Chapter 9 Identifications (The Late Middle Ages: Social and Political Breakdown (1300-1527)

1. Marsilius of Padua Author of Defender of Peaceo Autonomy of secular governmentso No earthly punishment for spiritual crimeso Challenge to pope’s authority in secular matters

Declared heretical in 13272. Lorenzo Valla

Fifteenth century Italian writero Challenged authenticity of the “Apostles’ Creed”o Criticized medieval assumptions about God’s nature, humanity, and societyo Heretic?

3. William of Ockham Criticisms of medieval assumptions Similar ideas to Marsilius of Padua

o Secular autonomy of kings4. Estates General

Representative council of townspeople and nobleso Creation during Hundred Years’ waro Purpose: secure funds for the king Time in power

o After capture of French King John II the Goodo Rights similar to English privileged classo Too weak to govern effectively

5. Edward III English King Starter of Hundred Years’ War

o Claim to French throneo Vassal of French King

Peace of Brétigny under himo End of vassalageo Ransom of John the Goodo Renouncement of claim to the throne

6. Jacquerie/ “simple jack” French peasant revolto During Hundred Years’ Waro Cause Exploitation by nobility Higher taxes to repair nobles war-ravaged land Named after peasanto Jacques Bonhomme/ “simple jack” Atrocity-filled putdown by nobility

7. Joan of Arc French savioro Executor of God’s willo Slew of victories starting with Orléanso Inspiring

o Creator of national unity Abandonment to Burgundians by Charles VIIo Execution for heresyo Declaration of innocence (1456) Sainthood (1920)

8. Black Death Causeso Weakened and vulnerable European populationo Rats from ships from Asia Spread through air Killed 40% of European population Consequenceso Obsession with deatho Deep-rooted pessimismo Increase in materialismo Less power for nobleso Growth of citieso Increase in hatred of Jews (scapegoats)o Increase in royal powero Fall of agricultural priceso Increase in wages for farm laborers and artisanso Increase in prices for manufactured goods

9. Marguerite Datini Infertile woman from near Florence

o Attempts to become fertile Poultice for her belly Change in her husband’s diet Belt inscribed with incantation and attached by praying male virgin Demonstrative of wide range of treatments in medieval medicine

10. Giovanni Boccaccio/ Decameron Author of Decameron (1353)

o Describes symptoms of the plague Tumors of armpits or groin Spread of tumors Tumors turn black

o Contains various reactions to plague Moderate life Indulgence in passions Fleeing plagued areas

o Demonstrative of wide range of reactions to plague due to lack of medical knowledge11. Taille

Direct tax on French peasantry Increase during plague

o Cause of Jacquerie12. Avignon

Italian imperial city near border with France Seat of papacy from 1309-1377o Characterized by strong French influenceo Expansion of papal sources of revenue

Increase in papal taxes Beginning of sale of indulgences Later restriction of this expansion by secular governments in France,

England Romeo Failed attempt to return to Rome by Pope John XXII

War with prominent Italian family, the Visconti Emperor Louis IV with Visconti

13. Pope Innocent III Creator of Plentitude of Power Decree preventing taxation of clergy without papal consent Use of decree by Boniface VIIIo French and English taxation of clergy in preparation for Hundred Years’ Waro Boniface’s refusal to consent

English response: Removal of clergy from king’s protection French response: Denial of papal revenue streams Boniface’s retreat

14. Plentitude of Power Creation of papal monarchy

o Clearly politicalo Transformation of papacy into secular powero Weakening of church spiritually

Distinction between pope and the Churcho Pope = papal monarchyo Church = entire body of the faithful

Challenges to papal monarchy from reformers because of this15. Benefices

Paid religious office Expansion of papal power

o Papal determination of more beneficeso Innocent III

16. Rota Romana Papacy’s law courto Tighter and more centralized legal proceedings

Representative of expansion of secular papal power17. College of Cardinals

Body of Cardinals (second highest church officials)o In charge of electing popeo Increasingly political starting in the 13th century

18. Boniface VIII Pope from 1294-1303 Nobleman and skilled politician Conflicts with France and England

o French and English taxation of clergy Violation of Innocent III’s decree English response: Removal of clergy from king’s protection French response: Denial of papal revenue streams Boniface’s retreat

o Champion of Scottish resistance Angry response of Edward I and English parliamento French imprisonment of those loyal to Boniface

Last ditch effort: Unam Sanctam Fails

19. Unam Sanctam Boniface VIII’s response to French imprisonment of those loyal to him Declaration of papal rights in secular matters Fails French capture of Bonifaceo Near execution of Boniface

20. Avignon Papacy 1309-1377 Characterized by strong French influence New ways of papal revenue

o Increased clerical taxeso Sale of indulgences Monetary atonement for sins Doctrine of purgatory

o Opposition Secular governments in France, England, and Germany Attempted return to Rome

o Pope John XXIIo Fails

21. Pope John XXII Most powerful of Avignon popes Attempt to return papacy to Romeo War with Visconti Emperor Louis IV’s support for Viscontio Support of royals from William of Ockham and Marsilius of Padua Defender of Peace- autonomy of secular governmento Ultimately a failure Papal transformation into something similar to secular government

22. Curia The papal court Adjusting papacy to emerging European monetary economyo Criticism of such efforts

23. Pragmatic Sanction of Bourges Part of resistance to Avignon papacy’s attempts to gain new revenue Legal independence of French church as acknowledged by papacyo Charles VIIo Election of own clergyo Prohibition of some papal taxeso Limit of appeals from French courts to Curia

24. John Wycliffe Oxford theologian and philosopher Anti-clerical policies of English government Rights of royalty against papal interference

o Similar to William of Ockham and Marsilius of Padua Clerical poverty Necessity of personal merit for religious authority Foresight of Protestant criticisms

o Papal infallibility

o Sale of indulgences Inspirer of Lollards Posthumous accusation of heresy

25. Lollards Follows of John Wycliffe’s writings Advocates of preaching in the local language Champions of clerical poverty Initially from all social classes

o Strong support from those who would gain from clerical poverty Nobility Gentryo Strong support from those against church system The poor The lower clergy Capital offense in 1401o Alliance of Church and king

26. John Huss/ Jan Hus Religious head of University of Prague Bible in local languages Questions about validity of sacraments Influence from Wycliffe Execution for heresy

27. Husstites Followers of John Huss Same Eucharist for common people and clergy (bread and wine) Successeso Council of Baselo Significant religious reformo Autonomy of Bohemian church

28. Donatism Form of ancient heresy Teaching that effectiveness of sacraments relied partially on personal merit of

administering clergyman Use to attempt to discredit John Wycliffe

29. Great Schism Causeo French dislike of Italian pope, Urban VIo Election of second pope, Clement VII, by group of 13 (mostly French cardinals)

The Sideso Urban- England, the Holy Roman Empire, Hungary, Bohemia, and Polando Clement- France, Naples, Scotland, Castile, and Aragon

Attempted solutionso Mutual cessiono Resignation of oneo Forced deposition of both

Third Popeo Council of Pisao Pisan pope, Alexander V

End of Schismo Council of Constance

o All 3 popes deposedo New pope, Martin V

30. Conciliar Movement Attempts to end Great Schism with church councils Based on conciliar theory Councils of Pisa, Constance, and Basel End of movemento Brief reunification of eastern and western churcheso Increased papal prestigeo Collapse of Council of Basel

Consequenceso Broad acceptance of idea that leader should provide for well-being of those he leadso Increased secular control, especially of national and territorial churches

31. Conciliar Theory Representative council of the whole church

o Whole church = all the faithfulo Purpose: keep pope in line Council greater than the pope Pope’s purpose: maintaining church unity Popes’ failure to do that with Great Schism

32. Council of Pisa (1409) Attempt to end Great Schism Council made up of cardinals of both popes Deposal of both popes Election of new pope, Alexander V Refusal of Roman and Avignon popes

33. Council of Constance (1414-1417) Recognized by both Pisan and Roman popes Declaration of power to elect new pope Deposal of all three popes Election of new pope, Martin V End of Great Schism

34. Council of Basel (1431-1449) Peak of conciliar government Hussite demandso Giving everyone bread and wine for Eucharisto Free preachingo Forbidding clergy from holding secular office or owning lando Justice against clergy who commited mortal sinso Acceptance of all but one concerning holding secular office or owning land

End of Hussite Wars Self-jurisdiction for Bohemian church Curtailing of papal power of appointment and taxation Collapse of council and conciliar movement

35. Golden Horde Governing body of Russia when it was a Mongol possessiono Russian cities = dependent, tribute-paying principalitieso Conscription into Mongol army

Increase in cultural divisions between Russia and the West Slavery for resistance

Intermarriage and implementation of Islamo Veils and more seclusion for Russian women

Lack of major changes to religious or political institutions More stability for Russia

Chapter 10 Identification (Renaissance and Discovery):

1. City-State A nation based in a large city that absorbs some of the surrounding area

2. Venice, Florence, Genoa, Milan Four major Italian city states Venice, Florence, Genoa = Republics Milan = Duchy (ruled by a duke) Expansion because imperial and papal forces were in conflicto Merchant oligarchieso Lots of political strife

Most ruled by despots by 15th century Venice exception

3. Jacob Burckhardt 19th century historian

o Known for views on humanism Italian Renaissance = birth of modernity Renaissance characterized by un-Christian philosophy

4. Francisco Petrarch “Father of Humanism”o Previously a lawyero Avignono Celebration of ancient Rome

Personal letters to ancient Romans Epic poem in tribute to Roman general Scipio Africanus Biographies of famous ancient Romans

o Love poemso Coexistence of Classical and Christian values

Petrarch’s letters to Saint Augustine Petrarch’s defense of the personal immorality of the soul against Aristotelians

o Scholastics = Useless5. Giovanni Boccaccio/ Decameron

Petrarch’s student and friend Pioneer of Humanism Decamerono 100 tales told by 3 men and 7 women who fled plague ridden Florence in 1348o Social commentary

Expose of sexual and economic misconducto Sympathetic look at human behavior

6. Coluccio Salutati Florentine chancellor Leader of mature humanist movement Helped spread humanism throughout Italy

7. Grandi Nobles and some merchants Traditional rulers

8. Popolo grosso/”fat people” New rich Capitalists and bankers Challenge old rich for power

9. Middle-burgher Guild masters, shop owners, and professionals Side with new rich

10.Popolo minuto/”little People Lower economic classes In 1457, 1/3 of Florence listed as paupers (have no money)

11.Ciompi Revolt Revolt by poor

o Anger at social class system Feuding between new and old rich Social anarchy from Black Death Collapse of Bardi and Peruzzi banking houses

o Successful Four-year reign by lower classes Undermines stability until rise of Medici’s

12.Cosimo de Medici Controlled Florence

o Wealthiest citizeno Astute statesman

Manipulated Constitution Influenced elections

o Kept Signoria loyal to him13. de Medici family

Brought stability to Florence Controlled Florence

o Subtle despotism14.Signoria

Council that governed Florenceo Expansion from 6 to 8 memberso Members from most powerful guildso Basically controlled by the Medici’s during 15th century

15.Lorenzo de Medici Cosimo’s grandson Near totalitarian style of rule

o Assassination of brother By Pazzi family and Pope who disliked Medici control Made Lorenzo cautious and determined

16.Podesta Name for hired strongmen who ruled Italian city-states

o Despotso Prevent internal social conflict and foreign intrigue from paralyzing cityo Purpose: Maintain law and ordero Executive, military, and judicial authorityo Ensure normal businesso Use of mercenary armies

17.Condottieri Military brokers Gave mercenary armies to podesta

18.Humanism Scholarly study of Latin and Greek classics as well as ancient Church fathers

o Dual purpose For its own sake Hope for rebirth of ancient norms and values

o Many different views Birth of modernity characterized by un-Christian views Champions of authentic Catholic Church Form of scholarship meant to promote civic responsibility and political

liberty19.Leonardo Bruni

Florentine First to name humanism Student of Manuel Chrysoloras (Byzantine who opened Italians to Greek writing)

20.Dante Alighieri Early Italian humanist Religious/ spiritual orientation

o Vita Nuovao Divine Comedy

Epic poem Travels through hell, purgatory, and heaven

o Cornerstones of Italian vernacular literaure21.Giovanni Boccaccio

Petrarch’s student and friend Pioneer of Humanism Decamerono 100 tales told by 3 men and 7 women who fled plague ridden Florence in 1348o Social commentary

Expose of sexual and economic misconducto Sympathetic look at human behavior

22.Pietro Paolo Vergerio Humanist who wrote about education

o On the Morals that Befit a Free Man Most influential Renaissance text on education Importance of liberal studies Virtue and Wisdom from education Education ennobles men

23.Vittorino da Feltr Exemplified ideals of humanist teaching Physical education and games alongside liberal arts studies

24.Baldassare Castiglione/The Courtier Practical guide for nobility at the court of Ubino

o Shows Humanist learning not confined to class room Embodies highest ideals of Italian humanism How to be a successful courtier

o Combine knowledge of ancient languages and history with athletic, military, and musical skills

o Also have good manners and exhibit high moral character25. Christine De Pisan

Italian Physician’s daughter Astrologer at King Charles V’s court

Expert in classical, French, and Italian languages and literature Writer The Treasure of the City of Ladies Accomplishments of greatest women in history Spousal encouragement of hard work, savvy business decisions Wives stay at home

26. Florentine Platonic Academy Patronage of Cosimo de’ Medici Supervision of Marsilio Ficino and Pico della Mirandola Synthesis of Paltonic philosophy and Christian teachings Not formal school Informal gathering of humanists

27. Pico della Mirandola Supervisor of Florentine Platonic Academy

o Patronage of Mediciso Evolution during his rule

28. Platonism Study of works of Plato Appeal of Platonismo View of human nature

Eternal sphere Perishable world where humans live Human reason in the eternal sphere

29. Oration on the Dignity of Man Most famous Renaissance statement on human nature Written by Pico Platonic Influenceo Oration on the Dignity of Man

Collection of 900 theses Basis for public debate on all of life’s important topics Unique freedom of choice in humans

30. Lorenzo Valla Apostolic secretary under Pope Nicholas V Humanist and Greek influence in Europeo Lorenzo Valla Elegances of Latin Language- Standard Renaissance text on Latin philology Defense of predestination Refutation of Donation of Constantine- Simple textual analysis and historical logic Loyal to the Church Inadvertent help for Protestants

31. Civic Humanism Examples of humanist leadership of the political and cultural lifeo Based on ideals of humanism

Promotion of individual virtue and public serviceo Three humanist chancellors of Florence

Coluccio Salutati Leonardo Bruni Poggio Bracciolini Rhetorical skills to rally Florentines against aggression of Naples and

Milan32. Chiaroscuro

Use of shading to enhance naturalness Special technique first used by Renaissance artists

33. Giotto “Father of Renaissance painting” Signaled new direction of Renaissance arto Art filled with energy and lifeo Art stood out from canvas in three dimensions Admirer of Saint Francis of Assisi His art

o Painted more of the natural world Loved nature

o Still filled with religious seriousnesso No longer very abstract or unnatural

34. Leonardo da Vinci Universal person

o Great painter Great conveyer of inner moods through use of facial expression

o Military engineer for Ludovico il Moro in Milan, Cesare Borgia in Romagna, and French king Francis I

Foresaw planes and submarineso Advocate of scientific experimentation

Dissection of corpses to learn anatomy Self-taught botanist

35. Raphael Renaissance artist

o Best known for tender madonnas Originally in monastery of San Sisto

o The School of Athens Portrayal of masters of Western philosophy Almost perfect example of Renaissance techniques

Loved and respected by his contemporaries36. Michelangelo

Renaissance artisto Known for harmony, symmetry, proportion, and glorification of human form

Sculpture of Davido Works commissioned by four different popes

Sistine Chapel for pope Julius IIo Insistence of doing own worko Evolution of his art

Later works more complex (deep personal changes) Passing of High Renaissance into mannerism

37. Mannerism Dominant art form of 16th and 17th centuries Pioneered by Michelangelo Name from artists being able to express emotions (paint in mannered way) Reaction against simplicity and symmetry of High Renaissance

o Made room for the strange and abnormalo Freer reign of subjectivity for the artist

38. Black Death Reduced supply of laborers

Rise in demand after black deatho Importation from Africa, the Balkans, Constantinople, Cyprus, Crete, and Black Sea regiono Many races

39. Treaty of Lodi Alliance between Milan, Naples and Florence

o Stood together against Venice and Papal Stateso Brought peace between natural enemies Milan and Naples

End of allianceo Rise of power of Milanese despot Ludovico il Moro

Representative of Italian states forming together for common defense40. Charles VIII

French successor to King Louis XI Invasion of Italy

o Response to Milanese call for French assistanceo Quickly conquered Florence

Attempt at appeasement by Medici ruler Rise to power of pro-France Girolamo Savonarola No resistance

o March through Papal States and Naples Scared non-Italians (including Spanish)

Repulsion of Frencho League of Venice

Spain, Venice, Papal states, Holy Roman Empire, and eventually Milan41. Pope Alexander VI

Borgian Pope Aided French return to Italy during his reign Most corrupt pope ever

o Openly promoted political career of Borgiaso Used papal authority to aid Borgia attempts to secure a powerful base in

Romagna Help for the French

o Wanted French help to reestablish control over Romagnao Annulled Louis XII’s marriage to Charles VIII’s sister

Louis free to marry Charles’ widow Keeps Brittany French

o Cardinalship for Louis’ favorite clerico Abandoned League of Venice

42. Borgia Family Prominent Italian family Led by Pope Alexander VI and his sons, Cesare and Lucrezia Used French help and power of papacy to take Romagna

43. Pope Julius II/Warrior Pope Succeeded Alexander VI Enemy of Borgias

o Suppressed themo Made their lands in Romagna papal lands

Warrior Popeo Brought Renaissance papacy to peak of military prowess and diplomatic intrigueo Drove Venetians out of Romagna

o Drove French out of Italy with help of Spain, Venice, Holy Roman Empire, and Switzerland

44. Concordat of Bologna Result of third French invasion of Italy and victory at Marignano French king control over French clergy French recognition of papal superiority to church councils Papal right to collect annates in France Helped keep France Catholic during Reformation Led to four major wars with Spain (French lost them all, of course)

45. Niccolo Machiavelli/The Prince Humanist and student of ancient Rome

o Disliked contemporaries who lacked ancient Roman traits/ virtues Convinced that political unity and independence for Italy were worth any costs

o Disliked internal feuding Deep republican ideals The Prince

o How to guide for despotso May have been cynical satireo Dedicated to a Medici

Held high hopes for Medici family46. Gabelle

French monarchial tax on salt Representative of new monarchial mean of revenue

o National tax on basic food47. Taille

Direct tax on French peasantry Another new mean of monarchial revenue

48. Charles VII Creation of professional army Defeat of English in Hundred Years’ War Strong economy Diplomatic corps National administration

Centralized authority in France49. Isabella and Ferdinand

Marriage and union of Castile and Aragon Castile’s lucrative sheep trade Securing of lots of land Christianizing of Spain Military ventures End of religious tolerance Total control of Spanish church Spanish inquisition (monitor converted Jews and Muslims) Exile of Jews Exile of Moors (Muslims) Marriage unions against France Promotion of overseas exploration Sponsorship of Columbus Centralization of authority of Spain

50. Mesta

Government-backed organization in Castile, Spaino Ran sheep-farming industryo Example of centralized economic planning

51. Hermandad Powerful league of cities and towns in Spain Allied with Isabella and Ferdinand

o Helped against landownerso Helped Spain become centralized

52. Henry VII AKA Henry Tudor Defeated Richard III to end internal strife between House of Lancaster and House of

York From House of Lancaster Married Elizabeth of York to end strife Started Tudor dynasty that would dominate 16th century Centralized authority Court of Star Chamber Legal constructs that benefitted the king Confiscation of nobles’ lands and fortunes

53. Golden Bull Attempts to centralizeo Golden Bull (1356)

Seven-member electoral college (archbishops of Mainz, Trier, and Cologne, duke of Saxony, margrave of Bradenburg, count of Palatine, and king of Bohemia)

Electoral college also administrative body Election of emperor of Holy Roman Empire Some transregional unity Changed from ruler to ruler Many more powerful than the one

Failure54. Reichstag

Attempts to centralizeo Reichstag

National assembly (seven electors, nonelectoral princes, and representatives from 65 imperial free cities)

Weakness of cities Imperial ban on private warfar Creation of Supreme Court of Justice for internal peace Council of Regency to coordinate imperial and internal German policy

Failure55. Desiderus Erasmus

Most famous northern Humanist “Prince of Humanism” Previously a tutor Strong dislike of Scholastics Anger at letting doctrine and disputation for overshadowing Christian piety and practice Coexistence of Classical and Christian values

Erasmus’ focus on study of both classics and Bible Erasmus’ combination of classical humanity and civic virtue with Christian

ideals of love and piety

Other thingso Erasmus’ Colloquies and Adageso Erasmus’s anticlerical satireso Erasmus’ restoral of ancient works

Greek edition of New Testament (1516) Latin translation of New Testament (1519) Angry response of Churcho Use of Erasmus’ work by reformers

57. Adages Collection of ancient and contemporary proverbs

o Over 5000 entrieso Popular modern expressions

“To leave no stone unturned” “Where there is smoke, there is fire”

Written by Erasmus58. Philosophia Christi

Erasmus’ personal beliefs on unification of Classical ideals and Christian values A simple, ethical piety in imitation of Christ Clashed with late Middle Ages religious fanaticism

59. Index of Forbidden Books List of books banned by the Catholic Church Contained all of Erasmus’ works at one point

60. Reuchlin Affair Johann Reuchlin

o Foremost Christian authority on Hebrew and Jewish learningo Wrote first reliable Hebrew grammar by a Christian scholaro Attracted to Jewish mysticism

Christian convert from Judaism moved to suppress Jewish writingso Attacked Reuchlin

German humanists to the defense (academic freedom) Brought Ulrich von Hutten onto historical stage

o Wrote Letters of Obscure Men Satire on monks and Scholastics

Unified reform minded German humanistso Led them to defend Martin Luther

61. Thomas More/Utopia Friend of Erasmus Most well-known English humanist Utopia

o Conservative criticism of contemporary societyo Imaginary society

Overcame social and political injustice All property and goods shared People earn bread with their own work

One of Henry VIII’s most trusted diplomats Execution

o Repudiation of Act of Supremacy (1534)- made English king head of English church

62. Francisco de Cisneros Spanish enforcer of religious orthodoxy as “Grand Inquisitor”

Founding of University of Alcala Printing of Greek edition of New Testament Translation of religious tracts for reform of clerical life and better direct lay piety Greatest work

o Complutesian Polygot Bible Latin, Greek, and Hebrew versions of Bible in parallel columns

Helped keep Spain Catholic during Reformation63. “Black Legend”

Stated that Spanish treatment of Native Americans was unprincipled and inhuman Mostly true Result of criticism from Spanish missionary Bartolome de Las Casas

64. Conquistadores Spanish for conquerors Early ones were interested only in gold Hernan Cortés

o Aztec Empire Mexico City (Tenochtitlán) Belief that Cortés was their god Gifts and gold for Cortés

o The Conquest Cortés’ alliances with subject peoples and Tlaxcala (enemies of the Aztecs) Moctezume’s welcome, capture and death Spanish retreat Siege of Tenochtitlán Aztec resistance under Cuauhtemoc Aztec defeat Razing of Tenochtitlán Francisco Pizzaro

o Incan Empire Cuzco Atahualpa’s (Incan ruler) conference with Pizzaro

o The Conquest Murder of Atahualpa’s followers Atahualpa’s failed self-ransom Capture of Incan capital Insurrections and disunity until 1560s

65. Hacienda Major agricultural institution in Spanish colonies Large landed estate owned by Peninsulares or Creoles Workers in some form of formal servitude Two major products

o Foodstuff for mining areas and urban centerso Leather goods used in mining machinery

66. Peninsulares Social class is Spanish colonies referring to people originally born in Spain

67. Creoles Social class is Spanish colonies referring to people of Spanish descent born in the

Americas68. Encomienda

A formal grant of the right to the labor of a specific number of Native Americans, anywhere from hundreds to thousands, for a set amount of time

Social device meant to provide labor servitude in Spanish colonies Declined in mid-1500s because Spanish monarchs feared that it would lead to a strong

nobility in the New World69. Repartimiento

Required adult male Native Americans to devote a certain number of days annually to Spanish labor

Often harsh and many didn’t survive their terms Replaced encomienda Led to shortage of labor and royal pressure against extreme forms of forced labor

70. Debt Peonage System requiring free Native American laborers to purchase goods from land/ mine

owned Led to never-ending debt and basically servitude Replaced repartimiento

Chapter 11 Identifications (The Age of Reformation):

1. The reformation Attempt to reform Catholic Church Ends up creating breakaway Christian churches (Protestant churches) Causes

o Close identification with local rightso Crises of medieval church

2. The Modern Devotion Lay religious movement on eve of Reformation Centered in Netherlands Religious life outside traditional ways

o Common life of clerics and laityo Importance of individual piety

Clerical activity in educationo Sponsorship of publicationso Schools for poor

Source of humanist, Protestant, and Catholic reform Conservative

o More personal pietyo More informed religious life

Full religious life for lay people3. Gerard Groote

Establisher of The Modern Devotion4. The Imitation of Christ

Philosophy of The Modern Devotion Guide to inner life

o Semimysticalo For monks and nunso Lay people too

5. Benefice System Medieval system of filling religious offices Ecclesiastical posts to the highest bidder Lack of local religious life

o Lack of enforcement for residency requirementso Local needs ignored

6. Martin Luther/Lutheranism Leader in German Reformation Son of a miner Well-educated

o Influence of humanistso Influence of The Modern Devotion

Monk and priest7. Indulgences

Payment to absolve sin Aid to fearful laity Very easy to obtain by Luther’s time Jubilee Indulgence

o Popes Leo X and Julius IIo Rebuild St. Peter’s Basilica

o Archbishop Albrecht of Mainz Debt Support for indulgence

o Fugger’so Proceeds

Half to Pope Half to Archbishop

Luther’s responseo 95 Theseso Can’t buy salvation

8. Fugger’s Augsburg banking house Part of venture to sell Jubilee Indulgences Election of Charles V

o 16th century superPAC9. “Justification by Faith”

Luther’s thinking on righteousness that God demands How to obtain it

o Not from religious works or ceremonieso Belief and trust in Jesus

10. Johann Tetzel Indulgence Preacher Preaching of Jubilee Indulgence for Archbishop

o Guilt of relatives of deceased11. 95-Theses

Luther’s view on indulgenceso 95 things wrong with indulgenceso Indulgences go beyond traditional practiceo Make it possible to buy salvation

Accepted by humanists and reformers12. Charles V

Emperor of Holy Roman Empire Elected in midst of punishment for Martin Luther Election

o Help of Fuggero New concessions

Revival of Imperial Supreme Court and Council of Regency Promise to consult with diet of empire on major affairs

o Help for Reformation Prevention of unilateral imperial action

13. Papal Infallibility Catholic idea that pope cannot commit errors Challenged by Luther

o Debate with John Ecko Appeal to authority of scriptures

14. Address to the Christian Nobility Luther

o Signal of new direction To German princes

o Force reforms on Catholic Churcho Curtail its economic and political power in Germany

15. Babylonian Captivity of the Church Luther

o Signal of new direction Attack on seven sacraments

o Only two have basis in scripture Baptism and Eucharist

Power of Scriptures, church councils, and secular princes over pope16. Diet of Worms

Luther’s presentation of his viewso Ordered to recant

Refusal Secular outlaw as well

Charles V presided17. Edict of Worms

Result of Diet of Wormso Luther = secular outlaw

Hiding Translation of Erasmus’ Bible into German

18. Habsburg Dynasty Spanish dynasty

o Charles V (also Holy Roman Emperor) Conflict with French Need of Germans Religious sovereignty for German territories Allows Reformation to take root

19. Valois Dynasty French Dynasty

o Conflict with Habsburgs Four major wars Disputed territories in Italy Along borders Allows Reformation to take root in Germany

20. Peasants Revolt Inspiration

o Close alignment of Lutheran and peasant viewso Anger at territorial princes

Revolt in 1524o Condemned by Luther

“Un- Christian” Freedom of Christian = inner release from guilt and anxiety, not right to

revolt Call on princes to mercilessly put it down Ensures reforms last past 1520s Ends chance of social reform during Reformation

o Put down Per Luther’s call 70,000- 100,000 dead

21. Karsthans

Burly, honest peasantso Earned bread through worko Sacrificed own comfort for well-being of others

Support of Lutherans Symbol of simple life that God wanted people to live

22. Swiss Reformation Swiss confederacy Preconditions to reformation

o Growth of national sentiment Popular opposition to foreign mercenary service

o Desire for church reforms dating back to conciliar days Zwingli and Bullinger

23. Ulrich Zwingli Ulrich Zwingli and the Swiss Reformation

o Growth of national sentiment Popular opposition to foreign mercenary service

o Desire for church reforms dating back to conciliar dayso Personal history

Humanist education Influence of Erasmus Chaplain to Swiss mercenaries Threat of foreign mercenary service Opposition to indulgences and religious superstition

o Views of clerical celibacy Right of priests to marry Major Protestant difference

o Engineer of Swiss Reformation Breaking of Lenten fast Nothing outside the scriptures

Death during Swiss Civil Wars24. The Marburg Colloquy

Attempt to unite Swiss and German Protestants in mutual defense pacto Philip of Hesse

Luther and Zwinglio Agreement on most issueso Disagreement over Eucharist

Zwingli’s spiritual interpretation Luther’s view that Christ could be physically present in Eucharist Causes split between two movement

Failure25. Philip of Hesse

German territorial ruler Attempt to united Swiss and German Protestants in mutual defense pact

o Luther and Zwingli’s disagreemento Luther and Zwingli’s meeting in his castle

Fails Causes alliance to never materialize

26. Swiss Civil Wars Conflicts between Catholics and Protestants First Major Battle

o At Kappelo June 1529o Protestant Victory

End of Catholic foreign alliances Recognition of rights of Swiss Protestants

Second Major Battleo Also at Kappelo October 1531o Zwingli’s executiono Rights of cantons to choose own religion

27. Anabaptists/Anabaptism Breakaway from Zwingli Conrad Grebel Views as embodied by Schleitheim Confession

o Practice of adult baptism Conformed to Scripture More respectful of human freedom

o Refusal to go to waro Refusal to swear oathso Refusal to hold secular office

Persecution by Protestants and Catholicso Capital offense to rebaptize adultso Shift to more rural followers

Rule of Munstero Two Dutch emigrants

Baker Jan Matthys Tailor Jan Beukelsz

o Lutherans and Catholics leave to avoid conversiono Old Testament Theocracy

Charismatic leaders Polygamy

o Crushed by Protestants and Catholics28. Schleitheim Confession

Views of Anabaptists Views as embodied by Schleitheim Confession

o Practice of adult baptism Conformed to Scripture More respectful of human freedom

o Refusal to go to waro Refusal to swear oathso Refusal to hold secular office

29. Menno Simons Moderate Anabaptist leader

o Pacifisto Representative of Anabaptists after Munster

Example for future Founder of the Mennonites

30. Spiritualists Radical Protestant movement

Isolated individuals Characterized by disdain of traditions and institutions Only religious authority = God’s spirit Former Lutherans

o Thomas Muntzer Died during Peasants’ revolt

o Sebastian Franck Critic of dogmatic religion Religious autonomy of every soul

o Caspar Schwenckfeld31. Antitrinitarians

More radical Protestants Commonsense, rational, and ethical religion Socinianism

o Michael Servetus Blasphemies against Holy Trinity

o Lelio and Faustus Sozzini = founderso Strongest opponents of Calvinism

Original sin Predestination

o Defenders of religious tolerance32. Socinianism

Michael Servetuso Blasphemies against Holy Trinity

Lelio and Faustus Sozzini = founders Strongest opponents of Calvinism

o Original sino Predestination

Defenders of religious tolerance33. John Calvin/Calvinism

Calvanism’s Replacement of Lutheranismo Popularity in France, the Netherlands, and Scotland

Inspiration of or accompaniment of political resistanceo Views

Predestination Individual responsibility to reorder society into God’s plan Sovereignty of God over all creation

o John Calvin’s Personal History Well-off family Church benefices for good education Conversion to Protestantism Application of personal experience to Geneva Surrender of benefices

34. The “elect”/Predestination Idea that it is predecided where people will end up for eternity

o Decided at time of birtho Doesn’t matter what type of life one leadso No one alive knows anyone’s fate

Calvinist/ Protestant idea35. Max Weber

German sociologist Views of Calvinism

o Work ethic Combination of religious confidence and self-discipline Reinforced capitalism

o Close association with Puritanism36. Diet of Augsburg

Meeting of Catholic and Protestant representativeso Purpose: Impose a settlement of the religious divisionso Attended by Catholic Emperor (Charles V)o Result

Order for Protestants to revert to Catholicism Charles V Firm establishment of Reformation

37. Augsburg Confession Protestant statement at Diet of Augsburg

o Moderateo Protestant beliefso Spurned by Charles V

38. Schmalkaldic League/Articles Lutheran defensive alliance

o Response to Diet of Augsburgo Augsburg Confession as bannero Stalemate with emperor

Articleso By Luthero More strongly worded confession

39. Christian II Ruler of Denmark Introduced Protestantism

o Lutheranismo Thriving under Frederick Io Membership in Schmalkaldic Leagueo Official religion under Christian III

40. King Gustavas Vasa Brought Lutheranism to Sweden

o Greed Nobles Want of Church land Confiscation of Church land Clergy subject to royal authority

41. Peace of Augsburg Permanent division of Christendom Ruler of land determines religion of land

o Practice into formal lawo Migration for religious reasons

Lutherans retain all Church land seized before 1552 Restrictions of High Catholics

o Ecclesiastical reservation

o Can’t take lands, titles, privileges with them No official recognition for Calvanism, Anabaptism

o Anabaptists already separatistso Calvanist resistance

Organized revolution throughout northern Europe during second half of 16th century

42. Peace of Passau Peace between Protestants and Catholics in Germany

o Charles V tired of fighting Three decades of war Protestantism too entrenched

o Reinstatement of Protestant leaderso Guarantee of religious freedom for Lutherans

43. English Reformation England’s initial opposition to Protestantism Henry VIII’s need for annulment of marriage to Catherine

o Solution: Have king be spiritual leader44. Statutes of Provisors and Praemunire

First passed by Parliament in mid-14th century Curtailed power of pope in England

o Payments and judicial appeals to Romeo Papal appointments in England

45. William Tyndale Future Protestant reformer Translation of New Testament into English

o Circulation in England46. Henry VIII /”Defender of the Faith”

Original opposition to Luthero Defense of seven sacramentso “Defender of the Faith”

Given by Pope Leo X47. Sir Thomas More

Chief minister for Henry VIII Guide to royal opposition to first stage of English Protestantism Defended Luther’s response to Henry’s attacks

o Response to Luther (1523)48. Catherine of Aragon

Henry VIII’s First Wife Relations

o Daughter of Ferdinand and Isabellao Aunt of Charles V

No male heiro Only one female heir (Mary)

Unnatural for women to rule over men Could lead to political turmoil

Requirement of Pope Julius II’s permissiono Married brother’s widowo Viewed marriage as cursed

Want to marry Anne Boleyn

49. Anne Boleyn Catherine’s lady-in-waiting Henry VIII’s desire to marry her

o Need for papal annulment Charles V has pope hostage Not likely anyways

o Failure of Cardinal Wosleyo New advisors

Thomas Carnmer and Thomas Cromwell Lutheran sympathies Solution: Make king head of English church

50. “Reformation Parliament” Seven years of parliamentary convention Changes to English church

o Measures to harass and reign in clergy End of payments to Rome by clergy and laity Submission of clergy (clergy under royal jurisdiction)

o King as head of English Churcho Complaints against Church

Indifference to needs of laity Excessive number of religious holidays

o King as highest court of appealo Marriage changes

Annulment of Catherine’s marriage Marriage to Anne Boleyn

o Act of Successiono Act of Supremacyo Dissolution of Englands monasteries and nunnerieso Precedent for religious change

Major changes require consent of Parliament51. Thomas Cranmer

Henry VIII’s new advisor after Cardinal Wosley Lutheran sympathies Officiated Henry’s marriage to Anne Boleyn Archbishop of Canterbury Annulment of Henry’s marriage to Catherine

52. Act of Succession Passed by Reformation Parliament Anne Boleyn’s children as legitimate heirs to the throne Execution of Thomas More and John Fisher

53. Act of Supremacy Passed by Reformation Parliament Henry as only supreme head of English Church

54. Six Articles of 1539 Henry VIII Reaffirmation of transubstantiation Denial of Eucharistic cup to laity Celibate vows inviolable Private masses Oral confession

Shows lack of real change from Catholic doctrines55. Edward VI

Henry VIII’s successor Completed English Reformation

o Henry’s Six Articles repealedo Laws against heresy repealedo Clerical Marriageo Communion with cupo Act of Uniformity and Book of Common Prayero Removal of images and altarso Refuge for German Protestant leaderso Thomas Cranmer’s confession of faith

Moderate Protestant doctrine Justification by faith Supremacy of Scriptures Denial of Transubstantiation Only two sacraments

56. Book of Common Prayer Thomas Cranmer Use in all English churches

o First Act of Uniformity57. Acts of Uniformity

Impose Protestant changes in England Book of Common Prayer

o Revised edition for second act58. Theatines

Meant to lead broad revival of piety within Church Groom devote and reform-minded leaders in higher levels of Church Co-founded by Pope Paul IV (Bishop Gian Pietro Carafa)

59. Capuchins Another reform minded group within Church Return to original ascetic and charitable ideals of Saint Francis Popular among ordinary people

60. Ursulines For women Convents in Italy and France

o Religious education for all social classeso Very influential

61. Oratorians Elite group of secular clerics

o Devotion to promotion of religious literature and church musico Giovanni Perluigi da Palestrina

62. Counter Reformation Reform of Catholic Church from inside

63. Jesuits Members of the Society of Jesus Missionaries who spread the word of God

64. Society of Jesus Order founded by Ignatius of Loyola Very successful

o Force in Counter Reformationo Growth

15000 members after one century Thriving missionaries in Far East

65. Ignatius of Loyola Founder of Society of Jesus Religious conversion

o Courtiero Seriously wounded during a battle with the Frencho Recuperation

Spent time reading Christian classics Impressed and inspired by self-sacrifice and resilience of Church’s saints

Spiritual Exerciseo Program of religious and moral self-disciplineo Absolute spiritual mastery over one’s feelings

Discipline Self-control Lack of this in Protestants Won back some Protestants

66. The Council of Trent General council to reassert church doctrine Meeting times

o 1545-7o 1551-2o 1562-3

Strict papal control Mostly Italian Important reforms = internal Church discipline

o Curtail sale of religious offices and goodso Bishops forced to move to place of authorityo More power for local bishopso Bishops needed to preach regularly and be highly visibleo Rules for priests

More neatly dressed Better educated Strictly celibate Active among parishioners

o Seminary in every diocese No concessions to Protestants Reaffirmation of ideals challenged by Protestants

o Scholastic education of clergy Dispute between Saint Thomas Aquinas’s way and Augustinian way In favor of Aquinas’s way

o Role of good works in salvationo Seven sacramentso Transubstantiationo Purgatoryo Veneration of saints, relics, and sacred imageso Indulgences

Initial resistanceo Rulers feared losing power to the popeo Ended by passage of time and pope’s assurance otherwise

67. Genevan Academy School founded by John Calvin and Theodore Beza (Calvin’s successor) Training of Calvinist ministers Way of education

o Being able to read primary sourceso Theologians had to defend doctrines using Bibleo Study of Greek and Hebrew

Spread of Protestant educational reformso Franceo Britaino New Worldo Greek and Hebrew became commonplace for the educated

68. Battle of Lepanto Battle that Cervantes fought in

o Decorated for gallantry Cervantes

o Don Quixote Satire of romantic chivalry Juxtaposition of earthly realism and religious idealism Both attitudes necessary for happy life

69. William Shakespeare The great English Bard (and playwright) Political conservative

o Accepting of social ranks of his timeo View of government through individual personality of ruler

Representative of Elizabethian drama’s blending of different types of plays Understood how people thought Struck universal human themes

o Deep roots in contemporary religious tradition70. Christopher Marlowe

Shakespeare’s contemporary Influence on Shakespeare

o Model for character, poetry, and style71. Somaschi and Barnabites

Repair damage done to people in war-torn Italyo Moral, spiritual, and physical damage

Chapter 12 Identification (The Age of Religious Wars):1. Baroque

Successor to mannerism Artistic traits

o Grandioseo 3-D displays of life and energy

Liked by Catholic Counter Reformationo Shows how widespread opposition of two religions was

2. Peter Paul Rubens Great baroque artist Also a Catholic

3. Gianlorenzo Bernini Great baroque artist Also a Catholic

4. Christopher Wren Protestant favored artist

o Art style seen in English churches Artistic style

o Simple and restrained5. Rembrandt van Rijn

Protestant favored artisto Dutch Mennonite

Artistic styleo Simple and restrainedo Gentle portraits

6. Michel de Montaigne French essayist Scorned the dogmatic mind

o Shows intellectuals understanding the need of religious pluralismo Shows acceptance of new skepticism, relativism, and individualism in religion

7. Valentin Weigel German Lutheran commentator on half-century of religious strife in Germany Advised people to look within themselves for religious truth not to churches and

creedso Shows intellectuals understanding the need of religious pluralismo Shows acceptance of new skepticism, relativism, and individualism in religion

8. Politiques Term to describe some of the rulers in Europe

o Subordination of theological doctrine to political unityo Urged tolerance, moderation, compromise, and even indifference on religious

matterso Held religious strife and civil war in check

9. Huguenots Term for French Protestants

o Derived from Besancon Hugues, leader of Geneva’s political revolt that preluded Calvanism

Persecuted by French governmento Under surveillance in 1520so Crackdown after capture of French king

o Retaliation for Protestants putting up anti-Catholic placards in Pariso Edict of Fontainebleau

French Protestants subjected to Inquisitiono Edict of Chateaubriand

More measures against Protestants Many joined for political reasons

10. Edict of Fontainebleau Subjected French Protestants to the Inquisition Shows French government crackdown on Protestants

11. Habsburg-Valois War Wars between Spanish and French dynasties Peace with the Treaty of Cateau-Cambresis

12. The Guises Powerful family from eastern France that took advantage of weak monarchy

o Weakened monarchy Henry II accidental died in jousting tournament Son Francis II took power Francis II easily influenced

o Strongest family Easily seized power

Name became synonymous with militant, reactionary Catholicism13. Gaspar de Coligny

Montmorency- Chatillon admiral Wanted to take advantage of weak monarchy under Francis II

o Sympathized with French Huguenots for this reason Political leader in French Protestant resistance

o Conspiracy of Amboise Attempt to kidnap King Francis II with help of Protestant resistance and

Bourbon family Condemned by Calvin for disgracing Reformation

14. Theodore Beza Prominent French Protestant Helped merge French Protestant religious resistance with people of political power

o Trying to convert powerful aristocrats Jeanna d’Albert mother of future Henry IV Prince of Conde

15. Catherine de Medici Regent for Charles IX while he was a minor Attempt to reconcile Protestant and Catholic factions Colloquy in Poissy Unsuccessful Fear of Guise power Want to preserve monarchy Sought Protestant allies

o Edict of January- Protestants can worship publically outside of towns Firm Guise control Massacre of Huguenots Indecision of Protestants

16. Charles IX Son of Catherine de Medici

Under her regency at start of French religious wars French King

17. The Peace of Saint-Germain-en-Laye Ended third French religious war Crown acknowledgement of power of Protestant nobility Huguenot religious freedom in their territories Huguenot right to fortify cities

18. Saint Bartholomew’s Day Massacre Catherine’s fears Huguenot Henry of Navarre married king’s sister Attempt to assassinate Coligny Convinced Charles XI that Huguenot coup was underway Massacre Coligny and 3000 followers in Paris 20000 total in France\Changes nature of conflict from political struggle to struggle to

live19. Pope Gregory XIII

Pope at time of Saint Bartholomew’s Day Massacre Responded with special religious celebration

20. Philip II of Spain King of Spain at time of Saint Bartholomew’s Day Massacre

o Responded with special religious celebrationo Also ensures French won’t interfere with his efforts to put down Protestant rebels

in the Netherlands21. John Knox

Exiled Scottish reformer Groundwork for Calvinist resistance First Protestant to not condemn political revolt against lawfully constituted

government22. First Blast of the Trumpet against the Terrible Regiment of Women

Written by John Knox Removal of a heathen tyrant

o Not just permissibleo A Christian duty

23. Franco-Gallia Huguenot theory of resistance

o Humanist argument about historical supremacy of Estates General over king Written by Francois Hotman

24. On the Right of Magistrates over Their Subjects Huguenot theory of resistance

o Justification for correction and overthrowing of tyrannical rulers by lower authorities

Written by Theodore Beza25. Defense of Liberty Against Tyrants

Huguenot theory of resistanceo Princes, nobles, and magistrates beneath the king as guardians of the rights of the

body politico Those forces should take up arms against foreign tyranny

Written by Philippe de Plessis Mornay26. Henry of Navarre

Heir to French throne during Henry III’s rule because of his marriage to Henry’s sistero Ascension to throne

Henry III stabbed by radical friar during attack on Paris Leader of Protestants Widely liked

o Informal dresso Witty and Charming

Politiqueo Political peace above religious unityo Royal policy of tolerant Catholicism to achieve peace

Despite fact that he was Protestant Publically became Catholic

o Successful French church rallied to his side Catholic league dispersed End of French religious wars

27. Catholic League French league formed by Henry of Guise Dominant in Paris in 1580s

o Support of Spaino King forced to flee after failed surprise attack against league

Reaction to assassinations by king’s forceso Assassinations of duke and cardinal of Guiseo Responded with intense furyo Forces king into alliance with Henry of Navarre

Besieged by forces of the two Henry’so Support of Spanish troops after Henry of Navarre ascends to the throne

28. Edict of Nantes Henry IV (Henry of Navarre) Edict of Nantes

o Religious freedom for French Huguenots Freedom of public worship Freedom of assembly Admission to public offices and universities Permission to maintain fortified towns

o Causes religious truce in France29. Don John

Philip’s half-brothero Illegitimate son of Charles V

Spanish champion against Islamo Suppression of Moors in Grenadao Command of Holy League of Spain, Venice, and papacy

Check Turkish navy in Mediterranean Don John’s command Annihilation of Ottoman navy

30. Cardinal Granvelle Antoine Perrenot Philip Habsburg’s trusted lieutenant in the Netherlands

o Internal church reforms Prevent more Protestant gains

o Centralization Take away traditional autonomy of provinces Centralized monarchy ruled from Madrid Politically docile and religiously unified country

31. Prince of Orange “the Silent”/William of Orange Resistance to Cardinal Granvelle

o Politique Lutheran, Calvin, and Catholic at certain points

o Unification of Dutch nobilityo Removal of Granvelle from office

Known as “the Silent” because of small group of confidants32. The Compromise

National covenant against decrees of Council of Trent and the Spanish Inquisitiono Fusion of religious and political opposition to Habsburg government

Support from Calvinist-inclined less nobility and townspeople Loud and persistent voicing of grievances Rebellion imminent

33. Stadholder Dutch word for governor William of Orange’s role in three Dutch provinces Northern provinces with Calvinist leanings

o Merging of political resistance with Calvinism Base for war for independence from Spain

34. “Sea Beggars” International group of anti-Spanish exiles and criminals

o Lots of Englishmeno Help for William of Orange

Capture of sea ports Sparking of rebellions in towns they passed through

o Disassociation from Englando Helped force Alba to cede power

35. The Spanish Fury Cause: Fall of Alba’s replacements

o Spanish mercenaries went unpaido No leader for Spanish mercenaries

Massacre of 7,000 in Antwerp36. Pacification of Ghent

Unification of 7 northern Protestant provinces with 10 southern Catholic provinceso Result of Spanish Fury

Internal regional sovereignty in all religious matters Political cooperation permitted despite religious differences Wins the war

37. Perpetual Edict Perpetual Edict Removal of all Spanish troops from Netherlands within 20 days Signed by Don John William of Orange controlled Netherlands Philip II lost staging ground for invasion of England

38. Union of Arras Union of Arras

o Union of 10 Catholic southern provinces Fear of Calvinist extremism

o Peace with Spaino Helped Counter-Reformation

39. Union of Utrecht Union of Utrecht

o Union of 7 Protestant northern provinces Response to Union of Arras

o Declare Philip II wasn’t their sovereign Briefly place French duke of Alencon in charge

40. Duke of Alencon (French) Youngest son of Catherine de Medicis Brief role as sovereign of Dutch northern provinces

o Attempt to take actual power Never intended by Dutch Deposed

41. Treaty of Joinville Philip II’s treaty with Guises

o Shows meddling with French affairs Shifted focus away from Netherlands allowing Northern provinces to

eventually get independence42. Mary I

Catholic daughter of Henry VIII and Catherine of Aragon Protestant worst nightmare

o Married Philip II of Spain Militant Catholicism

o Reversion to Catholicism Repeal of Protestant statutes Execution of Protestants, especially their leader

43. Elizabeth I Daughter of Anne Boleyn and Henry VIII Succeeded Mary I Politique

o Religious settlement in Parliament Merged episcopal system with Protestant doctrine and Catholic ritual Intolerance of inflexible religious extremes Prevented religious conflict Acts of Supremacy and Uniformity Thirty-Nine Articles

44. Act of Supremacy Elizabeth I Repealed all anti-Protestant legislation from Mary I’s time Elizabeth’s supreme power over spiritual and worldly affairs

45. Act of Uniformity Elizabeth I Mandate of second Book of Common Prayer for every English parish

46. Thirty-Nine articles Elizabeth I

Moderate Protestantismo Revision of Cranmer’s original 42o Official religion within the Church of England

47. Mary, Queen of Scots Daughter of Scottish King James V and Mary of Guise Catholic Returned to Scotland after death of her husband, the French king Establishment of French-style court in Scotland Elizabeth I and Scottish reformer John Knox’s alliance for political advantages of

never letting Scotland become Catholic Mary of Scots had more direct lineage claim to English throne, so she left open

possibility of Catholic England Babington plot collaborator Execution by Elizabeth I Caused Spain to prepare its armada to invade England

48. Presbyterians Puritans who wanted to purify English church Alternative national church

o Worked through Parliamento Semi-autonomous congregations governed by presbyteries

Following Calvin, Genevan modelo Subtle rejection of any gains

49. Congregationalists Puritans who wanted to purify English church More radical than Presbyterians Autonomous congregations

o No toleranceo Threats of execution or exile

50. The Thirty Years’ War Last and most destructive of religious wars

o Long standing tensions Catholics and Protestants Calvinists and Lutherans

Causeso Fragmented Germanyo Germany’s central location in Europeo Suspicion between religions in Holy Roman Empireo Conflict between Catholic League and Protestant alliance headed by Palatinate

51. Frederick III Elected ruler of Palatinate Devout Calvinist

o Allowed Calvinism to become powerful Not recognized by the Peace of Augsburg Made it official religion Once publically denounced transubstantiation

52. Palatinate Became Calvinist stronghold under Frederick III Protestant defensive alliances Lutherans viewed it as threat to Peace of Augsburg

o Calvin missionary forays into Catholic areas

o Defamation of Reformation Open denial of transubstantiation

53. Bohemian Period Beginning of war

o Ascension of Habsburg Ferdinand to throne of Bohemia Also in line for imperial throne Takes away Protestant religious freedoms Protestants respond with defenestration

o Expansion of Conflict Ascension to imperial throne Deposed as king of Bohemia Spanish troops supported Ferdinand Lutheran elector helped Ferdinand for political and territorial gain

o Results Ferdinand subdued and re-Catholicized Bohemia Ferdinand conquered Palatinate Duke of Bavaria pressed into northwest Germany

54. Defenestration of Prague Protestant anger at Ferdinand’s revocation of their rights

o Regents out the window (literally defenestrated) Fell 50 feet into dry moat Manure softened landing and saved their lives

55. The Danish Period Fears of Danish king Christian IV

o Re-Catholicization of all of Germany Was Ferdinand’s goal

o Held territory in Germany Duke of Holstein

o Encouraged by Dutch, French, and English and picked up banner of Protestant resistance

Resultso Danish king routed by Maximiliano Ferdinand’s fear of Maximilian’s growing power

Turned to Albrecht of Wallenstein, a powerful Lutheran mercenary Albrecht wanted land and so he crushed Protestant resistance

o Edict of Restitution56. Albrecht of Wallenstein

Powerful mercenaryo Ferdinand turned to him over fears of Maximilian’s growing powero Crushed Danes and other Protestants militarily

Opportunistic Protestanto Lutherano Wanted land and power

57. Edict of Restitution Reasserted Catholic safeguards of Peace of Augsburg Reaffirmed illegality of Calvinism Ordered return of all Lutheran lands acquired after 1552 Unrealistic at that point Panic for Protestants and Habsburg enemies

58. The Swedish Period

Gustavus Adolphus of Swedeno Deeply pious king of Lutheran nationo New leader of Protestant forceso Victory at Breitenfeld

More mobile forceso Death at hands of Wallenstein’s forces

Bankrollingo French

Wanted Habsburg armies to be occupiedo Dutch

Didn’t forgot religious wars in the Netherlands Results

o Some Protestant victorieso Ferdinand had Wallenstein assassinated

Had served his purpose Started selling services to Protestants for political gain

o Protestant states other than Sweden made peace in Peace of Prague59. Gustavus Adolphus

Gustavus Adolphus of Swedeno Deeply pious king of Lutheran nationo New leader of Protestant forceso Victory at Breitenfeld

More mobile forceso Death at hands of Wallenstein’s forces

60. The Swedish-French Period French entered war Most devastating period

o War continued to drag ono Germans couldn’t push out foreign armieso Lots of looting and war for sake of war

61. The Treaty of Westphalia Brought all hostilities within Holy Roman Empire to an end Religious Settlement

o Rescinded Ferdinand’s Edict of Restitutiono Religious settlement based on Peace of Augsburgo Recognition of Calvinism

Political Settlemento Gave legal recognition of Swiss Confederacy and United Provinces of Hollando Territorial gains for French and Prussianso End to Habsburg dominationo Confirmed territorial sovereignty of Germany

Kept Germany in state of disunity

Chapter 13 Identifications (Paths to Constitutionalism and Absolutism: England and France in the Seventeenth Century:1. Absolutism

One model of 17th century government France

2. Parliamentary Monarchy Another model of 17th century government England

3. Louis XIV King of France Consolidated power

o Noble’s reliance on his patronage Supported them in return

o Crushed Protestant resistanceo Had strong advisors

4. Parlements Organizations of nobles in France Had to register royal decrees before they became law

o Showed Louis XIV didn’t have total control Also had regional ones

o Allowed by Louis XIV Considerable power over local administration and taxation

5. Puritanism/Puritans Strong Protestant religious movement Actively opposed Stuart monarchy

o First sought to limit monarchyo Then sought to overthrow ito One reason why England didn’t become an absolute monarchy

6. James I Son of Mary, Queen of Scots Succeeded Elizabeth I as monarch

o Unified Scotland and England Faced many problems

o Unpopular outsideo Large royal debto Divided church

Supported divine right of kings7. Impositions

New customs duties in Englando Version of old customs duties tonnage and poundageo New source of independent revenue

Independent of Parliament Angered Parliament Only amounted to negotiations

8. Millenary Petition List of Puritan grievances to King James I

o James I concerned and offendedo Intention to maintain and enhance Anglican system

In line with Elizabeth I’s policy

Wanted to limit existing religious strife9. King James Bible

Hampton Courto Commission for new translation of the Bible

Result: King James Bible10. Book of Sports

James I Permitted games on Sunday for those who attended Church of England

o Meant to get Roman Catholic convertso Angered many

Puritans Clergy who refused to read it from pulpit Forced to rescind it

11. Charles I King of England following James I Continued extraparliamentary means of revenue

o New taxeso Quartering of troops in private homeso For war with Spain

12. Petition of Right Parliament’s declaration of constitutional freedom

o No forced loans or taxes with Parliament’s consento No freeman imprisoned without just causeo No troops quartered in private homeso Response to monarchial intrusion into local areas

Signed by Charles Io Little hope for adherence

13. “popery” Parliament’s term to condemn Charles’s high-church policies

o Policies that favored powerful bishops, elaborate liturgy, and personal religious observance over Puritan ideals

o Above acts were treasonouso Charles’s dissolution of Parliament in response

14. Arminians Group within Anglican Church

o Rejected many Puritan ideals Many elaborate, almost Catholic, practices

o Supported by Charles Fear that he was too friendly towards Catholics

15. Thomas Wentworth (Earl of Strafford) Charles’s chief minister Creator of Thorough

16. Thorough Meant to allow Charles to rule without needing Parliament’s funding Efficient and centralized government Goal of absolute royal control

17. William Laud (Archbishop of Canterbury) Charles’s first religious advisor Strong Anglican

o Denied Puritans right to publish and preach

o Imposed episcopal system and Anglican Book of Common Prayer on Scots Scottish rebellion and Charles’s need to call Parliament

18. John Pym Leader of Short Parliament

o Refusal to consider funding to put down rebellion until king’s redress of political and religious grievances

o Parliament dissolved19. Short Parliament

Funding to put down Scottish rebelliono Refusal to consider funding to put down rebellion until king’s redress of political and

religious grievanceso Dissolved

20. Long Parliament Charles’s need for funding to put down rebellion Take some power

o Execution of Wentworth and Laudo Destruction of instruments of royal thorougho Illegal to change taxation without Parliament’s consento Must convene at least once every three yearso Cannot be dissolved without its consent

Divided on religious matters21. Presbyterians

Moderate Puritans in Parliamento Abolition of Anglican systemo Presbyteries

22. Presbyteries Calvinist way of church organization Local congregations subject to higher, representative governing bodies (Presbyteries)

23. English Civil War/Causes Disputes between the king and Parliament

o “Grand remonstrance”o Charles’s attempt to arrest leaders

Charles I ruling without consent of Parliament Parliamentary radicals

o Parliament as Commander-in-Chief Questions to be settled

o Absolutism or Constitutionalism?o Episcopal or Presbyteries

24. Cavaliers Charles’s supporters Northwestern part of England

25. Roundheads Parliament’s supporters

o Lots of Puritans Southeastern part of England

26. Oliver Cromwell Squire with Independent religious sentiments

o Any system that allows dissenters Leader of Parliamentarian army

o New Model Army Led Rump Parliament and Puritan Republic

o Creation of Great Britaino Ruled as Lord Protector (military dictator)

As hated as Charles Led to restoration of Stuart monarchy

27. New Model Army Cromwell’s Parliamentarian army Disciplined fanaticism

28. Thomas Pride Colonel in New Model Army Prevention of Presbyterians from taking seats

o Worry that Charles would try to win them over to royalist side29. “Pride’s Purge”

Prevention of Presbyterians from taking seats30. “Rump” Parliament

Parliament that remained after Pride’s Purge Assumed power

o Charles’s executiono Abolition of the monarchy, the House of Lords, and the Anglican church

31. Charles II Son of Charles I Restored to English throne in 1660 Returned England to pre-1642 status quo

o Hereditary monarch on the throneo No legal requirement to summon Parliamento Supremacy of Anglican Church

Had Catholic sympathieso Favored religious tolerance

32. John Milton Puritan concerned with tyranny from monarchy and Parliament Wrote “Areopagitica” in defense of a free press Also wrote Paradise Lost

33. Clarendon Code Series of laws passed by Parliament between 1661 and 1665 Exclusion of Roman Catholics, Presbyterians, and Independents from religious and political life Penalties for non-Anglican worship Requirement of strict following of Book of Common Prayer and 39 Articles Oaths of allegiance to Church of England for service in local government

34. Restoration Monarchy Monarchy set-up with restoration of Stuart monarch (Charles II) to the throne Returned England to pre-1642 status quo

o Hereditary monarch on the throneo No legal requirement to summon Parliamento Supremacy of Anglican Church

35. Declaration of Indulgence Charles II Suspended all laws against Roman Catholics and non-Anglican Protestants Two Goals

o Unite English people against Holland

o Show good faith with Louis XIV Charles II’s agreement to secretly convert to Catholicism Ally against Holland

Forced to repeal by Parliament in order to get war funding36. Test Act

Passed by Parliament in response to Declaration of Indulgence Require all crown, civil, and military officials to swear an oath against transubstantiation

o Impossible for Roman Catholicso Targeted Charles II’s Catholic brother and heir James

38. Whigs Opposition in Parliament during Charles II’s reign Tried to enact a bill excluding James from succession

o In response to Popish plot Liar Titus Oates James plotting to kill Charles II and make Britain Catholic

o Charles II crushed Whigs in response39. James II

Charles II’s brother and successor Catholic Entered with a royalist Parliament

o Alienated them by demanding repeal of Test Acto Dissolved Parliament and openly appointed Catholics and removed any candidates

against freedom of religion40. Tories

Royalist conservatives Did not support James II’s attempt at absolutism

o Meant England was united against him41. William III of Orange

Great-grandson of original William of Orange Ruler of Netherlands Husband of Mary of England, James II’s eldest, Protestant daughter Invited to invade England after James II had Catholic male heir

42. Glorious Revolution William III of Orange invaded England

o English people accepted himo James II fled to protection of Louis XIVo Parliament declared throne vacant and appointed William and his English wife Mary as

monarchs43. William and Mary

William III of Orange and Mary of England, James II’s Protestant daughter Put on throne by Glorious Revolution

o Recognized English Bill of Rights in return44. English Bill of Rights

o Accepted by William and Mary as condition of being put on throneo Limited powers of monarchy

Subject to rule of law Had to have consent of Parliament, which was to be called into session every

three yearso Guaranteed rights of English privileged classeso Prohibited Catholics from English throne

45. Toleration Act 1689 act of Parliament Permitted worship by all Protestants Outlawed Catholics and anti-Trinitarians

46. Act of Settlement 1701 Allowed English throne to go to German Protestant House of Hanover if Queen Anne, second

daughter of James II, had no children alive at her deatho Last Stuart Queeno Elector of Hanover became King George I of England

47. John Locke English political theorist Wrote Second Treatise of Government in 1690

48. Second Treatise of Government John Locke Social Contract

o Bilateral contract between king and people Privileged people had right to depose monarch for breaking the contract

o Government by and for the governed Seen as justification for Glorious Revolution despite being written before

49. Intendants French royal civil servants Subjected privileged groups to stricter supervision

o Prevent abuses from sale of royal offices Conferred right to collect revenues, sell licenses, or carry out other remunerative

forms of administrationo Led to economy more open to government regulation

50. Duke of Sully Henry IV’s finance minister Helped government to increase its regulation on the economy

o Monopolies on gunpowder, mines, and salto Paved way for mercantilismo Introduced royal corvee

Started canal system to link Atlantic and Mediterranean Dreamed of organizing all of Europe politically and economically into common market

(EU!!!!!!!!!!!!!!)51. Corveé

Duke of Sully National force of drafted workers to improve roads and facilitate internal travel

52. Louis XIII Son of Henry IV Nine at time of his father’s assassination

o Mother, Marie de Medici, was regent Treaty of Fountainbleau with Spain Mutual defense pact Louis to marry Spanish princess

o Cardinal Richelieu53. Cardinal Richelieu

Louis XIII’s chief advisoro Marie de Medici’s protection against French nobility

Sought to make France the supreme European powero Responsible for French success in first half of 1600s

Strongly anti-Habsburg policy Catholic France that would use Protestants against Habsburgs

o Success seen in French gains in Treaty of Westphalia Centralized internal policies

o More focus on campaign against provincial governors and parlementso No one above the king

Imprisonment and executions of disobedient nobilityo One faith and campaign against Huguenots

Took away rights to fortified cities and political autonomyo Arts and printing press for propaganda

Raison d’etat (reason of the state)o Legacy of strong noble resentment of monarchy

54. Cardinal Mazarin Controlled government when Louis XIV was too young to yet rule Continued policy of centralization

o Backlash rebellions (Fronde) Segments of nobility and townspeople Wanted to preserve local autonomy over absolute monarchy Taught Louis XVI that heavy-handed tactics weren’t effective

55. Fronde Backlash rebellions of nobility and townspeople

o Wanted to preserve local autonomy over absolute monarchyo Parlement of Paris

Briefly led to exile of Louis XVI and Cardinal Mazarin Taught French that centralization was better than local interests that constantly competed Taught Louis that heavy-handed tactics weren’t effective

56. Jaques-Bénigne Bousset Catholic Bishop

o Strong supporter of rights of French monarchy and church against pope in matters related to taxation and ecclesiastical appointments

Brought “Divine Right of Kings” to France57. “Divine Right of Kings”

Bishop Jacques-Benigne Bousset Rulers appointed by and answerable only to God

o Precedent of rulers of Old Testamento King free from influence of earthly nobles and parlements

Allowed for absolutism58. Jansenism/Jansenists

Arose out of Catholic opposition to Jesuits Followed teachings of St. Augustine

o Basis of many Protestant doctrineso Particular opposition to Jesuits teaching of free will

Political element because of Arnaulds Driven underground and later eliminated by Louis XIV

o Ended any chance of Huguenots becoming Catholic under Jansenist doctrines59. The Arnaulds

Prominent Parisian family Supporters of Jansenism

o On Frequent Communion Condemned easiness of Jesuit’s confessions

o Lost prominence when Jansenism fell to Louis XIV60. Blaise Pascal/Provincial Letters

Pascal was friend of Arnaulds and a Jansenist Provincial Letters in defense of Jansenism

o Attempt to reconcile “reasons of the heart” with reverence for clear and distinct ideals of the mind

o Condemned Jesuits for having lax and shallow theology61. Jean-Baptiste Colbert

Louis XIV’s financial minister Created economic system that allowed Louis to fund his war machine Centralization of French economy

o State supervision of economic activity Tariffs Regulations of imports and exports

o New industrieso Simplified bureaucracyo Abolish unnecessary positionso Reduce number of tax-exempt nobleso System known as mercantilism

62. Mercantilism France’s centralized economic policy

o State supervision of economic activities Maximize foreign exports and internal bullion reserves

63. War of Devolution Causes

o Louis’s claim to Spanish Belgian provinces through his marriage Treaty of Pyrenees had said his wife would give up her claim if a large dowry

was paid within 18 months, but it wasn’to Louis’s invasion into Flanders

Called War of Devolution in reference to property inheritance ruleo In some of the Spanish Belgian provinces it went to child from first marriage even if that

child was female Triple Alliance of England, Sweden, and United Provinces of Holland Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle (1668)

o Control of some border towns for Louis XIV64. War of Spanish Succession

Causeso Competing claims to Spanish throne after Charles II’s death

Louis through his marriage to Marie Therese Emperor Leopold of Austria through his marriage to Marie’s younger sister

Margareto Problem seen beforehand but negotiations made problematic by Charles II giving land to

Louis XIV’s grandson Louis sent French troops into Flanders to remove Dutch troops from new Spanish

territory Louis declared Spanish America to French ships

Triple Alliance of England, Holland, and Holy Roman Empire

o Flanders as neutral barrier between Netherlands and Franceo Fair share for Leopold

English advantageso Better technologies and tactics than Franceo Internal French disunity as war dragged on

Treaty of Utrecht with England Treaty of Rastatt with Holland and Leopold

65. Nine Years’ War France v. League of Augsburg

o League of Augsburg England, Spain, Sweden, United Provinces of Holland, and electorates of

Bavaria, Saxony, and palatinate Worried about possible French expansion into Germany

Cause: Louis’s invasion of palatinate through weak claim of his sister-in-law War in Europe and between France and England in New World (King William’s War) Stalemate from exhaustion Peace of Ryswick

66. Peace of Ryswick Ended Nine Years’ War Victory for William of Orange (King of England), and Emperor Leopold

o Secure borders for Hollando Stopped Louis’s expansion into Germany

67. Treaty of Utrecht French and English treaty to end War of Spanish Succession Philip, Louis’s Grandson as king of Spain Gibraltar and Minorace to England

o English became Mediterranean power House of Hanover had succession rights in England

68. Treaty of Rastatt French treaty with Dutch and Leopold to end War of Spanish Succession Philip, Louis’s Grandson as king of Spain Gibraltar and Minorace to England

o English became Mediterranean power House of Hanover had succession rights in England=

69. Constitutionalism System of government with a constitution and limits of powers of sovereign or division of

sovereign powers 17th century England, especially after the Glorious Revolution

Chapter 14 Identification (New Direcions in Thought and Culture in the Sixteenth and Seventeenth Centuries):

1. Nicholas Copernicuso Earth not center of universeo Challenged dominant view and thus provided way for others to challenge dominant view

2. Copernican System/Copernicanismo Challenged Ptolemaic modelo Challenged was conservativeo Kept everything but made Sun centero Epicycles were smallero Just as wrong as Ptolemy but did have some improvemento Inspired others to also challenge model

3. On the Revolutions of the Heavenly Sphereso Copernicuso Challenged Ptolemaic modelo Challenged was conservativeo Kept everything but made Sun centero Epicycles were smallero Just as wrong as Ptolemy but did have some improvemento Challenge confronted difficulties inherent in Ptolemaic model and inspired others to do the same

4. Ptolemaic System View of Earth as center of universe

o Based on Almagest by Ptolemyo Series of concentric circles around the Eartho One has moono Another Suno More with other planets and starso Outer region is heaven

Had some problemso Planets moving backwardso Accounted for by epicycles

Based on observations and math Only usable to show where planets would be

5. Geocentric Having the earth as the center of the universe Major flaw with Ptolemaic System

6. Epicycle Feature of Ptolemaic system A small circle that a planet moved uniformly about It then moved uniformly around a larger circle Meant to explain why sometimes planets seemed to move backwards

7. Heliocentrico Having Sun as centero Only update major Copernicus had to Ptolemaic model

8. Tycho Braheo Followed Copernicuso Believed in earth-centered system

Moon and Sun orbited earth

Other planets orbited Suno Undertook scientific experiments and got more astronomical data than anyone beforeo Upon death, his work passed to his assistant, Kepler

9. Johannes Kepler Assistant and successor to Brahe Believed in heliocentric model

Influenced by Renaissance’s Neoplatonism, which highly valued Sun Tried to find way to make Brahe’s math work for such a model Elliptical motion of planets Set forth first orbits

The New Astronomy10. The New Astronomy

Kepler Combined Copernicus’ heliocentric model with Brahe’s mathematical observations

Heliocentrism Elliptical orbits

o New question of why the system was why it was11. Galileo Galilei

o Italian mathematiciano Used telescope to discover many complexities that no one ever knew

Mountains on the Moon, Sun spots, Jupiter’s moons Fit more easily into Copernican model

Starry Messenger and Letters on Sunspots Representative of new science based on presentation of arguments and evidence

o Popularized Copernican modelo Idea that universe is subject to mathematical laws

Shift from world of qualities to world of quantities Grand Duke of Tuscany as Patron

o Patron provided financing, which represented the direction of science at the timeo Medicis got moons of Jupiter named after themo Advocacy for Copernicanism got him in trouble with Catholic Church

12. Starry Messenger Galileo New findings on heavens

Telescope to discover new complexities Discoveries required Copernican novel

Use of rhetoric to convince people of Copernican model, particularly would-be patrons13. Isaac Newton

Englishman who took up question of planetary motion Established basis of physics for next 200+ years The Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy

14. The Mathematical Principles Of Natural philosophy

o Newtono Principia Mathematica in Latino Galileo’s mathematical view was seen throughouto Physics

Inertia on objects at rest and in motion Gravity Explained why planets moved in an orderly motion

Great mathematician, but also had his flaws Upheld empirical data and observation as highly important Rejected rationalism of French philosopher Descartes as having insufficient guards against

error15. Francis Bacon

Accomplished Englishman Lawyer High royal official Author of histories, moral essays, philosophical discourses

Seen as father of empiricism and scientific experimentationo Not really earned

Set tone and climate for scientific advancemento Attacked scholastics for relying too much on past knowledgeo Encouraged contemporaries to be innovative and have confidence in such innovationo Human knowledge should produce useful results

Improve human conditiono Link between governments and science

Novum Organum, The Advancement of Learning, New Atlantis16. Empiricism

Credited to Bacon, but not actually his Practice of relying on observation in scientific experiments

17. Novum Organum Bacon Set tone and climate for scientific advancement

o Attacked scholastics for relying too much on past knowledgeo Encouraged contemporaries to be innovative and have confidence in such innovationo Human knowledge should produce useful results

Improve human condition18. The Advancement of Learning

Bacon Set tone and climate for scientific advancement

o Attacked scholastics for relying too much on past knowledgeo Encouraged contemporaries to be innovative and have confidence in such innovationo Human knowledge should produce useful results

Improve human condition19. Rene Descartes

Mathematician who developed analytical geometry New scientific method Relied on deduction Didn’t rely as much on empirical observation and inductiono Discourse on Method

Rejection of scholasticism Body and Mind

o Meditations Exploration of deduction, rational speculation, and internal reflection Broad philosophical influence

20. Discourse on Methodo Descarteso Rejected scholastic philosophy and educationo Advocated for thought based on a mathematical model

Doubt everything except his own reason Tried to deduce the existence of God Human reason could completely understand the world Two divisions of things

Thinking Things Defining quality of the mind Defining characteristic of material bodies Things occupying space

o Body World has no place for spirits, divinity, or anything non-material

21. Scientific Induction Scientists draw generalizations from testing hypotheses against empirical observations Eventually won favor over Descartes’ scientific deduction

22. Thomas Hobbes (again) 17th century British political philosopher Leviathan as result of English Civil War How could strong centralized political authority receive philosophical justification

23. William Harvey Man whose works Hobbes had special interest in Discovered circulation of blood through the body

24. Leviathan (again) Hobbes Result of English Civil War View of human nature

Material and mechanical portrayal All psychological processes as a result of pure sensation

o Increase pleasure; reduce paino No higher moral purpose for humanso Myth of humans as beings inclined to always try to get powero Human beings in nature were constantly in fear of death Humans must enter into a contract with commonwealth and recognized sovereign to check self-

serving purposes Required all people to set aside personal liberties Sovereign could use force to compel complianceo Sovereign should be absoluteo Meant to prevent anarchy

Criticso Monarchists disliked that sovereign power could be legislatureo Republicans didn’t like the absolutist ideao Those who supported divine right of kings saw this as too materialistico Religious peoples said sovereign should be below God

25. Saint Thomas Aquinas Christian thinker Believed humans were naturally sociable Contradictory to Hobbes’ view

26. John Locke (again)o British political philosophero Critic of absolutism and proponent of liberal political philosophyo Involvement in Restoration politics forced him to flee to Hollando Treatises on Government

Rejected arguments of political authority based on patriarchal authority Argument that a government must be both responsible and responsive to will of the governed

27. Second Treatise on Government (again)

o Lockeo New political theory about government Argument that a government must be both responsible and responsive to will of the governed Based on natural human state where there was perfect freedom and equality

o Contrary to Hobbeso Humans are rational and good willedo Enter into a contract to preserve rights, liberty, and propertyo Rebellion is allowable if government breaks the contract

Resemblance to St. Thomas Aquinas28. Letter Concerning Toleration

o Lockeo Used premise of Second Treatise on Government to defend widespread religious tolerationo Answer to last two centuries of destructive religious conflicto Citizens should be free to choose religion because that was not job of the governmento Not extended to Catholics (thought they followed the pope) or atheists Foundation of religious liberty, toleration, and separation of church and state

29. Essay Concerning Human Understanding Locke Set forth basic structures of human thought Mind blank at birth and ready to be filled Comparable to early behaviorism Improvement in psychology possible by changing the environment Reason and revelation compatible, but not original sin

30. Projectors Members of “institutions of sharing” who presented science as an enterprise to aid the

government and the economy Ex. Mathematicians could help with engineering problems Seen as people who wanted to sell improbable ideas to highest bidder Brought new science and tech to a wider audience

31. Queen Christina Swedish queen Exception to women not being involved with patronage of natural philosophers Got Descartes to make regulations for a new science academy

32. Grand Duchess Christinao Grand Duchess of Tuscanyo Granddaughter of Catherine de Medici, Queen of France Caused Medicis to realign with France As regent passed a law preventing an Tuscan from being educated outside grand duchy

32. Margaret Cavendisho Noblewoman who made significant contributions to contemporary science Well-education Marriage to Duke of Newcastle got her into correct social circleo Argued with Hobbes and Descarteso Criticized Royal Society of London for not being practical enough

Only 17th century woman to ever visit one of their meetings Grounds of Natural Philosophy

33. Grounds of Natural Philosophy Margaret Cavendish’s major work Talks about purity of substances

34. Maria Cunitz German artisan-woman Worked with her husband on astronomy Published a book that people believed her husband had written until he said

otherwise35. Maria Winkelmann

Another woman who teamed up with her husband to do astronomical work Discovered a comet in 1702

Attributed to her husband until 1930 Contemporary philosophers recognized her ability

o Forced to abandon astronomy Had her application to continue her husband’s work denied after he died because

she was a woman Kicked out when she came back with her astronomer son

36. Emilie du Chateleto Woman who aided Voltaire in his composition of a French popularization of Newton

Her knowledge of math was crucially better37. Letter to the Grand Duchess Christina

o Galileoo Views about how scriptures should be interpreted to accommodate science

Some Catholic authorities saw this as Protestant God reviled truth in both Bible and physical nature and there was no contradiction if Bible was

understood properly 38. Pope Urban VIII

Florentine elected pope in 1623 Acquaintance of Galileo Allowed Galileo permission to discuss Copernicanism Galileo did and advocated for it, which was in opposition to the pope Pope felt betrayed and ordered a trial Galileo forced to be under house arrest for last nine years of his life

39. Blaise Pascal French mathematician and physical scientist Gave up wealth to devote himself to austere, self-disciplined life Wanted to reject dogmatism and skepticism Dogmatic Jesuits had arguments designed to minimize and excuse sinful acts Skeptics were bad also Atheists used it to deny religion completely Deists used it only when it confirmed to reason Allied with Jansenists Views on matters of religion Only reasons of heart and leap of faith could prevail Religion not the domain of science and reason Two essential Christian truths

A loving God exists Humans are unworthy of such as God

40. Dogmatism (look up)o Presenting principles as absolutely true without considering the evidence or opinion of others

o Pascal saw Jesuits as this41. Skepticism (look up)

An attitude of doubt or a disposition to incredulity either in general or towards a particular object Pascal saw this in both atheists and deists

42. Physico-Theology Religious thought associated with deducing of religious conclusions from nature Reconciliation of faith and science as mutually supportive A way for a view of God to lead away from wars

43. John Ray English Writer The Wisdom of God Manifested in His Works of Creation

44. The Wisdom of God Manifested in His Works of Creation John Ray Evident that God placed humans in world to understand it and to use rationality to be practically

productive Scientific advancement and economic enterprise were part of God’s plan Religious justification for economic improvement

45. Malificiumo Harmful magic used by witcheso 70-100K executed for this between 1400 and 1700o Showed that people still believed in magic despite scientific advances

46. Sabbats Mass meetings of witches why they supposedly flew

o Also said to have sexual orgies with devil in animal formo Said to be cannibals and be ritualistically disrespectful of Christian beliefs and practices

Showed that people still believed in magic despite scientific advances47. The Hammer of Witches

Jacob Sprenger and Heinrich Kramer Commission by Pope Innocent VIII as official Church guide to detection and punishment of witches Used misogyny to explain why most witches were women

48. Jacob Sprenger Dominican monk Wrote The Hammer of Witches

49. Heinrich Kramer Dominican monk Wrote The Hammer of Witches

50. Midwivery/Midwives Oversaw the delivery of children into the 18th century Known as wise women because of their medical skills and knowledge Among few women who carried out independent economic and public roles

o Mostly older, widowed women of lower social classes who had apprenticed for a long time

o Couldn’t join guilds to protect their profession because male sanctioning authorities wouldn’t allow it

o Required personal respectability and respecting the mothers’ privacyo Given lots of legal and religious power

Could baptize sickly newborns Registered births and had power to attest to legitimacy or illegitimacy of the child Required to discourage abortion and infanticide and report those actions Men took it over in the 18th century

Chapter 15 (Successful and Unsuccessful Paths to Power):

1. William III, the Stadtholder: Stadholder of Holland (the most important province of the Netherlands) Lead the European coalition against France. Netherland at this time was a republic with several provinces all working together.

2. Rachel Ruysch: Dutch artist who specialized in painting elaborate arrangements of flowers

3. Stadtholder : Dutch governor who has the ability to unite all the provinces in times of need.

4. John Law: Scottish mathematician and gambler Duke of Orleans made him financial manager of France. Believed in issuing paper money.

5. Mississippi Company: Company that held a monopoly over trading privileges with the French colony of Louisiana. Took over management of the national debt in France

6. Mississippi Bubble : Mississippi Company sold stock in place of government bonds. People sold stocks for paper money that they then turned in for gold. France lacked enough gold to pay off all the paper money. France had to halt all payments of gold.

7. Parlements: Courts dominated by the French nobility Tried to use their power to limit the monarchy. Couldn’t legislate but could choose whether or not to recognize the legality of an act. Duke of Orleans gave them ability to allow or disallow laws

8. Louis XV: King of France from 1715-1774 Tried to maintain absolute power but failed to put in the work to do so Had a scandalous personal life Failed to choose many wise advisors.

9. Cardinal Fleury: Chief Minister of the French court from 1653-1743. Tried to reduce France’s debt. Blocked the nobility every chance he got. Failed to train Louis XV to be an effective monarch.

10. Hanoverians (Dynasty): British dynasty that came to power after the Act of Settlement in 1701 Began with George I.

11. George I: British king from 1714-1727 Battled James Edward (son of James II) for the British throne.

12. Whigs:

British political party Didn’t want peace with France. George I favored the Whigs. Supported monarchy but wanted parliament to retain final sovereignty Supported religious tolerance.

13. Tories: British political party Wanted to end hostilities with the French. Emphasized strong monarchy, low taxes for landowners, and firm support of the Anglican

Church.14. Robert Walpole:

British politician in the House of Commons Developed a method for paying off the national debt. George I gave him his full confidence. Often regarded as the first prime minister of Britain. Founder of the cabinet system. Had an ironfisted control over the House of Commons.

15. “Let sleeping dogs lie”: Walpole’s motto Means some things are better left alone. Supported peace abroad and status quo at home.

16. British House of Commons: Each county in Britain elected 2 representatives. If more powerful landed families in a county decided on candidates there was no contest. Wealthy nobles served as representatives Chose to serve their own interests rather than public opinion in their counties.

17. George II: King of England after George I Supported Walpole.

18. Boroughs: Subsections of counties Served as units in elections for representative to the House of Commons.

19. Mary Wortley Montagu: Noble woman Advised her husband on how to win election in his county. Suggested knowing the right people and having large amounts of money to spend on voters.

20. Bank of England: English financial administration Forced everyone to pay taxes (virtually no exceptions). Smart finances based of Dutch practices. Founded in 1693.

21. Gustavus Adolphus II: Swedish monarch from 1611-1632 Allowed Sweden to control the Baltic Sea.

22. Charles XII: Swedish ruler after Adolphus II From 1697-1718 who went to war with Russia in the Great Northern War. Possibly insane.

23. Great Northern War: War between Sweden and Russia from 1700-1721 Ended in Swedish defeat

24. Ottoman Empire: Largest and most stable political entity in or around Europe after collapse of Roman Empire. Consisted of a diverse collection of people. Ranged from Baghdad to Arabian Peninsula, Anatolia, the Balkan Peninsula, and North Africa

from Egypt to Algiers. Very tolerant of other religions. Muslim pilgrimages to holy land

25. Millets: Officially recognized religious communities that the Ottomans had. Laws applied based off the millet you are in, not a particular administrative territory.

26. Dhimmis: Non-Islamic people who lived in the Ottoman Empire. They were tolerated but were considered second class citizens. Couldn’t serve in military or wear certain colors.

27. Jizyah: Poll tax paid by dhimmis.

28. Devshirme: Ottoman practice Took young Christian boys and converting them to Islam to serve in government positions and

become Janissaries.

29. Janissaries: Elite Ottoman military unit Extremely loyal to the Sultan. Only Islamic people could be one. Elite families tended to get in.

30. Shari’a (what is it?): Islamic law Advises its followers on social, economic, and political issues. Provided a basis for how to live one’s life. Ottoman Empire saw itself as a protector of this.

31. Ulama: Islamic scholars. Dominate Ottoman religious institutions, schools, and courts of law.

32. “the circle of equity”: Sultan and his administrators consult Ulama for advice on policy and behavior of subjects

accorded with Islamic law and the Qur’an. Ulama support Ottoman Empire and Ottoman Empire defers to their judgments. Ulama tend to support traditional life even as world around them modernizes.

33. King John III Sobieski: Ruler of Poland from 1674-1696 Lead a Polish army to try to rescue Vienna from Turkish siege. Poland had a hard time choosing a king and aristocratic independence hurt them politically.

34. Sejm: Central Polish legislative body Included the nobles but specifically excluded representatives from corporate bodies (such as the

towns)35. Liberum veto:

Polish practice Staunch opposition of any single member could require the Sejm to disband. Termed exploding the diet.

36. Treaty of Carlowitz: Treaty between Ottomans and Habsburgs. Ottomans gave up much of their European holdings. Gave up Hungary, Poland, and Venice.

37. Magyar: Largely Calvinist nobility of Hungary. Habsburgs had to bargain with them in order to maintain Hungary in their empire. Rebelled from 1703-1711.

38. Pragmatic Sanction: Document by Charles VI Provided the legal basis for a single line of inheritance within the Habsburg dynasty through

Charles VI’s daughter Maria Theresa. Members of Habsburg family and other noble families recognized her as heir.

39. Prussian: Became synonymous with administrative rigor and military discipline. Worked towards the single goal of strengthening the army.

40. Hohenzollerns: Family from Brandenburg Prussia. Ruled Brandenburg since 1417. Held a lot of land inside the Holy Roman Empire (second only to the Habsburgs)

41. Frederick William, The Great Elector: Ruler of Brandenburg from 1640-1688. Broke local noble estates Organized the royal bureaucracy Established a strong army. One of the princes who elected the Holy Roman Emperor.

42. Junkers: Nobility in Prussia. In exchange for obedience to electors they received the right to demand obedience from their

serfs.43. Frederick William I, King of Prussia:

King of Prussia from 1713-1740. Established bureaucracy Established a larger army.

44. Kabinett: Prussian policy Lower officials submitted all relevant documents to the king in his office. King alone then examined papers, made decisions, and issued orders. Skirted the influence of ministers and ruled alone.

45. General Directory: All of Prussia’s departments of government united along military lines. Forced nobles to pay taxes. Encouraged nobles to be absolutely loyal to the king by making them preform duties for whole

monarchal system rather than a single person.46. Frederick II:

Later known as “The Great”. Ruled Prussia from 1740-1786. Used the army to invade Silesia and started the Austrian-Prussian rivalry for control of Germany.

47. “Time of Troubles”: Russian period of anarchy and civil war. Followed Ivan the Terrible’s reign.

Ended with the Romanov dynasty48. Boyars:

Old Russian nobility from before the Romanov dynasty.49. Streltsy:

Guards of the Moscow garrison. Government and tsars feared a mutiny by them.

50. Peter The Great: Ruler of Russia from 1682-1725. Came to power along with his brother Ivan V. Came to power on the back of the streltsy. Overthrew his sister Sophia (she was regent). Expanded Russia’s army and navy. Reduced power of Russia nobles. Expanded Russian territory to warm water ports as part of the Great Northern War. Founded St. Petersburg. Created a Senate to run the government while he was away. His son Alexsei was accused of treason by Peter. Secularly controlled the church.

51. Romanov Dynasty: Began after the reign of Ivan the Terrible. Began with Michael Romanov and lasted from 1613-1917. Centralized Russia. Brought Bureaucracy.

52. Table of Ranks: Created by Peter the Great Equated a person’s social position and privileges with their rank in the bureaucracy or military. Ignored lineage. Made social status of nobles based off their service rather than family rank.

53. Old Believers: Russian Orthodox Christians. Believed in the old ways. Didn’t like changes made to church text and rituals

54. Holy Synod: Russian government department. Consisted of several bishops headed by the procurator general. Governed the church in accordance with Peter’s beliefs.

55. Procurator General: Head of the Holy Synod. A layman.

Chapter 16 (Society and Economy Under the Old Regime in the Eighteenth Century):1. Old Regime/Ancien Regime

Major Featureso Aristocratic elites had inherited legal privilegeso Churches intimately related to the state and the aristocracyo Urban labor force usually transformed to guildso A rural peasantry subject to high taxes and feudal dues

Most nobles and peasants were against changing o The hierarchical structure became more rigido A person enjoyed rights based on the particular group that he or she was a part of

2. Sumptuary Laws Regulated the dress of different classes

3. Nobles “of the sword” French nobles were divided into two groups of nobles

o Nobles of the sword were nobles who derived their nobility from military service

4. Nobles “of the robe” Nobles who acquired titles by serving the bureaucracy or by buying themselves into nobility Both groups used to fight but started to work with one another during the eighteenth to

defend their common privileges5. Hobereau

The French nobles also divided in groups that did or did not favor the royal court of Versailles

o The court nobilities took advantage of Versailles and grew extremely wealthyo The others who did not support Versailles or the Hobereau were a little bit better of

than wealthy peasants.6. Taille

Aristocrats were exempt from many taxeso One of them was the Taille or the land tax that was a part of the Ancient Regime

7. Vingtième French for the twentieth Is an income tax that the nobility were technically supposed to pay

8. Corvées Nobles were exempt from paying this tax Tax for forced labor for public works which fell on the peasants

o Lord would require a certain number of days each year for labor9. Szlachta

The eastern European nobility was even more repressiveo The Polish nobles, or the Szlachta, did not have to pay taxeso They possessed the right to life or death of serfs

o Most were poor; some were wealthy, held estates, and participated in government

10. aristocratic resurgence Charter of Nobility encouraged this

o Catherine the Great listed the privileges of noble women and men in exchange for voluntary state service

It was their reaction to the threat posed by monarchies towards their social position and their privileges

o First tried to make it difficult to become a noble to preserve exclusivenesso They also tried to preserve appointments to the officer corps of armies, the

bureaucracies, the government ministers and the church exclusively for nobles 1. Hoped to resist the power of monarchies

o Used authority of existing aristocratically controlled institutions against the monarchies

1. Examples: diets, parlement, British Parliamento Tried to improve financial positions by gaining further exemption from taxation and

collecting long forgotten feudal taxes from the peasants\ It was a big challenge to the monarchies

11. Banalités All French peasants were subject to certain Feudal dues which are known as banalities

o This included payment to the lord in order to use the lord’s mill to grind grain and his oven to bake

12. Seigneur Another name for a lord Peasants would rent land from the lords because they could not own enough land to live by

themselves and they had to pay the feudal dues that were attached to the plot13. Robot

Many of the Hapsburg lands required serfs by law and custom to provide service or robot to the lords

14. Pugachev’s Rebellion Peter the Great gave whole villages to favored nobles and Catherine the Great confirmed the

authority of nobles in exchange for political cooperation. o Culminated the Rebellion

Emelyan Pugachev promised the serfs land and freedom from the lordso The rebellion was brutally stopped

15. English Game Laws English landowners had the right to hunt game

o By law only people with a particular amount of property would be allowed to hunt certain game.

o Examples: hares partridges, pheasants, and moor fowl’o Any unauthorized person who would hunt deer would receive the capital offenceo The merchants and the serfs were not allowed to hunt

1. This allowed the landowners to put commercial wealth behind land wealth2. Serfs were not allowed because it would disrupt their work

This showed laws representing the economic and social status16. Higglers

People who started poaching for food and for profit Worked with the coachmen to smuggle game into the city, where it would be sold for a high

price

17. Family Economy The household was the basic unit of production and consummation

o The household mode of organization predominated on farms, in artisans’ workshops and in small merchants’ shops

Employed people from the family in most cases o Cities had a few exceptions

18. Neolocalism It was assumed that families lived in and extended settings. This is not true; they would go to other settings to enter the workforce

o They would form and independent household which is neolocalism Usually only one child would be trained as an artisan because they were needed for the work

force19. Servant

A person who was hired usually under a contract to work for the head of the household in exchange for room, board, and wages

Person was usually young and was not lower than the employer Became servants because their labor was not needed in the household or could earn more

money Gave them skills to run their own household

20. “economy of expedients”21. Puerperal Fever

This fever killed many women after childbirth22. Foundling Hospitals

The Founding hospitals took care for abandoned children They grew in number The most famous were the Paris Foundling Hospital and the London Foundling Hospital

23. Jethro Tull (not the band) Experimented on land to find better methods to raise crops His idea for using iron plows to turn the earth more deeply was helpful

24. Charles “Turnip” Townsend Taught the Dutch how to cultivate sandy soil using fertilizers Also instituted crop rotation

o This allowed nutrients to reenter the soil and supplied animal foddero Livestock could be raised, which increased the amount of manure needed for crops

25. Robert Bakewell Started a new method of animal breeding that produced more or better animals and more milk

and meat26. Arthur Young

Edited Annals of Agriculture and became the secretary of the British Board of Agriculture Traveled across Europe and wrote many books

27. Enclosure Farming (Enclosures) Land would be enclosed to achieve greater commercial profits Block fielding was used and the unproductive land was rejuvenated Caused turmoil and riot because they disrupted small traditional communities, and forced off

individual farmers, and poor cottage dwellers who lived in the waste land It actually increased population contrary to popular beliefs

28. Open-Field Method Most of the land was farmed Tilled unconnected strips The rotation of only two or three field systems still left a large portion of land unproductive

Though there was more manure for fertilizers, the production was too slow for the increasing demand

29. Industrial Revolution Industrialization of the economy and the economic growth

o Economy expanded at an uninterrupted paceo It made mass production of goods possibleo Called for new skills, new discipline in work, and a large labor forceo Met consumer’s demando Raised the standard of living and overcame poverty

Industrialization had a social cost 30. Domestic System (putting-out system)

Many farmers manufactured goods in the wintero The agents merchants would take raw materials to peasants who would make the

finish producto The merchants then paid the peasants and sold the product

This could not always work because the machines became too large to keep at home, and the factor system was developed in a way that would not allow for the domestic system to continue

31. James Kay (flying shuttle) The weavers could make textiles, but the spinners did not have the equipment to produce as

much thread as the weavers needed The flying shuttle increased the productivity of the weavers

32. Richard Arkwright (water frame) The invention of the water frame allowed for the textile manufacture to move out of the

house and into a factory It is a water-powered device designed to permit the production of a purely cotton fabric,

rather than a cotton fabric containing linen fiber for durability 33. Edmund Cartwright

Invented the power loom for machine weaving34. James Watt

The mills were located in in the country did not employ more than two dozen workers The invention of the steam engine allowed factories to be located in or near urban centers

o Increased and regularized the available energyo Allowed for industrialization and urbanization

35. Thomas Newcomen The first practical use of steam power in an engine

o The piston of the device moved when the steam condensed into the cylinder, causing the piston to fall

o It was large and inefficient in its use of energy because both the condenser and the cylinder were heated making it impossible to move

36. Frederick The Great Frederick the Great gave special privileges to those who worked to create iron

o They were exempt from quartering troops, taxes and serviceso They are allowed to purchase anything that they desire and will receive the best

qualityo They will be paid wages promptly in casho Receiving free lodging and firingo They can leave with their property

37. Priscilla Wakefield She was a writer demanded for more occupations for women

She was concerned that women found themselves able to persue only occupations that paid poorly

Women should receive equal rights and privleges38. Bourgeoisie

They was the middle class They were not rising to challenge nobility

o Both were seeking to add new dimensions to their existing political power and social prestige

o The tensions were involving issues of power sharing or access to political influence rather than the values or goals associated with the class

39. Artisans They were servants and they were highly vulnerable Many lived in a shop and their primary institutions were guilds

o Preserve jobs and skills of their memberso Also provided a framework for social and economic advancement

40. Lord George Gordon The Protestant spirit came into the Gordon riots Lord Gordon raised the specter of and imaginary Catholic plot after the government relieved

military recruits from having to take specifically anti-Catholic oathso This was a way that people can express themselves

41. Ghettos Jews of Europe lived apart in separate communities from non-Jewish Europeans They lived under discriminatory legislation Couldn’t pay their loans  Lived in poverty

42. Samuel Oppenheimer Some Jews had helped finance the wars of major rulers and were known as  « court Jews » Helped the Habsburg finance their struggle against the Turks and the defense of Vienna

43. Catherine the Great Annexed Belorussia, bringing a new Jewish minority under her imperial government Jews tried to petition to protect certain rights

Chapter 17 (The Transatlantic Economy, Trade Wars, and Colonial Rebellion):TERMS:1 “2nd Hundred Years War”

The second era of the period largely concerned a colonial trade rivalry amoung France, Spain, and Great Britain

Commercial goals and trade lead to intense rivalry and conflict in key imperial trouble spots Because countries wanted control they built up their navies and fostered a series of major naval

wars the conflicts in turn became linked t conflict on European land Anglo-French side of war compared to a 2nd hundred years war

2. Treaty of Utrecht (1713) (throughout chapter) Established boundaries of empire during the first half of the century Replaced the Spanish Habsburgs with the Bourbons of France on the Spanish Throne Gave two special privileges to Great Britain:

o Brits received a 30 yr asiento (contract) to furnish slaves to the Spanisho Gained the right to send one ship a year to the trading fair at Portobello (see 16)

3. Mercantilism/Mercantile System Terms were invented by later opponent sand critics of the system whereby governments heavily

regulated trade and commerce with the hope of increasing national wealth Many believed it necessary for a nation to gain a favorable trade balance of gold and silver

bullion nation was truly wealthy if it had more than other countries Mercantilist statesmen and traders regarded the world as an arena of scarce resources and

economic limitation Colonies used to provide markets and natural resources for the industries of the home country,

home country would protect its colonies both sides assumed the colonies were the inferior partner in the relationship

Mercantile empires:o Spain:

Controlled all of mainland South America (except for brazil which was controlled by Portugal)

Ruled Florida, Mexico, California, and the Southwest Governed Central America, islands of Cuba, Puerto Rico and half of Hispaniola

o Great Britain: Colonies along North Atlantic seaboard, Nova Scotia, Newfoundland, Jamaica

and Barbados

Also had a few trading stations on the Indian subcontinento France:

Controlled Saint Lawrence River valley and Ohio and Mississippi River valley West Indian islands of Saint Domigue (Hispaniola), Guadeloupe, and Martinique

and some stations in India.o United Netherlands:

Controlled Surinam (Dutch Guiana) in South America and various trading stations in Ceylon ad Bengal

Important: the controlled trade with Java (now Indonesia) Opened these markets largely in the 17th century created a vast trading empire

far larger in extent, wealth, and importance than one would expect from the size of the United Netherlands

o All: Had smaller islands in the Caribbean Major rivalries existed between France, Spain and Britain

4. “Golden age of smugglers” The governments could not control the activities of all their subjects (colonies) In the 18th century colonies tried to trade with one another (it was cheaper for them)

5. Factories The original European footholds in India (trading posts) They existed through privilegesgranted by various indian governments

6. Joseph Dupleix French (1697-1763) Saw the lack of a strong government in India as an opportunity for expanding the control of his

respective companies To maintain their own security and to expand privileges, both Dupleix’s and Clive’s companies

began to take over the government of some regions Different European groups wanted to dominate each other

7. Robert Clive British (1725-1774) See Joseph Dupleix

8. Isabella of Castile Queen (r. 1474-1504) who comissioned Columbus Link between the New World and Spain was because of that technicallity (it was the Crown of

Castile) Very powerful both at home and abroad

9. Audiencas Viceroyalties (the chief executives in the New World who carried out the laws promulgated by

the Council of the Indies) were divided into several subordinate judicial councils called audiencas10. Corregidores

The most important local officers who presided over municipal councils Self government scarecely existed

11. Casa de Contratación The Hous of Trade in Seville regulated all trade with the New World

12. Cádiz The only port authorized for sue in the American Trade

13. Casa The most infuential institution of the Spanish Emire Its mercants worked clsely with the Consulado (Merchant Guild)

14. Consulado

The Merchant Guild of Sevilla and other groups involved with American commerce in Cadiz15. Flota

Fleet of commercial vessels controlled by Seville merchants and escorted by warships carried merchandise from Spain to a few specialized ports in America (including Portobello, Veracruz, and Cartagena on the Atlantic Coast)

16. Portobello fair The chief means of facilitating trade between the western coast of Siuth American and Spain Way to restrict trade in Latin American Empire to a few ports

17. Ferdinand VI (r. 1746-1759) During his reign, the midcentury wars exposed the vulnerability of the empire to naval attack and

economic penetration Spain emerged as a defeated power in 1763 Gov circles believed that further changes in the colonial system had to occur

18. Charles III (r. 1759-1788) Most important of the royal imperial reformers attempted to reassert Spain’s control of the

empire Emphasized royal ministers instead of councils Role of Council of the Indies (est with Castile) and the Casa de Contratacion lessened After 1765, abolished monopolies of Seville and Cadiz permitted other Spanish cities to trade

with America Opened more South American and Caribbean ports to trade and Authorize some commerce

between Spanish ports in America 1776, organized a fourth viceroyalty in Rio de la Plata (included much of present-day Argentina,

Uruguay, Paraguay, and Bolivia) Attempted to increase the efficiency of tax collection and to end bureaucratic corruption

19. Intendant Loyal royal bureaucrats that Charles III introduced to Spain

20. Peninsulares Persons born in Spain Had some of the best jobs in the New World

21. Creoles Persons of European descent born in Spanish Colonies Felt like second class citizens

22. Bight of Benin Major source for slaves slave market here

23. Bight of Biafra Major source for slaves slave market here

24. Euro-African phenomenon Africans became a major social presence on the islands o f the West Indies and in major cities of

Spanish and Portuguese South America African labor and African immigrant slave communities were the most prominent social feature

of these regions25. Olaudah Equiano

One of the most popular and influential slave narratives of the late 18th century and early 19th

Original from Nigeria, was captured and brought to America as a slave Was able to become free and then traveled the Caribbean, Atlantic, Mediterranean and the Arctic

Ocean His life was an argument against slavery as many slave owners believed that slaves were not

smart enough to live on their own and be free26. Seasoning

Occurred in America with plantation owners

The process newly arrived Africans would go through to prepare them for the laborious discipline of slavery and made to understand that they were not free.

Sometimes included a new name, acquiring new work skills, and somewhat learning local European language

Sometimes new slaves would work as older slaves apprentice 27. Asiento

contract28. Robert Jenkins

In 1731 this English captain had his ear cut off by Spaniards while they were searching his ship (making sure they were not taking more goods than allowed)

He carried this ear around in a jar of brandy Not a big deal until 1738 when he went in front of the English parliament and showed them his

ear and said it was an example of the Spanish atrocities to the British merchants in the West Indies

Ultimately GB and Spain went to war29. Maria Theresa

Greatest achievement: the preservation of the Habsburg Empire as a major political power Was 23 and had succeed to the Habsburgs realms only two moths before the invasion (Frederick

II invaded the Austrian province of Silesia in eastern Germany in 1740) She recognized Hungary as the most important of her crowns promised Magyars some local

autonomy Preserved the Habsburg state, but at a cost to the power of the central monarchy

30. Treaty of Aix-la Chapelle Ended the war that started with the Austrian succession (included France, GB, Germany, Prussia

and Austria) in 1748 Results:

o Prussia retained Silesiao Spain renewed asiento agreement (contract) with GB

More of a truce than a permanent peace31. Wenzel Anton Kaunitz

Maria Theresa’s foreign minister (1711-1794) He always wanted an alliance with France to help dismember Prussia May 1756. France and Austria signed a defensive alliance He reversed the direction that French policy had gone in since the 16th century

32. Frederick The Great He began the Seven Years War in 1756 Believed invading Saxony would be a preemptive strike against a conspiracy that included

Saxony, Austria, and France to destroy Prussian power Thought the invasion was defensive He was a very stubborn leader Was able to make peace with Prussia which allowed him to hold off Austria and France Treaty of Hubertusburg of 1763 ended the conflict no real changes to borders After Seven Years War, he got the nickname “Fredrick the Great”

33. William Pitt the Elder (1708-1778) Created Britain’s greatest victories Secretary of State, in charge of the war in 1757 Prime Minister North America was his major concern not regional European conflicts Sent 40,000 regular English and colonial troops against the French and Canada He also wanted the major islands of the French West Indies Because of Pitt, between 1755 and 1760, France colonial trade value fell by 80%

34. Battle of Plassey Britain (Robert Clive) defeated the French in 1757 opened the way for eventual conquest of

Bengal and later all of India35. Treaty of Paris (1763)

Reflected less of a victory than what Britain had actually won Pitt was no longer in office France lost all claims to Canada, gave Louisiana to Spain Britain received Spanish Florida, Upper Canada, and some French holdings overseas. The treaty ensured the colonial and maritime supremacy of Britain Strengthened the 13 American colonies by removing their European rivals to the north and the

south. 36. George III (r. 1760-1820)

Argued with Pitt over policy Ruled during the American Revolution and French revolution

37. Earl of Bute (1713-1792) Favorite of George III Responsible for the peace settlement of the seven years war Britain received all of Canada, the Ohio River Valley, and eastern half of the Mississippi River

Valley Britain returned Pondicherry and Chandernagore in India and the West Indian sugar islands of

Guadeloupe and Martinique to the French38. Seven Years War (okay everyone, this was really confusing in the book so this is some info from history.com)

France and Britain struggled unofficially mainly in the Ohio River Valley 1756 British suffered defeats against the French and Native American alliances. 1757 British Prime Minister William Pitt borrowed heavily for the war. Pitt financed Prussia

who was against France and her allies in Europe and reimbursed the colonies for the raising of armies in North America.

By 1760, the French were no longer in Canada by 1763 all of France's allies in Europe had either made a separate peace with Prussia or had been defeated.

Spanish attempts to aid France in the Americas had failed, and France also suffered defeats against British forces in India.

1762 Empress Elizabeth of Russia dies Tsar Peter III succeeds and he's basically obsessed with Frederick so he immediately makes peace with prussia

Ended with the signing of the treaties of Hubertusburg and Paris in February 1763. 39. Sugar Act

Britain wanted more revenue 1764 Attempted to produce more revenue from imports into the colonies by the rigorous collection of

what was actually a lower tax Smugglers caught avoiding the tax would be tried in courts without juries

40. George Grenville Sugar act passed under his ministry

41. Stamp Act Year after the Sugar act, stamp act was passed Put a tax on legal documents and some other items like newspapers Repealed in 1766

42. Charles Townshend (1725-1767) Chancellor of the Exchequer British finance minister Led parliament to pass a series of revenue acts relating to colonial imports Colonists resisted

The resulting tensions escalated and eventually brought about the Boston massacre in March 1770 5 civilians killed

1770 all Townshend duties except for the one on tea were repealed43. Lord North (1732-1792)

The ministry under him was determined to assert the authority of Parliament over resistant colonies

44. Intolerable Acts 1774 the series of laws that parliament passed in 1774 These measures closed the port of Boston, reorganized the government of Massachusetts, allowed

troops to be quartered in private homes, and removed the trials of royal custom officials to England

45. Conciliation Not found between US and GB First Continental Congress (sept 1774) hoped to persuade Parliament to restore self-government

in the colonies and to abandon its attempt at direct supervision no conciliation Second Continental Congress (may 1775) still sought conciliation no progress and it begin to

conduct the government of the colonies46. Thomas Paine/Common Sense (1737-1809)

Wrote the pamphlet Common Sense in the winter of 1775 galvanized public opinion in favor of separating from GB

A colonial army and navy were organized47. John Trenchard (1662-1723)

One of the most influential writers of the 18th century He was a Commonwealthman (they held republican political ideas that had their intellectual roots

in the most radical thought of the Puritan revolution)48. Thomas Gordon (d.1750)

One of the most influential writers of the 18th century Also a commonwealthman (they held republican political ideas that had their intellectual roots in

the most radical thought of the Puritan revolution) He wrote Cato’s Letters (1720-1723) in them he relentlessly criticized the government

patronage and parliamentary management of Sir Robert Walpole and his successors. 49. Cato’s Letters (1720-23)

Thomas Gordon relentlessly criticized the government patronage and parliamentary management of Sir Robert Walpole and his successors if England's rules were corrupt then they could not expect a balanced constitution to save them from tyranny.

50. John Wilkes (1725-1797)/ The North Briton Problems with him began in 1763 London political radical and member of Parliament Published a newspaper called the The North Briton in issue 45, Wilkes criticized Lord Bute’s

handling of the peace negotiations in France Was arrested under the authority of a general warrant issued by the secretary of state pleaded

the privileges of a member of parliament and was released House of Commons ruled that issue number 45 constituted libel and it expelled Wilkes fled

the country and was outlawed He gained a lot of support and many popular demonstrations were held in his cause In 1768, Wilkes returned to England and again stood for election in Parliament won the

election, but the House of Commons (under George III’s friends) refused to seat him He was elected 3 more times and after the 4th, House of Commons just ignored him Was supported by lower class shopkeepers, artisans, and small-property owners “Wilkes and Liberty” became the slogan for radicals Wilkes was finally seated in 1774 after becoming the lord mayor of London

51. Christopher Wyvil (1740-1822) In 1778, he organized the Yorkshire Association Movement He was a landowner and a retired clergyman

52. Yorkshire Association Movement Founded by Wyvil Property owners of Yorkshire met in a mass meeting to demand moderate changes in the corrupt

system of parliamentary procedures Also organized societies elsewhere They wanted to examine and ultimately reform the entire government Was the Association Movement which was a popular attempt to establish an extralegal institution

to reform the gov The movement collapsed in the early 1780s because its supporters were not willing to appeal for

broad popular support In April 1780, the Commons ultimately did pass a resolution that called for lessening the power

of the crown53. Charles James Fox (1749-1806)

A longtime critic of George III Lord North had to form a ministry with him because of parliament changes

Chapter 18 (The Age of Enlightenment: Eighteenth-Century Thought:

1. Philosophe Writers and critics of the Enlightenment Forged new attitudes favorable to change Championed reform Flourished in emerging print culture Application of reason and logic to all contemporary institutions

2. Voltaire Most influential of philosophes Offended French and went to England

o Liked England’s tolerant intellectual and religious climateo Also saw England’s scientific and economic prosperity

Letters on the English praised English virtues and criticized abuses of French society Elements of the Philosophy of Newton popularized Newton Writings made him “literary dictator” of Europe Satire and sarcasm to attack French and Europe as a whole Believed humanity and society could be improved

o Wasn’t sure if reforms would lasto Candide

3. Candideo Voltaireo Attacked war, religious persecution, and what he saw as unwarranted optimism about the human

condition4. “print culture”

Culture where books, journals, newspapers, and pamphlets had their own status Increase in print of those things Prose as valued as poetry and emergence of the novel Focus on secular parts of daily life Growth of public and private libraries

5. Isaac Newton Major intellectual forerunner to the Enlightenment

o Law of universal gravitation exemplified power of human mindo Emphasis on concrete experienceo Pattern of rationality in natural world

6. John Locke Major intellectual forerunner to the Enlightenment

o Inspired by Newton to explain human psychology in terms of experience Tabula rasa

7. “tabula rasa” Locke Ideas that humans’ minds are blank slates at birth

o Experience, and only experience, shape character Human nature is changeable Reformer’s psychology

8. The Spectator Popular publication by Joseph Addison and Richard Steele Fostered value of polite conversation and reading of books

o Coffeehouses as center for this9. Coffeehouses

Enlightenment center for public discussiono Less unruly behavior than in taverns because of lack of alcoholo Only for meno Furnished copies of printed materials

Coffee was a chief Turkish contribution to Western diet Because coffee and sugar came from New World plantations, they were connected to slave trade

10. Alexander Pope Prominent Enlightenment author Exemplifies one of the first times an author could make a living from writing

o Actually grew wealthyo Authorship based on merit and commercial competition, not heredity and patronage

11. “Public Opinion” New social force that came from the Enlightenment Grew increasingly influential because of expansion of literate public and growing influence of secular

printed materials Collective effect on political and social life of views circulated in print and discussed

12. Encyclopedia Compilation of major ideas of the era

o Part of a collective plea for freedom of expressiono Contained work from over 100 authors

Included all major French philosophes Most advanced critical ideas on religion, government, and philosophy from the time Beat censorship by hiding controversial ideas in obscurity or irony Also included things about manufacturing, canal building, ship construction, and

improved agriculture One of the greatest achievements of the Enlightenment Designed to secularize learning and undermine intellectual assumptions that lingered from Middle Ages

and Reformation Helped Enlightenment penetrate German and Russian intellectual circles

13. Denis Diderot

Authored Encyclopedia with Jean Le Rond d’Alembert14. Deism

Enlightenment religious movement Combine a life of religion and reason

o Religion as natural and rational, not supernatural, mystical, and phenomenalo Anticlericalo Empirical existence of Godo God favored rational morality

Life after death determined by virtue of life led on eartho Religious toleration

15. John Toland Early deist author Christianity Not Mysterious

16. Christianity Not Mysterious John Toland Religion as natural and rational, not supernatural

o Separate from Locke and Newton who both were Christiano God as divine watchmaker who created and then let happen

17. Joseph Addison Deist poet Poem on spacious firmament

o Belief in existence of Godo Use of nature to empirically justify existence of God

18. Treatise on Tolerance Voltaire Made case for Jean Calas

o Judicial authorities overturned the caseo Case was representative of results of religious fanaticism

19. Jean Calas Huguenot persecuted by Roman Catholic authorities in Toulouse Accused of murdering son to prevent him from converting to Catholicism

o Tortured and strangledo Never admitted guilt

Would have still died Would have been propaganda for Catholics

20. Philosophical Dictionary Voltaire Questioned truthfulness of priests and morality of Bible

o Inconsistences between biblical narratives and actions of biblical heroes21. David Hume

Scottish philosopher Inquiry into Human Nature

22. Inquiry into Human Nature Hume No empirical evidence to support divine miracles central to Christianity

23. Edward Gibbon English historian The Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire

o Explanation of rise of Christianity in natural, non-miraculous, terms24. Baron d’Holbach

Enlightenment philosophe Embraced positions very near to atheism and materialism

o Only an extreme view of philosophes25. Immanuel Kant

German philosopher Had view representative of most philosophes in regards to religion

o Religion within the Limits of Reason Aloneo No abolition of religiono Transformation of religion into humane force that would promote virtuous living

26. Baruch Spinoza Jewish figure of Enlightenment who lived in the Netherlands

o Son of Jewish merchanto Deeply influenced by new science of 17th centuryo Use of human reason to conceptualize traditional thought

Set example for secularized version of Judaism Ethics Theologico-Political Treatise

27. Ethics Spinoza Close identification of God and nature

o Condemned by contemporaries Left little room for divine revelation in scripture Lack of personal responsibility of humans Condemned as atheist

28. Theologico-Political Treatise Spinoza Described the origins of religion in natural terms

o Basically anticipated Enlightenment thoughts Argued that organized religion led people away from scriptures

29. Moses Mendelsohn Jewish figure of Enlightenment who lived in Germany

o Known as Jewish Socrates Established outlines of an assimilationist position Judaism and rationalism Jerusalem/ On Ecclesiastical Power and Judaism

o Advancement of religious toleration Religious diversity did not harm loyalty

o Distinctiveness of Jewish communities No excommunication over theological differences

o Judaism as one of many paths to God30. The Persian Letters

Supposedly written by two Muslim Persians visiting Europe Montesquieu Used Muslim culture as a foil to criticize European culture

o Biting satire31. Montesquieu (also p. 604)

French lawyer, noble, and member of provincial parlement The Persian Letters Spirit of the Laws Also visited England and liked its institutions

32. Spirit of the Laws (also p. 604) Montesquieu Upheld British constitution as wisest way to regulate power of government Use of empirical method

o Study of ancient and modern nations determined that there could be no universal set of lawso Had to use country’s size, population, social and religious customs, economic structure,

traditions, and climate to determine its form of government Division of power with Britain as an example

o Executive, legislative, and judicial where any two branches could check the power of the othero Profound effect on liberal democracieso Misunderstood corruption and emerging cabinet system in Britain

View of Franceo Monarchial government with limits from aristocracy, towns, and other things that had liberty that

monarch had to respect Those limiting institutions would protect the peoples’ liberty Conservative

o Thought absolutism had degraded France Association of Islam and passivity of people who were ruled by despots

o Religious leaders in Ottoman Empire prevented technological advances33. Mary Wortley Montagu

Wife of British ambassador to Turkey One of Islam’s most positive 18th century commentators Turkish Embassy Letters

34. Turkish Embassy Letters Montagu’s letters about her experiences

o Had access to private quarters of women Praised Ottoman and Muslim society

o Vaccination against smallpoxo Freedom and good treatment of upper class womeno Magnificence of architechture

Decried comments hostile to Islam as mostly completely wrong35. Social Science

Idea originated during Enlightenment Philosophes hoped to end human cruelty with social laws

o Most evident in their works on law and prisons36. Cesare Beccaria

Italian philosophe On Crimes and Punishment

37. On Crimes and Punishment Beccaria Critical analysis to problem of making punishments both effective and just

o Conformity of laws of monarchs and legislatures with laws of natureo Attack against torture and capital punishmento Speedy trial, certain punishment, and purpose of punishment was deterrence

Utilitarian philosophyo Laws not meant to impose will of God or perfect idealo Greatest good for greatest amount of people

38. Physiocrats Name of economic reformers in France

Mercantilism actually hurt the economy Primary role of government was to protect property and allow it to be used freely

o Economic production depended on sound agriculture Consolidation of small farms into larger, more efficient ones

39. Adam Smith Scottish economist Most important economist of the Enlightenment Wealth of Nations

40. Wealth of Nations Smith Economic liberty was foundation of natural economic system

o Opposed to Mercantilism Supposed to preserve wealth of nation, capture wealth from other nations, and maximize

work available for nation’s laborers Actually hindered expansion of wealth and production

o Best way to encourage economic growth was to leave people to their own selfish devices Market would expand as individuals tried to become rich by meeting needs of others Consumers would find their wants met as manufacturers competed for business

Resources of nature were not finiteo Contrary to Mercantilismo Could be exploited for human advancement

Laissez-faire Four-stage theory

41. Laissez-faire Smith Limited role for government in economic matters

o Did not oppose all government activity Government should provide schools, militaries, and roads Government should undertake enterprises that were economically desirable but too

expensive or risky for private industry42. Four-stage theory

Enlightenment theory of human social and economic developmento Hunting and gathering with little to no settle lifeo Pastoral or herding with nomadic tendencies and some private propertyo Agricultural with settlement and clear private propertyo Commercial

Advanced cities Widespread manufacturing for consumption Extensive trade between urban and rural areas Elaborate forms of property and financial arrangements

The higher up, the more advancedo Easy to evaluate societyo Europeans were top level

Justified future European imperialism and economic dominance Carrying out mission to civilize society

Smith’s Wealth of Nations43. Rousseau

French philosophe Strange and isolated from other philosophes who made him uncomfortable Few close friends

Deep apathy for world and society in which he lived Discourse on the Moral Effects of the Arts The Social Contract

44. Discourse on the Moral Effects of the Arts Rousseau Process of civilization and Enlightenment had corrupted human nature

45. The Social Contract Rousseau Question of what constitutes a good life

o Questions about concepts of material and intellectual progresso Question about morality of society in which commerce and industry were most important

Outlines general reforms and political structure that Rousseau thought would overcome evils of contemporary politics and society

Certain societal chains are necessary Contradictory with rest of Enlightenment thinkers

Society is more important than individual members People could do little on their own Have to create society where people behave morally

Society with personal liberty and people being loyal to larger community Freedom defined as obedience to the law Law to be obeyed was general will (majority in a democracy) Radical direct democracy and forcing some people to be free

Basically diametrically opposed to contemporary society46. Salon

Places where philosophes could access useful social and political contacts Women who ran salons were well connected politically Also helped philosophes to sell their work

Also receptive environment to Enlightenment ideas47. Mary Wollstonecraft

Vindication of the Rights of Women Brought Rousseau before judgment of rational Enlightenment ideal of progressive knowledge

48. Vindication of the Rights of Women Wollstonecraft Opposed to certain ideals of French Revolution that hurt women Accused Rousseau and other traditionalists of attempting to hold women back from experience

o Rousseau’s separate spheres for women made them sensual slaves to meno Would not allow society to progress

Broadened Enlightenment to rights of women as well as those of men49. Peter the Great

Monarch of Russia Voltaire saw him as forming Russia

o Voltaire was a monarchist50. Catherine the Great

Master of public relationso Image of being Enlightened

Read philosophes’ works Financially subsidized Diderot Corresponded a lot with Voltaire

Enlightened despoto Enlightenment convinced her that Russia was backward and needed reform

Understood importance of political constituencies because of weakness of rulers before hero Knew reform would need support of nobles and other political elites

Some administrative reformo Support to rights and power of nobility and gave them local offices rather than creating a royal

bureaucracyo Charter of Nobility

Continued economic development from Peter the Greato Suppression of internal trade barrierso Expansion of urban middle class in order to expand trade

Tried to stay friendly with philosophes so that they would give her a progressive image Territorial expansion

o Drive for warm-water ports (of course… it’s Russia) War with Ottoman Turks Ports on Black Sea

o Status as protectorate of Orthodox Christians in Ottoman Empire would lead to future conflict with France which was protectorate of Roman Catholics

51. Enlightened Absolutism Monarchs implementing Enlightenment reforms

o Most philosophes were ok with power if it was used in this wayo Rational strengthening of central absolutist organization at cost of lesser political powers

Monarchs did this because it strengthened them, their states, and their militaries52. Frederick II

Enlightened despot Wanted recovery and consolidation of Prussia following midcentury military losses

o Retook Silesia from Austria Great military and financial cost Could use it as manufacturing district

Agricultural policieso Imported workers from outside of Prussiao State supervised advancements

Draining swamps New crops introduced Peasants compelled to move when necessary

o Came from monarchy and bureaucracyo Most Prussians were hurt by large tax burden

Non-economic policies fared bettero Tolerance for Catholics and Jews in Lutheran country

Allowed state to benefit from foreign workers Most major positions were still held by Protestants

o Codification of Prussian Law Rationalize existing legal policy to increase efficiency Reduce regions’ strange laws Reduce power of aristocracy Saw it as means of extending and strengthening royal power

o Replacement of personal monarchy with impersonal state53. Joseph II of Austria

Embodied rational, impersonal forceo Had noble intentions of improving the lives of his peopleo Led to a series of aristocratic and peasant revolts

Son of Maria Theresa and also co-ruler while she was still alive Wanted to expand territories towards Poland, Bavaria, and Ottoman Empire Main goal was to increase power of Habsburg emperor over his realms

o Expand influence into areas of influence that his mother avoided Reduction of Hungarian autonomy by allowing his officials to rule it locally and having

governmental business done in German exclusivelyo Ecclesiastical matters

Catholic but favored toleration of Lutherans, Calvinists, and Greek Orthodox Also removed some taxes from Jews but didn’t give them full equality Made bishops go through him to talk to Pope Shut down many monasteries and took their land but still had orders for education and

hospitals Essential made Catholic priests employees of the state

o Economic and Agrarian Reforms Abolished many internal tariff and encouraged infrastructure improvements Sought to moderate treatment of serfs and allow for royal oversight Abolished serfdom Reduce burdens on serfs to make them more productive Abolished robot and spread tax burden to all landed peoples

54. Maria Theresa Mother of Joseph II and also jointly ruled with him Guaranteed aristocracy major independence during War of Austrian Succession

o Built more bureaucracy after the waro Reforms in Austria and Bohemia

More efficient taxes, even on clergy and nobles Central councils to deal with governmental problems Expansion and monarchial domination of education

o Concerned about serfs Extended royal bureaucracy to limit amount of work they could be forced to do

Devout Roman Catholic but she didn’t allow Church to limit her authorityo Discouraged radical Catholicismo Opposed toleration

55. Robot Amount of labor an Austrian serf was forced to do Limited by Maria Theresa because she was concerned about serfs Abolished by Joseph II

56. Josephinism Describes ecclesiastical policies of Joseph II Essential gave him power over Church in his territories and made Catholic priests state employees Thought to prefigure policies of French Revolution

57. Charter of Nobility Catherine the Great Guaranteed nobles many rights and privileges

o Almost a necessity because of power of nobleso Not enough educated people to form royal bureaucracyo Strengthened her ruling stability

58. The Partition of Poland Divided Poland among Russia, Prussia, and Austria

o Helped alleviate fears after Russia military successes under Catherine the Great

o Russia abandoned going after the Danubian provinces (which Austria wanted) in return for a large swath of Poland

o Prussia got provinces that helped to connect all its territory in return for not aiding the Ottomanso Austria got a province with important salt mineso Possible because Polish nobility tried to hold on to local autonomy

Showed that nations without a strong, unified government was necessary to compete in the new European state system

Chapter 19: The French Revolution:1. Louis XV

French king Didn’t have character to fix French problems

o Morally and politically corrupt court Appointed Rene Maupeou

o Tried to break parlements and increase bureaucratic taxeso Death of Louis XV doomed his plan

2. Louis XVI French king Didn’t have character to fix French problems

o Morally and politically corrupt courto Indecisiveo Wanted popular support so he gave parlements their powers back

Overthrown, imprisoned, and beheaded during French Revolution3. Jacques Necker

Swiss banker Director-general of French finances Argued that France wasn’t really that bad off

o Budget surplus without expenditures for American Revolutiono Large portion of expenditures went to pensions of aristocrats

Angered many so he was removed Report made it more difficult to argue for tax increases

4. Charles de Calonne Minister of Finance Charles Alexandre de Calonne

o Encourage internal tradeo Lower some taxes (gabelle on salt)o Transform peasants’ services to money paymentso New land tax that would be required regardless of social class

Monarchy could have abandoned indirect taxes Less need to seek approval for additional taxes by regional parlements New local assemblies to approve such taxes

Eventually dismissed by Louis XVI5. Gabelle

French tax on salt Calonne’s plan would have lowered this tax, among others

6. Assembly of the Notables Upper ranks of Church and aristocracy Calonne sought their support for his land tax plan

o Refused the plan Claimed only Estates General had right to approve new taxes

Estates General was dominated by Church and aristocracyo Gave counter measure

More direct control of government for them Necker back as finance minister

7. Estates General Medieval French institution with power to consent to new taxes Traditionally dominated by aristocrats and Church Called by Louis XVI and Etienne Charles Lomenie de Brienne in response to financial crisis Caused major political change

o Some historians believe that this brought out clash between aristocracy and bourgeoisieo Others believe both groups commonly resented absolutism

Conflict during negotiation of social groupso Others believe that calling created political vacuum

Structured into three estateso First was clergyo Second was aristocracyo Third was theoretically everyone else

Representatives typically from most wealthy of everyone else Didn’t want to permit monarchy and aristocracy to determine the future of the

nationo All men

Aristocrats made power grabo Said each estate should be equal in number and vote so that the first two estates would

dominate the thirdo Third estate wanted to have double the members and voting by member not estate

allowing it to dominate8. Third Republic (not in book)

France’s third republic that lasted from 1870-1940 Some historians argue that it took until its establishment to end the political turmoil started by the

French Revolution9. Abbé Siéyés

Wrote pamphlet entitled “What Is the Third Estate?”o Contrasted vital contributions of third estate to exclusion from political and social

privilegeo Image of third estate in direct conflict with aristocracy (not monarchy)

More complex than this Both groups disliked the monarchy

Exemplified third estate’s representatives who wouldn’t let aristocracy and monarchy control future of the nation

10. Cahiers de doléances List of grievances registered by local electors Brought by representatives to the Estates General Criticisms

o Government wasteo Indirect taxeso Church taxes and corruptiono Hunting rights of the aristocracy

Reformso Periodic meetings of Estates General

o More equitable taxeso More local control of administrationo Unified weights and measures to help with tradeo Free press

Overwhelming demand in all for equal rights for all subjects11. National Constituent Assembly

Created by Third Estate as new legislative assembly to replace Estates Generalo Joined by lower clergyo Second Estate voted to join

Tennis Court Oath forced Louis XVI to recognize this as legislative bodyo Quickly joined by first and second estateso Voting was to occur by head

Allowed commoners of third estate to dominateo Had nothing further occurred revolution would have been successful

Monarchy could govern only in cooperation with assembly Majority of members from all three estates wanted liberal administrative,

constitutional, and economic reforms12. Tennis Court Oath

Members of National Assembly were locked out of usual meeting place Sat at tennis court and took an oath not to stop until they had given France a new constitution Forced Louis XVI to recognized rights of National Assembly

13. Marie Antoinette Queen to Louis XVI Advised Louis to disrupt the National Assembly

o He did when he dismissed finance minister without Assembly’s consento Mistake proved fatal because most of Assembly no longer wanted constitutional

monarchy after Louis’ resistance14. Marquis de Lafayette

French hero in American Revolutionary War Offered and accepted command of National Guard Created cockade of revolution

15. Storming of the Bastille Citizens who had elected representatives to the Third Estate had continued to meet and were

organizing a militiao Regarded dismissal of finance minister as offensive by Louis XVI against National

Assemblyo Went to Bastille in search of weapons

Were fired upon by guards Stormed the fortress and released seven prisoners as well as killing several troops

and the governor Force, the militia of Paris, called itself the National Guard

o Group was recognized by Louis XVI as legitimate government of the city Symbolic for a couple of reasons

o Bastille had been used to house political prisonerso Redirected course of revolution

First journee Showed that people were also independent political force with own goals outside

of the National Assembly16. Cockade

Badge created by Marquis de Lafayette as symbol for National Guard

Emblem later became official flag of revolutionary France (is French flag) Worn by Louis XVI when he entered Paris after storming of the Bastille to give group of electors

right to legitimately govern city17. Journées

Days when the populace changed the course of the French Revolutiono Showed that National Assembly wouldn’t be the only one to control direction of

Revolution First was storming of the Bastille

18. Great Fear Group of peasant disturbances during same time as urban disturbances after storming of the

Bastilleo Caused by rumors of royal troops being sent into countrysideo Intensified peasant disturbances from the spring

Burning of castles, destruction of records and documents, and refusal to pay feudal dues were common

Peasants were determined to take land and food supplies that they thought were rightfully theirs

Elicited response from National Assemblyo Attempt to halt it by having many liberal clergy and nobles renouncing feudal rights,

dues, and titheso All French citizens became subject to same equal laws

Paved the way for social and legal reform19. Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen

Statement of broad political principles from National Assembly before writing of new Constitution

Drew from Enlightenment and Declaration of Rights from Virginia in 1776 All men born and remain free and equal in rights

o Rights to liberty, property, security, and resistance to oppression Governments existed to protect those rights

o All political sovereignty in a nation and its representativeso Equality before the law and equality of opportunity

Due process of the law Innocence until proven guilty

o Freedom of religiono Taxation in proportion to amount one could pay

20. Constitution of 1791 Product of National Assembly’s deliberations Constitutional monarchy

o Major political authority in one house Legislative Assembly Origin of all laws Had powers of war and peace

o Monarchial veto could delay but not halt legislation21. “Active” Citizens

Men paying annual taxes equal to three days of local labor wages Only group allowed to vote under Constitution of 1791

o Meant to thwart direct popular pressure on government Chose electors who then voted for the members of the legislature

o Electors had further property qualifications Political power in hands of wealthy with property

22. “Passive” Citizens

Any man who wasn’t an active citizen and any woman Couldn’t vote under Constitution of 1791

23. Olympe de Gouge Butcher’s daughter from Montauban Became major revolutionary woman in Paris Wrote Declaration of the Rights of Female and Citizen

o In response to women not being allowed to vote or hold officeo Ironically addressed to Marie Antoinette

24. Declaration of the Rights of Female and Citizen Olympe de Gouge Mostly reprinted Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen with the addition of woman

o Demanded that women be citizens tooo Women could hold property

Men had to recognize paternity of their children Equality in marriage Improved education for women Showed that National Assembly had established set of values for liberty

25. Départements Replaced ancient provinces 83 of roughly equal size named after geographical features

o Subdivided into districts, cantons, and communes Local elections were indirect Ancient judicial courts and parlements were abolished

o Replaced by uniform courts Elected judges and prosecutors Simplified procedures Most degrading punishments removed from books

26. Chapelier Law Forbade workers’ associations

o Crushed attempts for workers to protect their wageso Peasants and workers left to freedom and mercy of market

27. Assignats Government bonds to be issued by the National Assembly

o Value guaranteed by revenue to be generated from sale of Church lands Meant to finance the new government without repudiating royal debt which was

owed to members of Third Estate Produced further inflation, religious schism, and civil war

o Initially were limited in quantity Public liked them so much that they circulated as currency Assembly produced more and more to liquidate the debt and create new body of

large property owners to protect the revolution Eventually lost value and inflation increased causing more financial stress

28. Civil Constitution of the Clergy Reorganization of Church in France after the confiscation and sale of Church lands Made Roman Catholic Church a branch of the secular state

o Cut number of bishopso Aligned dioceses along department lineso Election of priests and bishops who became salaried employees of the stateo Didn’t consult French clergy or popeo Passed reluctantly by the king

Major blunder of National Assemblyo Resisted by French clergy

Assembly forced clergy to take oath of support Those who didn’t take oath removed from clerical functions but they resisted and

continued to preacho Condemned by Pope

Also condemned Declaration of Rights of Man and Citizen Roman Catholic offensive against revolution and liberalism

o People thought they couldn’t be Catholic and Revolutionaries29. Émigrés

Aristocrats who left France after it became clear that the old social and political order was changing

Settled in countries near France where they sought to create counterrevolutions King’s younger brother was one of most important ones

o Convinced Louis and his family to attempt to flee France30. Flight to Varennes

King and family disguised as servants tried to flee the countryo Discovered and stopped in Varenneso Brought back to Paris by company of soldiers

National Assembly tried to save constitutional monarchyo Said king had been abductedo Clear that chief counterrevolutionary was on throne

31. Leopold II Emperor of Austria Brother of Marie Antoinette and Frederick William II, king of Prussia Issued Declaration of Pilnitz under pressure from emigres

32. Declaration of Pillnitz Issued by Leopold II under pressure from emigres Leopold and Frederick William II agreed to invade France to protect royal family and monarchy

if other major powers agreedo No actual meaning because Britain didn’t support ito Read by French revolutionaries as sign that France was surrounded by aristocratic and

monarchial foes33. Legislative Assembly

Took over for National Assembly as legislative body in 1791 as per Constitution of 1791 National Assembly passed act forbidding any of its members from being on Legislative Assembly Faced immense problems

o Political divisions over future course of revolution and nationo Passive citizens began to demand full political participationo Aristocrats and Louis XVI didn’t like new order and followed only reluctantly

Aristocrats plotted overthrow of new government Many workers didn’t think revolution had gone far enough

o Women demanded more rightso Foreign powers saw revolution as threato Led to second revolution that was more democratic and radical

34. Jacobins Most organized and famous of political clubs that emerged from the Third Estate

o Name derived from the fact that Dominican friars were called Jacobins and group met in Dominican monastery in Paris

o Had provincial affiliates Prominent group in National Assembly that had pushed for a republic

o Language and rhetoric from radical segment of Enlightenment35. Girondins

Group of Jacobins that assumed leadership in Legislative Assemblyo So named because most came from the department of Girondeo Determined to oppose forces of counterrevolution

Signed measure forcing emigres to return to France or lose land Another measure forced priests who resisted Civil Constitution to accept it or lose their

state pensions Both vetoed by Louis XVI Declared war on Austria, which was allied with Prussia Monarchists supported war because they thought it would strengthen monarchy or led to

military defeat and reimplementation of Old Regime War they started led to second revolution

o King overthrowno Republic established

36. Pauline Léon Led group of women who petitioned Legislative Assembly for right to bear arms to fight for the

protection of the revolutiono Had previously led effort to allow women to be in National Guardo Used language of universal citizenship

Women allowed to serve and some served with distinction37. Commune

Committee of government One took power in Paris under pressure from the radical working-class

38. Tuileries Palace Palace in Paris where royal family was staying after they had been forced to leave Versailles Invaded by large Parisian crowd

o Royal family fled to Legislative Assemblyo Royal Swiss guards fought with crowd

Called off by Louis XVI Deaths of hundreds of guards and citizens

o Incident led royal family to be imprisoned and have no political power39. Paris Commune

Replaced elected council as government of Paris under pressure from radical working-class Made up of representatives from each section of the city Carried out September Massacres Compelled Legislative Assembly to call for election by universal male suffrage of new assembly

to write democratic constitution40. September Massacres

Execution of about 1,200 prisoners in city jailso Carried out by Paris Commune under pressure of Parisian crowdo Crowd had assumed all prisoners were counter revolutionaries

41. National Convention Elected by universal male suffrage to write democratic constitution

o Created by Legislative Assembly under pressure from Paris Communeo Seemingly vindicated by French military victory in war against Prussia and Austria

First act was to declare France a republic Dominated by Sans-culottes

o Executed Louis XVIo Declared war on Britain, Holland, and Spain

Started by Girondists but carried by Mountains Also faced some internal resistance

Approved fully democratic constitution that was to go into effect at the end of the waro Never actually implemented

42. Sans-culottes Group of super radical Jacobin citizens of Paris Shopkeepers, artisans, wage earners, and some factory workers

o Food shortages made their lives difficulto Old Regime had ignored themo National Assembly’s economic liberty had battered them

Attitudes, desires, and ideals were primary factors in revolution from 1792-1794o Goals

Immediate relief from food shortages and inflation through price controls Hostile towards social inequality and the aristocracy Wanted democracy to be as large as possible

o Honed political skills during meetings of Paris Communeo More extreme Jacobins generally went along with them

Originally hated aristocracy but were ok with representative democracy, wealth, and a free economy

Mountain Jacobins went along with this group Mountain Jacobins were too extreme for the Girondists

Succeeded in trying and executing Louis XVI and his familyo Had help of Mountain Jacobinso Girondists tried to spare king’s life but failed

Invaded Convention and got Girondists kicked out43. Edmund Burke

Irish-born writer and British statesman Reflections on the Revolution in France

44. Reflections on the Revolution in France Edmund Burke Saw restructuring of French government as blind rationalism

o Ignored both historical realities and complexities of social relationso Predicted further turmoil as inexperienced led

Handbook of European conservatives for decades45. Reign of Terror (Autumn 1793 to summer 1794)

Figurative war that raged inside France to protect the Revolutiono Government took extraordinary measures that touched almost every aspect of national

lifeo Thousand arbitrarily executed

Created a collective executive in the form of powerful committees Brought suppression of many liberties that the Revolution fought for Led to destructive search for enemies within Revolutionary Tribunals

o Meant to destroy enemies of the stateo Meaning of enemies changed often

Those who might aid other European powers Those who endangered republican virtue Good republicans who opposed dominant faction of government

o Killed aristocrats and political enemies mostly46. Committee of Public Safety

Established by Convention to carry out executive duties of the government Major problem was to wage war and secure domestic support simultaneously Eventually enjoyed almost dictatorial power

47. Jacques Danton Leader of Committee of Public Safety Provided heroic leadership in September 1792 Strong republican who opposed weakness of Girondists

o Saw himself as fighting internal enemies of revolutiono Political alliance of expediency with sans-culottes

48. Maximillian Robespierre Became Committee of Public Safety’s most powerful member Strong republican who opposed weakness of Girondists

o Saw himself as fighting internal enemies of revolutiono Political alliance of expediency with sans-culottes

Embodied Republic of Virtueo Total support for the republico Renunciation of selfish gains from political lifeo First in line of secular ideologues who would bring suffering to Europe

Arrested and executed by members of the Conventiono Work of sans-culottes who were made when their leaders were taken awayo Also work of politicians who feared that Robespierre would target them next

49. Levée en masse Lazare Carnot

o Military leader from Committee of Public Safetyo Similar to Danton and Robespierre

Military requisition on entire populationo Conscripted males into the armyo Directed economic production to military purposes

Sans-culottes got their price ceiling Helped army crush counterrevolutionary disturbances in provinces First time Europe saw nation organized and defended in such a way

50. Republic of Virtue Belief by Committee of Public Safety that they had to create such a republic

o Couldn’t simple do things to make life easiero Civic virtue

Sacrifice of one’s self for the good of the whole Replace selfish aristocratic and monarchial corruption

Many manifestationso Renaming of streets to egalitarian revolutionary thingso Republican manner of dress similar to that of Roman Republico Suppression of plays that were insufficiently republicano Attack against crimes of an aristocratic society

This in the name of the public good is what led the Committee of Public Safety to carry out events of the terror

51. Dechristianization One of most radical parts of Terror Started with new calendar that started with first day of the Revolution

o Twelve months of 30 days each named after seasons and climateso Every tenth day was a holiday

Sent out provincial enforcerso Closed churcheso Persecuted clergy and believerso Forced some priests to marry

Alienated many provinces from Revolutionary governmento Opposed by Robespierre for this reason

52. Society of Revolutionary Republican Women Founded by Paline Leon and Claire Lacombe Purpose was to fight internal enemies of the Revolution

o Militant citizenso Initially supported by Jacobins

Became increasingly radicalo Stricter price controlso Ferret out food hoarderso Brawled with market women who weren’t revolutionary enougho Right to wear cockadeo Scared Jacobins into banning all women’s societies

Execution of Olympia de Gouge Exclusion of women from the army

53. Temple of Reason New name for Notre Dame Cathedral Symbol of de-Christianization during the Terror

54. Enragés Certain extreme leaders of the sans-culottes Robespierre secured their execution Wanted more price controls, social equality, and de-Christianization Executions were start of period when Revolutionary leaders turned against each other

o Robespierre got Danton and other conservative republicans executed55. Law of 22 Prairial

Allowed revolutionary tribunals to convict suspects on minimal evidence Device used by Robespierre to execute all his political adversaries

56. Cult of the Supreme Being Established by Robespierre in place of citizens worshiping Reason Rousseau’s vision of civic religion that induced morality

57. Thermidor/Thermidorian Reaction Tempering of Revolution that began in July 1794

o Weariness of radicals, Terror, and sans-culottes Closure of Paris Commune Jacobins couldn’t communicate with each other

o Destruction of machinery of Terror and institutions of constitutional regime Restructuring of Committee of Public Safety Repeal of Law 22 of Prairial

General amnesty for political prisoners Lots of changes

o Revival of Catholic worshipo Return of frivolous pleasureso Repeal of legislation making divorce more equitable for women

Constitution of the Year III58. The “White Terror”

Period where people involved with Terror were attacked/ murderedo Started with execution of former terroristso Jacobins given little due process before executionso “Bands of Jesus”

59. “Bands of Jesus” Gangs of youth who beat Jacobins

o Had aristocratic connections or had avoided serving in the militaryo Part of “white terror”

60. Constitution of the Year III Replaced fully democratic constitution of 1793 as a result of Thermidorian Reaction Rejection of both constitutional monarchy and democracy

o Two house legislature Upper House: 40+ husbands and widowers Lower House: 30+ married or single

o 5-person Directory as executive with members chosen by upper house from list provided by lower house

o Voting Property qualifications Soldiers could vote without holding property

Revolution of property holders had triumphedo Middle class wono Peasants also gained property that was taken from nobles

61. The Directory Set up by Constitution of Year III 5-person Directory as executive with members chosen by upper house from list provided by

lower house Peace with Prussia and Spain War still with Britain and Austria led to dependence on army

62. Conspiracy of Equals Led by Gracchus Babeuf More radical democracy More equality in property Crushed by Directory

o Showed that it was resistance to further social changes63. Coup d’état

Overthrow of the government

Chapter 20: The Age of Napoleon and the Triump of Romanticism:1. Congress of Vienna

Meeting of numerous heads of state of Europe to deal with European problemso Austria, Prussia, Russia, and Britain dominatedo France

Didn’t want any state to dominate Europe Restoration of Bourbon monarchy Nonvindictive boundary settlement to calm and satisfy France

o Series of states built as buffer against France Netherlands including Belgium Prussia got land on the Rhine Austria was given full control of northern Italy Rest of Germany given to legitimate monarchs

o France included as fifth power after it helped settle the Polish-Saxon question Chief aim was to maintain peace and prevent another Napoleonic sequence

o Purpose of treaties was peace not victory Framework for stability Treaties between states so they continued even if monarch died

o Success France was accepting of its role as international power

2. Horatio Nelson British admiral Destroyed French fleet after Napoleon’s invasion of Egypt

o Cut French army off from France British troops had to drive out the French

o Showed Ottomans were weako Caused Ottoman provinces to try to reform

3. Second Coalition Alliance of Russia, Austria, Britain, and the Ottoman Empire against the French Created out of fear of France after French invasion of Egypt Series of military victories in 1799

o Took back Switzerland and Italyo Threatened to invade France

4. Abbé Siéyés One of the Directors Proposed new constitution

o Directory had fragile support Economic troubles domestically Second Coalition against France

o Executive body independent of electoral whimso Would require military support of another coup

Napoleon helped Napoleon then quickly pushed Sieyes out of power

Wrote What is the Third Estate?5. Constitution of the Year VIII

Napoleon’s new constitution after he pushed Sieyes out of power Illusion of democracy

o Universal male suffrageo Complicated system of checks and balanceso Council of State

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Really put Napoleon as lone man in charge6. First Consul

Napoleon when he became dictator under Constitution of the Year VIII7. Consulate

Government established under Constitution of the Year VIII Effectively ended Revolution

o Third Estate had accomplished what it wanted to Abolished hereditary privilege Talent allowed one to achieve wealth, status, and security

o Peasants also got what they wanted End to feudal system Land

o These classes didn’t want to endanger their newfound privileges8. Maurice de Talleyrand

Napoleon’s foreign minister Called assassination of Bourbon duke of Baden a “blunder” because it gave France

enemieso Violated sovereignty and due process

Napoleon knew the duke to be innocent Violation of international law

o Liked by Jacobins because it was antiroyalist9. Napoleonic Code/Code Napoleon

Napoleon’s codification of French law Similar ideals to Revolution

o Safeguarded all forms of propertyo Hereditary privileges remained abolishedo Merit for salaried office positionso Conservative attitude towards women and labor

10. Concordat of 1801 Napoleon’s peace with the Catholic Church

o Gave Napoleon most of what he wanted Required refractory clergy and those that accepted Revolution to resign State named bishops State paid salary of bishops and at least one priest per parish Church gave up claims on confiscated property

o Named Catholicism majority religion in Franceo Wasn’t all that pope had hoped for

Clergy had to swear oath of loyalty to state Supremacy of state over church Similar laws applied to Protestant and Jewish communities weakening

Catholic privilege11. Third Coalition

Britain, Austria, and Russia Put together by William Pitt the Younger

o Fear of French expansionism12. Battle of Trafalgar

Naval battle off coast of Spain British Admiral Horatio Nelson (died during battle)

o Destroyed combined French and Spanish fleeto British lost no ships

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Consequenceso Assured France couldn’t invade Britaino Guaranteed British naval supremacy for rest of the war

13. Confederation of the Rhine Organized the western German princes

o Created by Napoleono Led to official end to Holy Roman Empire

Provoked Prussia to join the war against Franceo Quickly crushed by Napoleon

14. Continental System Continental System

o Prevented trade with Britain in an attempt to force peace on the British Didn’t have much opposition on its own Didn’t cripple British economy because of markets in New World

o Napoleon insisted that tariffs and trade policies favored France Angered foreign merchants Led to smuggling that led to Napoleon’s invasion of Spain that helped

lead to his downfall15. Wars of Liberation

Spaino Napoleon attacked highly held Spanish monarchy and Catholic Church

Led to peasant revolt Revolt would drain French resources

Austriao Austria restarted its war after Napoleon got bogged down in Spain

Thought Napoleon was weak Thought German princes would rise to help them Thought wrong

o Lost much of its territoryo Napoleon also took an Austrian princess as his wife

16. Klemens von Metternich Austrian prince and foreign minister Would have preferred to allow Napoleon to stay than allow Russia to dominate Europe

o Showed reluctance of Austria and Prussia to challenge Napoleon even after he was defeated in Russia

o Napoleon didn’t want to make concessions that would make his opponents turn against each other

17. Battle of the Nation’s Battle where Napoleon faced combined forces of Austria, Prussia, and Russia at Dresden Decisive defeat for Napoleon

o New army was poorly trained and equipped and its generals were low on moralo Last battle before his first downfall

18. Elba Little island, off coast of northern Italy, where Napoleon fled to after he abdicated Abdicated after defeat in Battle of the Nations and British invasion of France

19. Battle of Waterloo Where Napoleon was defeated after he returned from exile

o Army was still loyal to himo French people thought they would fare better under him than restoration

Bourbons

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o Said he was going to be peaceful but European powers didn’t trust him20. Saint Helena

Tiny Atlantic island off the coast of Africa Where Napoleon was sent (and later died) after he was defeated at Waterloo

21. Hundred Days Period of Napoleon’s return from Elba Frightened European powers

o Made peace settlement harsher for France Minor territorial changes Army of occupation in France

22. Quadruple Alliance Austria, Prussia, Britain, and Russia Originally an alliance against Napoleonic France Became an alliance for maintaining the peace

o New idea in Europe Countries had seen how wars affected civilians as well as professional

soldierso Reflected in settlement from Congress of Vienna

23. William Wordsworth British romantic writer People lose things in necessary process of maturation

o Lose childlike vision and closeness to spiritual realityo Childhood period of creative imagination

24. Don Juan Written by British romanticist Lord Byron Nature both cruel and beautiful Admiration for urban life

25. Romanticism Reaction to the thoughts of the Enlightenment

o Writers and artists saw imagination (or a similar thing) supplementing reason Urged revival of Christianity that was seen throughout Europe in Middle

Ageso Liked art, literature, and architecture of medieval timeso Interest in folklore, folksongs, and fairytaleso Fascinated by dreams, hallucinations, and sleepwalking

Suggested existence of world beyond empirical observation and reason In literature

o All literature that didn’t observe classical forms and gave free play to imagination

o British Romantic Writers Poetry enhanced by freely following creative impulses of the mind Wordsworth Lord Byron rejected old traditions and championed personal liberty

o German Romantic Writers Mostly novels characterized as being highly sentimental and borrowed

material from medieval romances Enlightenment ideal of women attacked Goethe

In religiono Inner emotions of humankind as foundation of religion

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o Origin of Methodism Revolt against deism and rationalism of Church of England Justification by faith Inward, heartfelt religion with possibility of Christian perfection in life

o Similar religious revivals on the Continent Catholic revival in France with emphasis on passion Always against religion on the Enlightenment

Views of Nationalism and Historyo Nationalism

Glorification of individual peoples and cultures Human beings and societies developed over time Support for nationalism (particularly seen in German romantics)

o History Ideas develop in an evolutionary fashion with conflict Thesis and antithesis clash until synthesis becomes new thesis All periods of humanity necessary as basis for further progress

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Chapter 21 Identification (The Conservative Order and the Challendes of Reform (1815-1832):1. Nationalism

Nation composed of people joined by common bondso Common languageo Common customs, history, and cultureo Bonds make it so those people should have same government

Political and ethnic boundaries should coincide Gained prominence during era

2. Nation-State (not all in book) Sovereign political and geopolitical entity Cultural and ethnic entity Geographic overlap of state and nation

3. Nationhood Nationalists used a variety of metaphors and analogies to try to define it

o Germans and Italians argued for unification Elimination of dynastic states Increased efficiency

o Professional metaphors/ analogies Nations determined destinies like people determined careers Nations were similar to biological creatures, creations of God Place for nations in divine order

4. Liberal Anyone or anything that challenged the status quo for more freedom Usually well-educated, somewhat wealthy, and associated with professions or

commercial life Political goals

o Derived from Enlightenment, traditional English liberties, and French Declaration of Rights of Man and Citizen

Legal equality Religious toleration Free press

o Role of government Limit arbitrary power of government Legitimacy from freely given consent of the governed Ministers responsible to the elected representatives, not the monarch

o Sought to use written constitutions to achieve these goalso Only wanted political power extended to propertied and wealthy

Would include them because of their important roles Would still exclude lower classes who they detested

Economic goalso Divide them from the working peopleo Capitalism

Removal of economic restraints Labor as commodity to be bought and sold freely Economic liberty as basis for material progress

5. Giuseppe Mazzini Italian nationalist and patriot Wrote on nationalism

o Common ideas, common principles, and common practices

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o Divine destiny of nationso Democracy as part of nationalismo People as the basis

6. Conservatism Anyone or anything that tried to actively keep the status quo Pillars

o Legitimate monarchieso Landed aristocracieso Established churches

Liked revivals Disliked Enlightenment ideas about religion

o French Revolution and Napoleonic events turned them into allies Dislike of written constitutions New pressures from end to the war

o Citizens could raise new complaints because there wasn’t need to support military

o Soldiers and sailors needed jobso Young could change their focus

7. Klemens von Metternich Austrian prince Epitomized conservatism Helped create Vienna Settlement

o Control over forces of European reaction Defended Austria against liberalism and nationalism

o Multi-ethnic empire risked dissolution from nationalistso Representative government would have let ethnic groups break awayo Had to control new German Confederation

8. Viscount Castlereagh British aristocrat Helped Metternich with Vienna Settlement

9. Frederick William III Prussian ruler after Vienna Settlement Had promised a constitutional system during final stage of war against Napoleon

o Created new Council of State instead Improved administrative efficiency Not constitutionally based

o Reformist ministers later resigned after a fight and were replaced with conservatives

Conservatives suggested eight diets with advisory power Junkers dominated reinstituting Old Regime

10. Burschenschaften Nationalistic, liberal student associations at German universities

o Expected more than conservative leaders offeredo Tried to sever provincial loyalty and replace it with loyalty to a unified German

stateo Often anti- Semetic

11. Karl Sand German student and member of a burschenschaften Assassinated conservative dramatist August von Kotzebue

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o Tried and publically executed Made him martyr in eyes of young nationalists

o Metternich used it to suppress other student associations and liberal organizations12. August von Kotzebue

Conservative dramatist Assassinated by Karl Sand

13. Carlsbad Decrees Dissolved burschenshaften

o In response to assassination of Kotzebue Was more opportunist than a direct relationship

o University inspectors and press inspectors Also restricted the press

o Most publications couldn’t print without prior knowledge and approval of state officials

o States responsible for anything produced within them that attacked institutions of their state or any other

Followed by Final Act14. Final Act

Limited the subjects that were allowed to be discussed in constitutional chambers of Bavaria, Wurttemberg, and Baden

Reasserted the right of monarchs to resist the demands of constitutionalistso Secret police suppressed and harassed political dissidents

Included anyone who sought even moderate change Showed opposition to liberalism and nationalism in Germany

15. Lord Liverpool Leader of the post-war Tory ministry

o Unprepared for unemployment problemso Sought to protect interests of landed and wealthy

Corn law Abolishment of income tax (which mostly taxed the wealthy) and

replacement with a sales tax (which taxed all)16. Corn Law

Parliament maintained high prices on domestic graino Did this through tariffs on foreign graino Protected interests of wealthy and landed

17. Combination Acts Parliamentary law banning unions or workers’ organizations Exemplified British aristocracy abandoning of its traditional role of protecting the poor

o Also seen with corn law and abolishment of income taxo Wage protection had been removedo Advocates of eliminating Poor Laws that protected destitute and unemployed

18. William Cobbett Leader of reform club called Political Registrar

o Disliked aristocrats abandonment of traditional role of protecting the poor Mostly lower class Demanded political reform

o Government saw clubs such as this one as being filled with sans-culottes who wanted to hang aristocrats

Seen by government leaders as demagogue who was “seducing” people from themo Responded with repression

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19. Coercion Act of 1817 Temporarily suspended habeas corpus and extended existing laws against seditious

meetingso Passed out of fear of lower classes demanding reformo Used unruly mass meeting at Spa Fields near London as justification but it was

just opportunistic Only successful for a short time with the help of some good harvests

20. “Peterloo Massacre” Started as mass meeting of public discontent in Manchester at Saint Peter’s Fields

o Royal troops and local militia on hand to ensure ordero Local magistrate ordered troops to move into the crowd

Caused chaos and confusion that resulted in 11 deaths So-named because of contemptuous comparisons with Waterloo

Showed that repression was only a scab21. Six Acts

Another attempt by Parliament to suppress political dissidentso Came out of attempt to support local officials who were responsible for Peterlooo Six things

Forbade large, unauthorized public meetings Raised fines for seditious libel Sped up trials of political agitators Increased newspaper taxes Prohibited the training of armed groups Allowed local officials to search homes in disturbed areas

Attempted to remove instruments of agitation from hands of radical leaders22. Cato Street Conspiracy

Group of extreme radicals’ plot to blow up entire Cabineto Failedo Leaders tried and some were executed

Further discredited movement for Parliamentary reform23. Louis XVIII

Brother of Louis XVI who was put on French throne during Bourbon restorationo Became political realist during exileo Agreed to become constitutional monarch

Made own constitution24. The Charter

Constitution of French restoration made by Louis XVIII Hereditary monarchy and bicameral legislature

o Upper house appointed by monarchyo Lower house elected

Very few who could vote due to high property requirements Most of rights from Dec. of Rights of Man and Citizen

o Religious toleration Catholicism was official religion

o People kept property rights gained during Revolution25. Ultraroyalism

People more royalist than Louis XVIIIo Led by Artoiso Wanted revenge for Revolution

Led White Terror

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Convinced Louis XVIII to kick out liberal ministers after Artois’ son was assassinatedo Wealthy got two voteso Press censorshipo Easy arrests for those dangerous to governmento Catholic Church in charge of secondary education

26. White Terror Killing of former revolutionaries and supporters of Napoleon following Napoleon’s

defeat Carried out by vengeful ultraroyalists

27. Concert of Europe Way for European powers (Austria, Prussia, Britain, and Russia) to deal with each other

o Major powers would periodically meet at congresses to fix problems and foreign policy issues

o Prevented one nation from taking major action in international affairs without approval of others

Initial goalso Keep balance of power against French aggressiono Check military might of Russia

Long-term goal of maintaining peace28. Congress System

Similar to Concert of Europe Functioned well immediately following Congress of Vienna

o First Congress at Aix- la- Chapelle Major powers agreed to remove troops from France Since France had paid its reparations, it was admitted back into good

standingo Some tension even at first conference

Russian tsar wanted Quadruple Alliance to uphold existing borders and governments

British claimed alliance was only to prevent French aggression Didn’t mean anything until outbreak of revolutions in southern Europe

starting in 182029. Ferdinand VII

Spanish Bourbon monarch placed on throne following Napoleon’s defeato Agreed to uphold written constitution

Ignored once he was in power Dissolved Cortes (the parliament) and ruled alone

o Forced to again rely on constitution when group of army officers rebelled30. Holy Alliance

Alliance between Prussia, Russia, and Austria created by Metternich in 1815o Called by Metternich in 1820 to respond to revolts in Italy and Spain

Had forced written constitutions on kings Italy was especially troubling because Austria sought to dominate it and

use it as a buffer to the southo Met with unofficial representatives from France and Britain at Congress of

Trouppau31. Congress of Troppau

Meeting of Holy Alliance and unofficial representatives from France and Britain in response to 1820 rebellions in Spain and Italy

Members of Holy Alliance, led by tsar of Russia issued the Protocol of Troppau

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32. Protocol of Troppau Issued by members of Holy Alliance at Congress of Troppau Stable government might intervene to restore order in a country experiencing revolution

o Russia initially hesitated to allow Austria to intervene in Italy Allowed it at Congress of Lilbach Austrians restored non-constitutional monarchy Tried to increase efficiency to help beef up local support

33. George Canning British foreign minister after suicide of Castlereagh Less sympathetic to Metternich’s joint-interventionist to preserve conservative regime

goalso Basically withdrew Britain from continental affairs at Congress of Verona (last

of the postwar congresses)o Wanted to help British trading interests

Sought to prevent reactionary European politics from preventing independence of Spain’s Latin American colonies (which would help break the Spanish trade monopoly)

Supported Monroe Doctrine that helped to give British trade dominance34. “The Eastern Question”

What should European powers do about Ottoman inability to assure political and administrative stability in its possessions in and around the eastern Mediterranean?

o Ottoman Empire was weak because it refused to undergo reforms as European powers got stronger

o Gained prominence because of Greek revolutiono Major powers all had interest

Russia and Austria wanted empire’s Balkan holdings British and French wanted trade and naval bases in the region Treatment of Christian subjects in Islamic empire Access to shrines in Holy Land Goals often conflicted with want of independence for people in the

region but supported nationalists to weaken Ottomans35. Treaty of London

Britain, France, and Russia demanded Ottoman recognition of Greek independenceo Would benefit strategic interests and not harm domestic securityo Sent joint naval fleet to support Greeks

Second treaty recognized independence of Greece36. Treaty of Adrianople

Russia got what is modern day Romania from Ottomanso Had sent troops into territory after Treaty of London

Ottomans agreed that France, Britain, and Russia got to decide fate of Greece37. Toussaint L’Ouverture

Led slave revolt on Haiti with Jean-Jacques Dessalineso Achieved independence from France in 1804o First of colonial revolutions in Latin Americao Exception in drive for independence from European masters

Suppressed people led the revolution Most were led by Creole elite Creoles were determined not to lose social privilege from revolutions

38. Peninsulares Whites born in Spain who moved to Spanish colonies

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Creoles resented that they were favored in government policieso Political patronage

Best positions in colonial government, church, and army Way for Spain to extract wealth from colonies

o Trading policies favored Spaino Influence of Enlightenment philosophy and American Revolutiono Napoleon’s influence

Portuguese monarchy fled to Brazil where it ruled Creoles feared Napoleon would set up liberal institution to replace

Spanish Bourbon monarchy that would enact reforms that would harm their economic interests

39. Juntas Political committees created by creoles the claimed rights to govern different regions of

Latin Americao Fear of Napoleon

Liberal reforms that would hurt economic interests Draining of resources to fund his wars

o Insincerely declared they were ruling in the name of the deposed Spanish monarch (Ferdinand VII)

Made it so Spanish would never again directly rule the Latin American colonies Ended privileges of the peninsulares One from Buenos Aires asserted its independence and helped Paraguay and Uruguay gain

theirs’o Paraguay was freeo Uruguay was absorbed into Brazil

40. Bernardo O’Higgins Chilean independence leader Ruled as dictator of Chile in Santiago Jose de San Martin took over in Santiago

o Built naval force here and led assault on Peru (bastion of the monarchy)41. Simon Bolivar

Involved in liberating junta in Caracas, Venezuelao Believed in both independence and republicanism

Exile during civil war between republican government/ monarchists/ slaves and Ilaneros (Venezuelan cowboys)

o Attack from Haiti to capture New Grenada (Colombia, Ecuador, Panama, and part of Venezuela)

o Attacked from New Grenada and captured Caracas and was named president Eventually helped most of South America become free and pushed for republican

governments42. Augustin Iturbide

Former royalist general in Mexico Declared Mexico independent

o Conservative forces were worried by liberal revolution in Spaino Regime as emperor didn’t last long but the conservative nature of Mexican

government did43. The Decembrist Revolt

Group of army officers wanted reform and planned a coupo Result of heir controversy after death of Alexander Io Nicholas I declared himself tsar (in line with Alexander’s wishes)

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Army forced to swear allegiance to new tsaro Most did so without any problemo Moscow regiment refused

Wanted constitutional monarchy, abolition of serfdom, and Constantine (other brother) as tsar

Crushed Nicholas led commission on secret liberal societies in the army

First revolt in modern Russian history with actual political goalso Symbolized wants of Russian liberals

44. Alexander I Became tsar after coup against father Briefly followed Enlightenment but then turned conservative

o Suppressed anything related to the Enlightenment and liberalismo Army officers discovered those ideas during fighting against Napoleon

Died suddenly leading to dynastic crisis and Decembrist Revolto Had given secret instructions for his younger brother Nicholas to be tsar

Accepted by his other brother who was actual heir Legal fighting about this

45. Nicholas I Tsar of Russia Cemented power during Decembrist revolt Extreme form of autocracy

o Knew Russia needed economic and social change but was scared to enact ito Censorship and secret policeo Official Nationality

Program in place of reform Russian Orthodox Church provided basis for morality and education Autocracy necessary for advancement Alienated Russian intellectuals

Codified Russian law Crushed revolt in Poland and became ready to suppress liberalism and nationalism all

over Europe46. Organic Statute

Issued by Tsar Nicholas I in response to Polish revolt Declared Poland an integral part of the Russian Empire

o Guaranteed certain Polish rights but that part was ignoredo Press censorship in Poland

47. Charles X Succeeded Louis XVIII as king of France

o Same as ultraroyalist Artois Reactionary policies

o Tried to compensate aristocrats who lost land in Revolution Lowered interest rate on government bonds to set up fund for them Middle-class bondholders resented this

o Reinstated hereditary inheritance for aristocratso Enacted a law that punished sacrilege with imprisonment or death

48. July Revolution Charles X called for new elections

o Liberals won a surprising victoryo King decided to try royalist power seizure instead of accepting elections

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French naval pirate ship took control of Algeriao Charles X tried royalist coup with Four Ordinances

49. Four Ordinances Royalist attempt to seize power after French Empire started in North Africa

o Restricted freedom of the presso Dissolved elected, liberal parliamento Restricted voting to the wealthiest in societyo Called for new elections

Swift liberal reactiono People of Paris revolted

Royalist troops unable to regain control of city Charles X abdicated

o Duke of Orleans named monarch Constitutional monarchy Tense relationship between liberals (who wanted constitutional

monarchy) and the working class (who really wanted republic)50. Louis Philippe/July Monarchy

Monarchy that was in power after abdication of Charles X More liberal than restoration monarchy

o Flag of French Revolutiono Anticlerical and Catholicism became only majority religiono Censorship abolishedo Slightly expanded voting rightso Constitution as protection of rights of the people

Socially conservativeo Little or no concern for lower classes

Led to discontent from populace Expanded French empire

51. Great Reform Bill Reform bill in Britain that involved conservative and reformist accommodations

o Possible influence of July Revolution in Franceo New Parliamentary elections after George IV’s deatho British uniqueness

Commercial and industrial class was larger in Britain than any other country

Liberal Whigs had tradition of being moderate Lord Liverpool’s less conservative ministry after passage of Six Acts

Product of Whig government Two Goals

o Abolish “rotten boroughs” with very few voters and replace them with previously unrepresented manufacturing districts

o Number of voters to increase by about 50% in England and Wales Not democratic because of property and gender qualifications Some workers without land actually lost right to vote

Defeated twiceo House of Commons replaced in new electiono House of Lords forced to accept it after king agreed to make enough new

positions to allow it to pass Legacy

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o Did not actually represent triumph for middle classo Set stage for further reform in other areas

52. Catholic Emancipation Act Key reform in Britain meant to maintain the union with Ireland

o Fear of Irish nationalist uprisingo Originally only Irish Protestants could sit in House of Commons

Allowed Catholic Irishmen to sit in House of Commonso In exchange made it so only wealthiest could voteo Also repealed restrictions against Protestant nonconformistso Took away Anglican monopoly

53. Daniel O’Connell Irish nationalist who organized Catholic Association that worked for Catholic

Emancipation Won election to Parliament in spite of fact that it was illegal for him to be seated

o Convinced Parliament that Catholic Emancipation was necessary to prevent civil war in Ireland

54. Thomas Babington Macaulay Member of House of Commons that passed Great Reform Bill Argued in support of Great Reform Bill

o Balanced representation to major portions of population Power to middle class Secure against a revolution

o Not an embrace with democracy Thought it would produce destructive revolution

o Wide appeal to liberals and conservatives

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Chapter 22 (Economic Advance and Social Unrest (1830-1850:)1. Irish Potato Famine

Crop failure of Irish potatoes Effects

o As many as half a million peasants who didn’t have enough land diedo Hundreds of thousands left Ireland

Showed that poor harvests still had devastating effects British government tried to help

o Repealed tariffs on imported grainso Enacted public works program to employ those who were forced off their lando Didn’t help and may have done more harm than good

2. “laboring poor” Members of the labor force who had jobs but earned just enough to survive Shows variety of conditions of those in labor force

3. Proletarianization Entrance of workers into a wage economy where they don’t control the means of

productiono Don’t have equipmento Aren’t in control of their tradeo Decrease in economic freedom

Occurred rapidly as the factory system roseo Factory owner was source of capital to control means of productiono Factory workers did wage labor

Also occurred outside of factory system if new invention could do work of several artisans in a workshop

Often overall better than those who resisted the factory system Urban artisans also underwent process more slowly

o Often benefited, or at least weren’t hurt, but factory systemo Problem from organization of production

Guild system where master owned larger equipment and artisans owned tools and other smaller stuff

Laws outlawed these types of organizations4. Andrew Ure

Factory system made possible the production of large quantities of consumer goodso More efficient that artisan systemo Thought factories would bring era of material prosperity

Factory system required new organization of laboro More assembly line styleo People’s tasks were less difficult than those of artisans

Allowed for more unskilled labor5. Confection

Products made in standard sizes rather than in special orders for individuals Practice began by many workshop masters in response to competitive challenges from

capitalized or machine dominated industryo Greater division of laboro Less skill required and particular skills less valuableo Masters also tried to lower wages

Often led to strikes Influx of unskilled laborers from countryside allowed for quick scabs

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6. Chartists/Chartism Program of political reform that artisans who wanted to protect their social and economic

status turned too William Lovett and The Six Points of the Chartero Northern Staro Feargus O’Connor

Ultimately failed as a national movemento Split between violent and non-violent factionso Return to economic prosperity caused many working people to abandon it

Significanceo Several local successes including control of city councils in Leeds and Sheffieldo First large-scale, European, working-class led movemento Continental workers saw it as the kind of action that was necessary to improve

their condition7. William Lovett

Radical London artisan who helped form the London Working Men’s Associationo Group issued The Six Points of the Charter

8. The Six Points of the Charter Political demands issued by London Working Men’s Association

o Six specific reforms Universal male suffrage Annual election to the House of Commons Secret balloting Equal electoral districts Abolition of property requirement to be in House of Commons Salaries for House of Commons

o Rejected by Parliament on three separate occasions Often had millions of signatures Led to strikes

o Several of the reforms were eventually made into law9. Northern Star

Chartist newspaper10. Feargus O’Connor

Most important Chartist leader Made speeches across Britain for Chartist cause

11. Factory Act of 1833 British law regulating child labor

o Forbade employment of children under nineo Children 9-13

Workday limited to nine hours Two hours of daily education to be paid for by the factory owner

Split up family unit Led to adults demanding shorter workday

o Wanted to increase time with childreno Eventually got 10 hour workday (down from 12 hours)

12. Louise Aston German political radical Portrayed plight of working women who were often sexually exploited because of need

to supplement their low wages13. Stephanie Jullien

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Young, middle-class woman who wrote on marriageo Father wanted her to marryo Wanted to delay a decision

Women don’t have as many opportunities as men, especially once they are married

Wanted to love the man before she decided to marry him14. Sir Robert Peel

Sponsor of legislation in British Parliament that put police on streets of Londono Need had presented itself as more people moved to citieso Meant to be professional, stand-alone police force

Keep order Protect property and lives Investigate crimes and catch offenders

o First seen with some suspicion but seen as protectors by end of century given that they didn’t have a political purpose

15. Bobbies What new London police force was called informally

o Named after Robert Peel, bill’s sponsor Unarmed, unlike most other police forces Shows new concern with stability

16. Hulks Ships that acted as prisons for governments at the beginning of the 19th century

17. “transportation” New penalty introduced by British government for most serious offenders in late 18th

centuryo Sent to Australia until mid-19th century when colony started to objecto Long term prisoners were then put in public work prisons

Shows new concern with stability18. Auburn System

One prison system that Europe imported from U.S.o Prisoners separated at night but allowed to intermingle during day

Individual cells Meant to allow for intense self-reflection Relaxed because it often led to mental breakdown

o Attempt at prison reform Crime seen as character fault of criminal not act against order Move to rehabilitate criminals

Shows new concern with stability19. Philadelphia System

Another prison system that Europe imported from U.S.o Prisoners kept separated at all times

Individual cells Meant to allow for intense self-reflection Relaxed because it often led to mental breakdown

o Very different from Auburn systemo Shows new concern with stability

20. “Devil’s Island” Island off of South America where France sent offenders sentenced to transportation

o Meant to deal with rise in repeat offenderso Started long after British stopped the practice

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Shows new concern with stability21. Thomas Malthus/ Essay on Principle of Population

Classical economist Population must eventually outgrow food supply

o Late marriage, chastity, and contraception necessary to avert disaster Immediate conditions of working class could only get worse

22. David Ricardo/ Principles of Political Economy Classical economist Transformed Malthus’ concepts into “Iron Law of Wages”

23. “Iron Law of Wages” Ricardo Idea

o As wages rose, more children would be produced, increasing the labor supply and causing wages to drop

o As wages dropped, less children would be produced, decreasing the labor supply and causing wages to rise

Effectso In long run, wages would always be at lowest levelo Supported employers in resisting wage increases and demands of unions

24. Classical economics Economics based on Adam Smith’s Wealth of Nations

o Laissez-faire People would be competitive and thereby promote the common good Marketplace would respond to demand

o Role of government Sound currency Enforce contracts Protect property Have low tariffs and taxes Leave the rest alone

Dominant at the time25. The July Monarchy

Louis Philippe and his finance minister Francois Guizot followed classical economicso People who weren’t lazy didn’t have to be poor

Construction of major capital-intensive infrastructure improvements Little done about poverty in cities and countryside

26. Zollverein Application of classical economics in Germany Free trading union

o All major German states except for Austria joinedo Meant to abolish internal tariffs that impeded growth

27. Jeremy Bentham Strong supporter of utilitarianism Sought to create scientific laws based on utilitarianism

o Fragment of Government and The Principles of Morals and Legislationo Utility would overcome special interest that prevented rational government

Helped increase support for classical economics28. Utilitarianism

Greatest amount of good for greatest amount of people Application to government

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o Legal and judicial system burdened by tradition so that they hurt the people they were supposed to help

o Led to new Poor Laws and repeal of Corn Laws29. Poor Law Commission

Established by new Poor Law to make poverty most undesirable of social situationso Government poor relief to be distributed only in workhouses

Families separated, food terrible, and work unpleasant Also had social stigma attached

o Meant to combat laziness and inspire people to lift selves up Poor thought workhouses were new prisons

30. Anti-Corn Law League Organization of manufacturers who wanted to repeal Corn Laws

o Abolish tariffs in line with classical economicso Lower tariffs meant lower food prices which meant workers’ wages could be

loweredo In turn prices of British manufactured goods could be lowered to increase their

competitiveness Real reason for repeal was Irish Potato Famine and attempt by British government to prevent

Irish from starving31. Utopian socialists

Group of writers who defined social questions and socialismo Ideas were visionary and often advocated creation of ideal communitieso Questioned structure and values of capitalist framework

Called utopian by their later critics Also advocated free love and more open family relationships

32. Henri Saint-Simon/ Saint-Simonianism Early socialist pioneer

o Liberal French aristocrat who fought in American Revolution and welcomed French Revolution

o Modern society would require rational management Private wealthy, property, and enterprise should be administered by non-

owners Large board of directors organizing and coordinating activities to achieve

social harmony Developed a small following that also discussed feminism and would run French railway

industry33. Robert Owen/ Owenism

Major British contributor to early socialismo Self made cotton manufacturero Firm believer in environmentalist psychology of the Enlightenment

Human beings placed in correct situation could improve their character No incompatibility between humane industrial environment and profit

Later in life tried to create Grand National Union, an organization of all the British trade unions

34. New Lanark Factory where Owenism was put into practice

o Workers got good quarters and recreational opportunitieso Rewards for good worko Children got an educationo Various churches on site

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o Still made good profit Visitors came from all over Europe to see the successful implementation of Owen’s ideas

35. Charles Fourier/ Fourierism French intellectual counterpart of Owen

o Never achieved Owen’s prominence thougho Industrial order ignored passionate side of human natureo Construction of communities called phalanxes

36. phalanxes Fourier’s communities to account for passionate side of human nature

o Liberated living would replace boredomo Agrarian production would be the primary focuso Free sex and marriage only later in lifeo No requirement to do the same work for the entire day

Dealt with problem of boredom37. Louis Blanc/The Organization of Labor

French socialist who paid more attention to the politics of situation that Saint-Simon, Owen, and Fourier

o Wanted end to competition but not a totally new society Political reform giving working class right to vote Workers could then use political process to help their economic situation

o State could be used to improve living and labor conditions38. anarchists

Writers and activists who rejected both industry and dominance of governmento Socialist tradition but didn’t entirely fito Some favored terrorism and violence and some did not

39. Auguste Blanqui Anarchist who favored violence to abolish capitalism and the state

o Professional revolutionary vanguardo Ideas for new society were vague but he foreshadowed Lenin

Spent most of adult life in jail (obviously)40. Pierre-Joseph Proudhon/What is Property

Anarchist who was peaceful Attacked banking system for rarely extending credit to small-property owners of the poor

o Expansion of credit to allow those people to engage in economic enterprise that would not involve unfair or unearned profits

o Society should have mutualism where there was a system of small businesses and cooperative enterprises

Peaceful cooperation and exchange of goods based on recognition of labor required in each industry

State therefore no longer needed to protect property Later influenced French labor movement

41. Karl Marx/Marxism Marx was a middle-class German Source of ideas

o German Hegelianism, French socialism, and classical economics applied to concrete historical, social, and economic developments

o Marxism

o At the time one of the many forms of socialist ideas

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o By the end of the century, triumphed in much of Europeo Differences from other socialist ideas

Claim to scientific accuracy Rejection of reform Call for rather undefined form of revolution

o New industrial workforce as single most important driving force in contemporary history

Fate of proletariat equated with fate of humanity Proletariat needed to rise up and liberate themselves

42. Friedrich Engels Another middle-class German Wrote The Condition of the Working Class in England

o Devastating picture of industrial lifeo Helped Engels and Marx, who had met year before, become good friends

43. Communist Manifesto Marx and Engels laid out their form of socialism (which they called communism because

of its revolutionary aspect)o Total abolition of private property

Would become one of the most influential documents in European history Revolution through class conflict

o History understood as humanity coming to a system to produce goods necessary for survival

Conflict between classes that controlled means of production and classes that worked for them

That conflict led to historical development Meant that mere reforms couldn’t produce the necessary change and that

revolution was inevitable for change to happeno Bourgeoisie v. Proletariat

Bourgeoisie was middle class associated with industry Proletariat was working class Capitalism increased size of proletariat and competition hurt them Proletariat would finally get fed up and overthrow the ever decreasing

owners For a time the proletariat would be a dictatorship Dictatorship of proletariat would give way to propertyless and classless

society Problems with Marx’s Class Revolution

o High unemployment and deprivation conditioned Marx’s viewo Capitalism did not collapse and middle class didn’t become proletariat

44. Louis Napoleon Nephew of Napoleon Elected president of Second French Republic

o Meant to use disorder to gain power Argued with National Assembly and claimed he represented the will of

the people Assembly refused to allow him to run for reelection

o Used military to seize power Dispersed National Assembly Mass arrests to destroy dissidents

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National plebiscite approved a new constitution that allowed him to consolidate power and subsequently approved him becoming an emperor

45. Second Republic Declared after Louis Philippe abdicated the throne Short lived

o National Assembly crushed working class discontento President Louis Napoleon took power when National Assembly wouldn’t allow

him to run for reelection46. Alphonse de Lamartine

French poet who led liberal opposition that organized a provisional government after Louis Philippe abdicated

o Intended to call for election for assembly that would write republican constitutiono Gave into demands of working class that wanted representation in cabinet

Elected National Assembly was conservative and moderateo Did found Second Republico Put down working class and ended chance at social revolution

47. General Cavaignac French general who helped crush any chance of a social revolution

o Under orders from governmento Troops drawn from largely conservative countryside

48. The Women’s Voice Feminist daily newspaper and political society

o Some members had previously been involved with Saint-Simonian or Fourierist groups

o Improving conditions for men wouldn’t necessarily improve conditions for women

o Relatively conservative feminists Cooperated with male political groups Supported fidelity and family

o Tried to use maternal role of women to raise their importance Better education Right to work Economic security Equal civil rights Property rights Right to vote

National government didn’t act on this49. French Feminist Movement

Wanted to improve status of women after Revolution of 1848o Both middle and working class womeno Most radical ones called Vesuvians

Full domestic household equality Right of women to serve in military Similarity in dress for both sexes

o The Women’s Voice Met same fate as radical working class

o National government ignored themo Women banned from political clubs

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o Leaders of attempt to improve economic situation of working class women imprisoned

50. Vienna Uprising Louis Kossuth started cries for revolution

o Students were inspired by him and led major disturbances in Vienna Army failed to restore order Metternich resigned and fled

o Students didn’t think moderately liberal constitution offered by Emperor Ferdinand was enough

Emperor and imperial court fled Government led by 200ish people who wanted to help workers

economically Government really feared serf uprisings

o Abolished serfdomo Took away serious support for rebels

51. Louis Kossuth Magyar nationalist who contributed to start of Vienna uprising

o Member of Hungarian Dieto Attacked Austrian domination of Hungary

Called for Hungarian independence Responsible ministry under Habsburg dynasty

52. Magyar Revolt Built on Vienna Uprising Led by liberals with backing of aristocrats who wanted aristocratic liberties against

central governmento Hungarian Diet passed March Laws

Equality of religion Jury trials Election of a lower chamber Relatively free press Taxes on nobility

o Magyars wanted local autonomy with Ferdinand still as emperor Attempted annexation of Habsburg eastern territories that was resisted by

national groups Habsburgs helped national groups leading to clash between nationalism

and liberalism53. Pan-Slavic Congress

Causeso Czech nationalists wanted autonomous state within Habsburg domain made up of

Bohemia and Moraviao Germans in the area disliked that plan

Slavic people came togethero Included Poles, Ruthenians, Czechs, Slovaks, Croats, Slovenes, and Serbso Wanted national equality of Slavs within Habsburg Empireo Protested Slavic repression by Habsburgs, Hungarians, Germans, and Ottomanso Idea of large Slavic nation

Stretch from Poland to Ukraine Russian interests would surely dominate leading Pan-Slavism to be an

important tool in Russian foreign policy

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The day of its closure the radicals were crushed after a radical insurrection broke out in Prague

54. Giuseppe Garibaldi Prominent Italian nationalist who went to Rome after the founding of the Roman

Republico Radicals then forced King of Lombardy back into war with Austria

Crushed in battle King abdicated to his son

o Republic forced to battle for Italian independence and unification on its own Crushed by French forces Pope restored

Led one last push against Austria but was defeated55. Victor Emmanuel II

Son of King of Lombardy Took throne when his father abdicated after being defeated by Austrians

56. Frankfurt Parliament Intended to write a moderately liberal constitution for a united Germany

o Revise organization of German Confederationo Alienated conservatives and the working class

Disliked by conservatives for being liberal Disliked by working class for not allowing guilds to come back Start of split between German liberals and the working class

o Called in troops to crush radical workers insurrectiono Failed on issue of unification

Grossdeutsch favored including Austria but Kleindeutsch did not Austria rejected German unification so they turned to Prussia Prussian king rejected German crown offered by parliament because he

disliked the constitutiono Started to end and then driven out by troops after unification failure

Liberals never really recoveredo Had alienated conservatives and workers for nothingo Did achieve extension of right to vote in some states but it was nothing compared

to their lofty goals

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Chapter 23 (The Age of Nation States): 1. The Crimean War

Caused by Russia’s want to extend its influence into the Ottoman Empireo Had eyes on Moldavia and Walachia (modern Romania)

Used status as protector of Orthodox Christians within the Empire to justify occupation

French had similar role for Catholicso Pushed Ottomans to declare war

Britain and France didn’t want the Russians to expand bringing them into the war War was fought poorly but was concluded with the Treaty of Paris (1856)

2. The Treaty of Paris (1856) Concluded Crimean War Effects

o Russia had to give up a few things Lost some territory Had to recognize neutrality of the Black Sea Gave up protector status

o Destroyed Concert of Europe because there wasn’t as much fear of revolution since they had been successfully put down in 1848

3. Hatt-i Sharif Decree issued by Ottoman sultan that attempted to reorganize the administration and

military in a style similar to the European style Made all citizens equal before the law, regardless of religion

4. Tanzimat (1839- 1876) Era of reconstruction in the Ottoman Empire

o Led by administrative councilso Effects

Liberalized economy Ended farming taxes Tried to eliminate corruption

More Western influenceo Printing presseso Missionary-led Western schoolso Ottomans sought to copy Western legal and military institutions and liberal

secularism Tried to shore up loyalty of Christians where there was prominent nationalism

o Abolition of millet system Ultimately failed

o Local and regional governments didn’t cooperate or tried to implement their own reforms

o Growing nationalismo Conflict between Westernized bureaucrats and army officers, merchants who

were helped, and the ulema, which sought to maintain Islamic lawo Loss of much of European land

5. Hatti-i Humayun Another Ottoman reform that explicitly defined the rights of non-Muslims within the

Ottoman Empireo Caused by pressure from Britain and France at end of Crimean Waro Equal obligation in military serviceo Equal opportunity for state employment and admission to state schools

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Abolished torture Made it easier for foreigners to acquire property

6. Young Turks Group of army officers that came to power after a coup in 1908 Had plan for reforms Led Ottomans in World War I which led to defeat and collapse of the Empire

7. Romantic Republicans Secret unification societies that formed after the Congress of Vienna

o Failed8. Carbonari

Most famous of the secret unification societies of the Romantic Republicans9. Giuseppe Mazzini

Leader of Italian nationalist unification movement following the failed uprisings of 1831o Believed that God had ordained nationso Founded Young Italy Society to expel Austrians from Italyo Led insurrections during the 1830s and 1840so Had part in Roman Republic

Became well known but scared moderates because of his republican ideals10. Giuseppe Garibaldi

Helped Mazzini lead Italian nationalist movemento Led insurrections during the 1830s and 1840so Had part in Roman Republic

Became well known but scared moderates because of his republican ideals11. Count Camilo Cavour

Would unify Italy under a constitutional monarchy through force and secret diplomacyo Prime minister of Piedmont

Strong believer in the Enlightenment, classical economics, and utilitarianism

Wanted a unified Italy for material and economic progresso Believed French help would be necessary for unification

Helped France in Crimean War Gave France Nice and Savoy for its help against Austria

12. Victor Emmanuel II Son of King Charles of Piedmont who lost fights with Austria Became king when his father abdicated

o Chose Count Cavour as his prime minister13. War of Piedmont

War with Austriao Piedmont defeated Austria with the help of the Frencho Piedmont only got Lombardy because the French didn’t want too large a victory

for Cavour War for the rest of Italy

o Cavour helped outfit troops for Garibaldi so that Garibaldi could take Sicily and Naples

o To ensure Garibaldi didn’t go all republicanism, Cavour sent troops down that conquered the rest of Italy (except for just around Rome which was protected by the French)

Left major problemso Economies of the North and South were different and incompatible

North was industrializing and looking outward

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South was rural, poor, and backwardo Political framework of a conservative constitutional monarchy couldn’t deal with

the fact that Italy was conquered not unified14. Transformismo

Italian politicians’ way of dealing with major problemso Used bribery and favours to transform political opponents into supporterso Made Italian politics synonymous with corruption

15. Italia Irredenta “Unredeemed Italy” Trent and city of Trieste’s name for the rest of Italy

o They were still under Austrian controlo Wanted to liberate the rest of Italy

Caused continued hostilities with Austria Major reason for Italy’s support for Allies in WWI

16. William I Became king of Prussia in 1861

o Wanted to strengthen the military, but Parliament wouldn’t give him the necessary taxes

Turned to Otto von Bismarck for help17. Otto von Bismarck

One of most important people in European history from 1860s to 1890s Background

o From junker (noble) classo Attended a university and displayed an interest in German unificationo Reactionary as a member of provincial dieto Foreign policy experience

Prussian minister to Frankfurt diet Ambassadorships to Russia and France

o Conservative Constitutional monarchy but monarch still strong Strong industrial base

o Patriotismo Pragmatismo Planned to unite Germany through Prussia’s conservative institutions

Led Prussia into war with Denmark and Austria in pursuit of unification18. The Danish War

Denmark tried to incorporate Schleswig and Holstein into its kingdomo States had been traditionally split between Germany and Denmarko Prussia and Austria acted to crush Denmark

Increased Bismarck’s personal prestige19. Austro- Prussian War

Bismarck went about planning this conflicto Lulled Austria

Combined to defeat Denmark Given half of land taken from Denmark

o Russian sympathy for supporting suppression of Polish revolto Persuaded Napoleon III to remain neutralo Treaty with Italy that would give Italy Austrian land in return for supporto Tried to provoke Austria by telling Prussian forces to be obnoxious

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Prussia then proceeded to destroy the Austrians20. Treaty of Prague

Concluded Austro- Prussian War Gave Venetia to Napoleon III who gave it to Italy Hapsburgs permanently excluded from German affairs

o Prussia had the dominance in wanted21. North German Confederation

Federation made by Prussia of all of Germany north of the Main River after Austro-Prussian War

o States retained local governmentso Military forces all under Prussian control

Prussia dominatedo President was the king of Prussia, represented by chancelloro All laws for legislature had to be created by chancellor

22. Bundesrat Federal council

o Upper house of legislature of North German Confederationo Members selected by governments of member states

23. Reichstag Lower house of legislature chosen by universal male suffrage

o Bismarck thought peasants would vote for conservativeso Reichstag had no real power anyways

Ministers responsible to monarch Couldn’t present new legislation Could approve military budget but for years at a time

24. The Franco- Prussian War Another war that Bismarck wanted to get the southern provinces from France and

complete unificationo Bismarck edited a telegram from William I to make it seem like he had insulted

the French ambassadoro French government took the bait partially to try to get its populace to support the

government again French were crushed

o Germany got Alsace and Lorraineo German princes requested that William I become German emperor

Germany was an economic and military superpower Also a strong force for conservatism Showed weakness of French and Austrians

25. Napoleon III Ruler of second French empire

o Authoritarian until 1860o More liberal empire after 1860

Foreign policy failureo Lost control in Italian unification processo Supported disastrous military expedition to Mexico by an Austrian archdukeo Allowed German unification and lost a war to Germany

Captured before the end of the war and allowed to go to England Proclamation of the Third Republic

26. Heinrich Von Treitschke

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German historian known for extreme nationalism during the Franco- Prussian Waro Demanded annexation of Alsace and Lorraine

Alsace wanted to remain part of France and majority of people were French

Might makes right policy27. The Paris Commune

New government elected to rule Paris separate from the rest of Franceo Parisians thought National Assembly had betrayed them in peace negotiations

with Prussiao Had radicals and socialists galore

National Assembly surrounded Paris and then attacked in killing 20,000 peopleo Regarded by Marxists as a proletariat revolution

Most members were actually bourgeoisie Actually wanted a more decentralized, radically democratized

governmento Another triumph of centralization just like the unifications of Germany and Italy

28. Third Republic Founded in France because the monarchists couldn’t get a king to sit on the throne

o Bourbon king had no heiro Orleans king didn’t want to keep tricolored flago Elected Marshal MacMahon to try to prepare for a monarchist restoration

Made republican system to regularize the political processo Two house legislature

Chamber of Deputies elected by universal male suffrage Senate chosen indirectly

o President elected by two houses Much stronger and resilient system than many had expected

29. Marshal MacMahon Elected president to try to prepare for a monarchist restoration Conservative army officer Resigned after quarrels with the lower house

o Left republicans in control30. The Dreyfus Affair

Most traumatic event to the Third Republic (until they Nazis ended it) Events

o Captain Dreyfus, a Jew, was convicted on flimsy (and forged) evidence of passing secrets to the Germans and sent to Devil’s Island

o New head of counterintelligence looked at it again and found the evidence was forged

Tried a different army officer That army officer was acquitted

o Large amount of public debate followed French conservatives initially dominated with anti-Dreyfus material Emile Zola’s newspaper article

o Liberals started to use events to attack conservativeso Dreyfus given military retrial, convicted again, then pardoned by president

Conservatives put on defensive Radicals, republicans, and socialists allied on the left to support republican institutions to

help themselves Issues continued to divide Third Republic until Nazis ended it

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31. Emile Zola Wrote a newspaper article about the Dreyfus Affair

o Contended that the army didn’t give Dreyfus due process and suppressed and forged evidence

o Convicted of libel but fled to England32. Francis Joseph

Ruler of Hapsburg Empire from 1848 to 1916 Tried to bring Hapsburg Empire into modern times

o Ministers attempted to create a centralized administration Military and bureaucratic regime dominated by Austrians Hungary divided into military districts Catholic Church in charge of education Failed

o Institution of a federation among the states First plan was local diets dominated by landed classes and one imperial

parliament Second plan was Reichsrat that was bicameral imperial parliament Both rejected by Hungarian nobles (Magyars) who resented Austrian

domination33. Dual Monarchy

Combination of Austrian and Hungarian crownso Given to Francis Joseph, the Habsburg, Austrian ruler

34. Ausgleich (Compromise) of 1867 Transformed Hapsburg Empire into a dual monarch, Austria-Hungary Otherwise made Austria and Hungary basically separate

o Shared only ministers of foreign affairs, defense, and financeo Separate parliaments

Causeso Magyars hadn’t liked Austrian dominated system for a long timeo Austria needed to do something after defeat in the Austro-Prussian War

Successfulo Magyars got local control they always wantedo Habsburgs still held on to the territory and foreign power

35. Trialism Proposed policy where Czechs would be given position similar to the Hungarians

o Borne out of Czech opposition to the Compromise of 1867 Representative of feelings of all non- Hungarian national groups in the

empire Representative of the growth of nationalism, particularly within the Austro-Hungarian

Empire36. Lord Acton

English historian and commentator on contemporary politics and religiono Concerned with preservation of libertieso One of earliest people to warn against political dangers of nationalism

Takes away rights of minorities in a nationalist state Nationalism leads to the ruin of states because it places national purity

ahead of liberty and prosperity37. Alexander II

Russian tsar from 1855 to 1881o Instituted largest reforms since Peter the Great

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o Reforms instituted from the top Reforms

o Abolition of Serfdom Seen as necessary to allow Russia to maintain its status as a world power Problems: economically inefficient, threat of revolts, morality Opposition from nobles and landlords Serfs got rights to marry without landlord’s permission, buy and sell

property freely, court action, and pursue other jobs Didn’t get land for free and had to pay plus interest for land that wasn’t

large enough to support themo Local Government

Village communes replace authority of landlord (and often owned the land)

Village elders settled disputes, imposed fines, issued internal passports, and collected taxes

Nobles got more power through county (zemstvos) councils for improvements in infrastructure, education, and agriculture

Received too little funding to be importanto Judicial System

Western legal principles introduced Not perfect but more efficient and less corrupt than old system

o Military Period of service lowered to 15 years (from 25) and then to 6 for active

duty and 9 for reserves Discipline relaxed Universal service for men starting at age 20

o Overall failed and gave way to a police state38. Alexander Herzen

One of Alexander II’s most prominent critics The Bell was a reformist newspaper published from his place of exile (England) Intellectuals had had hope for the reforms but it dwindled when it was clear that the

reforms were limited39. Populism

Revolutionary movement that grew out of the ideas of Herzen and otherso Social revolution based on communal life of Russian peasantso Mostly studentso Turned to terrorism when they couldn’t get peasants to help

40. “Land and Freedom” Largest radical society of populism movement

o Split into two groups in 1879 One advocated educating peasants and was soon dissolved Other was The People’s Will

41. The People’s Will Revolutionary group that came out of the split in “Land and Freedom” Dedicated to the overthrow of the tsarist autocracy

o Wanted representative governmento Wanted to assassinated Alexander II

Eventually successful 6 sentenced to death in his assassination

o Such dedicated revolutionary opposition was part of Alexander’s reign

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Limited reforms convinced many Russians that autocracy could never truly make reforms

Worsened by Alexander III42. The Second Reform Act (1867)

Expanded British electorate by over 1 million voterso Passed by Disraeli’s conservative ministryo Admitted a large number of working class males to the electorate

43. Benjamin Disraeli Led conservative ministry that passed the Second Reform Act

o Surprising because ministry came to power after a liberal ministry resigned for failing to expand the electorate

o Did it because he hoped conservatives would benefit from the new votes Immediately was incorrect Was correct over the long run

44. William Gladstone Became prime minister after Disraeli

o Began in 1830s as a Tory but became more liberal over time Supported Robert Peel, free trade, repeal of Corn Laws, and efficient

administration Lowered taxes and government spending Champion of Italian nationalism

o Led liberal ministry Opened positions still for aristocracy and Anglicans to other classes and

religions Competitive exams for civil service Abolishment of sale of officers’ commissions Voting by secret ballot Education Act of 1870

45. Rowland Hill English reformer who proposed way to improve postage system

o Low, flat rate for postageo Sender would pay for mailo Franking privilege would end

Also proposed idea of a stamp46. Penny Postage

System that came out of Rowland Hill’s reforms to the mail systemo Large increase in mail volume because everyone could afford ito Huge increase in government postal workers

System basically still in place today47. Education Act of 1870

Government assumed responsibility for establishing and running elementary schoolso Replaced inadequate religious institutionso Gladstone’s first ministry

48. Public Health Act of 1875 Consolidated previous legislation on sanitation and reaffirmed state’s duty to interfere

with private property on matters of health and physical well-being Reform of second Disraeli ministry helped by Richard Cross

49. Artisan Dwelling Act of 1875 Government actively involved in providing housing for working class

o Showed even further concerning by allowing trade unions the right to picket lines

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Reform of second Disraeli ministry helped by Richard Cross50. Home Rule

Irish control of local governmento Advocated by Irish nationalists since 1860so Came to head in 1880s

Gladstone’s first ministry did improve Irish condition a littleo Disestablished Irish branch of Anglican Church so Irish Catholics no longer had

to pay taxes to hated churcho Land act provided compensation to evicted tenets and helped others get loans to

buy lando Didn’t address home rule

51. Charles Parnell Leader of Irish movement for a just land settlement and home rule

o 1880s saw land act that strengthened tenet rightso Coercion act to restore law and order to Ireland accompanied that land acto Was during Gladstone’s second ministry

Organized Irish members of House of Commons into tight voting bloco Frequently disrupted Parliament to advocate home ruleo Home rule continued to be an issue through the first world war

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Chapter 24 (The Building of European Supremacy: Society and Politics to World War I):1. 2nd Industrial Revolution

Emergence of new industrieso Completely different from those of the 1st Industrial Revolution

Steel, chemicals, electricity, and oil Dependence on imported oil

o Not solely focused in Great Britaino German leadership

Link between science and industry Large industrial force

2. Henry Bessemer Process that allowed for cheap steel production

o Britain, France, Belgium, Germanyo Skyrocketing productiono Helped lead to 2nd Industrial Revolution

3. Gottlieb Daimler Inventor of automobile

o Frencho Initially luxury itemo Used internal combustion engine

4. Henry Ford Mass accessibility of automobiles

5. Petite Bourgeoisie Lower level of the middle class

o Secretaries, retail clerks, and low-level bureaucratso Sought to distance selves from working-class beginningso Educationo Consumer goods to mimic rest of middle class

Growing tension with upper middle class capitalists6. “Boneshaker”

Early name for bicycleo Reference to rough riding of early bikeso Individualistic freedom to move

Way to get to work for men Liberating for women

7. George Haussmann Redesign of Paris

o Napoleon III Partially political to prevent insurrections Political in creation of jobs

o Urban reconstruction Destruction of whole districts Larger and wider streets Parks and theatres Creation of jobs

o Exemplification of era of urban reconstruction8. The Metro

Subway system in Pariso Symbol of urban reconstruction

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o Increased mobility9. Eiffel Tower

Originally temporary structure for international trade expositiono Kepto Impact of middle-class in businesso Age of steel and iron

Symbol of liberals social and political values10. British Public Health Act

British response to problems on urban sanitationo Increased government involvement

Condemnation of private property for being hazardous to public health Excavation of private land for sewers Building regulations

o Concern over public health in cities11. French Melun Act

French response to problems on urban sanitationo Increased government involvement

Condemnation of private property for being hazardous to public health Excavation of private land for sewers Building regulations

o Concern over public health in cities12. Louis Pasteur

Bacterial theory of diseaseo End of 19th centuryo Even more increased care about public health

13. Married Women’s Property Act British law allowing married women to own property

o First step in addressing social disabilities of womeno Slow pace of reform

Law passed in 1882 Unique for over a decade

14. Harriet Taylor Author of The Subjection of Women Wife of John Stuart Mill

15. The Subjection of Women Harriet Taylor Applications of liberal freedom to position of women

o Against utility for women to be inferior16. Millicent Fawcett

Leader of moderate National Union of Women’s Suffrage Societies in Britaino Respectability and responsibility of women in politicso Large rallies

17. Frances Power Cobbe British feminist

o Reasoning behind women seeking suffrage Power it gives Bring mercy and justice to Earth

o Tactics Non-violent Good tempered

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Convince men that women aren’t going to misuse right Wrote on many religious and social issues

18. Emmeline Pankhurst Leader of radical British feminists

o Disruptive and violent tacticso Founded Women’s Social and Political Union

Also involved in labour and Irish nationalist movements19. Women’s Social and Political Union

Radical British women’s suffrage group founded by Emmeline Pankhursto Known as suffragetteso Turned to violent tacticso Marched on Parliament

20. Suffragettes Derogatory nickname of members of the Women’s Social and Political Union

21. Hubertine Auclert Lone leader of French feminist movement in 1880s

22. National Council of French Women Feminist organization that emerged in France

o Upper-middle class womeno Did not support suffrage at first

23. Union of German Women’s Organizations German feminist organization

o Supported call for suffrageo Primarily concerned with improvements in women’s daily lives

Social position Education Other protections

24. Pogroms Organized riots

o Organized by police in Russia and Poland against Jews25. First International

Group of British and French trade unionistso All sorts of political radicalso Publically supported by Marx

Tried to reform system and improve labour conditions within existing framework

Privately criticized it Lost power after Paris Commune

o Marx had declared it a proletariat uprising Socialists tried to distance themselves

o Pressure from French authorities because of socialist tendencies Large impact on socialism going forward

o Statistics, information of labour problems, and debates over socialist doctrineso Marxism emerged as most important socialist ideal

26. Keir Hardie First independent working man elected to British Parliament

o 1892o British socialism weak at the time

27. Fabian Society

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Britain’s most influential socialist groupo Named after Q. Fabius Maxmius

Roman General Avoid direct conflict that could lead to defeat

o Gradualist approach to social reform Many members civil servants Gradual, peaceful, democratic progress Education about rationality of socialism Collective ownership at municipal level

Exemplified lack of revolutionary socialism in Britain28. David Lloyd George

Leader of Liberal Party ministryo Broad program of social legislation

Labour exchanges Regulation of certain industries National Insurance Act of 1911 Marginally successful in calming labour strife

o Goal of not losing seats to new Labour Partyo Conflict with conservative House of Lords

House of Commons got power to override veto of House of Lords Representative of moderate social reform in Britain

29. National Insurance Act of 1911 Social welfare act in Britain

o David Lloyd George’s Liberal ministryo Unemployment benefits and health care

Moderate social reform in Britain30. Second International

Attempt to unify various French socialist parties and trade unionso Amsterdam Congress

Debated and rejected opportunism Ordered French socialist parties to unify Led to growth of French socialism

31. Opportunism Participation of French socialists in cabinet

o Way to make progresso Condemned by Second International

32. Syndicalism General strike as device for generating worker unity and power

o Belief of French labour movemento Georges Sorel’s Reflections of Violenceo Led to classes with socialists and middle class

Socialist belief in aiding labour through state action Middle class suppression of strikes with troops

Representative of disconnect between French socialism and labour movements33. Georges Sorel/Reflections On Violence

Doctrines of syndicalismo General strike to unify and empower workerso Conflict between French labour and socialist movements

34. Erfurt Program German Social Democratic Party (SPD)’s attitude towards German Empire

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o August Bebel and Karl Kautskyo Impending doom for capitalism and necessity of socialism

To be achieved through legitimate political action Immediate task to improve lives of wokers

SPD opposition to German Empire theoreticalo Participation in political processes

35. Revisionism New socialist ideas of Eduard Bernstein

o Challenges to orthodox Marxismo Social reform through democratic institutions

Debate within SPDo Criticism

Britain liberal and parliamentary Germany authoritarian Ultimately won out

o Course of action still similar to Bernstein’s suggestions Trade union members didn’t want revolution Patriotism and love of Germany Fear of renewed repression

o Showed SPD’s concern for politics Electoral gains Expansion of membership Short-term reform

36. Sergei Witte Leader of Russian industrialization

o Finance minister Strong financial relationship Led to diplomatic relationship

o Economic planning Protective tariffs High taxes Gold standard Efficiency

o Heavy industry Railroads, coal, iron, steel, and textiles Factory system

o Problems similar to other industrializing nations37. Eduard Bernstein

Questioned orthodox Marxist doctrineso Life in England with Fabianso Question of correctness of pessimistic view of capitalism

Evolutionary Socialism Conditions didn’t meet orthodox expectations Expansion of vote to working class

New ideas about socialismo Social reform through democratic institutionso Revisionism

38. Kulaks Prosperous Russian peasants

o Owned their own land

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o Poorer peasants had to work for them Inefficient farming methods Couldn’t afford enough land to support their families

System shows problems in rural Russia39. Constitutional Democratic Party (cadets)

New political party in Russiao Modeled off of liberal parties of western Europeo Parliamentary government

Ministers responsible to parliament Civil liberties Economic progress

o Members from representatives in local councils (zemstvos) Exemplary of political developments as a result of Russian industrialization

40. Gregory Plekhanov Russian socialist leader of late 19th century

o Exile in Switzerlando Had Lenin as discipleo Revolutionary practice necessary

Lack of representative institutions Small working class

41. Vladimir Lenin Personal background

o Son of high bureaucrato Studied lawo Chief disciple of Plekhanovo Time in Switzerland

After exile in Siberia What Is to Be Done?

Leader of Russian socialismo Elite party of revolutionarieso Different from Western European socialism

Rejection of ideas of Western European socialists Necessitated by authoritarian structures of Russia

o Socialist revolution Unification of proletariat and peasantry Showed Lenin’s superior understanding of plight in the countryside

42. What Is to be done? Lenin’s view on what Russian socialist party should do

o Rejection of policies of Western European socialists Condemnation of accommodations Criticism of trade unionism for being too short term Rejection of mass democratic party of workers

o Necessity of small, organized, elite party Resistance of police spies Training of professional revolutionaries Caused by authoritarian structures of Russia

43. Bolsheviks Lenin’s faction of the Russian socialists

o Meant “majority”

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o Dominant force in Russian socialism Lenin’s organized, elite party Goal of actual revolution

o Lenin’s idea of joint proletariat and peasant revolution Ultimately won out

o Initially scorned by Western European socialist partieso Took power in 1917 in turmoil of WWI

44. Mensheviks Moderate faction of Russian socialists

o Meant “minority”o More democratic than Bolsheviks

Mass membership Similar to socialist parties of Western Europe

Ultimately lost out45. Revolution of 1905 (explain)

Causeso Dislike of consequences of industrializationo Loss in the Russo- Japanese Waro Bloody Sunday

Massacre of people trying to petition tsar to improve industrial conditions

Large number of ordinary Russians no longer trusted the tsaro Continuing discontent

Sailors and peasant revolts Strikes Liberal demands for reform

o Events in St. Petersburg Started with strikes Soviets basically controlled city

Effectso Recall of Witteo Promise of constitutional government

Two chambered Duma Tsar reserved ministerial appointments, financial, foreign, and military

affairs46. Soviets

Workers groupso Practically controlled St. Petersburg after strikeso Led to Tsar Nicholas II promising constitutional government

47. Duma Two chamber representative body in Russia

o Result of Revolution of 1905 First and second bodies were revolutionary and dissolved Third based on conservative franchise was enough for tsar

o Step towards constitutionalism in Russia Dissolved until it did tsar’s bidding Tsar retained ministerial appointments and financial, foreign, and

military policy48. Edouard Manet

Influential painter in second half of 19th century

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o Many techniques of impressionists Bright colors Depiction of modern life itself

o Paintings had many modern things Consumer goods included Interior lighting from light bulbs

o Commentary on time Uncertain class relations Fears of economic downturn or war

Chapter 25 Identification (The Birth of Modern European Thought):1. Positivism

Human intellectual development culminated in scienceo Three stages of human development

Theological stage Metaphysical stage Positive stage

o Exact description of observable events All knowledge must resemble science

2. August Comte Developer of positivism

o Should expand past scienceo Seen as father of sociology

Follower of Saint-Simon3. Beatrice Webb

British Fabian Socialisto Commenter on public awareness of science and technology

Result of Second Industrial Revolution Science to explain everything

4. Jules Verne Father of modern science-fiction literature

o Five Weeks in a Balloono Twenty Thousand Leagues under the Seao Basis in science

Reflective of European trendso Literacy of the masseso Focus on science

5. Charles Darwin British naturalist Authored On the Origin of Species

6. On the Origin of Species Charles Darwin Mechanical interpretation of world of living things

o Explanation of the how of evolutiono Natural selection

7. Alfred Russel Wallace British naturalist Also formulated principle of natural selection

o Independent of Darwin

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o Evolution of species over time8. Natural Selection

Darwin and Wallace Process by which evolution occurs

o More organisms than can survive Malthus

o Organisms with advantageous traits survive to reproduce Traits from chance variation

o Mechanistic development in nature No need of anything unnatural Couldn’t explain origin of chance variations

Triumph of naturalismo Directly against biblical narrativeo Undermined argument that God exists because He created universe

9. Herbert Spencer British philosopher Most famous advocated of evolutionary ethics

o Human society progressed through competition Weak can’t receive too much protection Ethical imperative to compete

o Led to series of justifications Take away help for poor Domination of colonial peoples Aggressive international competition

10. Social Darwinism Evolutionary ethics and similar concepts

o Herbert Spencero Human society progressed through competition

Justification of seemingly unethical things Might makes right

11. Thomas Henry Huxley British scientist Chief opponent of Social Darwinism

o Evolution and Ethicso Physical evolution at odds with human ethical developmento Defended pure Darwinism

12. David Friedrich Strauss German theologian and writer The Life of Jesus

13. The Life of Jesus Strauss Questioned historical evidence of Jesus

o Conclusion of Jesus as myth Arose for social and intellectual conditions of Palestine Jesus character represented aspirations not reality Most prominent reason for loss of faith among literate peoples

o Others soon followedo Part of attack on Christianity

14. Friedrich Nietzsche German writer

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Christianity as religion that glorified weaknesso Life required strengtho Useless debilitating sacrifice rather than courage and risk takingo Part of climate that caused Christianity to lose its intellectual respectability

Failed intellectual tests People could live without it

15. Falloux Law French law that had local priests as teachers in public school

o Disliked by Third French Republic Replacement of religious training with civic instruction Religious leaders barred from teaching in public schools

o Representative of conflict between church and state Arena was education Because of loss of Christianity’s intellectual respectability

16. Kulturkampf Bismarck’s cultural struggle against the Catholic Church in the German Empire

o Saw it as threat to unityo Education again the battlefield

Removal of clergy from local education Secularization of education May Laws of 1873

o Ultimately failed Provoked Catholic anger at Germany Price paid for state control of education and civil laws regarding marriage

Representative of church and state conflict of the time17. May Laws of 1873

Part of Bismarck’s conflict with the Catholic Church Placed education requirements of priests

o Had to be educated in German schools and universitieso Must pass state examo Applied only to Prussia

Weakened role of Churcho Abolishment of Church’s disciplinary powers in Prussiao Power of state to punish clergy

Widespread resistanceo Clergy refused to obeyo All Catholic bishops in Prussia arrested to expelledo Demonstration of continued life of Church during time

18. Pope Pius IX/ Syllabus Of Errors Pope who some hoped would be liberal

o Briefo Fled Rome when Roman Republic was proclaimed

Disliked Italian unification process Counteroffensive against liberalism

Syllabus of Errorso Catholic Church against science, philosophy, and politics of the timeo Led to papal infallibility

Applied when speaking on faith and morals officially Centralization of authority within the church

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Belief that for Catholic Church to survive, focus would have to be on pope19. Rerum Novarum

Pope Leo XIII’s most important proclamationo Defense of private property, religious education, and religious control of marriage lawso Condemnation of socialism and Marxismo Declaration of decent treatment of workerso Basis for democratic Catholic parties and Catholic trade unions

Modern society organized into corporate groups from various classes that followed Catholic principles

Alternative to socialism and competitive capitalism Attempt to modernize Catholicism

20. Catholic Modernism Movement of modern biblical criticism within the Catholic Church

o Condemned by Pius X Anti- Modernist oaths Resumption of conflict between Catholicism and modern thought

21. Ernest Renan French writer Islam a manifestation of ancient Semitic thinking

o Similar to Judaismo Powerful monotheistic vision

Islam closed to new ideas and science22. Jamal Al-Afghani

Egyptian intellectual Opposed ideas of Renan

o Over time Islam would produce culture as modern as Europe Islam was 600 years younger than Christianity Rare direct contest to European thinker

23. Salafi Movement to reconcile Islam and modern thought

o No contradiction between Islam and science Muhammad had addressed the issue Reformed Islamic society could do so too

o Modernization with pure Islamic faith Rational reading of the Quran Ottoman decline as part of religious error

Church and state conflict not limited to Europeo Less adversarialo Not as modernized as Europe

Actual led some Muslims to oppose Western influence24. Ernst Mach

The Science of Mechanicso Scientists needed to reconsider their concepts

Not necessarily descriptive of physical world Described sensations experienced by observer

o Representative of discontent with excessive scientific realism25. Hans Vaihinger

Discontent scientistso Dislike of excessive scientific realism

Descriptions were “as if”

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Shift against ability to discover truth of physical reality26. Wilhelm Roentgen

Discovered X rayso Form of energy that penetrates some opaque materialso Led to more exploration of radioactivity

Showed physics was far from completely understood27. Ernest Rutherford

Explained the cause of radiationo Disintegration of atoms of radioactive materialso Immense store of energy in atoms

28. Max Planck Theoretical physicist Father of quantum theory of energy

o Energy is series of discrete quantitieso Exemplifies what replaced concrete models of mid-19th century

29. Albert Einstein Theoretical physicist Theory of relativity

30. Relativity Einstein’s theory on relationship between space and time

o Space and time were combined continuumo Measurement of space and time dependent on observer and entities being measuredo Representative of new revolutionary theories in physics

31. Realist Late 19th, early 20th century literary movement

o Scientific observation and objectivityo Rejected romantic idealization of nature, the poor, love, an polite societyo Portrayed dark side of life

Representative of changing literary trends32. Naturalist

Late 19th, early 20th century literary movemento Scientific observation and objectivityo Representative of changing literature

33. Charles Dickens Early realist author

o Cruelty of industrial societyo Cruelty of society based on money

34. Mary Anne Evans Early realist author

o Pseudonym George Elioto Close attention to detail of her characters

Imagination and artistry Better morality possible through Christian or humane values

35. Gustave Flaubert Madame Bovary

o First real realist novel Colorless provincial life Woman’s search for love

o Life without heroism, purpose, of civility

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Start of changing literary trends36. Henrik Ibsen

Norwegian playwright Realism in domestic life

o Marriage difficultieso Sexually transmitted diseaseso Suicide while trying to impress a young womano Attack on respectability of middle class family

37. George Bernard Shaw Irish writer Realist attack on romanticism and false respectability

o Reality of prostitutiono Attack on romanticizing of love and waro Ridicule of Christianity

38. Modernism Multifaceted movement that touched all the arts

o Critical of middle class society and moralityo Not deeply concerned with social issueso Concern for beautyo Arts could and should influence others

Attempt to create new formso Seemed formless to manyo Cross medium techniques

39. Virginia Woolf British author

o Member of Bloomsbury Group Proponents of modernism Challenged values of Victorians Rejection of repressive sexual morality

o Novels portrayed people trying to live absent of 19th century values Representative of realism

40. Keynesian Economics New economic idea

o Government should regulate supply and demando Counter to 19th century ideas

Another example of challenges to 19th century thinking during early 20th century41. Thomas Mann

German modernist authoro Social experience of middle class Germanso How middle class Germans dealt with intellectual heritage of 19th century

42. Sigmund Freud Primary psychoanalyst Early theories

o Application of science to psychic disorderso Free and spontaneous talko Causes back in childhoodo Significance of sexual matters

Sexual drive existed since infancy Humans inherently sexual creatures

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Dreamso Seemingly irrational content of dreams had scientific explanation

Culmination of unconscious or repressed desires Unconscious desires contributed to conscious actions

Later thoughtso Mind as area of conflict

Id where there was irrational desires for sexual and sensual pleasures Superego where there was societal values imposed on a person Ego where Id and Superego were balanced

o Reflected romanticism and Enlightenmento Finite physical and mental forces in a finite worldo Hostility towards religion

43. Carl Jung Swiss psychoanalyst

o Former student of Freudo Came to disagree with Freud

Qualms with Freudo Sexual drives as primary cause of mental disorderso Less faith in reason

Ideaso Human subconscious had memories from previous generationso Memories plus experiences made up the soulo Mysticism and positive value of religion

44. Max Weber German sociologist Emergence of rationalize as major development in human society

o Rise of scientific knowledgeo Bureaucratic organization

Basic feature in modern social life Self worth from position in bureaucracy

Challenges to Marxismo Bureaucracy instead of capitalism as driving force of modern societyo Noneconomic factors could account for major developments in human history

45. Collective Behavior Theories that collective behaviour was different from individual behaviour

o Crowds acted irrationallyo People led to action by shared idealso Necessity of shared values and activities in a societyo Instinct, habit, and affections directed human behaviour

Representative of focus of most social scientists, except for Weber46. Arthur de Gobineau

Reactionary French diplomat Fleshed out first important theory of race as the major determining factor in history

o Inequality of the Human Raceso Troubles of Western Civilization as the result of the long degradation of the original Aryan race

Degradation as a result of interracial marriage No way to reverse trend

o At the forefront of new racism based on biology and Social Darwinism47. H.S. Chamberlain

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Englishman Drew together different parts of racist thoughts

o Foundations of the Nineteenth Centuryo Biological determinism based on raceo Development of a superior race through genetics

Also anti-Semitico Jews as major European enemyo Helped spread anti-Semitism (and racism)

48. Alexis De Tocqueville French historian and commentator

o Criticized Gobineau’s idea of racial determination of human actionso Danger of Gobineau’s idea if it influenced the political life of nations through mass electorate

Representative of opponents of racial theories of the time49. Zionist Movement

Jewish movement for a separate Jewish stateo Founded by Theodor Herzlo Result of outbreak of anti-Semitism

50. Theodor Herzl Founder of Zionist Movement for a Jewish homeland

o Liberal politics and institutions couldn’t protect Jewso Jewish state so Jews could have protections of other citizens in liberal nations

Appeal to Eastern European Jews who were often poor and were forced to live in ghettos Combined with rejection of anti-Semitism

51. Contagious Diseases Acts British law concerning prostitutes

o Any suspected prostitute could be ordered to immediately undergo a test for venereal diseaseso Any one with a disease could be locked up in a special hospital without legal processo No action against men

Sexual double standard Purpose of law to protect men from infection

Led to feminist organization called Ladies’ National Association for the Repeal of the Contagious Diseases Act

52. Josephine Butler British feminist Leader of Ladies’ National Association for the Repeal of the Contagious Diseases Act

o Middle class groupo Successful in getting law first suspended then repealed

53.Auguste Ficke Leader of feminist General Austrian Women’s Association

o Issues Legal regulation of prostitution that put women under control of male authorities Societal sexual double standard

o Representative of women attacking double standard in sexual morality through attacks on prostitution laws

Women should focus of freeing and developing their personalitieso Better educationo Governmental financial support for women in traditional social roles

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Chapter 26 (Imperialism, Alliances, and War):1. Imperialism

Policy of one nation extending its authority by gaining territory or political/ economic influence over other nations

General term applying to a lot of civilizationso Applicable to ancient Egypt and late 19th-century Europeo Late 19th-century Europe a little different

2. New Imperialism European imperialist movement of late 19th-century Causes

o Technological advantages of Europeo Growth of nation states

Demands of loyalty and service Competition Effective use of resources

o European arrogance Belief that their civilization was superior Need to spread that belief

New techniqueso Investment in infrastructure

Change nation’s culture Agreements with local government to safeguard investment

o If that didn’t work Conquering or direct rule Spheres of influence

3. “spheres of influence” European nation receiving special commercial and legal privileges without direct political

involvement Part of New Imperialism

4. Joseph Chamberlain British colonial secretary Argued for empire as a source of profit and economic security

o Money for program of domestic reform and welfareo Made well after Britain had achieved empireo Another argument for New Imperialism

5. Karl Pearson Englishman who provided justification for new imperialism

o Social Darwinism Survival of the fittest applied to human societies Only natural to rule inferior races

o Shows how intellectual advances of the time helped along imperialism6. Open Door Policy

Policy for imperialism in China where there would be no foreign annexations and entrepreneurs of all nations would be on equal footing

o U.S. wanted this policy when it feared China would be closed to its citizenso Accepted by all major European powers except Russia

7. Three Emperors League League created by Bismarck with Austria and Russia

o Three conservative emperorso Meant to prevent a war on two fronts if France ever went to war with Germany

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o Quickly collapsed Russian and Austrian competition in Balkans Russian Turkish War

8. Jingoism New term for super patriotism

o Came from popular music hall songo Originally came from British fear of Russian expansion into the Mediterranean

9. Congress of Berlin Sought to settle imperial questions without conflict

o Site and Bismarck as leader showed new importance of Germanyo Dividing up the Ottoman Empire

Austria and Britain didn’t want the Russians to gain too much Germany didn’t want to get drawn into any conflict

o Balkan Settlement Bulgaria reduced in size Austria-Hungary given Bosnia and Herzegovina Britain got Cyprus France got Tunisia

o Resentment from Russians and Balkan states Russia didn’t like its land losses Didn’t like territorial settlement especially Austrian occupation of Slavic lands

10. The “honest broker” Bismarck’s self-created title at the Berlin Conference Fit him well and showed his determination to maintain German gains by preventing conflict

11. Dual Alliance Secret treaty between Austria and Germany

o Mutual defense against Russiao At least neutrality if another nation attackedo Borne out of German fears of Russia following Congress of Berlin

Russians had resented Germany for its role as host Caused revival of Three Emperors League

12. Triple Alliance Italy’s joining the Dual Alliance

o Fear of Franceo Great policy success for Bismarck

Allied with three great powers Friendly with Britain France was isolated

13. William II Came to German throne in 1888

o Interesting personality Believed he ruled by divine right Very militaristic with strong rhetoric and ambition

o Thought Germany was destined to be the great power of Europe Wanted equal footing with Britain Colonies and a navy

o Conflict with Bismarck’s policies Eventually dismissed Bismarck Bismarck was effective at keeping peace but now that was gone

14. Alfred von Tirpitz

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Architect of new German navyo Proclaimed that naval policy was aimed at Britain

Theory that Germany navy could do enough damage to British that other powers would finish them

Absurd and just caused militarismo Naval race actually caused Britain to turn away from Germany and towards Russia and

France15. Russo-Japanese War

Russian war with Japan over Koreao Russia lost

Humiliated Russia Led to Revolution of 1905

o Defeat helped reduce British concerns about Russian power16. Triple Entente

Association between France, Britain, and Russiao France and Britain joined as a result of dislike of Germanyo Britain and Russia joined for a couple of reasons

Threat of Germany Russia and France were allies so made sense for Britain to join with Russia

Stood against Triple Allianceo Germany effectively surroundedo Showed how new alliance system created possibility of war rather than lessened it as

Bismarck had hoped17. Young Turks

Group of revolutionaries within the Ottoman Empireo Took power and started to revive the empireo That revival threatened the nationalist ambitions of the Slavic nations

18. 2nd Balkan War War between Bulgaria and Turkey, Romania, Greece, Montenegro, and Serbia over dividing up

Macedoniao Bulgarians lost war and much of their lands

19. Franz Ferdinand Austrian archduke

o Resisted calls for Austria to annihilate Serbia when Serbia was illegally occupying Albania

o Assassinated by Bosnia nationalist Connection to Black Hand Set into motion chain of events that led to WWI Also some suspected Serbian involvement

20. “Black Hand” Political terrorist society

o Some nationalist wantso Person who assassinated Archduke Ferdinand had a connection

21. Theobald von Bethmann-Hollweg German chancellor

o Supported Austrian attack on Serbia Response to assassination of Archduke Ferdinand German support necessary for Hungarians to allow Austria to do this Also need for German support when Russia would almost inevitably join

o Message to Austria

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Swift act while other powers still angry Failure to act would be a sign of weakness

o Hoped for local war but prepared to risk general war Actually made general war pretty hard to avoid Chancellor was under great pressure from emperor William II who was friends

with Ferdinand and saw it as an attack on royalty Thoughts on the beginnings of the war

o Feared the future Russia was gaining power Only ally, Austria, was waning Pushed him towards war

o Miscalculated who would be involved in general war Thought Russia and France would get involved Thought Britain would remain neutral Thought on Britain was major miscalculation

22. “blank check” Incorrect interpretation of the message the German chancellor gave to Austria in allowing it to

attack Serbia23. Schlieffen Plan

German battle plano Attack France before Russia was ready to act

Then turn and attack Russia Wouldn’t work if Russia mobilized first

o Helped cause the war Once Russia started mobilizing to deter Austria, Germany had to mobilize Once mobilization began war was going to happen German mobilization helped force Britain and France to act German invasion of Belgium to get to France undermined an 1839 treaty of

Belgian neutrality and caused Britain to act24. “splendid isolation”

British foreign policy for much of the 19th centuryo Forced to abandon it to start naval race with Germany

Wanted to maintain naval superiority Race seen as one of causes of Great War because of that abandonment

o After abandoning it made more foreign policy decisions that led it into war Joined Triple Entente This caused Germany to feel encircled and led to more rigid German stance that

led to war25. Helmuth Von Moltke

German in charge of putting Schlieffen Plan into actiono Strengthened an area meant to be deliberately weak to draw a French attack

Counter to the core idea of the plan Meant that forces facing Russia were even weaker

o Some hesitance and mistakes by German generalso Schlieffen Plan ultimately failed

26. Winston Churchill First lord of the British admiralty during WWI Plan to break deadlock on Western Front by going around it

o Attack on Dardanelles to capture Constantinople Would force Turkey out of the war

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Bring war to Balkan front Ease communications with Russia Little risk in original plan

o Plan was poorly executed and failed27. Henri Pétain

French commander at Verduno Defended fortress from German onslaughto Became national hero

New national defiance slogan: “They shall not pass”28. March Revolution

Causeso Collapse of tsar’s ability to rule

People didn’t support the war as it dragged on Nicholas II was personally very weak

o Worker’s strikes Exacerbated by the war Russian troops in Petrograd refused to put them down

Tsar Nicholas II abdicated Reconvened Duma formed provisional government

29. Nicholas II Tsar during WWI

o Seen as weak Controlled by German wife Obsessed with Rasputin

o Government was inefficiento Abdicated after troops refused to fire on striking workers

30. Provisional Government Reconvened Duma that took power after tsar’s abdication

o Mostly composed of Constitutional Democrats who had Western sympathies Decided to maintain alliances Associated itself with much of tsar’s foreign policy, which was responsible for

domestic suffering31. Alexander Kerensky

Socialist leader of the provisional government before its collapseo Couldn’t quell disillusionment with the waro Couldn’t maintain army discipline

Failures led way for Bolsheviks32. V.I. Lenin

Leader of the Bolshevikso Set back to Russia from his exile in Switzerland by the Germanso Alliance of workers and peasants

“Peace, land, and bread” Political power to the soviets

o First coup attempt failed Helped Bolsheviks to power by encouraging a second coup that was successful

33. Leon Trotsky One of Lenin’s main lieutenants

o Arrested after first coup attempt Released after right wing countercoup

o Organized and led second coup

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Armed assault on provisional government Successful

34. Treaty of Brest-Litovsk Peace between Russia and Germany that got Russia out of WWI

o Harsh on Russians Poland, Baltic states, Ukraine to Germany Territory in Transcaucasus region to Turkey Payment of war damages to Germany

o Lenin had no choice Russia not capable of continuing to fight Bolsheviks needed to solidify domestic power

35. Maurice Paléologue French ambassador to Russia during WWI Described Russian Revolution of 1917 in memoirs

o Demonstrations in Petrograd Poorly organized Army joined in

o Response of tsarist government Wanted to set up military dictatorship Tsar was blind to reality of situation

36. White Russians Russians who opposed the Bolshevik revolution

o Civil war with Bolsheviks Led by loyal army officers Aid from the Allied armies

o Eventually crushed by Trotsky led Red Army37. Social Democratic Party

Leftist party in Germanyo Established a republic to prevent a soviet governmento Signed the armistice that ended fighting with German defeat

Most Germans didn’t realize the necessity of this based on crumbling military Blamed civilian government for the bitter peace that followed

38. 2nd battle of the Marne Height of the last German offensive

o No more German reserveso Allies were powered by the arrival of more and more American troopso Germans lost

Led to democratic government in Germany that wanted peace39. Mandates

Territories taken from the losers of WWI and given to the League of Nationso In effect ruled as colonies of British and French

Britain in Iraq and Palestine France in Syria and Lebanon

o Pushed many different people with no real history together Source of many of the Middle East’s problems after decolonization

40. Mustafa Kemel (Ataturk) Young Turkish general who came to power in Turkey

o Drove out a Greek forceo Got new peace with Western powers

Dissolution of Ottoman power and connections

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New Turkish Republic that was independent from Western powerso Led Turkey to be a secular state and a stabilizing country in the region

41. League of Nations League of states meant to pursue the common interest and mitigate threats

o Arbitration to settle differenceso Economic sanctions for refusal to follow league actions

Almost destined to failo No military force to back up its decisionso Action required unanimity

42. War Guilt Clause Clause in Treaty of Versailles that blamed Germany for WWI

o Meant to justify forcing Germany to pay reparationso Angered many Germans

Undermined government that accepted it Helped lead to rise of Hitler and Nazi Germany and WWII

43. John Maynard Keynes British economist who took part in peace conference at Versailles Condemned Treaty of Versailles particularly for its economic parts

o The Economic Consequences of Peace Reparations were terrible economically Wilson was hypocritical Would bring war and ruin to Europe

o Gave British way to duck out of international affairso Fed American tendency toward isolationism

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Chapter 27 (Political Experiments of the 1920’s): 1. War Communism

Economic policy that seized and confiscated essential assetso Things seized

Banks Transport system Heavy industry Grain from peasants to feed the army

o Help with effort in civil war against White Russians Civil war used to justify repression of opponents of policy

o Led to Red Army winning civil waro Strained alliance between workers and peasants

Workers used strikes Peasants resisted the seizure of grain

2. Leon Trotsky Leader of the Red Army during the civil war

o Suppressed internal and external oppositiono Use of terror and intimidation to achieve revolution

Capitalism used force, so workers must too No real moral argument against those things Helped to create fear of socialism that spread through Europe

Later a victim of Stalino Collectivization of farms to pay for quick industrializationo Russia needed to help revolutions elsewhere to get more supports

3. Kronstadt Mutiny Insurrection of Baltic fleet

o Shows breaking of alliance between worker and peasantso Crushed by Red Army with lots of fatalities

Part of circumstances that led to Lenin’s NEP (a strategic retreat)4. New Economic Policy (NEP)

Lenin’s economic policy partially tolerating private enterpriseo Government control of banking, transportation, heavy industry, and international

commerceo Private enterprise ok in other areas

Peasants could profit from farms Strategic retreat for Lenin

Positive political and economic effectso Countryside became more stable

More secure food supplies for cities Still no consumer goods for peasants to purchase

o Flourished in light industry and domestic retail tradeo Industrial production back to pre-war levels by 1927

Caused disputes within the governing committee of the communist party (Politburo)o Some saw it as betrayal of Marxismo Stalin v. Trotsky

Lenin criticized both before his death Stalin had base behind him

5. Joseph Stalin Led what would be victorious faction in fight with Trotsky

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o General secretary of the communist party Came from poor family No exile in Western Europe so much less intellectual and internationalist More brutal than other party members

o Base of power Party membership Day-to-day management

o Manipulated in fighting to gain power Supported Bukharin’s economics Denounced Trotsky’s internationalist outlook

6. Nikolai Bukharin Chief ideological voice of the right wing communists that opposed rapid industrialization

o Editor of official party newspapero Continuation of NEP and slow industrialization

Decentralized economic planning Tolerance of some free enterprise

7. Third International (Comintern) Organization created to make Bolshevik socialism as developed by Lenin the dominant

international socialismo 21 conditions for membership

Acknowledgement of Moscow’s leadership Rejection of reformist or revisionist socialism Adopting communist party name

o Destruction of democratic socialism8. Alexandra Kollontai

Soviet utopian writer on women and familyo New type of family that would liberate men and women

Expansion of sexual freedom and sharing of tasks between husband and wife Family based on love and comradeship

o Not representative of whole Radical view of family helped lead to rise of fascists who advocated traditional families

9. Benito Mussolini Leader of the Italian fascist movement Background

o Originally a socialist Edited prominent socialist newspaper Break when he supported Italian intervention on the side of the Allies

o Nationalism replaced socialism Had his own newspaper Served and was wounded in army

Unremarkable at end of WWIo Just one politician with one small political groupo Opportunist

Action more important than thought or rationale Political survival paramount

10. Fascism Right-wing, authoritarian ideology that developed from fears of the spread of Bolshevism

o General characteristics Anti- democratic Anti- Marxist

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Anti- parliamentary Strongly nationalist

o Frequently anti- Semetico Hold back the spread of Bolshevism

Protect the bourgeoisie Rejection of French Revolution and 19th-century liberalism

Generally trying to bring together groups for a great national purposeo Single- party dictatorships characterized by terror and a police- stateo Base of power was mass political parties

11. “Bands of Combat” Group that would grow to become the Italian fascists

o Led by Mussolinio War veterans angry at Versailles Treaty

Felt Italy had been cheated out of land Angry about territory on northeast coast of Adriatic Sea

o Fears of socialism and inflation12. Gabriele D’Annunzio

Spokesman for Italian discontent at results of Paris Peace Conferenceo Thought Italy deserved to be recognized as a great power and given lando Briefly took control of land that Italians thought they deserved

Showed how nongovernmental military could be used Embarrassed Italian government

Shows that it wasn’t just fascists who were discontent with the peace settlement13. Chamber of Deputies

Lower chamber of Italian parliamento Socialists had plurality of seats in 1919 because of social discontento Socialists and Catholics didn’t work together causing gridlocko Events caused fear of communist revolution

Mussolini decided fascists should make enemies out of the socialists Terror and violence against socialists and even local politicians Gave fascists support of conservative parts of society and some local

governments14. Black Shirt March

March on Rome by fascistso Growing support for the fascists

Mussolini and 34 followers elected to Chamber of Deputies More direct power for local fascists

o King’s refusal to authorize army to stop march Cabinet resigned Then asked Mussolini to be prime minister

Basically put fascists in position of powero Also had power for terror campaigns in countrysideo Enemies were incompetento King soon gave Mussolini dictatorial power

15. Victor Emmanuel King of Italy at time of Black Shirt March

o Refused to sign decree authorizing army to stop Black Shirt March Personal and political concerns Pretty much ensured fascist rise to power

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16. “Blue Horizon Chamber” Nickname of conservative Chamber of Deputies elected in France after WWI

o Lots of army officers in blue uniformso Stuck with precedent of conservatives after catastrophic events (Waterloo, 1848,

1871) Wanted security against Germany and Russian communism

o Lots of ministry changeso Few concessions to domestic social reform

17. Treaty of Rapallo Russia and Germany

o Diplomatic and economic relationso Beneficial to both nationso No secret military or political clauses

Suspected by many countries Germans trained Russian troops in return for use of tanks and planes of

USSR for training Confirmed French belief that Germany wouldn’t hold up Treaty of Versailles and moved

it to action18. Raymond Poincaré

Super nationalistic French prime ministero Found Germany in technical default of its reparations paymentso Meant to teach Germans a lesson

Ordered French troops to occupy German Ruhr mining and manufacturing district

Sent French civilians in to work when Germans went on strikeo Costly to the French

Alienated British Damage to French and German economies

19. Aristide Briand French foreign minister in the 1920s after Ponicare’s ministry

o Recognition of Soviet Uniono Conciliatory approach towards Germanyo Championed League of Nationso French military power didn’t give unlimited influence

20. David Lloyd George British politician Ousted wartime Liberal prime minister Herbert Asquith

o Split in Liberal party between followers of the two21. Ramsay MacDonald

Asked to be first Labour prime minister ever by King George V Socialistic platform

o Democratic, non-revolutionary, and non- Marxisto Extensive social reform not nationalization

Rise of Labour party and demise of Liberal party22. General Strike of 1926

General strike resulting from attempts to lower wageso Conservative government attempted to put British back on gold standard

Raised price of British goods to foreigners Tried to compensate by lowering wages

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o Started with coal miners Joined by other sympathetic workers Tension but little violence Unions capitulated partially because of weakness from high

unemployment Attempt to reconcile labour with housing reform and new poor laws

23. Mohandas Gandhi (Congress Party) Began to attract support following WWI

o British talked more about an independent Indiao India gained more autonomy

Right to impose tariffs to protect own industry British textiles producers no longer had totally free access

24. Irish Home Rule Bill Passed by Parliament in 1914 but postponed until after the war

o Irish nationalists didn’t want to wait Easter Monday, 1916 there was an Irish nationalist uprising in Dublin Only rebellion of a national group against a government involved in

WWI Tactical error in executing leaders making them martyrs

o Shift in leadership of nationalist cause from Irish delegation in Parliament to Sinn Fein

25. Sinn Fein “Ourselves Alone” Extremist Irish nationalist movement that gained leadership after Easter Day Uprising

o Won all but four Irish seats in Parliament in 1918o Refused to go to Parliament and created their own Irish parliament

Declared Irish independence Military wing became IRA

26. Eamon DeValera First Irish president

o Saw bitter guerilla war between IRA and British Armyo Oversaw peace negotiations

Irish Free State took place alongside other commonwealth nations Northern Ireland stayed with Great Britain

o Resigned after siding with diehards in civil war Elected president again in 1932

27. Irish Moderates Civil war side that supported treaty with Britain

28. Irish “diehards” Civil war side that wanted totally independent republic with no oath to the British

monarchy29. Josef Pilsudski

Carried out a military coup in Polando Ruled autocraticallyo Shows weakness of democratic Poland

30. Thomas Masaryk Leader of post- WWI Czechoslovakia

o Integrity and fairnesso Helped ensure state didn’t devolve into authoritarianism until Nazis came

31. Miklos Horthy

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Hungarian monarcho Elected by landowners after a brief communist post- WWI governmento Executions and imprisonments

32. Weimar Republic Government of Germany following WWI

o Republic, headed by Social Democrats, accepted Treaty of Versailles Permanently associated with disgrace and economic consequences Used by opponents, especially the Nazis

o All political groups wanted to revise Treaty of Versailles to varying degrees Constitutional Flaws

o Proportional representation in all elections so small parties could gain seatso President appointed and removed chancelloro President allowed to rule by decree in an emergency

Lack of Popular Supporto Lots of politicians still favoured a constitutional monarchyo School teachers, civil servants, and judges were same as before the war and thus

disliked the republico Officer corps suspicious of government and infuriated by Treaty of Versailles

Myth of civilian government stabbing army in back by surrendering Many people therefore wanted to revise the treaty

o Right wing Kapp Putsch (armed insurrection) Government fled city General strike Representative of violence of early republic

Invasion of Ruhr and Inflationo Borrowing and deficit spending caused hyperinflationo Ruhr invasion and economic resistance caused more inflation

33. Adolf Hitler German politician (understatement)

o German nationalism, racism, and extreme anti- Semitismo Disliked Marxism which he associated with Jewso Became associated with Nazi Party in Munich

Author of Mein Kampfo Outlined core political views

Racial anti- Semitism Opposition to Bolshevism Germany must expand eastward to make up for territorial losses and

achieve “living space” Not taken seriously by most people of the time

o Made a lot of money Two important decisions in prison

o He was leader who can make Germany strong againo Nazis must gain power legally

34. NAZI National Socialist German Workers’ Party

o Originally smallo Anti- Semitic and nationalistico Red and white banner with black swastikao “Twenty- Five Points”

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Originally almost Marxist but redefined socialist to be nationalistico Subordination of economic enterprise to the welfare of the state

35. “Twenty-Five Points” Platform of the Nazi party

o Repudiated of Treaty of Versailleso Unification of Austria and Germanyo Exclusion of Jews from German citizenshipo Agrarian reformo Prohibition of land speculationo Confiscation of war profitso State administration of giant cartelso Replacement of department stores with small retail shops

36. Ernst Roehm Leader of the Nazi storm troopers (SA)

o Paramilitary organization that provided food, uniforms, and eventually moneyo Chief instrument of terror and intimidation before Nazis took power

Attacked socialists and communists Potential for violence Contempt for law and republican institutions

Personally wanted a return to German military values37. George Grosz

Captured strife and despair of Weimar Republic politics and lifeo Attack on social and political eliteo Danger of Nazi party

Thoughts on WWIo Germany people blindly followed eliteo Hypocrisy of conservative middle class and imperial order

38. “Beer Hall Putsch” Attempted armed insurrection by Nazis

o In wake of Ruhr invasiono Crushed by local authorities

16 Nazis killed Hitler used treason trial to make himself into national figure

39. Gustav Stresemann Chancellor (and later foreign minister) of Weimar Republic who tried to reconstruct it

o Economic help Ended economic resistance in the Ruhr New German currency

o Moved against challenges from right and lefto Conciliatory foreign policy

Followed Versailles Treaty Still tried to revise it Wanted German areas of Poland and Czechoslovakia as well as Austria

Able to restore some confidence in the Republic40. Dawes Plan

New plan for Germany reparations paymentso Lowered annual paymentso Allowed annual payments to vary based on health of German economy

41. Paul von Hindenburg

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Elected as president following death of Friedrich Eberto Military hero and conservative monarchist

Shift towards conservatism in German politics Suggested conservatives had accepted a republic

o Appreciation of republic helped by economic prosperity of late 1920s42. The Locarno Agreements

Slight changes to Treaty of Versailleso Brought about by Stresemann’s conciliatory foreign policyo Acceptance of western frontier of Paris settlement

Italy and Britain to disagree if this was violated Also earlier French withdrawal of troops No such thing for eastern frontier

o French support for German membership in League of Nations Pleased all

o Germany happy for respect and possibility of revision in the easto Britain pleased to have more evenhanded roleo Italy pleased to be recognized as great powero France pleased by western frontier settlement and strengthening of eastern

alliances43. Kellogg-Briand Pact

Great powers renounced war as a policy instrumento In spirit of Locarno Agreements

44. Young Plan Replacement of Dawes Plan

o Lowered reparation paymentso Limit on how long Germany had to payo Germany no longer had outside supervision and control

Still rejected by Germans who decried any reparationso Showed optimist surrounding Locarno Agreements was unfound

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Chapter 28 Identifications (Europe and the Great Depression of the 1930’s):1. Mixed Economy

Governments became directly involved in economicso Result of the Great Depressiono Abandonment of 19th century economic principles

2. Kreditanstalt Major bank in Vienna

o Collapsed because American credit to Europe dried upo Primary lending intuition to central and eastern Europe

Severe pressure on German banking system Germany unable to make reparation payments

3. Debt Moratorium (Hoover) President Hoover announced temporary end to German reparations

o Germany couldn’t make payments Collapse of Kreditanstalt Pressure on German banking system

o Prelude to end of reparationso Hurt French economy

Relied on flow of money from reparations Had to accept it due to near total collapse of German economy

4. Lausanne Conference Basically ended reparations

o No way for Germany to payo Settlement of U.S. debts soon followed

Small symbolic payments Default

Effect of Great Depression on post- WWI loans and reparations system5. John Maynard Keynes

British economisto Originally called for orthodox method of cutting government spending to reduce

inflationo General Theory of Employment, Interest, and Money

Governments needed to spend money to increase demand to get out of an economic downturn

Not published until 1936 Government spending theory reflected trend towards more government involvement in

economyo Severity of Depression

Political goals of restoring employment and providing defense New regulations on private enterprise

o Pressure from new mass electorate6. Ramsay MacDonald

Lead a second Labour ministry in 1929o Ministry divided as unemployment rose

MacDonald wanted to slash budget, cut government salaries, and cut unemployment benefits

Would have been more radical if he didn’t want to maintain party’s respectability

Other ministers resistedo MacDonald went to king to fire entire cabinet

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Labour ministry didn’t leave office Coalition National Government

7. National Government Coalition Labour, Liberal, and Conservative ministry formed by MacDonald

o Won a decent majority in electionso MacDonald as PM became tool of Conservatives

Conservatives had majority in House of Commons Used coalition to help with appearance unpopular programs

Three major steps to attack Depressiono Balance the budget

Raised taxes, cut benefits to unemployed and elderly, and cut government salaries

Argued that fall in prices meant no real changeo Took Britain off gold standardo Import Duties Billo Signaled departure from century of British economic policy

Policies pretty successfulo Avoided banking crisiso First nation to restore industrial productiono Private housing boom related to low interest rateso Failed to deal with unemployment

Public responseo Demonstrations of unemployed, but they survived with government insuranceo Policy avoided extremes of Conservative and Labour parties

8. Import Duties Bill Part of National Government’s attack on Depression 10% tariff on imports

o Drastic given British commercial policy for past century9. Neville Chamberlain

Became British prime minister in 1937o Legacy of Munich agreemento Progressive socially for the Conservative party

10. Oswald Mosley Founder of British Union of Fascists

o Minor position in second Labour governmento Disliked lack of attack on unemploymento Direct action through new corporate structure for economy

Shows Britain wasn’t immune from right-wing extremists of the continent11. British Union of Fascists

Followers of Oswald Mosleyo Wore black shirts and tried to have mass meetingso Only a few thousand at apex

Alienation from anti- Semitism Political oddity soon after

Shows Britain wasn’t immune from right-wing extremists of the continent12. Rene Magritte

French artisto The Human Condition

Paradox of unsolved meaning

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Challenges to accepted scientific truths Uncertainty was part of human condition

o Fascination with dreams13. Action Francaise/ Croiz de Feu

Right-wing groups with authoritarian tendencies that became active in France during Depression

o More than 2 million members Army veterans (Croiz) Members who joined in wake of Dreyfus Affair (Action)

o Monarchy or military dictatorshipo Hostile to parliamentary government, socialism, and communismo Greater good of France above petty partieso Many similarities to Fascists and Nazis

Weakened loyalty to republican governmento More bitter political lifeo Stavisky Affair

14. Serge Stavisky (Affair) Small time gangster with government connections who became involved in fraudulent

bond schemeo Committed suicide before his arresto Many people thought it was a political cover-up

Symbolized immorality and corruption of republic to the right-wingo Clashes and an attempt to storm Chamber of Deputieso Led to end of Radical ministry

Left-wing parties saw that a right-wing coup was possible in France15. Eduoard Daladier

Leader of Radical ministry at time of Stavisky Affairo Ministry replaced by all former living premiers

Chamber of Deputies gave power to deal with economic matters by decree

16. Socialist- Communist Cooperation Peace within the French left beginning in 1934

o Initial split had been over Cominterno Stalin’s fear of Hitler made this possible

17. The Popular Front Union of French leftist parties, primarily socialists and communists

o Brought together by Blum Had been target of French communists Stalin’s fear of Hitler made the pact possible

o Dedicated to preserve the French and bring about social reform Election of 1936 gave a majority in the Chamber of Deputies Ministry with Blum as PM

18. Leon Blum Leader of the French socialists

o Brought together Popular Fronto Democratic, parliamentary socialism

Prime minister of Popular Front governmento Immediately faced labour strife

Fear among business community

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Brought labour and management together and helped them to an accord Wage increase, recognition of unions and collective bargaining, annual

vacation, and universal 40 hour work week Goal of justice in labour negotiations and increase in consumer demand

o Increased spending Raised salaries of civil servants Public works program Government loans to small industry Nationalization of some armaments and some wheat

Results of reformso Enraged business community

Blum halted the program Popular Front disliked halt and Blum resigned

o Economy didn’t recover and people lost faith in republic19. Paul von Hindenburg

President of Weimar Republic when Depression strucko Deadlock over economic policies

Social Democrats refused to cut social insurances Conservative parties wanted a balanced budget

o Appointed Heinrich Bruning as chancellor No majority in Reichstag Ruled through emergency presidential decrees Essentially turned Republic into authoritarian regime

o Inability to solve economic problems led to rise in extreme parties (Nazis and Communists)

Basically left rule in the hands of a few close confidants20. Kurt von Schleicher

Chancellor after Papeno Fear of civil war between right and left

Tried to build large coalition Conservatives and trade unionists

o Fear of this guy was even greater than fear of Hitler His plan led to Hitler becoming chancellor Later murdered as part of Hitler’s consolidation of power

21. Josef Goebbels Director of Nazi propaganda

o Understood the potential of radio to distribute political messages Urged directors to be interesting Audience would get political message better if they were interested

o Attitudes to be expressed Nationalism Not being boring was most importants

22. Reichstag/ Reichstag Fire Arson of Reichstag by mentally ill Dutch communist

o Nazis said it was a communist threato Led to emergency decree suspending civil liberties

23. Enabling Act of 1933 Allowed Hitler to rule through decree

o Passed by Nazi led Reichstago No more legal limits on Hitler’s power

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24. Schutzstaffel (SS) Elite paramilitary organization of Nazi Germany

o Chief vehicle of police stateo Began as bodyguards for Hitler

25. Heinrich Himmler Leader of SS

o Oversaw purges of potential rival Nazi officialso Became head of all police matters in Germany and stood second only to Hitler

26. Nuremburg Laws Nazi laws that took away citizenship of German Jews

o Professions and major occupations closed to Jewso Marriage and sex between Jews and non- Jews was banned

Based on racial theories of late 19th century, not religious discriminationo Also wanted people to humiliate Jewso Definition of Jew was complex

If three Jewish grandparents, then automatically a Jew If two Jewish grandparents and practicing Jew, married to a Jew, or with

one Jewish parent, then a Jew Meant to build Nazi thought of superior Aryan race

27. Kristallnacht Night where thousands of Jewish shops and synagogues were destroyed

o Under orders from Nazi partyo Jewish community had to pay for damages

Nazis confiscated insurance money Some were even arrested for causing the damage

Gave Nazis excuse to put Jews into concentration camps for protection28. David Buffum

American diplomat who witnessed and wrote extensive report on Kristallnachto Noted that most Germans seemed disturbed but more too intimidated but Nazis to

do anythingo Also noted that Jews wanted help emigrating

29. “Emancipation of Women” Social policy that Hitler rejected

o Anti-Semitism to discredit those who argued for emancipationo Separate spheres instead

Shows support for tradition family and opposition to Soviet views30. Herman Goering

Head of the German air force Directed to prepare German economy and armed forces for war

o Economic self-sufficiencyo Renunciation of military terms of Treaty of Versailles

End to unemployment Top priorities given to armaments

Example of economics being subordinated to goals of state31. Syndicates

Organizations of management and labour in major areas of production in Fascist Italyo Framework for labour negotiations

Subject to government arbitration Unions lost rights to strike and pursue independent economic goals

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o Meant to prevent class conflict Gave state a large degree of economic control

32. Corporatism (corporations) Reorganized syndicates in Fascist Italy

o Basically monopolies 21 covered the entire Italian economy Replacement of Chamber of Deputies with Chamber of Corporations

o Failed to increase production Large degree of state control of direction of economy

33. Five- Year Plans Stalin’s method of rapid industrialization of Soviet economy

o “Socialism in One Country” Communists would out produce capitalists Protection for capitalist countries

o Fight with Trotsky was over power, not ideology Successfully out expanded every nation in the Western world Failures of the policy

o Lack of consumer goodso Lack of adequate infrastructure in cities

Widespread crime and disease Populations had expanded faster than infrastructure

34. Gosplan Soviet State Planning Commission

o Oversaw Five-Year Plans Goals for production Reorganization of economy to meet those goals Large economic disruptions

o Favoured capital projects over consumer production Had to use propaganda to get cooperation of Russian people

o Workers were formed peasants without experience in industrial disciplineo Publicity for those who were good workers

35. Kulaks Small group of Russian farmers who had prospered under Lenin’s New Economic Policy

o Discontent from lack of consumer goodso Frequently withheld grain from the market

Food shortages in cities Government fear of unrest

Came to mean any peasant who resisted collectivization36. Collectivization

Vague policy of Soviet control of agriculture sectoro Produce enough grain for food and exportso Free peasant labourers for new industries

Destruction of class of dissident farmerso Dissidents had killed horses and cattleo Sent to prison camps in Siberia

Also used as an excuse to persecute religious preachers Consequences

o Failed to achieve adequate food productiono Mass migration to the cities

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37. “Dizziness from success” Stalin’s reason for a brief slow down in collectivization

38. Great Purges Stalin’s policy of eliminating anyone who was a possible opponent or rival

o Opposition from Stalin’s reversal of some of Lenin’s policies Rapid industrialization Moves against peasants Support for non-communist parties against Fascists and Nazis

o Stalin was paranoid Methods

o Show trials and false confessions for major party memberso Private trials for lower party memberso No justice for others

Targetso Civilian party memberso Major party leaderso Soviet army

Important officers Heroes of the civil war

Explanationso Central leadership tried to gain more control over lower levelso Eventually came to eliminating opponents in central leadership

Essentially created new party structure loyal to Stalino Elimination of Bolsheviks from revolution who saw Stalin erring from Lenin’s

policieso New young members who had never followed anyone but Stalin

39. Sergei Kirov Popular party chief of Leningrad and member of Soviet Politburo

o Assassination marked start of Great Purges Thousands arrested More expelled from party and sent to work camps

o Complicity in crime was common charge against those Stalin targeted40. N. I. Yezhov

People’s Commissar of the USSR for Internal Affairso Oversaw Great Purgeso Longtime member of communist party who was loyal to Stalin

Thought purges were necessary Eventually got purged

o Formally charged and tried for spying for Polando Believed it was his bureaucratic enemieso Confession and attempted defense in military court

Argued he was loyal party member Wanted his family to be looked after Accepted his fate while at the same time asking that Stalin be told he was

loyal, and therefore innocent

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