd al-Rahman

al-Fihri, wali of al-Andalus, had to quash a rebellion in Zaragoza in

756, and immediately head south to fight Abd ar-Rahman I, who

defeated him. North-eastern Iberia and the remainder of Septimania

was left without any relevant commander in charge.

Finally, the defenders of Narbonne (made up of Muslims and non-

Muslims alike) surrendered to the Frankish forces after killing the

Andalusian garrison and opening the gates of the stronghold to the

investing forces of the Pepin III the Short.

Previously, the king Pepin had promised to uphold and respect the

Gothic laws and probably their own government, so garnering the

allegiance of the Gothic nobility of Septimania.

Siege of Narbonne

Arab-Berber defeated troops leaving Narbonne in 759

Emperor CharlemagnePainting of Charlemagne, the first Emperor of the Holy RomanEmpire, King of Italy, King of the Franks and the Lombardsand finally his main title, Emperor of the Frankish Empire.

The European continent around 814

Charlemagne and Saracens The conquest of Italy brought Charlemagne in contact with the

Saracens who, at the time, controlled the Mediterranean.

Pepin III the Short, which was Charlemagne father, was occupied

with Saracens in Italy. Charlemagne conquered Corsica and Sardinia

at an unknown date, and in 799 the Balearic Islands. The islands

were often attacked by Saracen pirates, but the counts of Genoa and

Tuscany kept them at bay with large fleets until the end of

Charlemagne's reign.

Charlemagne even had contact with the Caliphal court in Baghdad.

In 797 or 801, the Caliph of Baghdad, Harun al-Rashid, presented

Charlemagne with an Asian elephant named Abul-Abbas and a

clock.

Charlemagne and Saracens

Harun al-Rashid receiving a delegation of Charlemagne in Baghdad

Charlemagne and the Moors In Hispania, the struggle against the Moors continued unabated

throughout the latter half of his reign.

Charlemagne’s son, Louis, was in charge of the Hispanic border. In

785, his men captured Girona permanently and extended Frankish

control into the Catalan littoral for the duration of Charlemagne's

reign.

The Muslim chiefs in the northeast of Islamic Spain were constantly

revolting against Cordovan authority, and they often turned to the

Franks for help.

The Frankish border was slowly extended until 795, when Girona,

Cardona, Ausona, and Urgell were united into the new Spanish

March, within the old duchy of Septimania.

Charlemagne and the Moors Barcelona, the greatest city of the region, fell to the Franks in 797

when Zeid, its governor, rebelled against Cordova and, failing,

handed it to them.

The Umayyad authority recaptured it in 799. However, Louis of

Aquitaine marched the entire army of his kingdom over the Pyrenees

and besieged it for two years, wintering there from 800 to 801, when

it capitulated.

The Franks continued to press forward against the Emir. They took

Tarragona in 809 and Tortosa in 811.

The last conquest brought them to the mouth of the Ebro and gave

them raiding access to Valencia, prompting the Emir al-Hakam I to

recognize their conquests in 813.

Charlemagne and the Moors In the late 9th century under Count Wilfred, Barcelona became the

de facto* capital of the region. It controlled the other counties

policies in a union, which led in 948 to the independence of

Barcelona under Count Borrel II.

These states were small and, with the exception of Navarre, did

not have the capacity for attacking the Muslims in the way that

Asturias did, but their mountainous geography rendered them

relatively safe from being conquered, and their borders remained

stable for two centuries.

*De facto: Something that is currently happening, exists and is real.

Opposite meaning of De jure*.

*De jure: Something that the law, tradition or right declares. The way

things should be and should happen like.

Military Culture in Iberia In an atmosphere of constant conflict, warfare and daily life were

strongly intertwined during this period. Small, lightly equipped armies

reflected the need for society to be on constant alert.

These forces were capable of moving long distances in short periods

of time, allowing a quick return home after sacking a target. Battles

were mainly waged between clans, expelling intruder armies or

sacking/ambushing expeditions.

In the context of the relative isolation of the Iberian Peninsula from

the rest of Europe, and the contact with Moorish culture,

geographical and cultural differences necessitated the use of military

strategies, tactics, and equipment that were markedly different from

those found in the rest of western Europe during this period.

Military Culture in Iberia

Umayyad warriors on the left side and Frankish soldiers on the right side

Military Culture in Iberia Iberian cavalry tactics involved Knights approaching the enemy,

throwing javelins, then withdrawing to a safe distance before

commencing another assault.

Once the enemy formation was sufficiently weakened, the knights

charged with thrusting spears (lances did not arrive in Hispania until

the 11th century). There were three types of Knights: Royal Knights,

Noble Knights, and Commoner Knights.

There were peasants who went to battle in service of their feudal

lord. Poorly equipped, with bows and arrows, spears and short

swords, they were mainly used as auxiliary troops. Their function in

battle was to contain the enemy troops until the cavalry arrived and

to block the enemy infantry from charging the knights.

Military Culture in Iberia Armor was typically made of leather, with iron scales but full coats

of chain mail were extremely rare. Head protections consisted of a

round helmet with nose protector (influenced by the designs used by

Vikings, who attacked during the 8th and 9th centuries) and a chain

mail headpiece.

Shields were often round or kidney-shaped, except for the kite-

shaped designs used by the royal knights. Usually adorned with

geometric designs, crosses or tassels, shields were made out of

wood and had a leather cover.

Steel swords were the most common weapon. The cavalry used

long double-edged swords and the infantry short, single-edged ones.

The spears and javelins were up to 1.5m long and had an iron arrow

shaped tip.

Military Culture in Iberia

Iberian and Frankish soldiers fighting off the Muslim/Moor invaders

Crusades and Military Orders Around the

11thcentury, thanks to

the Frankish military

achievements in

Iberia, strong and

new independent

kingdoms were

created such as the

following:

Kingdom of

Portugal

Kingdom of León

Kingdom of

Asturias

Kingdom of Castile

Kingdom of Navarre

Crusades and Military Orders In the High Middle Ages, the fight against the Moors in the Iberian

Peninsula became linked to the fight of the whole of Christendom.

The Reconquista was originally a mere war of conquest. It only

later underwent a significant shift in meaning toward a religiously

justified war of liberation.

The papacy and the influential Abbey of Cluny in Burgundy not

only justified the acts of war but actively encouraged Christian

knights to seek armed confrontation with Moorish "infidels" instead of

with each other.

Crusades and Military Orders

Christian Knights charging upon Muslim horsemen

Crusades and Military Orders From the 11th century onwards indulgences were granted: In 1064

Pope Alexander II promised the participants of an expedition against

Barbastro (Tagr al-Andalus, Aragon) a collective indulgence 30

years before Pope Urban II called the First Crusade.

Papal interest in Christian-Muslim relations in the peninsula are not

without precedent — The following Popes: Leo IV (847–855), John

VIII (872–882) and John XIX (1024–33) are all known to have

displayed substantial interest in the region.

Not until 1095 and the Council of Clermont did the Reconquista

amalgamate the conflicting concepts of a peaceful pilgrimage and

armed knight-errantry.

Crusades and Military Orders But the papacy left no doubt about the heavenly reward for knights

fighting for Christ (militia Christi): in a letter, Urban II tried to

persuade the Reconquistadores fighting at Tarragona to stay in

the Peninsula rather than joining the armed pilgrimage to conquer

Jerusalem, saying that their contribution for Christianity was equally

important.

The pope promised them the same indulgences that he had

promised to those who chose to join the First Crusade.

Military orders like the Order of Santiago, Order of Montesa, Order

of Calatrava, Order of Alcântara and the Knights Templar were

founded and called to fight in Iberia.

Crusades and Military Orders

Example of five religious military orders created to defend against the Islamic

invasion

Battle of Las Navas de Tolosa

A portrayal of the battle of Las Novas de Tolosa

Battle of Las Navas de Tolosa The Battle of Las Navas de Tolosa, took place on 16 July 1212 and

was an important turning point in the Reconquista and in the

medieval history of the kingdom of Portugal and the future Kingdom

of Spain.

The Christian forces of King Alfonso VIII of Castile were joined

by the armies of his rivals, Sancho VII of Navarre, Peter II of Aragon

and Afonso II of Portugal, in battle against the Berber Almohad

Muslim rulers of the southern half of the Iberian Peninsula.

The Caliph al-Nasir led the Almohad army, made up of people from

the whole Almohad empire. Most of the men in the Almohad army

came from the African side of the empire.

Battle of Las Navas de Tolosa Th