Compiled by Dr Sharynne McLeod, Charles Sturt University, AUSTRALIA - Updated March 2002http://www.csu.edu.au/faculty/health/cmhealth/Speech/innovations.html

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..........Articulation and phonology

Typical developmentof speech

OverviewPhonological processesEarly phonological developmentConsonants

♦ Phonetic inventory♦ Age of acquisition♦ Normal mismatches

Consonant clusters♦ Summary♦ Age of acquisition♦ Normal mismatches♦ Cluster reduction

VowelsSyllable structure: PhonotacticsPolysyllabic wordsProsodyLanguages other than English

Dr Sharynne McLeodCharles Sturt UniversityPO Box 789ABLURY 2640smcleod@csu.edu.au

Compiled by Dr Sharynne McLeod, Charles Sturt University, AUSTRALIA. Updated March 2002Page 2.

..........Overview

British data

(a) Grunwell, P. (1987). Clinical phonology. (2nd ed.). London: Croom Helm.

These norms are a compilation of other studies. For details see Grunwell, P.(1981). The development of phonology: A descriptive profile. First Language, 3,161-191.

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..........Phonological processes

Australian data

James, D. G. H. (2001). The use of phonological processes in Australian children aged 2 to 7:11years. Advances in Speech-Language Pathology, 3, 109-128.

354 children aged 3;0 to 7;11 years, Adelaide, SA. Cross-sectional study. Singleword sample. Major decline is defined as a decrease in process occurrence by50% or more (p. 114). This primarily occurred between ages 3-4 years.

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..........Phonological processes

British data

Grunwell, P. (1987). Clinical phonology. (2nd ed.). London: Croom Helm.

These data are a compilation of other studies. For details see Grunwell, P.(1981). The development of phonology: A descriptive profile. First Language, 3,161-191.

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..........Early phonological development

Summary

Stoel-Gammon, C. (1987). Phonological skills of 2-year-olds. Language, Speech, and Hearing Servicesin Schools, 18, 323-329.

33 children aged 2 years. Cross sectional. Conversational speech.

The 'typical' 2-year-old can produce:♦ CV, CVC, CVCV, CVCVC♦ 9-10 initial consonants♦ 5-6 final consonants♦ a few consonant clusters♦ PCC = 70%

American data

(a) Watson, M. M., & Scukanec, G. P. (1997a). Phonological changes in the speech of two-yearolds: A longitudinal investigation. Infant-Toddler Intervention, 7, 67-77.

(b) Watson, M. M., & Scukanec, G. P. (1997b). Profiling the phonological abilities of 2-year-olds:A longitudinal investigation. Child Language Teaching and Therapy, 13, 3-14.

12 children studied longitudinally aged 2;0 to 3;0 (11 girls, 1 boy). 30 minuteconversational speech samples. These tables are from (b).

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..........Early phonological development

Two-year-olds: Cross-linguistic summary of normal phonological development

Goldstein, B. & Cintron, P. (2001). An investigation of phonological skills in Puerto RicanSpanish-speaking 2-year-olds. Clinical Linguistics and Phonetics, 15, 343-361.

3 children assessed once. Aged 1;10, 2;4, 2;5. Connected speech data.Table contains summarised data by a range of authors, see p. 354

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..........Consonants: Phonetic inventoryie. Sounds produced, regardless of the target

British data

(a) Grunwell, P. (1987). Clinical phonology. (2nd ed.). London: Croom Helm.

These data are based on a compilation of other studies. For details see Grunwell,P. (1981). The development of phonology: A descriptive profile. First Language,3, 161-191.

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..........Consonants: Phonetic inventory

Compiled data

(b) Amayreh, M. M., & Dyson, A. T. (2000). Phonetic inventories of young Arabic-speakingchildren. Clinical Linguistics and Phonetics, 14, 193-215.

13 Arabic speaking children aged 13-24 months.Table presents a cross-linguistic summary of data from 10 studies.

American data

(c) Robb, M. P., & Bleile, K. M. (1994). Consonant inventories of young children from 8 to 25months. Clinical Linguistics and Phonetics, 8, 295-320.

7 children aged 8 to 25 months, studied longitudinally over 13 months.Conversational speech samples.

Typical consonant inventories in children 12 through 24 months of agebased on analysis of intelligible and unintelligible utterances.

Age Position Number of consonants Typical consonants12 months Initial 5 b, d, g, n, m. h

Final 1 m18 months Initial 6 b, d, m, n, h, w

Final 2 t, s24 months Initial 10 b, d, p, t, k, m, n, h, s, w

Final 4 t, k, n, s

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..........Consonants: Age of acquisition

Australian data

(a) Chirlian, N. S., & Sharpley, C. F. (1982). Children's articulation development: Some regionaldifferences. Australian Journal of Human Communicaton Disorders, 10, 23-30.

1375 children aged 2;6 to 9;0, New England, NSW. Cross-sectional study. Singleword test.

(b) Kilminster, M. G. E., & Laird, E. M. (1978). Articulation development in children aged threeto nine years. Australian Journal of Human Communication Disorders, 6, 23-30.

1756 children aged 3;0 to 9;0 from Brisbane, QLD. Cross-sectional study. Singleword test.

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..........Consonants: Age of acquisition

American data

(a) Smit, A. B., Hand, L., Frelinger, J. J., Bernthal, J. E., & Bird, A. (1990). The Iowa articulationnorms project and its Nebraska replication. Journal of Speech and Hearing Disorders, 55, 779-798.

997 children aged 3;0 to 9;0. Cross-sectional study. Single word test. Many morenorms and tables within the article. See Smit (1993a&b) for normal mis-matches.

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..........Consonants: Age of acquisition

American data

(b) Shriberg, L. D., Kwiatkowski, J., & Gruber, F. A. (1994). Developmental phonologicaldisorders II: Short-term speech-sound normalisation. Journal of Speech and Hearing Research, 37,1127-1150.

Developmental sound class classification is based on average percent correct inspeech-delayed children (cf. Shriberg, 1993)

Early 8 [m , b , j, n, w, d, p , h]Middle 8 [t , N, k, g, f, v, t S, dZ]Late 8 [S, T, s, z , D , l , r, Z]

American data

(c) Sander, E. K. (1972). When are speech sounds learned? Journal of Speech and HearingDisorders, 37, 55-63.

Compilation of data from Templin (1957) and Wellman, Case, Mengert &Bradbury (1931)).

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..........Consonants: Normal mismatches

American data

Smit, A. B. (1993a). Phonologic error distributions in the Iowa-Nebraska articulation normsproject: Consonant singletons. Journal of Speech and Hearing Research, 36, 533-547.

997 children aged 3;0 to 9;0. Cross-sectional study. Single word test. Many morenorms and tables within the article. See Smit et al. (1990) for original datacollection and Smit (1993b) for normal mismatches for consonant clusters.

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..........Consonant clusters: Summary

Summary of normal development

(a) McLeod, S., van Doorn, J., & Reed, V. A. (2001a). Normal acquisition of consonant clusters.American Journal of Speech-Language Pathology, 10, 99-110.

(b) McLeod, S., van Doorn, J., & Reed, V. A. (2001b). Consonant cluster development in two-year-olds: General trends and individual difference. Journal of Speech, Language, HearingResearch, 44, 1144-1171.

This table includes a summary of 10 general trends gleaned from literature onconsonant cluster development (McLeod et al., 2001a). These trends arecompared with the findings from McLeod et al. (2001b) who conducted alongitudinal study of 16 two-year-old Australian children.

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Consonant clusters: Age of acquisition

American data

(a) Smit, A. B., Hand, L., Frelinger, J. J., Bernthal, J. E., & Bird, A. (1990). The Iowa articulationnorms project and its Nebraska replication. Journal of Speech and Hearing Disorders, 55, 779-798.

997 children aged 3;0 to 9;0. Cross-sectional study. Single word test. Many moredata and tables within the article. See Smit (1993a&b) for normal mis-matches.

The table above is printed from McLeod, van Doorn& Reed (2001, p. 104)

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..........Consonant clusters: Normal mismatches

American data

Smit, A. B. (1993b). Phonologic error distributions in the Iowa-Nebraska articulation normsproject: Word-initial consonant clusters. Journal of Speech and Hearing Research, 36, 931-947.

997 children aged 3;0 to 9;0. Cross-sectional study. Single word test. Many moredata and tables within the article. See Smit et al. (1990) for original datacollection and Smit (1993a) for normal mismatches for singleton consonants.

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..........Cluster reduction

Compiled data

McLeod, S., van Doorn, J., & Reed, V. A. (2001a). Normal acquisition of consonant clusters.American Journal of Speech-Language Pathology, 10, 99-110.

Australian data

McLeod, S., van Doorn, J., & Reed, V. A. (2001). Consonant cluster development in two-year-olds: General trends and individual difference. Journal of Speech, Language, Hearing Research,44, 1144-1171.

16 children aged 2;0 – 2;11 studied longitudinally for 6 months. Connected speech data.

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Vowels

Australian data

James, D., van Doorn, J. & McLeod, S. (2001). Vowel production in mono-, di-and poly-syllabiwords in children 3;0 to 7;11 years. In L. Wilson & S. Hewat (Eds.). Procedings of the SpeechPathology Australia Conference. (pp. 127-136). Melbourne: Speech Pathology Australia.

354 children aged 3;0 to 7;11 years, Adelaide, SA. Cross-sectional study. Singleword sample.

♦ Paradigmatic aspect to mastering vowel production: children have sufficient control overthe articulatory gestures of each vowel such that they are recognized as the target phoneme(e.g., producing vowels in isolation). It seems that children develop the paradigmatic aspects ofvowels by the age of three years. Evidence for this comes from the widespread reporting thatchildren have mastered most vowels by this age (Bauman-Waengler, 2000; Selby et al., 2000;Vihman, 1998).

♦ Syntagmatic aspect: producing sequences of vowels within syllables and words in concertwith other phonological variables such as stress. It seems from about three to five years of age,children master some of the syntagmatic aspects of vowels.

Figure 1. The mean percent vowels correct (PVC) scores

Number of syllables

321

Mean PVC

98

96

94

92

90

88

86

7 year olds

6 year olds

5 year olds

4 year olds

3 year olds

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..........Vowels

American data

Selby, J. C., Robb, M. P., & Gilbert, H. R. (2000). Normal vowel articulations between 15 and 36months of age. Clinical Linguistics and Phonetics, 14, 255-266.

4 children, studied longitudinally at 15, 18, 21, 24, 36 months. Connected speech.

Summary of normal vowel development

Donegan, P. (2002). Normal vowel development. In M. J. Ball, & F. E. Gibbon (Eds). Voweldisorders (pp. 1-35). Woburn, MA: Butterworth-Heinemann..

“The literature on vowel development suggests that vowels are acquired early,both in production and perception. There is considerable variability in theirproduction, but most studies suggest that vowel production is reasonablyaccurate by age 3,although some studies call this into question.” (p. 2)

♦ Low, non-rounded vowels are favoured in the first yearFront-back vowel differences appear later than height differences.

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..........Syllable structure: Phonotactics

British and Australian data

Dodd, B. (1995). Children's acquisition of phonology. In B.Dodd (Ed.), Differential diagnosis andtreatment of speech disordered children (pp. 21-48). London: Whurr.

5 children studied longitudinally from 20 –36 months.

American data

(a) Watson, M. M., & Scukanec, G. P. (1997a). Phonological changes in the speech of two-yearolds: A longitudinal investigation. Infant-Toddler Intervention, 7, 67-77.

(b) Watson, M. M., & Scukanec, G. P. (1997b). Profiling the phonological abilities of 2-year-olds:A longitudinal investigation. Child Language Teaching and Therapy, 13, 3-14.

12 children studied longitudinally aged 2;0 to 3;0 (11 girls, 1 boy). 30 minuteconversational speech samples. This table is from (b).

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..........Polysyllabic words

Australian data

James, D., van Doorn, J., McLeod, S. (in press). Segment production in mono-, di- andpolysyllabic words in children aged 3-7 years. In F. Windsor, L. Kelly & N. Hewlett (Eds.)Themes in Clinical Phonetics and Linguistics, Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.

354 children aged 3;0 to 7;11 years, Adelaide, SA. Cross-sectional study. Singleword sample.

Mean Percent Consonants Correct (PCC) scores

Number of syllables

321

MeanPCC

100

90

80

70

3 year olds

4 year olds

5 year olds

6 year olds

7 year olds

The mean PCC scores for mono-, di- and polysyllabic words

Age MSWs DSWs PSWsMean (SD) Range Mean (SD) Range Mean (SD) Range

3 76.77 (10.80) 51-97 77.29 (8.48) 60-91 76.41 (6.97) 63-854 83.97 (7.62) 65-97 84.01 (5.89) 72-96 82.45 (5.59) 66-935 89.54 (7.27) 68-98 88.24 (5.61) 72-96 88.36 (6.06) 71-956 93.74 (3.97) 81-100 91.57 (3.97) 76-100 90.76 (3.73) 79-997 93.93 (4.66) 79-99 92.12 (3.83) 79-97 90.99 (4.11) 75-97

Total 90.22 (7.98) 51-100 88.86 (6.55) 60-100 88.03 (6.97) 63-99

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..........Prosody

American data

Kehoe, M. (1997). Stress error patterns in English-speaking children's word productions. ClinicalLingistics and Phonetics, 11, 389-409.

18 children aged 22 months, 28 months and 34 months produced 20x 3syllablewords and 4x 4 syllable words

♦ Significantly greater number of stress errors in SWS words♦ Tendency for greater number of stress errors in SWSW words♦ Stress errors were more frequent in imitated than spontaneous productions♦ Stress errors may be associated with articulatory and phonetic-control factors

Snow, D. (1994). Phrase-final syllable lengthening and intonation in early child speech. Journal ofSpeech and Hearing Research, 37, 831-840.

9 girls aged 12 – 20 months at initial observation assessed 4 times over 9months. Connected speech.

♦ Young children acquire skills that control intonation earlier than final syllable timing skills

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..........Languages other than English

A few examples of normative studies of other languages

Arabic – Amayreh, M. M., & Dyson, A. T. (1998). The acquisition of Arabic consonants. Journalof Speech, Language and Hearing Research, 41, 642-653.Cantonese – So, L. K. H., & Dodd, B. J. (1995). The acquisition of phonology by Cantonese-speaking children. Journal of Child Language, 22, 473-495.Danish – Bloch, V. (1996). Children’s phonological development: The importance of RomanJacobson. Omslag, Denmark: Audiologopædisk Forening.German – Fox, A. V. & Dodd, B. J. (1999). Der Erwerb des phonologischen Systems in derdeutschen Sprache. Sprache.Stimme.Gehor, 23, 183-191.German & Spanish – Lleo, C., & Prinz, M. (1996). Consonant clusters in child phonology and thedirectionality of syllable structure assignment. Journal of Child Language, 23, 31-56.Italian – Bortolini, U., & Leonard, L. B. (1991). The speech of phonologically disordered childrenacquiring Italian. Clinical Linguistics and Phonetics, 5, 1-12.Portuguese - Yavas, M. (1998). Phonology development and disorders. San Diego, CA: Singular.(p. 144 has a graph of the chronology of phonological processes in normal development ofPortuguese based on Yavas, M., & Lamprecht, R. (1988). Process and intelligibility in disorderedphonology. Clinical Linguistics and Phonetics, 2, p. 334).Putonghua (Mandarin) – So, L. K. H., & Jing, Z. (1998). The acquisition of Putonghuaphonology. Paper presented at the 5th International Conference on Spoken Language Processing,Sydney.Spanish – Jimenez, B. C. (1987). Acquisition of Spanish consonants in children aged 3-5 years, 7months. Language, Speech, and Hearing Services in Schools, 18, 357-363.Turkish – Kopkalli-Yavuz, H., & Topbas, S. (1998). Phonological processes of Turkishphonologically disordered children: Language specific or universal? In W. Ziegler & K. Deger(Eds.) Clinical phonetics and linguistics (pp. 88 - 97). London: Whurr.Xhosa – Mowrer, D., & Burger, S. (1991). A comparative analysis of phonological acquisition ofconsonants in the speech of 2 1/2 - 6-year Xhosa- and English-speaking children. ClinicalLinguistics and Phonetics, 5, 139-164.

BILINGUAL SPEAKERSSchmidt, A. M. (1997). Working with adult foreign accent: Strategies for intervention. ContemporyIssues in Communication Science and Disorders, 24, 53-62.

Yavas, M., & Goldstein, B. (1998). Phonological assessment and treatment of bilingual speakers.American Journal of Speech-Language Pathology, 7, 49-60.

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..........Languages other than English

Phonological processes usage in normal development

Kopkalli-Yavuz, H., & Topbas, S. (1998). Phonological processes of Turkish phonologicallydisordered children: Language specific or universal? In W. Ziegler & K. Deger (Eds.) Clinicalphonetics and linguistics (pp. 88 - 97). London: Whurr.

Summarised from data by a range of authors, see p. 89

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..........Languages other than English

Arabic

Amayreh, M. M., & Dyson, A. T. (1998). The acquisition of Arabic consonants. Journal of Speech,Language and Hearing Research, 41, 642-653.

180 children aged 2;0 to 6;4 years. Cross-sectional. Single words.

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..........Languages other than English

German

(a) Fox, A. V., & Dodd, B. (2001). Phonologically disordered German-speaking children.American Journal of Speech-Language Pathology, 10, 291-307.

(b) Fox, A. V. & Dodd, B. J. (1999). Der Erwerb des phonologischen Systems in der deutschenSprache. Sprache.Stimme.Gehor, 23, 183-191.

Fox & Dodd (1999) studied 177 monolingual German children aged 1:6 – 5:11.English translations of portions of the data (below) are reprinted in Fox & Dodd(2001).

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..........Languages other than English

Portuguese

(a) Yavas, M. (1998). Phonology development and disorders. San Diego, CA: Singular.

(b) Yavas, M., & Lamprecht, R. (1988). Process and intelligibility in disordered phonology.Clinical Linguistics and Phonetics, 2, p. 334.

This graph is from p. 144 of (a) based on data from (b).