U 3 Perception r

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Unit 3 Perception



Perception

A process by which individuals organize and interpret their

sensory impressions in order to give meaning to their

environment.

Perception includes all those processes by which an

individual receives information about the environment-

seeing, hearing , feeling, tasting and smelling. The studyof these perceptual processes shows that their functioning

is affected by three classes of variables: the objects or

events being perceived , the environment in which

perception occurs and the individual doing the perceiving.

Definition



Factors that

influence

Perception



Person Perception: Making Judgments

About Others

1. Attribution Theory

When individuals observe behavior, they attempt to

determine whether it is internally or externally

caused.

Distinctiveness: shows different behaviors in differentsituations.

Consensus: response is the same as others to samesituation.

Consistency: responds in the same way over time.



Attribution Theory



Errors and Biases in Attributions

1. Fundamental Attribution Error

The tendency to underestimate the influence of externalfactors and overestimate the influence of internal factors

when making judgments about the behavior of others.

2.Self-Serving Bias

The tendency for individuals to attribute their own

successes to internal factors while putting the blame for

failures on external factors.



Frequently Used Shortcuts in Judging

Others

1.Selective Perception

People selectively interpret what they see on the

basis of their interests, background, experience,

and attitudes.



2. Halo Effect

Drawing a general impression about an individual on

the basis of a single characteristic.

3. Contrast Effects

Evaluation of a person’s characteristics that are

affected by comparisons with other people recentlyencountered who rank higher or lower on the same

characteristics.4. Projection

Attributing one’s own characteristics to other people.

5. Stereotyping

Judging someone on the basis of one’s perception of

the group to which that person belongs.



Specific Applications in Organizations

Employment Interview

Perceptual biases of raters affect the accuracy of

interviewers’ judgments of applicants.

Performance Expectations

Self-fulfilling prophecy (Pygmalion effect ): The lower

or higher performance of employees reflectspreconceived leader expectations about employee

capabilities.

Ethnic Profiling

A form of stereotyping in which a group of individuals is singled out—typically on the basis of

race or ethnicity—for intensive inquiry, scrutinizing,

or investigation.

Performance Evaluations

Appraisals are often the subjective (judgmental)



The Link Between Perceptions and Individual

Decision Making

Perceptionof the

decisionmaker

Outcomes

Problem

A perceived discrepancy

between the current state of

affairs and a desired state.

Decisions

Choices made from among

alternatives developed fromdata perceived as relevant.



Rational Decision-Making Model

Describes how individuals should behave inorder to maximize some outcome.

Model Assumptions

- Problem clarity

- Known options

- Clear preferences

- Constant preferences- No time or cost constraints

- Maximum payoff



Steps in the Rational Decision-Making Model

1. Define the problem.

2. Identify the decision criteria.

3. Allocate weights to the criteria.

4. Develop the alternatives.

5. Evaluate the alternatives.

6. Select the best alternative.



The Three Components of Creativity

CreativityThe ability to produce

novel and useful ideas.

Three-ComponentModel of Creativity

Proposition that individual

creativity requires expertise,

creative-thinking skills, andintrinsic task motivation.



Definition:

―a specific mode of conduct or end state of existence is

personally or socially preferable to an opposite or conversemode of conduct or end-state of existence‖.

Value System:

A hierarchy based on a ranking of an individual’s values in

terms of their intensity.

Importance of Values

Provide understanding of the attitudes, motivation, and

behaviors of individuals and cultures. Influence our perception of the world around us.

Represent interpretations of ―right‖ and ―wrong.‖

Imply that some behaviors or outcomes are preferred over

Values



Types of Values –- Rokeach Value Survey

- Milton Rokeach ;

- Two set of 18 values each ;Terminal Values

Desirable end-states of existence; the goals that a person

would like to achieve during his or her lifetime.

Ex: Comfortable life (prosperous life);

Instrumental Values

Preferable modes of behavior or means of achieving one’s

terminal values.

Ex:Ambitious (hard-working , aspiring)



Values across Cultures: Hofstede’s Framework

- Geert Hofstede in late 1970s ;- Surveyed 1,16,000 IBM employees across 40

countries;

Five Value Dimensions of National Culture

Power Distance

Individualism vs. Collectivism

Masculinity vs. Femininity Uncertainty Avoidance

Long-term and Short-term orientation



Hofstede’s Framework for Assessing

Cultures

Power Distance

The extent to which a society accepts that power in

institutions and organizations is distributedunequally.

Low distance: relatively equal power between those

with status/wealth and those without status/wealthHigh distance: extremely unequal power distribution

between those with status/wealth and those without

status/wealth



Hofstede’s Framework (cont’d)

Collectivism

A tight social framework inwhich people expect

others in groups of which

they are a part to look

after them and protectthem.

Individualism

The degree to whichpeople prefer to act as

individuals rather than a

member of groups.

Vs.

Masculinity

The extent to which the

society values workroles of achievement,

power, and control, and

where assertiveness

and materialism are

also valued.

Femininity

The extent to which there

is little differentiationbetween roles for men and

women.



Hofstede’s Framework (cont’d)

Uncertainty AvoidanceThe extent to which a society feels threatened by

uncertain and ambiguous situations and tries to avoid

them.

•High Uncertainty Avoidance: Society does not like

ambiguous situations & tries to avoid them.

•Low Uncertainty Avoidance: Society does not mind

ambiguous situations & embraces them.



Long-term Orientation

A national cultureattribute that

emphasizes the future,

thrift, and persistence.

Short-term Orientation

A national culture attributethat emphasizes the

present and the here and

now.

Vs.



Attitudes

Definition:―By attitudes we mean the beliefs, feelings , and action

tendencies of an individual or group of individuals

towards objects , ideas and people . Quite often

persons and objects or ideas become associated inthe minds of individuals and as a result of attitudes

become multidimensional and complex‖



Attitudes

Attitudes

Evaluative

statements or judgments

concerning

objects,

people, or

events.

Affective ComponentThe emotional or feeling segment

of an attitude.

Cognitive componentThe opinion or belief segment of

an attitude.

Behavioral Component An intention to behave in a certain

way toward someone or something.



Formation of Attitudes

Experience with the object

Mass communication Classical

conditioning

Economic status Attitudes Operant

conditioning

Neighbourhood Vicarious learning

Family and Peer groups



Functions of Attitudes :

1. Adjustment :- Help people to adjust to their work environment;

2. Knowledge :

- Maintain a stable , organised and meaningful structure

of their world to prevent chaos;

3. Ego defensive :

- People form and maintain certain attitudes to protect

their own self-images;

4. Value expression :

- Expresses individual’s central values and self -

identity.



Types of Attitudes

Job Involvement

Identifying with the job, actively participating in it, andconsidering performance important to self-worth.

Organizational Commitment

Identifying with a particular organization and its goals, and

wishing to maintain membership in the organization

(Affective, Normative, and Continuance Commitment)

Job Satisfaction

A collection of positive and/or negative feelings that an

individual holds toward his or her job.



Employee Engagement

An individual’s involvement with, satisfaction with,and enthusiasm for the organization.

Perceived Organizational Support (POS)

Degree to which employees feel the organization

cares about their well-being.



Benefits of Positive Attitudes:

1. Increases productivity ;2. Fosters teamwork ;

3. Solves problems ;

4. Improves quality ;

5. Increases Loyalty ;

6. Increases profits ;

7. Fosters better relationships with employees ,

employers and customers ;8. Reduces stress ;

9. Makes for a pleasing personality .



Relation between Attitude , Values and Behaviour

Beliefs about Attitude towards Perceived

situational

behaviour-outcome the behaviour or internal

constraints

relationships

Intentions

Behaviour

Beliefs about Perception of

group and norms

societal norms

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