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Maritime Hunter-Gatherers in theChonos Archipelago (43°50’–46°50’ S),Western Patagonian ChannelsOmar Reyes Báeza, Mauricio Moragabc, César Méndezb & AlexanderCherkinskyd

a Instituto de la Patagonia, Centro de Estudios del Hombre Austral,Universidad de Magallanes, Punta Arenas, Chileb Departamento de Antropología, Universidad de Chile, Santiago,Chilec Instituto de Ciencias Biomédicas, Universidad de Chile, Santiago,Chiled Center for Applied Isotope Studies, University of Georgia, Athens,Georgia, USAPublished online: 03 Mar 2015.

To cite this article: Omar Reyes Báez, Mauricio Moraga, César Méndez & Alexander Cherkinsky(2015): Maritime Hunter-Gatherers in the Chonos Archipelago (43°50’–46°50’ S), Western PatagonianChannels, The Journal of Island and Coastal Archaeology, DOI: 10.1080/15564894.2014.1001920

To link to this article: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/15564894.2014.1001920

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Journal of Island & Coastal Archaeology, 00:1–25, 2015Copyright © 2015 Taylor & Francis Group, LLCISSN: 1556-4894 print / 1556-1828 onlineDOI: 10.1080/15564894.2014.1001920

Maritime Hunter-Gatherers in theChonos Archipelago (43◦50’–46◦50’ S),Western Patagonian Channels

Omar Reyes Baez,1 Mauricio Moraga,2,3 Cesar Mendez,2

and Alexander Cherkinsky4

1Instituto de la Patagonia, Centro de Estudios del Hombre Austral, Universidad

de Magallanes, Punta Arenas, Chile2Departamento de Antropologıa, Universidad de Chile, Santiago, Chile3Instituto de Ciencias Biomedicas, Universidad de Chile, Santiago, Chile4Center for Applied Isotope Studies, University of Georgia, Athens, Georgia, USA

ABSTRACT

This article presents the current advances in archeological research onthe Western Patagonian Channels, specifically the Chonos Archipelago(43◦50’–46◦50’ S). Based on a large spatial scale, we aim to contributeto the discussion of the dispersion and characteristics of the occupationof the Pacific coast of southernmost South America. Results show thatall of the contexts recorded do not exceed 3600 cal BP. Site formationprocesses that may have acted in the preservation of the archeologicalrecord of this area led us to question if this region was among thelast to be settled (as suggested by current chronological data), or ifthe dynamic tectonic activity that permanently transforms this coast isplayingamajor role inconcealingearlier evidence, thereby introducinga significant research bias.

Keywords archipelagic settlements, Late Holocene, maritime hunter-gatherers, siteformation processes, Western Patagonian Channels

INTRODUCTION

The permanent degradation and transfor-mation of coastlines caused by the fluctu-ations of sea levels since the end of the

Received 13 January 2014; accepted 15 July 2014.Address correspondence to Omar Reyes Baez, Instituto de la Patagonia, Centro de Estudios del Hom-bre Austral, Universidad de Magallanes, Av. Bulnes 01890, Casilla 113-D, Punta Arenas, Chile. E-mail:omarreyesbaez@gmail.comColor versions of one or more of the figures in the article can be found online athttp://www.tandfonline.com/uica.

Pleistocene and throughout the Holocene(Aniya 1999; Fairbanks 1989; Isla 1989; Long2001; Nakada and Lambeck 1988) has beenproblematic for the archaeological identi-fication and interpretation of sites on the

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American coasts (e.g., Bailey 2004; Erland-son 2001; Gusick and Faught 2011; Richard-son 1981). These transformations influencedthe dependency relationship of these com-munities with their maritime or coastalenvironment (Bailey and Parkington 1988;Erlandson and Fitzpatrick 2006). Under-standing changes in accessibility of thesespaces and the local redistribution of ex-ploitable resources on timescales of hun-dreds or thousands of years requires pale-ogeographical and paleoenvironmental re-constructions in order to guide the searchfor archaeological evidence. The degree ofpreservation of these spaces is also stronglyassociated with the changes in the land-scape, which were frequently catastrophic(Lomnitz 1970). Only with this informa-tion can the regional cultural developmentof coastal settlements be interpreted (Dille-hay et al. 2008; Fedje and Christensen1999; Mackie et al. 2011; Thompson andWorth 2011).

On the margin of the American Pacificthere are vast areas, some of which have notyet been investigated, with coastlines sub-ject to permanent changes and erosional pro-cesses (Punke and Davis 2006; Rick et al.2006). The materials that define the occu-pation of these coastal spaces, the techno-logical assemblages, and the evidence of theconsumed resources, are frequently recov-ered from intertidal zones or degraded coasts(Erlandson and Moss 1999). Therefore, it isnecessary to develop strategies for the loca-tion, recording, dating, and interpretation ofthe material evidence of these settlementsto understand the cultural dynamics that de-fine coastal adaptation (e.g., Bailey 2004; Er-landson 2001; Yesner 1980). Such strategieswill enable us to measure the unequal distri-bution of the archaeological records in theregion. The implications are twofold. At theregional level and for Patagonia, it is possi-ble to document a diversity of spaces occu-pied by maritime hunter-gatherers in areasnot previously examined. This fact is impor-tant because the archipelagic geography ofthe study area is singular for its extension, re-striction of access, and weather conditions.Additionally, at a mega scale, our results con-tribute to the discussion of the variability

of the evidence and the temporality of thesettlement on the continent’s Pacific margin(e.g., Dillehay 2009; Erlandson 1993).

Taking into account sea-level changes,the active local seismic dynamics, and the ef-fects of these on coastal archeological sites,we have surveyed a previously understud-ied zone of the northern archipelagos of theWestern Patagonian Channels. In this arti-cle, we present the first archaeological as-sessment of the human settlement in theChonos Archipelago (43◦50’—46◦50’ S; seeFigure 1), which includes: 1) the descriptionof the research method; 2) the identificationand systematic recording of the archaeologi-cal sites associated with these coastlines; 3)the description and assessment of the geo-morphological changes that affect the latter;and 4) the study of the archaeological collec-tions. This assessment enables us to advancean initial panorama of the settlement, bothspatially and chronologically, in the contextof marine adaptation on the southern tip ofthe American continent.

CULTURAL CONTEXT

On the southern tip of the Chilean Pacificcoast, there is a long and complex net ofchannels, fjords, and thousands of islandsknown as the “Austral Archipelagos” or the“Western Patagonian Channels” (Bird 1988;Emperaire 1963; Steffen 1910). This area ex-tends more than 1,600 km north-to-southand reaches from the Reloncavı Sound toCape Horn (41◦30’–55◦60’ S). The coastlinetotals more 19,000 km with a surface areaof 240,000 km2, which should be added to˜240 km of coastline north of the BeagleChannel and south of Tierra del Fuego, inArgentina. In this vast archipelagic area, thedistinguishable maritime adaptations com-mence approximately at 6400 BP (7300 calBP) toward the southernmost tip of the conti-nent according to data obtained in the BeagleChannel (Orquera et al. 2011; Orquera andPiana 2009).

In this regional context, several top-ics have been discussed. Among them, thegeographical origin of the maritime adap-

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Figure 1. (a) Western Patagonian channels, (b) Chonos archipelago and sites mentioned in thisstudy: 1. Puqueldon, 2. Repollal, 3. Puquitın 01, 4. Seno Gala 1, 5. Isla Harris, 6. Isla SinNombre, 7. Canalad 1, 8. Isla Benajamın 01, 9. Ipun 1, 10. Isla Elena 1, 11. Isla Victoria2, 12. Canal Cuche 1, 13. Isla Caniglia, 14. Canal Darwin (# 1, 2), 15. Nahuelquın (#1, 2,3), 16. Posa Las Conchillas, 17. Isla Acuao 1, and 18. Isla Goni 1.

tation stands out, whether it occurred inthe southern area (the Strait of Magel-lan/Beagle Channel) or the northern area(Chiloe/Reloncavı Sound) (Legoupil 2003;Legoupil andFontugne1997;OrqueraandPi-ana 1988; Prieto et al. 2013; Rivas et al. 1999).Whatwas thedispersionspeedof this adapta-tion phenomenon (Bird 1938; Orquera et al.2011)? Was there continuity or discontinuityof cultural traditions in this vast archipelagicterritory (Legoupil 1997, 2003; Morello et al.2002; Ocampo and Rivas 2004; Orquera et al.2011; Piana and Orquera 2007)? The studyof these topics has been based on archaeo-logical research conducted in the two geo-graphical extremes of this area, which alsocorrespond to the sectors with the easiest

access because of their proximity to popula-tion centers. Our research, which focusedon undocumented sectors of the WesternPatagonian Channels, aims to include vastcoastal and insular unexamined spaces in theregional archaeological discussion (Erland-son 1993). The earliest archaeological siterecorded in the Chonos Archipelago corre-sponds to GUA 10, yielding a 5020 ± 90 BP14Cage(5730calBP;Porter1993),whichcur-rently stands as an isolated locality without aregional context. Additionally, our researchrepresents an important step towards char-acterizing the variability of maritime hunter-gatherer settlements and calibrating the for-mation processes that inhibit or enable the

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identification of the archaeological record ina changing coastline landscape.

STUDY AREA

The Chonos Archipelago consists of a groupof more than 150 islands that form a densenet of channels and fjords with narrow andabrupt coastlines. The archipelago expandsbetween the south of the Chiloe Archipelagoin the Gulf of Corcovado (43◦50’S) and theTaitao Peninsula (46◦50’S). It covers an areaof ∼54,000 km2 that is nearly 360 km longnorth-to-south and 150 km east-to-west. Thisterritory is located to the west of the AndesMountains and was intensely shaped by Qua-ternary glacier action (Bennett et al. 2000;Glasser et al. 2004; Heusser 2002; McCullochet al. 2000). The abrupt topography includesslopes of hundreds of meters, with depthsof 200 and 700 mbsl in the fjords and chan-nels. This region also presents an active sub-duction zone dominated by tectonic platesknown as the Chilean Triple Junction (theNazca, South American and Antarctic plates)and large faults that converge in the TaitaoPeninsula (46◦–47◦ S;Dıaz-NaveasandFrutos2010; Ramos 2005). The faults are respon-sible for major earthquakes and tsunamis,which continually modify the coast (Lomnitz1970;Plafker andSavage1970). In theAndes,there is a chain of large volcanoes that re-flect this tectonic activity (Naranjo and Stern2004) and which are responsible for a sub-stantial portion of the sediment of the nearbyvalleys.

The weather in the area is typicallyoceanic with a strong influence of the west-ern winds, which cause significant precipi-tation (>3000 mm per year) to the west ofthe Andes (Garreaud 2009). The annual aver-age temperatures are approximately ∼10◦C(DGA 2003). The dense vegetation dom-inated by Nothofagus, Weinmannia, andconifers characterizes the interior area of thefjords in the form of temperate rainforest,which is typical of cold and humid regimes(Villagran 1988). Between 43◦30’ and 45◦ S,the vegetation is defined as temperate Pil-gerodendron and Astelia coniferous coastalforest, whereas south of 45◦ to 51◦ S, it is

defined as temperate Donatia and Oreobo-lus coastal peatland (Luebert and Pliscoff2006). The vegetation is controlled latitudi-nally and altitudinally by strong temperaturegradients and precipitation (Abarzua et al.2004; Sepulveda et al. 2009).

The rich fauna in the study area is rep-resented by a diversity of sea mammals:18 species of cetaceans, two pinnipeds,two seals, and two mustelids (Aguayo et al.2006; Zamorano et al. 2010), in addition to22 species of mollusks (bivalves and gas-tropods), crustaceans and echinoderms (Os-orio and Reid 2004), 29 species of fish(Navarro and Pequeno 1979), and 46 speciesof birds (Vuilleumier 1985). In contrast, theterrestrial fauna on the islands are scarce(small rodents).Onthecontinentalcoastline,the pudu (Pudu pudu), the huemul (Hip-pocamelus bisulcus) and, occasionally, thepuma (Felis concolor) are found (Gonzalezet al. 2009).

MATERIALS AND METHODS

A coastal survey was conducted to the westof Traiguen Island, the Darwin and CucheChannels, and the Smith Islands (Quetros,Renaico, Chaculay, and Elena), the latter lo-cated at the Aisen fjord. It was performed bysea because navigation is the only means oftransport that can access the channels andcoasts in this territory (Figure 2). This surveyincluded 250 km of coastline in an area of60 km west-to-east and 50 km north-to-south.Coastal sites are primarily composed of lithicremains, bones, and mollusk shells or theirperiostracae, which represent the archaeo-logical evidence of camp sites of maritimehunter-gatherers. Many of these sites havebeen submerged and “washed away” by thetides, thus their remains are mainly recordedin the intertidal area. In these cases, system-atic collection was performed during the lowtide. Primarily, lithic material showed signifi-cant signs of erosion on the surfaces (Schiffer1996).

In order to detect subsurface cultural de-posits in low- or zero-visibility conditions asa result of dense vegetation, borehole exca-vations were performed using an AMS, Inc.,

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Figure 2. Image of the maritime surveys along Chonos Archipelago, Gala sound.

kit with 60 mm diameter French and Dutchaugers. Sediment cores from deposits morethan 5 m deep were extracted. The bore-hole excavations detected highly obtrusivedeposits (Lightfoot1986), suchasshellheapsand paleosols, and proved to be an efficienttool to calculate the volume of the anthropicdeposits (stratigraphic expression) and torecover deep organic samples for dating.Thus, it is possible to establish sedimentationrates and to assess the accumulation of wastedeposits.

The human bone remains analyzed cor-respond to a sample (n = 10) of the ChonosCollection of the Universidad de Chile,which was recovered in the 1980s and 1990s(OcampoandAspillaga1984; Saez2008),butalso includes new findings (n = 10; Reyeset al. 2013). All of the remains were re-covered in caves/rockshelters or shell mid-

dens.Withoutexception, theseremainshavebeen looted, fragmented, or removed, andtheir integrity is low. In exceptional cases,it was possible to conduct basic bioanthro-pological analyses (to determine sex, age,and minimum number of individuals (MNI)(Buiskstra and Ubelaker 1994). Therefore,our efforts focused on determining radio-carbon chronology directly from the humanremains and performing isotopic analyses(δ13C collagen and δ15N collagen) to charac-terize the diet. All 14C and stable isotope sam-ples were carefully extracted to avoid con-tamination. These analyses were performedby the Center for Applied Isotope Studies,University of Georgia, using the method ofCherkinsky et al. (2010). Crushed bone sam-ples were diluted in 1N acetic acid to re-move carbonates (surface absorbed and sec-ondary). Periodic evacuation insured that

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evolved carbon dioxide was removed fromthe interior of the sample, and that freshacid was allowed to reach even the inte-rior micro-surfaces. Chemically cleaned sam-ples were reacted under vacuum with 100%H3PO4 in order to dissolve the bone mineraland release carbon dioxide from bioapatitefor carbon isotope ratio analysis. Residueswere filtered and rinsed with deionized wa-ter and under slightly acid condition (pH =3), heated at 80◦C for 6 hours to dissolve col-lagen and leave humic substances in the pre-cipitate. The collagen solution was filtered toisolate pure collages and dried out. The driedcollagen was combusted at 575◦C in evac-uated/sealed Pyrex ampoule in the presentCuO. The carbon dioxide and nitrogen werecryogenically separated. The isotopic ratiosof carbon (13C/12C) and nitrogen (15N/14N)were measured separately, with a FinniganMAT 252 Isotope Ratio Mass Spectrometerfollowinganoff-linesamplepreparation.Thedual-inlet rationing system alternately mea-suresunknownsampleandknownreferencegas to achieve a high-precision stable iso-tope measurement. Calibration is made us-ing NIST standard hydrocarbon oil, NBS-22(Noakeset al. 2006).Theratiosareexpressedin per thousand (�) using the δ notation, andare measured with respect to the limestoneVienna Pee Dee Belemnite (V-PDB), in thecase of δ13Ccollagen, and to atmospheric air ni-trogen (AIR), in the case of δ15N (Schwarczand Schoeninger 2011). Error is less than0.1� for δ13C and less than 0.2� for δ15N.All of the dates were calibrated at 2σ rangewith OxCal 4.2 (Bronk Ramsey 2009) withthe ShCal13 curve (Hogg et al. 2013) and areexpressed as calibrated years before present(cal BP).

The analyses of lithic material included asample of the artifacts recovered at differentsites of the intertidal zone, both within thesurveyed area and from the Curry Collectionof the Instituto de la Patagonia, Universidadde Magallanes. Given the selective nature ofthe sample, the analyses consisted primarilyof a techno-typological classification, which,however, included the observation of tech-nical attributes to understand the manufac-turing method of some of the tools (Inizanet al. 1995). Special attention was given to

the signs of abrasion on the surfaces of theartifacts because these occurred frequentlyas a result of their intertidal exposure.

RESULTS

The archeological survey on the ChonosArchipelago allowed recording 10 shell mid-dens, two emerged intertidal managementfeatures (locally known as fishing pens),and three rockshelters with scattered humanboneassemblages in their interiors (Table1).

Basedontheseresults, andthoseofotherresearchers (Porter 1993; Reyes et al. 2007;SternandCurry1995;SternandPorter1991),it could be established that the location ofthese sites was limited to the intertidal zoneor a few meters from it (basal deposits be-tween 0 and 3 masl) because the rugged ge-ography and dense vegetation constrainedsettlement possibilities. Such sites are fre-quently observed in association with creeks.

There is a high probability that numer-ous sites remain undiscovered along ourroute. The first factor influencing site detec-tion is related to the rugged topography ofthe cliffs along the coasts, which limits ac-cessibility. To this factor we must add theweather conditions, which frequently makenavigationdifficult.A third factor is thedensevegetation that covers the coastline, whichpreventsaccessandaffectsvisibility.Tocom-pensate for these, the borehole techniquewas an efficient way to sample in search foranthropogenic sediments and remains. How-ever, this technique is limited to in situ de-posits and within the range of the availableextensions (6 m). Coring was unevenly per-formed along the coast, favoring areas suit-able for disembarkation and where topogra-phy and vegetation cover allowed (Figure 2).Bays and beaches protected from the wind,locations near fresh water sources, and ar-eas with plain topography were the most fre-quent places for sites. Inland incursions didnot surpass 40 to 50 meters from the lineof maximum tide. Once a site was discov-ered, coring was used in defining its exten-sion and depth of deposits with an averageof five borehole samples per site. A fourthfactor is related to the degradation of the

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Omar Reyes Baez et al.

Figure 3. Images expressing geomorphological changes conditioning the archaeological recordin Chonos archipelago, (a) uplifted intertidal management feature Nahuelquın 3 atTraiguen Island (human scale: 1.75 m), (b) subsided forest at Taitao peninsula result-ing from tectonic movement, (c) intertidal eroded shell midden, Posa Las Conchillas.

archaeological sites as a result of coastlinechanges, primarily because of frequent upliftor subsidence caused by the intense seismicactivity (Figure 3). This factor becomes evi-dent when observing sunken shell middens,which have been eroded by the tides, sub-mergedlithicscatters,andhighly fragmentedbioanthropological remains, which displaysigns of energetic sea action on the exposedprofiles. Yet another example correspondsto intertidal management features of uncer-tain date that are currently exposed (Reyeset al. 2011). Paradoxically, in this context oflow visibility, shell middens are rather visi-ble because their “whitened” eroded profilescan be observed from afar among the densevegetation.

Archeological Sites and Chronology

In general, our research and as well asthat of others in the region (Ocampo and

Aspillaga 1984; Porter 1993; Reyes et al.2007; Stern and Curry 1995; Stern and Porter1991) has facilitated defining four types ofarcheological sites. The first, intertidal man-agement features, are located on narrowbays and correspond to two stone structuresaligned in semicircular arrangements (max-imum length of 25 and 70 m, respectively;Reyes et al. 2011). These structures havebeen observed along the Western Patago-nian Archipelagos (Alvarez et al. 2008) andresemble those described by Caldwell et al.(2012) for the Northwest Coast of NorthAmerica, which act as fish pens taking ad-vantage of high tides. However, the diffi-culty to date them and the fact that thesetwo structures are located above the currentmaximum tide, suggest further studies areneeded for assigning a specific function. Thesecond type corresponds to large shell mid-dens ranging from 2 to 8 m high and occupy-ingvariableextensionsofhundredsof square

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meters. Shell middens primarily yield mol-lusk valves, such as mussels (Choromytiluschorus, Aulacomya ater), limpets (Fis-surella sp.), and locos (Concholepas conc-holepas), crustaceans (Austromegabalanuspsittacus), and various echinoderms. Gen-erally these sites are only products of ma-rine recollection waste, hunting, and fish-ing. However, occasionally, they yield lithicartifacts, human burials, and hearths. Giventhe humidity of many of these deposits, theexoskeletons of the invertebrates cannot bedifferentiated and are degraded into a cal-cium carbonate mass. A third type of siteis lithic scatters, which are located in theintertidal zone and under the water. Thesescatters primarily include axes/wedges, bifa-cial points, net weights, byproducts or deb-itage and, sporadically, human bone frag-ments. Occasionally, these sites are associ-ated with nearby shell middens located overthe tide line. However, this contiguity doesnot entail that the scatters and the middensare contemporary. Finally, caves and rock-shelters, adjacent to the coast, were occa-sionally used to deposit the human remains.These sites may either represent ossuaries(some containing more than 20 individuals)or isolated deposits. The remains are founddistributed on the surface without any pat-tern or traces of anatomical position. Allof the remains have suffered severe anthro-pogenicdeterioration,suchas fragmentationand removal of anatomic portions (partic-ularly skulls). Because of the deterioratedcondition of these remains, the lack of aproper record (many have been recoveredby non-professionals), and the absence ofassociated cultural materials, it is unlikelyto establish funerary patterns (i.e., gravegoods and the disposition of the bodies). Inthis region, such funerary practices were al-ready noted in the seventeenth century andsubsequently (Byron 1901; Cooper 1946;Simpson 1875).

We developed a systematic radiocar-bon dating program considering samples (n= 37) from different locations at ChonosArchipelago in order to understand thechronological dimension of the regional oc-cupation (Table 2). The oldest dates wereobtained on charcoal and shell materials for

Canal Darwin 2 (3360 ± 25 BP; 3690–3490cal BP) and the base samples from Posa LasConchillas (3110 ± 25 and 3180 ± 25 BP;3390–3260 and 3450–3360 cal BP, respec-tively). However, there were no human re-mains found for this period. The dated hu-man remains could be separated in three ageintervals. The oldest interval, dated between2330 ± 25 BP (2430–2210 cal BP) and 1590± 25 BP (1530–1410 cal BP), consists fromeight samples found on the surface in caves.The interval between 1050 ± 30 BP and 650± 25 BP has nine samples, also found onthe surface in the caves with shell middens.Finally, the youngest dates between 430 ±25 BP (530–340 cal BP) and 210 ± 25 BP(300 cal BP–modern) were obtained for thesamples buried in the shell middens on thecoast.

To measure the maximum antiquity ofthe sites and their deposition rates, auger ex-cavations were performed to reach the basesof the shell middens (N = 7). The Posa LasConchillas site displays an ordered sequencewith regards to shell dates and two char-coal dates obtained from the higher levels(Figure 4). Two additional charcoal dates onisolated speckles from the area influencedby intertidal erosion, signal an older occupa-tional event, which is interpreted as possiblydisturbed. This suggests that the thick strati-graphic sections of the shell deposits pro-vide a certain stability that enables the mea-surementof sedimentationrates.Onthis site,we estimate a 2.3 cm/yr deposition rate forthe formation of the shell mound. Althoughthis rate has not been constant and the heapwas formed discontinuously, this averagedmeasurement reveals the summed volumeof the discard episodes over ∼2100 years.In addition to indicating the intensity of rec-ollection/discard, this accumulation may beexplained by several factors like the limitedspace availability due to abrupt topography,protection from winds and therefore fromstrong tidal action, good drainage conditionsprovided by shell middens, local productiv-ity, or activity area redundancy, among otherfactors, that made these particular locationsbe considered as persistent places (Piana andOrquera 2010; Thompson and Pluckhahn2012; Wandsnider 1992).

JOURNAL OF ISLAND & COASTAL ARCHAEOLOGY 11

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12

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13

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Omar Reyes Baez et al.

Figure 4. Depth/age model for Posa Las Conchillas, Traiguen Island, and the intertidal effects onthe basal deposits.

Thedirectchronologyobtainedfromhu-man remains demonstrates that the deposi-tion of bodies in rockshelters occurred from2330 ± 25 BP (2430–2210 cal BP) until650 ± 25 BP (670–560 cal BP). No humanremains recorded within rockshelters yielddates younger than∼450 cal BP (∼1500 AD),when the first contact with Western popula-tions occurred (Cardenas et al. 1991). How-ever, the incidence of a reservoir effect inhuman beings with a marine diet remainsunevaluated. Certain sites, such as the IslaElena ossuary, indicate that all of the individ-uals (N = 4) were deposited simultaneouslyor within a short time period (Reyes et al.2013). However, other sites, such as Isla Vic-toria 2 (N = 2) and Isla Ipun 1 (N = 2), showthey were reused for funerary purposes overlong periods, which indicates a continuity ofthis practice during which individual depo-sitions generated diachronic collective boneassemblages.

Burials at the shell middens have beenrecorded since 1630 ± 25 BP (1600–1420cal BP; Acuao-1, N = 1) until 210 ± 25 BP(300 cal BP-modern; Puqueldon, N = 2), andthey are both multiple (Repollal 01, N = 3)or individual. Only on the Puqueldon sitewas it possible to document an extendedburial deposition, which was a foreseeablepattern forWesternpopulations (Saez2008).The remaining bioanthropological evidenceis highly incomplete and corresponds to frag-mented remains obtained from profiles de-graded by tidal erosion (Reyes et al. 2011).Nofunerarygoodsassociatedwith thesecon-texts have been obtained.

Stable Isotopes

Of the 20 samples studied for stable iso-topes, all C:N ratios fall within the normalrange (Ambrose 1990; De Niro 1985) indi-cating that the isotopic signals are primary

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Figure 5. δ13C and δ15N collagen values of human samples from Chonos Archipelago; data frommarine resources after Panarello et al. (2006) and references therein.

(Table 3). Seventeen samples (all dated pre-contact) presented high values of δ15N, be-tween 15.3� and 19.5� (average: 17.2�,sd: 1.2) and values of δ13C between −9.3�and −13.9� (average: −11.1�, SD = 1.1)(Figure 5). The samples constitute a highlyhomogenous group, with values that arecharacteristic of a protein-rich diet based onmarine resources (Schoeninger et al. 1982;Yesner et al. 2003) as seen in light of theavailable isotopic ecology of the southern-most Patagonian Archipelago, ∼1300 kmsouth (Panarello et al. 2006). However, thethree remaining samples, with post-contactdates, present substantially different valuesfor δ13C (average: −20.3�, SD = 0.7) andδ15N (average: 9.8�, SD = 1.3). The com-parison of pre- and post-contact groupsfor δ13C and δ15N displays significant dif-ferences (Wilcoxon matched-pairs signed-

ranks test δ13C and δ15N: W = 51, p =.001754; Shapiro-Wilk normality test δ13C W= 0.6944, p = 3.333e-05; δ15N W = 0.7872,p = .0005606). The differences observed be-tween the groups may be explained by theincorporation of terrestrial resources (e.g.,domesticated animals, tubers, such as thepotato, and other vegetables of the C3 pho-tosynthetic pathway) in the diet as a resultof the deep cultural changes that occurredafter western contact (Alvarez et al. 2008;Cardenas et al. 1991).

Even though the pre-contact group washighly homogenous, we evaluated whetherthere were differences related to geo-graphical distribution, funerary practices orchronology: 1) When dividing the samplesfrom the Pacific margin (Isla Ipun, Isla Ben-jamın, and Isla Sin Nombre) and the in-terior channels (all other) no significant

JOURNAL OF ISLAND & COASTAL ARCHAEOLOGY 15

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Ta

ble

3.

Stab

leis

oto

pe

dat

afr

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ain

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this

stu

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ten

t,N

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ten

t,Sk

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Lab

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mp

ley

ield

,%%

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t

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Ipu

n1

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450

IPU

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d1

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16

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Figure 6. Axes/wedges from Chonos Archipelago, Curry’s collection, Instituto de la Patagonia, Uni-versidad de Magallanes, (a–c) preforms with percussion flaking; (d–g) axes/wedges withpolished (d–e) or ground surfaces (f–g).

differences were observed between the twogroups (δ13C: t = 0.8921, p = .404; δ15N:t = 0.8145, p = .4305; normal distribu-tion according to Shapiro-Wilk). 2) Whenthe samples were divided between burialsin rockshelters and in shell middens, again,no significant differences were observed(δ13C: t = 0.8817, p = .5343; δ15N: t =2.2004, p = .2006; normal distribution ac-cording to Shapiro-Wilk). 3) Finally, whenthe sample was arbitrarily segregated intotwo chronological groups (660–960 cal BPand 1470–2350 cal BP) their δ13C and δ15Nvalues showed no significant differences,even when for δ13C the p value was quitelow (δ13C: t = 2.1185, p = .0567; δ15N: t =−1.3837, p = .1873; normal distribution ac-cording to Shapiro-Wilk). The results demon-strate that before western contact and for aperiod of at least 1,700 years, the isotopicvalues remained constant across the entireChonos Archipelago, which implies that the

dietary reliance on marine proteins did notvary significantly.

Lithic Material

The studied lithic assemblage corre-sponds to selective collections from thesurface of different sites in the ChonosArchipelago and, as such, its only purposeis to illustrate general characteristics of thematerial culture without any statistical rep-resentation. However, valuable informationat the regional level may be obtained from itsstudy. In general, signs of abrasion on scarridges, differential erosion in surfaces, andnatural wear on thin edges are frequent be-cause the pieces were recovered from the in-tertidal zone, where the action of sedimentparticles suspended in the water promotesthe abrasion of the exposed surfaces (Pe-traglia and Potts 1994). These characteristics

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Ta

ble

4.

Lith

icas

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Deb

itag

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l

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15

11

2739

Po

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11

14

421

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rrie

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12

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win

0008

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eter

ysi

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site

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eran

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11

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saLa

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3113

98

77

28

4312

8

18

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Western Patagonian Channels

make it difficult to identify the cultural tracesand technical attributes of the pieces.

Given the selectivity of the recollec-tion, the assemblage yields a high varietyof tool types (Table 4). For example, oneof the most frequent lithic classes consistsof axes/wedges (24% of the total sampleand 36% of all of the lithic tools), whichwere recorded either as finished or piecesdiscarded in different stages of their use-life (Figure 6). Considering minor variations,these tools were manufactured on selectedflat pebbles through hard hammer percus-sion on one or both faces and later smoothedwith pecking. This process created biconvexsections and a double-beveled active edge inthe thicker portion of the tool. Only a fewpieces exhibit a concentrated polish on theactive edge, a feature that prolongs use-life.

The anvil is another lithic tool classrepresented in this assemblage. For thesetools, flat pebbles were selected and used forbipolar percussion, as suggested by peckingtraces located primarily at the center of theactive surfaces. Ovoid pebbles were flaked atboth ends, and either on one or both faces,producing grabbing notches for their useas fish net weights (Figure 7 d–e). Alterna-tively, some weights exhibit a circumferen-tial groove.

Bifacial artifacts are less frequent (Fig-ure 7 a–c), and their manufacture involveslarge quantities of thinning and edge-shapingflakes, which are occasionally recorded inthe intertidal zone. Generally, bifacial pointsare large (>12 cm) with a lanceolate mor-phology, which is a widespread type alongthe northern and southern Patagonian chan-nels (Morello et al. 2002; Porter 1993; Reyesetal.2007).Obsidianwasused inasignificantnumberof thesepieces.Macroscopiccriteria(crystal inclusions, color, and texture) andgeochemical analyses (N = 4) suggest thatthis toolstone was procured at the area of theChaitenvolcano(SternandCurry1995;Sternand Porter 1991; Mendez et al. 2008–2009),located between 130 and 360 km distantfrom the extremes of Chonos Archipelago.

Because these cases are isolated, onlydetailed studies of lithic assemblages at dif-ferent sites would enable us to understandfully the technology involved in the manu-

Figure 7. Lithic material from intertidal sitesin the Chonos Archipelago, (a–c)lanceolate bifacial points: (a and c)Seno Gala 1, (b) Nahuelquın 1, (d–e)weights, Darwin 1.

facture of tools and the economic decisionsmade when using and discarding them. How-ever, preliminarily we suggest that the major-ity of rocks selected correspond to pebblesrecovered near or immediate to the sites,which were manufactured into expedienttools. Only the axes and the bifacial toolsexhibit more specific designs and were con-ceived for longer use-lives. Of these, only thelatter required good-quality raw material.

DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS

The coastal survey of the ChonosArchipelago demonstrates the relevanceof incorporating new extensive areas inthe discussion of marine adaptations. Onlyin this way can the cultural and temporalvariability of this process in the WesternPatagonia Channels be properly evalu-ated. Among the main challenges, we canemphasize the effects of sea-level change

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(Fairbanks 1989), isostatic rebound (Reedet al. 1988), and local tectonics (Diaz andNaveas 2010) on the archaeological siteslocated in the coastlines. Inland sites havenot been recorded yet, whether because ofthe abrupt topography, the dense vegetationcover, or undetermined behavioral patterns.The location of the sites directly affectstheir conservation. Eroded stratigraphicdeposits, human remains, and lithic materialrecovered in the intertidal zone and emergedintertidal management features reflect thecoastline dynamics and underscore thedifficulty of recording settlements in thisarchipelagic space. We believe that thesignificant and permanent regional tectonicactivity can be signaled as the primaryfactor that prevents modeling paleocoasts inaccordance with global Holocene sea levels.For example, the largest contemporarysubduction event ever recorded (the 1960earthquake in Chile between 37◦ and 48◦ S(Mw 9.5), SHOA 2000) caused a rise of morethan 5.7 m on the Guafo, Guamblin, andIpun Islands, and a subsidence of 1 to 2 min the interior of the Chonos Archipelago(Plafker and Savage 1970).

The earliest anthropogenic depositrecorded in the Chonos Archipelago corre-sponds to GUA 10, an open-air site, located 6maslwhichyieldeda5020 ± 90BPage(5730cal BP; Porter 1993). The rest of the archeo-logical settlements recorded do not exceed3360 ± 25 BP or ∼3600 cal BP. We pro-pose three non-mutually exclusive explana-tory scenarios for this trend: 1) the evolutionof the coastline and its permanent reshap-ing may have hidden or destroyed the evi-dence located on the coastline; 2) surveysare yet limited; only 250 km of the coastlinehave been covered, thus there remains po-tential for greater variability of occupation.In the future, other types of localities shouldbe studied, such as offshore islands or higherterraces,whichhavenotbeenaffectedbythesea erosion. In fact, reliable sea-level recon-structions, performed 1100 km south in theMagellan Straight, suggest a mid-Holocenemarine ingression that produced a 6–10 maslterrace between 9000 and 4000 cal BP (Mc-Culloch and Morello 2009). These data maybe used to suggest probable new areas for

searching, as has been the case with GUA10 (Porter 1993). 3) The evidence obtainedin the Chonos Archipelago corresponds toa late occupation originated in other areas.That is, no base of any dated deposits is asold as the occupations detected 400 km tothe north in Chiloe (Legoupil 2005) whereradiocarbondates reach5950 ± 80BP(6730cal BP). Furthermore, in the Beagle Channel,1300 km to the south, the earliest coastaloccupation dates to 7842 ± 53 BP (8580 calBP;Pianaet al. 2012)anda fullmaritimeadap-tation has been proposed by approximately6400 BP (7300 cal BP; Orquera et al. 2011).

Site characteristics, locations, the iso-topic results, and the lithic technology ofthe Chonos Archipelago testify to a marineand pericoastal specialization. The faunalassemblages and deposition rates suggesta strong tendency towards the use of ma-rine resources through reiterated recollec-tion episodes on the same sites. The insu-lar location of these contexts and the geo-graphical distribution of the obsidian fromthe Chaiten volcano can only be explainedin a scenario of navigation as a means of resi-dential mobility and access to resources. Theisotopicvaluesof δ15Nonthehumanremainsalso support that the diets of the pre-contactpopulations were predominantly marine, infurther agreement with the faunal assem-blages of the sites. Additionally, the loca-tion of burials (primarily in caves) along thecoast indicates that the environments thatprovided the resources correspond to thesame areas in which the individuals died.Finally, the lanceolate lithic points and netweights constitute tools that may have beendesigned for marine hunting and fishing. Theaxes/wedges could have been used for thepermanent provision of the necessary woodfor the production and maintenance of ca-noes and for handling the dense vegetationof the woodlands surrounding camp-sites.

The magnitude of coastal reshaping doc-umented throughout the last 500 years (Lom-nitz 1970), must be regarded as an impor-tant factor when searching for evidenceof occupation in this territory. However,the evidence of populations adapted to thesea and inhabiting insular locations of theChonos Archipelago towards 3360 BP (3600

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calBP) suggests that there shouldbeolderan-tecedents in the region or at least evidencethat could confirm traces suggestive that thisadaptation originated in the geographical ex-tremes of the Western Patagonian Channels.The study of unexplored areas with chang-ing coasts offers the opportunity to recorda greater variability of adaptation of hunter-gatherers to marine environments and therole of archipelagic systems in the specializa-tion of human groups (Boomert and Bright2007; Keegan et al. 2008).

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

We acknowledge the help of FranciscoMena, Mauricio Osorio, Flavia Morello,Manuel San Roman, Eugenio Aspillaga, Pa-tricia Curry, Constanza de la Fuente, KurtRademaker, Ramiro Barberena, and theNahuelquın Indigenous community.

FUNDING

This research was funded by FONDECYT,grant 1130151.

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