SECTION I: LESSON OVERVIEWS Total Length 1 Quarter

Lesson One: Introduction to Peace and Conflict

Target Understandings: General introduction to peace and

conflict Baseline vocabulary and relevant

conceptsEnduring Understandings:

Complexity of Conflict Magnitude and prevalence of

conflict in Africa (and around the world)

Topic of LessonThis lesson will introduce students to peace and conflict studies, focusing specifically on African Conflicts, though presenting a broad overview of conflict in general. Students will be introduced to a variety of conflicts and relevant vocabulary, while also exploring their own baseline knowledge of the subjectTime Frame: 2 days

Category Details Comments

Curricular Materials(see Section II & III: Materials for Daily lessons and Documents)

Peace and Conflict Studies VocabularyInteractive Conflict Map (www.nobelprize.org)Conflict FactsResource List: Websites for additional information, example film clips and additional lesson plans

This list is not comprehensive, but rather a short list of example resources that might be helpful in the classroom.

Lesson Overview Day 1: Review relevant vocabulary. See list in

Section II: Materials for Daily Lessons. “The Wall” See Section II: Materials for

Daily Lessons. Show a film clip about peace or violence.

Examples: Nobelprize.org (15 minutes) Clip of Desmond Tutu and Nelson Mandela

Class discussion regarding “The Wall” and movie clip: Guiding Questions for the class discussion will depend on selected movie. Questions should push students to grapple with the breadth and complexity of conflict.

Read or distribute brief overviews of the different conflicts selected for the class and rank 1st, 2nd and 3rd choices before start of Lesson Two. This will save time.

Day 2: Defining Peace and Conflict: Present the

class with a list of “Facts about Conflict” and have them explore the “Conflict Map of Africa” and any other information that you think useful.

Sharing Conclusions in Small Groups: Break students into Small Groups—have them discuss this information and the map. Students should write down salient points for class discussion. Assign one student from each group to record during the meeting and another to report back to the class.

Class discussion: Spend the remainder of the class discussing Peace and Conflict as a class. To begin the discussion, have each group reporter share the most salient points from their small group discussions as well as any burning questions that their group came up with.

During Day 1 or Day 2 allow students some time to ask questions about each conflict and to form small groups. Groups should be even and based on class size.

“The Wall” need not take more than 10 minutes, though it can be expanded as you see fit.

See Section II: Materials for Daily Lessons. Note that the Fact sheet is not comprehensive, but rather a short list of relevant facts. This list may be added to or changed. The Conflict Map is internet based, and allows students to see the development of conflict across the continent from 1900-Today. See Materials for an example print-out.

Ex. Questions to Guide Class Discussion: What jumps out at you the most on the conflict map? Which “Conflict Fact” did you find the most surprising, and why? What are some sources of conflict? Why do conflicts occur?

Summary activity This lesson serves as an introduction to the unit and does not have an official summary activity. Prior to beginning the lesson, however, you may opt to have students’ journal about their understanding of conflict.

Example Questions for Journaling: What is peace? What is conflict? How does conflict begin? How does it manifest itself? Where and when does conflict occur? What are some of the factors that lead to

conflict?

At the very end of the Peace and Conflict unit, have students journal once again on these same issues. Then ask students to reflect on differences in their journal entries—either in writing, in pairs, or in small groups.

This activity can be used to establish individual student’s baseline knowledge. It can also be used as a pre-assessment.

NOTE: Journaling will be used throughout this curriculum at a variety of stages. In addition to official journaling assignments, students should be encouraged to continuously record thoughts and questions that surface during this course.

Assignments/Homework Prior to Beginning the Lesson Journal about your understanding of

conflict. Vocabulary-building exercise may be done

in a variety of ways. For example: 1) Have every student review the entire list on their own2) Break the vocabulary list into sections based on the number of students in the class and ask students to define words in their assigned section. Combine the various definitions and circulate a complete list to the class for reference throughout the lesson.

Journaling can be used as a pre-assessment or simply as a way of establishing student’s baseline knowledge.

Lesson Two: Historical Tensions and Inequalities

Target Understanding: The background and history

preceding conflict in Somalia, Liberia, South Africa, Rwanda, and Sudan

Enduring Understandings Understand historical events and

social and political trends in a specific region during a pre-conflict time period.

Understand that different groups have their own individual circumstances, viewpoints and desired outcomes in any society.

Topic of LessonThis lesson will examine the history and trends of African regions before they enter a period when conflict begins to manifest. Among those are inequitable patterns of settlement, economic dynamics, social, religious and cultural prominence, etc. Time Frame: 3-4 days

Category Details Comments

Curricular Materials Supporting Case DocsSouth AfricaDocuments:Native Life in South Africa (1913)The History of Apartheid in South AfricaModern History Sourcebook: The Case For ApartheidProfile:http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/country_profiles/1071886.stmTimeline:http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/1069402.stm

SudanDocuments:History of Sudan from EmbassyPeople of SudanSudanese Washington Post articleProfile:http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/middle_east/country_profiles/820864.stmTimelines: http://crawfurd.dk/africa/sudan_timeline.htmhttp://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/middle_east/country_profiles/827425.stm

LiberiaDocuments:Liberia Globalsecurity.orgStory of Liberia from PBS.orgLiberia and the United States: A Complex RelationshipProfile:http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/country_profiles/1043500.stmTimelines:http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/1043567.stmhttp://www.pbs.org/wgbh/globalconnections/liberia/timeline/index.html

RwandaDocuments:The Creation of Ethnic Division in Rwanda I.docGenocide in Rwanda by Anup Shah – Globalissues.orgProfile:http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/country_profiles/1070265.stmTimeline:http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/1070329.stm

EthiopiaDocuments:Overview of History of EthiopiaPost WWII History of SomaliaProfile: http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/country_profiles/1072164.stm#mediaTimelines:http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/1072219.stmhttp://www.civicwebs.com/cwvlib/africa/somalia/1994/dawn_of_civilization/index.htm

These are readings (primary and secondary sources) on the various historical contexts of the conflicts chosen as case studies for this lesson. They are not comprehensive, but do represent models of challenging materials from various perspectives. The documents listed are provided in Section 3:Documents at the end of this curriculum.

Lesson Overviews Day 1: Overview of lesson and cases. Divide students into groups of 2-4 Introduce timeline project and hand out historical case

material. (Use either provided materials or your own historical cases)

Have students read their cases and full timelines and identify groups, events and trends for their own timelines. Students should include in their timelines: time periods, major events and trends, and stakeholders involved.

Introduce poster project and provide time in-class and after-class for students to research and gather materials for the next day’s lesson. These materials can include articles, excerpts, stories, photos, songs…etc.

Day 2: Students spend the first half of class creating posters

that explain the historical contexts of the region their conflict is from. They should incorporate and enhance their timelines, gathered materials and comments in this. For more detail, see Section II.

For the second half of class, each student will write a letter to a family member from the point of view of one of the major figures/groups in his/her conflict. They should also include what they want to happen in the future. See Section II

Day 3: In the first half of class, students will read their letters

to fellow group members to gain understandings of alternative perspectives. The students will then add the stories to their posters.

In the second half of class each group should present its poster. Have a discussion in the class about each conflict. Some questions for discussion include: Of the groups involved in each conflict, which ones seem content? Why? Which ones seem frustrated? Why? Are there any differences in what they want to happen in the future?

Summary activity Students will write a letter (1-2 pages) in the first person of a figure or group in their region to a family member during a time period just before conflict manifestation. Each student will choose a different group. Students should highlight their group’s/figure’s social status, cultural dynamics, economic and political situations and their hopes as well as concerns for the future. A good story will convey what it was like to be a member of the group during that time period, as well as generate empathy for that group.

The students will present the stories along with their posters from previous exercise to the entire class.

See Letter to Family Member in Section II for more details.

Assignments/Homework Day 1: Groups finish timelines for their case. Homework,

research and gather materials for poster exercise.

Day 2: Create posters telling the history of assigned region.

These posters are a synthesis of student research, and should be posted around the room to be referenced during the rest of this unit.

Each student writes first person short story for their group. These stories should be added to the posters.

Day 3: Class presentations and discussion

Lesson Three: Manifestation of Tensions

Target Understanding: The background and history of

conflicts in Somalia, Liberia, South Africa, Rwanda, and Sudan

Enduring Understandings: Cultural, social, political, and

economic inequalities manifest themselves in a variety of ways

Not all manifestations of inequality result in violent conflict

Manifestation of tensions related to inequality represents a transition stage between inequality and violent conflict

Topic of Lesson:This lesson will examine the manifestation of tensions in distinct and noticeable ways. Among those are the creation of political parties, protest movements, laws, regulations, etc.

Time Frame: 4 days

Category Details Comments

Curricular Materials(see Section III: Documents)

Liberia: “Liberia: Emerging from the Destruction,” “Key Liberian Factions,” “Liberia Timeline,” “Liberia First Civil War”

Rwanda: “The Creation of Ethnic Division in Rwanda,” “Hutu Ten Commandments,” “From Negotiation to Genocide” (from The Rise of the Rwandan Patriotic Front – p. 494-497)

Somalia: “Ethiopia Party in Rebel Alliance,” “The Talibanisation of Somalia,” “Death for Somalians Who Shirk Prayers”

South Africa: “Apartheid Pass Laws,” “ANC Youth League Manifesto,” Mandela Speech – 1951, Statement by the Emergency Committee of the ANC

Sudan: “SPLA Mission,” “Timeline, Sudan,” “Sudan 'Backs' Janjaweed Fighters,” “The Tears of Orphans”

These are readings (primary, secondary and excerpt sources) on the various conflicts chosen as case studies for this lesson. They are not comprehensive, but do represent models of challenging materials from various perspectives

Lesson Overviews Day 1: Overview of lesson Review with students what manifestation is and why

it is an important stage to recognize Review cases from previous lesson. How might

conflict manifest itself if each of those cases? This can be done as a discussion, and a journal entry, etc.

Students begin reading about their cases and begin taking notes. They should be taking care to look for particular occurrences that they think are stepping stones on the road to conflict, making a list as they read.

Day 2: Students spend the first half of class further

researching their cases, continuing to work on their lists.

The second half of class is used for working on Newspaper Projects. See Section II: Materials for Daily Lessons.

Day 3: Students will work on newspapers for the class

period. They will turn in their work at the end of the period.

In preparation for the next day, the instructor may wish to photocopy the articles.

Day 4: Students should have time to review the articles

written by other groups. One easy way to do this is to make photocopies for each student or each group.

Each student should then spend time taking notes on the ways in which other conflicts are similar to and different from their own conflicts.

Finally, either in class or for homework, students should write a Letter to the Editor of one of the other newspapers.

For more detail see Section II: Materials for Daily Lessons

Establishing a connection with the previous lesson will be an important part of introducing the concept of manifestation

This, of course, is flexible, but allowing students to view the work done by other groups will allow them to understand other conflicts as well as to see the work produced by their peers

Summary activity Students will be work in groups on newspaper project for which they will write four to six articles detailing the manifestation of social, political, or economic inequalities into actions by individuals or groups. The articles they write will represent at least two different viewpoints and will take place before violent conflict begins, detailing the stage when political parties are formed, when leaders emerge, when protests occur, when laws are passed, etc.

Assignments/Homework Day 1: Finish listing questions of things that need to be

researched

Day 2: Students will write a brief outline of the

manifestation of conflict for their cases

Day 3: Finish Newspaper Project

Day 4: Compare own conflict with that of another group in

Letter to the Editor Project

This can be a formal or informal assignment

All assignments can be done in class rather than for homework, but the timeframe of the lesson will need to be expanded

Lesson Four: Tipping Point into Conflict

Target Understanding: General Understanding of how

conflicts break into violence Understanding of different

manifestations of violence

Enduring Understandings: Complexity of conflict and violence Manifestations of violence Alternatives to violence Human nature of violence

Topic of Lesson:

This lesson will teach students how conflict can become violent. Students will learn how to identify and define various manifestations of violence. Students will be introduced to the roles of media, individuals, state and international actors in violent conflict.

Time Frame:4-6 days

Category Details Comments

Curricular Materials(see Section III: Documents)

Video: The Triumph of Evil

“Convention on Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide (U.N.)”; “Convention on the Rights of the Child”

Excerpt from A Long Way Gone by Ishmael Bael – the autobiography of a child soldier in Sierra Leone. The story of a gentle boy who by age 13 had been constricted by the government army and found he was capable of truly terrible acts.

Rwandan and South African Political Cartoons and RTLM radio broadcasts.

New York Times article on Press in Rwanda

“Structural and Acute Violence in South Africa”

News Articles and Information in Tipping Point chapter

PBS Video on Rwandan Genocide, length optional

Documents demonstrate the universal nature of violence and the international initiatives to prevent child soldiers and genocide. Why does violence exist despite methods to prevent it? What are human rights?

Other readings can be substituted; excerpt is at teacher’s discretion

Discuss role of the radio in spreading violent messages. Are there limits to free speech? Discuss role of international media and attention in African conflicts.

Lesson Overviews Day 1: Watch excerpt from film and discuss how

violence breaks out in different ways in different places.

Read “Convention on the Rights of the Child” and “Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of Genocide”

Examine Rwandan political cartoon and RPLF broadcast

Examine international perspectives on genocideFor greater detail, see Section II: Materials for Daily Lessons

Day 2: Discussion with Framework Have students review stages of violent conflict in

their case studies. Is there an identifiable tipping point when conflict erupts into full blown violence (i.e. death of President Habyarimana in Rwanda)? Why are some countries able to quell mass acute violence (i.e. were the Soweto Riots in South Africa isolated event? Why did Apartheid exhibit relatively low violence?). What is structural violence? Where do you see structural violence around you? How might structural violence turn into acute violence in the case studies?

Read Structural and Acute Violence in South Africa

For greater detail, see Section II

Day 3-4: Journaling Students will individually explore their own

experiences and understanding of violence in their lives. Students will relate personal experiences to manifestations and forces of violence in the countries studied. Students should be able to correctly define and describe structural and acute violence. (Journaling Activity 20 min) Students will collectively explore violence in conflict (sharing of journals, 25 min)

Students should review violence in case studies and add to the Conflict Map

For greater detail, see Section II

This day can be used to discuss “perspective.” From whose perspective is this film made? How might this perspective alter the way in which events are portrayed? This discussion can be rolled into a wider discussion of the role of the media and more specifically the role of the media in violent conflict.

Ex: South Africa vs. Ethiopia – what forms does conflict take?

Journaling can be also be done for homework and class can begin with sharing

Summary activity Unit Assessment – Letter to the Secretary General See Section II: Materials for Daily Lessons

Unit Assessment may take between one and three days

Assignments/Homework Before Day 1: Read introductory materials

After Day 1: Gather materials for conflicts.

After Day 2: Read excerpt from A Long Way Gone Excerpt from book can be read at any point during this unit.

Lesson Five: Peacekeeping in Africa: The United Nations and the African Union

Target Understandings: The structures and functions of the

United Nations and the African Union for peace-building

The potential and shortcomings of the UN and the AU and their distinct roles in resolving African conflicts and promoting peace.

Enduring Understandings: The significance of the UN system

and the concept of world order for how conflict is manifested and how peace is promoted, especially in Africa.

The unique development and potential of the African Union for promoting peace and stability.

Topic of Lesson:This lesson will examine the origins, ideologies and significance of the UN system and the African Union for peace-building in Africa. Students will learn about the UN Charter, the general administrative structures, and the UN’s approach to peace, as well examine a case study on the UN shortcomings in Rwanda. They will also learn about the development of the AU and its goals.Time Frame: 2-3 days

Category Details Comments

Curricular Materials(see Section III: Documents)

Web sources on the UN: www.un.org; http://www.un.org/aboutun/unhistory/; http://www.un.org/aboutun/charter/;http://www.un.org/Depts/dpko/dpko/info/page3.htm; UN Peacekeeping List of Operations

Rwanda case documents: “U.N. Fact sheet on UNAMIR (Rwanda)”; “Rwanda in Retrospect”

African Union: “AU Vision and Mission,” “African Union Endorses Regional Peace Plan,” “UN Integrated Regional Information Networks”

Other background on Rwanda: Barnett, Michael: “Eyewitness to a Genocide: The United Nations and Rwanda,” Cornell University Press, 2002; Power, Samantha, “Bystanders to Genocide: Why the United States Let the Rwanda Tragedy Happen,” The Atlantic Monthly, September 2001, E-Journals; United Nations, “Report of the Secretary-General on Rwanda,” S/1995/1002, 1 December 1995, Search for this title using Google; United Nations, “Report of the Independent Inquiry into the Actions of the United Nations during the 1994 Genocide in Rwanda,” 15 December 1999. Search for this title, using Google

If it is not possible to access the internet as a class, web sources may be printed into packets and distributed for students use.

Documents provide basic background on these organizations, their actions, and the controversies they encounter. Further information is readily available on the internet.

Lesson Overviews Day 1: United Nations Scavenger Hunt. See Section II:

Materials for Daily Lessons Discuss what students found on scavenger hunt

Possible questions: What was innovative about the UN? How would you have felt at the time of establishment? How does the UN approach peacekeeping? What elements need to be in place in a society for it to be peaceful?

Day 2: Rwanda case study. See Section II: Materials for

Daily Lessons. Discuss readings in the context of understanding

what the UN did that was helpful and harmful in the conflict.

Day 3: Using the reading materials, plus any others

selected, begin a discussion about the uniqueness of the African Union and what the AU’s vision for peacekeeping is.

Another idea would be to do a compare and contrast brainstorm with the students looking at the UN and the AU’s differences and similarities. It is important to also emphasize how they work together and not portray the activity as if the two are in opposition.

Using the proximity of Johannesburg, it would also be wonderful if an outside visitor could be brought in who had experience with the AU.

Students may work individually or in groups of 2 or 3 on the Scavenger Hunt, depending on the availability of computers.

Assignments/Homework Readings on the UN involvement in the Rwandan genocide and the Mission and Vision of the African Union.

Lesson Six: Post-Conflict Reconciliation and the Movement for Restorative Justice

Target Understandings: The meaning of restorative justice How and when it has been used

historically in Africa The potential benefits and

challenges of running a reconciliation program

Enduring Understanding: Understand that rebuilding peace

within societies involves psychological and social peace and not simply ceasefire.

Topic of Lesson:This lesson will examine the concept of post-conflict reconciliation and restorative justice on an institutional level. It will also explore examples of reconciliation commissions and the roles of the different stakeholders involved in restorative justice.

Time Frame: 2-3 days

Category Details Comments

Curricular Materials(see Section III: Documents)

Background Readings: IRTJ readings, “Transitional Justice”

Films: Long Night’s Journey into Day (90 minutes); Yesterday

Background material on truth and reconciliation for teachers: Tutu, Desmond. No Future without Forgiveness. New York: Random Press,1999; Skaar, E. "Truth Commissions, Trials or Nothing? Policy Options in Democratic Transitions." Third World Quartely 20 (1999): 1109-1128. ; Borer, Tristan Anne. “A Taxonomy of Victims and Perpetrators: Human Rights and Reconciliation in South Africa.” Human Rights Quarterly

25 (2003) 1088–1116.

Websites: Official website of the South African TRC: http://www.doj.gov.za/trc/index.html; International Center for Transitional Justice: http://www.ictj.org/en/tj/; United States Institute of Peace – Truth Commission Digital Collectionhttp://www.usip.org/library/truth.html#tc

LNJD follows several Truth and Reconciliation cases over a two-year period. The stories in the film underscore the universal themes of conflict, forgiveness, and renewal.

Lesson Overviews Day 1: Journaling: students should spend approximately

15 minutes writing down their thoughts on the following: 1. What are your definitions of these terms: reconciliation, justice, reparations, forgiveness, amnesty? 2. If your neighbor had committed a crime against you or your family, what would have to happen in order for you to feel that peace or justice was restored?

After the journaling exercise, students should share their responses, looking for similarities and differences, comparing them with the definitions in the readings.

Day 1-2: View A Long Night’s Journey Into Day

Day 2: Students will split into groups of 2 or 3 after

viewing the film and discuss their immediate reactions, emotions, major thoughts and start to jot down notes.

Day 3: Class discussion of the film or writing assignment

See Section II: Materials for Daily Lessons

Some of these terms may be unfamiliar to students, depending on their background and language skills.

The film is about 90 minutes long and could be shown at the teacher’s discretion.

Summary activity The journal can serve as a pre-test activity and used to gauge student background on these terms, some of which may have to be introduced before the journal.

Another option would be to turn one of the discussion questions into an essay or letter as an assignment. Students could also pick one of the questions to write about further in their journal.

Assignments/Homework Reading of materials prior to class.

Lesson Seven: Negotiation and Conflict Resolution Skills

Target Understandings: Knowledge of specific

communications skills that facilitate negotiation

Awareness of the types of pre-existing negotiation-process biases and conditions that influence outcomes.

Enduring Understanding: Students become aware of the

existence of different techniques for resolving intrapersonal, interpersonal, and group conflict.

Topic of Unit:This lesson will introduce students to negotiation and conflict resolution skills, focusing specifically on intrapersonal, interpersonal, and group conflict. The unit will present a broad outline of components of a Negotiation and Conflict Resolution Skills unit. Students will be introduced to a variety of techniques, and exposed to some of the communication skills that facilitate any type of conflict negotiation.

Time Frame: 3-4 days

Category Details Comments

Curricular Materials Handouts: United Nations ESCAP Module on Conflict Negotiation Skills for Youth, as selected by instructor; Negotiations & Conflict Resolution skills best practices

Websites: Choices website on deliberations – http://www.choices.edu/deliberation.cfm

Films: documentaries capturing these particular skills are available

This unit plan is broadly based on the United Nations ESCAP Module on Conflict Negotiation Skills for Youth. Please refer to it for more details on any of the outlined sections or additional activities/materials.

Lesson Overviews This unit should be divided broadly into two sections: Section 1: Techniques for resolving intrapersonal and interpersonal conflicts, covering: Self-awareness, Communication, Negotiation, and Mediation. Section 2: Techniques for resolving group conflict, covering: Group building, Team building and cooperation, Advocacy for youth development.Day 1:

Brainstorm common causes of inter-group conflict such as: negative stereotyping, prejudice, emphasis on the existing differences (rather than similarities) between groups, inadequate/negative communication, lack of interaction, unequal power distribution, etc.

Explore those causes in a class discussionDay 2:

Play a context appropriate video of a speaker who exaggerates (preferably comically) some of the non-verbal clues such as nervousness, discomfort etc in an interaction and have students consider how each of the following could have helped/detracted form the speaker’s effectiveness:

- Physical appearance - Gesture and facial expression - Eye contact and gaze - Movement/walk/posture - Accent - Tone and pitch of voice - Errors in speech/hesitation in speech - Silence

“Fish Bowl” activity modeled on “Deliberating ‘Pros’ and ‘Cons’ of Policy Options” from Choices (http://www.choices.edu/fishbowl.cfm).

Day 3: Engage students and other community members in a

negotiation session that demonstrates competitive versus collaborative negotiation, third party interventions (mediators, go-betweens, arbitrators, experts), and third party interventions that display qualities of a good mediator (generating of trust, reframing of conflict, observing ground roles, clarifying issues and options, shifting focus from past to present, encouraging creative solutions)

Students should do a think-pair-share on the following questions:-What does my non-verbal communication style convey?- What are ways in which I can control my non-verbal communication style to convey my desired attitude?

“Fish bowl”: at any one time some students participate in a discussion while others observe silently from the outside, looking for ideas about the discussion that resonate with them. After each view is considered, the roles rotate until everyone has had the opportunity to speak.

Summary activity Group Activity: Labeling (from United Nations ESCAP Module on Conflict Negotiation Skills for Youth)

Step 1: A set of eight chairs is put in the center of the room, and eight volunteers are asked to exit the room. Each volunteer is given a “label” attached to a string that is placed on their forehead.

The labels include the following words (or variations thereof):

1. STUPID: Criticize me 2. HELPLESS: Rescue me 3. BOSS: Obey me 4. COMEDIAN: Laugh at me 5. LOSER: Pity me 6. EXPERT: Listen to me 7. VIP: Look up to me 8. INSIGNIFICANT Ignore me

Step 2: The eight volunteers are asked to hold a serious discussion while the rest of the participants observe. The topic of discussion could be how they plan to find funds to undertake future training activities on conflict negotiation skills for youth.

Step 3: After a few minutes, the facilitator asks the volunteers to stop the discussion and ends the activity. The facilitator then opens a discussion on how the labels worn by each of the volunteers may have affected the conversation.

Assignments/Homework Students should be required to keep a journal with short entries describing their own experiences with conflict resolution (a particular incident they encountered, how they handled it, how they felt about the outcome etc). Students should be required to incorporate some of the newly acquired concepts to their discussion.

Lesson Eight: Final ActivitySummary activity Simulation Activity – Day 1 (in full-day approach):

Students will prepare with group discussion in class before the activity; students with the same role should have a group meeting to: set their positions on these two topics, be ready to answer questions from other groups, and be ready to ask other groups questions, and try to form alliance with some other groups.

Schedule for one-day activity:9:00 a.m.: Roll call; 9:00-10:00: 45 seconds for each representative(s) to present positions on these two topics;10:00-10:30: Free discussion session 1. Meeting notes are encouraged in every discussion session; 10:30-10:45: Representatives ask questions to representatives of Ethiopia and Eritrea; 10:45-11:00: Free discussion session 2; 11:00-11:15: Representatives ask questions to representatives of UN and UNHCR; 11:15-11:30: Free discussion session 3; 11:30-11:50: Positions presentation(Only five representatives get to present in this session, and representatives should decide who gets to talk during the previous three free discussion sessions. Each has 3 minutes for presentation and 50 seconds for comments or questions); 11:50-12:00: Call for all kinds of working papers and meeting notes; 12:00-1:00: Suspension; 1:00-1:10: Sending out a summary of working papers and allow time for representatives to read them; 1:10-1:40: Questions and comments on points in summary of working papers; 1:40-2:00: Representatives ask questions to representatives of Rights and the Red Cross; 2:00-2:30: Free discussion session 4; 2:30-2:45: Representatives ask questions to representatives of U.S.; 2:45-3:00: Free discussion session 5; 3:00-4:00: Group report and debriefing

Day 2: Assessment Group report : What do you enjoy about this

activity? What was difficult about this activity? What is the importance of alliance? Did you encounter any difficulty in forming alliance? How did you handle them? Any other feedback?

Debriefing the simulation activity : What did you enjoy about this activity? What was difficult about this activity? How do you find the negotiation skills useful? Any other feedback?

The schedule of this one-day activity is flexible. However, Q&As and free discussions are designed to work together. Reordering sessions might weaken the effectiveness of this activity. Teachers can be moderators or observers of this activity but are responsible for keeping the session going and keeping time and cannot interrupt any session, or talk to representatives about the topics.

Additional resources can be found on http://www.usip.org/class/simulations/africa.html and http://www0.un.org/cyberschoolbus/peace.

SECTION II: MATERIALS FOR DAILY LESSONS

Peace and Conflict Studies Vocabulary (Lesson One)

Internal Interpersonal Intra-group Inter-group International Global Trans-boundary JusticeRestorative JusticeCrimes against humanityInternational Criminal Court (ICC)International Criminal TribunalEthnicityState sovereigntyImpunityRatificationHumanitarian reliefCivil WarEthnic CleansingGenocideEconomic sanctionsApartheidColonialismFundamentalismPeacekeepersTreatyConventionStructural ViolenceAcute ViolenceUN NATOAfrican UnionNGO (Non-Governmental Organizations)INGO (International Non-Governmental Organizations)CBO (Community Based Organizations)

Peace & Conflict Studies Student Fact Sheet (Lesson 1)

The 20th century was the most violent century in all of human history: an estimated 203 million people were killed in state and non-state wars during this century. —Twentieth Century Atlas

Modern war victims are 90% civilian and half of those killed are children. —U.N. 80% of the world's 20 poorest countries have suffered from a major conflict in the past 15 years. —

World Bank Global estimated military spending in 1998 was $780, 130 times the cost of providing basic

education estimated at $6B. As of 2003, estimated military spending is over $900B and average estimated global spending on primary education was just $5.3B increasing the discrepancy to approximately 170%. —World Bank

90 countries still have active landmines and unexploded ordinance, with 15,000 - 20,000 mine victims per year. —United Nations

Between 8,000 and 10,000 children are killed or maimed by landmines every year. —UNICEF

“During the 1990s, more than 2 million children died as a result of armed conflicts. They were often deliberately targeted and murdered. More than three times that number were permanently disabled or seriously injured.” —UNICEF

“It is estimated that some 300,000 children—boys and girls under the age of 18—are today involved in more than 30 conflicts worldwide.” Children are used as combatants, messengers, porters and cooks and for forced sexual services.”—UNICEF

“The Wall” (Lesson One)

Before introducing the topic, write the word “conflict” in the center of one blackboard, poster board etc. and the word “peace” in the center of another. Have students approach the board and write whatever comes to mind when they think of conflict and of peace—words, concepts, countries, people, etc.

Ask students to consider large-scale and small scale conflict, intra-state and interstate, and to draw on personal experience and national backgrounds related to both peace and conflict. Inform students that they may be as specific or general as they would like.

If you choose to use a poster board or a section of a black-broad that can remain “occupied” throughout the duration of this unit, use one color ink/chalk the first day (i.e. a black marker) and then allow students 2 minutes at the end of each class to add to “The Wall” in another color ink (i.e. red ink).

Leaving the wall as a background throughout the unit will enable students to reflect on what is there and what is missing. As the teacher, add words and phrases throughout the activity as you see fit to push students thinking, play devils advocate etc.

Complete this activity in silence, allowing students the opportunity to quietly reflect.

Historical Timeline Activity (Lesson Two)

It is your job to read the case study materials given to you and to create a timeline representing the major events and trends during this time period in the region. Please highlight the stakeholders in the region, major events or trends that impacted the region, and how they impacted the region and its stakeholders.

You can us the following chart as a guide to track your information as you gather.

Time Period Event/Trend Stakeholders Impact Notes

Historical Context Poster Exercise (Lesson Two)

The objective of this exercise is for your group to synthesize your research, data gathering and understanding of the historical context of a region in Africa during a pre-conflict time period. You should use your timelines from the previous exercise that show the major groups and figures, events, and trends that have happened in the region. You should research and gather any articles, stories and artifacts you can find on the time period and work as a group to put these together along with any other information you find to create a poster that tells the history of the region during the case’s time period.

Good posters will highlight:

Major groups - Describe the major groups in the region. Include when they arrived, where and how they settled, what is their position and situation in the region.

Events of Significance – Mark major events and milestones of the time period. This may include dates of previous conflicts, policies, or natural disasters (i.e. droughts or famine).

Trends: Highlight any long term trends that affected any of the groups in the area. Describe them and the way that they impacted the groups over time. This may include oil discovery, jewel mining, water disputes, colonization impact.

Previous conflict impact: Discuss any previous conflicts in the region and how they affected the groups that settled there. Did the conflict end in resolution? What were the lasting impacts?

You will present these posters to the class to give them an overview of your case. The class will discuss your case and then place the poster on the wall around the room so that everyone can reference them throughout the remainder of the lesson on peace and conflict.

Excellent Work: Group creates a comprehensive and creative poster with cultural artifacts, rich descriptions of the groups/figures of the region, and a detailed timeline highlighting major events and trends that impacted societal dynamics (i.e. drought, famine, oil).

Below Average: Group creates a simple poster with limited information, thin descriptions of groups/figures, and a timeline of only major dates.

Letter to Family Member (Lesson Two)

It is your assignment to pick a group or figure from the case that your group is working on and write a letter to a family member in the first person of a member of that group.

A good letter should show empathy for your character. You can talk about what has happened in the recent past, what your life is like today, what you do for work and your family’s situation politically, socially and economically. You should also describe how you interact and feel about the other groups in your region. Finally, you should discuss what you would like to see happen in the near future. This may include ideas around how to fix what is troubling you today or even ways to alleviate some of the challenges you have.

Excellent Work:Student writes a vivid letter that paints a rich description of life from their perspective. They will discuss what has happened in the past, what their economic, social and cultural situations are, and how they feel about the other groups in the region. The student will then discuss what they hope happens in the future for their group and show empathy for their plight.

Below Average:Student writes a list of historical facts with minimal illustration or empathy.

Newspaper Project (Lesson Three)

For this assignment you will be working in small groups of three to four on a newspaper project. Your task is to write four to six articles representing the viewpoints of two different readerships, detailing the manifestation of social, political, or economic inequalities into actions by individuals or groups. The articles, however, should be written before violent conflict begins, instead detailing the stage that precedes violence – when political parties are formed, when leaders emerge, when small protests occur, when laws are passed, etc.

Generally – the Newspapers:Every conflict, even at its earliest stages, has at least two sides. You will explore this by designing at least two newspapers representing different sides in a past African conflict. Newspapers should, like actual newspapers, have a particular audience and a particular worldview; this will shape the tone of the articles that students write. Consider how the newspaper you create will portray a specific development. Will it portray it as a move towards violence or as something routine? Will it portray those involved as violent or peaceful? Will it make comparisons to similar actions in other nations?

Example: In the case of Zimbabwe, a group might choose to have a newspaper targeting the Southern Rhodesian white population and a newspaper targeting citizens in support of the Southern Rhodesia African National Congress – a black led organization that aimed to give political control to the black majority population.

Specifically – the Articles:Your group should write two to three articles from each paper detailing occurrences that were important stepping stones on the road to conflict. These articles do not need to be from the same issue of the newspaper; in fact, it would probably be more interesting to have the articles come from separate issues in order to track changes over time. It is important to pick events that you think are important, so consider which two or three you want to use. It should be clear in each article that tensions are growing and that violent conflict may be on the horizon. Perhaps most importantly, these articles should establish a link between the potential for conflict (i.e. inequality of wealth or political power) and the manifestation of conflict (i.e. the forming of rebel groups or opposition parties).

Example: A group working on Zimbabwe may want to cover the banning of the Southern Rhodesia African National Congress in 1960. How would a newspaper for the white-minority population have covered the story? Would they have called members of the RANC freedom fighters? Rebels? Terrorists? A Zimbabwe group might also want to write an article about the formation of the Zimbabwe African Peoples Union or the Zimbabwe African National Union. They would want to clearly explain how historical tensions are beginning to escalate.

Newspaper Project, cont’d:

Excellent work: The articles clearly link the manifestation of conflict with the potential for conflict, indicating clearly the

historical tensions that are leading to changes like the formation of political parties, acts of protest, etc. The articles cover important events that led to conflicts. The articles have something to do with each

other; they are clearly related to the eventual conflict. Project indicates that there is a targeted readership for the newspaper; it is clear that the paper, its

editors, and authors have a particular worldview; if the newspaper is biased, it is intentionally though subtly so.

It is clear who the target audience is clear in each article. If each newspaper is covering the same event, they cover it from different perspectives and do not simply tell the exact same story.

Historical events are accurately represented. Students who wish to create fictional characters for the story or create “interviews” with leaders do so in a realistic way.

The articles look like they were clipped out of actual newspapers; they have bylines, dates, and are formatted like a newspaper article.

Below Average work: The articles show the manifestation of conflict without clearly explaining how it is related to any

potential for conflict. The articles cover events that are not clearly connected to each other or to the eventual conflict. It is not

entirely clear why the article was written Neither newspaper is particularly distinct from the other. It is unclear who is behind the paper or why. The articles have indistinct tones and are directed at an indistinct audience. The tone sometimes shifts,

but is for the most part unclear. The articles are not entirely accurate historically. In an attempt to indicate bias, students have instead

simply changed the facts of what happened. The articles do not look like they are from a newspaper. Instead, they look like they were simply typed

on a computer and printed out.

Letter to the Editor, from an Editor (Lesson Three)

For this assignment, you will be writing a letter to the editor of one of the newspapers created by another group. In this letter, your task is to evaluate the way that the newspaper covered events potentially leading to violent conflict.

Before you can evaluate the newspaper’s coverage, however, you need to need to decide what newspaper you work for. You should choose one of the newspapers you developed for your group project. So, if you covered Zimbabwe, perhaps you will choose to represent the newspaper targeting citizens in support of the Southern Rhodesia African National Congress.

In your letter, which should be approximately 300 words in length, you should analyze the newspaper’s coverage from the perspective of your newspaper. For example, did the newspaper make too much of an issue of a specific event? Or, oppositely, did the newspaper underestimate the impact of a particular development? What would an editor of a newspaper for the black Zimbabwean majority struggling for liberation say about a newspaper article from South Africa that portrayed Nelson Mandela as a terrorist? What would he/she say about an article from Rwanda portraying the Hutu majority as peaceful and deserving of greater power?

Discussion of Genocide and Manifestations of Violence (Lesson Four)

Student preparation for Lesson Plan I: Have students read first two handouts.Optional: have students read excerpt from A Long Way Gone

Teacher Preparation: Read Propaganda in the Rwandan Genocide*note: teacher can also assign this article for students Have students watch excerpt from movie. Conduct class discussion on how violence breaks out in different ways in different countries. Targeted Understanding: Why were child soldiers conscripted in DRC and Rwanda and Liberia? Students should be able to discuss and define genocide. Students should be able to discuss how ethnic conflict evolves into genocide. Students should develop understanding of perspective in media. Students should discuss use of child soldiers in violent conflict. This opportunity can be used to discuss “perspective.” From whose perspective is this film made? How might this perspective alter the way in which events are portrayed? This discussion can be rolled into a wider discussion of the role of the media and more specifically the role of the media in violent conflict – tie in other handouts.

Read: Convention on the Rights of the Child; Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of Genocide

Target Understanding: UN Conventions demonstrate the universal nature of violence and the international initiatives to prevent child soldiers and genocide. Why does violence exist despite methods to prevent it? What are human rights?

Read: The Media and Violence

Discussion Questions:Why were child soldiers conscripted in DRC and Rwanda and Liberia? What are some of the manifestations of violence? How did radio have such a large impact on violence in Rwanda? What do you think about the portrayal of the Rwandan press in the New York Times article? Is there a role for international media in informing about violent conflict? How do you feel about the right to free speech?

Homework:Gather materials for conflicts

Definitions and Manifestations of Violence (Lesson Four)

Discussion with Framework:Spend 20-30 minutes on discussion of violent conflict in the case studies. What did students find out about the manifestations of violence? Have students review stages of violent conflict in their case studies. Is there an identifiable tipping point in when conflict erupts into full-blown violence (i.e. death of President Habyarimana in Rwanda)? Why are some countries able to quell mass acute violence (i.e. Where the Soweto Riots in South Africa isolated event? Why did Apartheid exhibit relatively low violence?). What is structural violence? Where do you see structural violence around you? How might structural violence turn into acute violence in the case studies?

Read: Structural and Acute Violence in South Africa

Discussion Questions: How does the author describe the impacts of structural inequalities and violence on life in South Africa? How might this press release conflict with/support your own understanding of life in South Africa?

Target Understandings:Students should be able to define and present examples of structural violence and acute violence, and how the two intersect. Students should be able to see how structural violence can often lead to acute violence. Homework: Continue gathering information on stages of violence in case studies. Prepare key events to add to Conflict Map.

Bridging Individual Violence and Violence in Conflict (Lesson Four)

Students will individually explore their own experiences and understanding of violence in their lives. If students do not have personal experiences they can journal on violence incurred on an individual from current events or of someone they know. Students will relate personal experiences to manifestations and forces of violence in the countries studied. Students should be able to correctly define and describe structural and acute violence in individual experiences presented in class (as learned in Lesson 2) and relate to case studies.

Students will spend remainder of class time reviewing violence in case studies, and adding to the Conflict Map from the introductory lesson of Phase I.

Target Understanding:Human nature of violence. Mass violence roots from personal violence.

Time Frame:Journaling Activity: 20 minStudents will collectively explore violence in conflict through sharing of journals: 25 min

Excellent Work:Student writes a vivid account of life from their perspective. Student discusses personal experiences of violence of different manifestations, and relates these experiences accurately to large-scale violence. Student will accurately bridge small-scale and large-scale violence, and reflect on role of the individual in manifesting and/or preventing violence. Student will be able to discuss how violence is an interpersonal and intra-personal experience, and how this is a metaphor for mass or group violence.

Below Average Work:Students write list of events with minimal illustration and are unable to bridge the individual experience of violence to group or mass violence. Student does not present an understanding of the different manifestations of violence.

Memo to the Secretary General (Lesson Four)

The Secretary General of the UN has contacted you about a recent conflict in Africa that the UN and other international actors failed to prevent. Violent conflict ensued, and created an international crisis. In the future, the Secretary General would like to try to prevent violent conflict rather than simply reacting to it. But first, the UN needs more information about how conflicts originate, why they escalate, and how they can be identified. They have asked for a memo no longer than 2000 words in length that will help them in the future, and they recognize that the UN may only be able to support other groups that have the power to prevent violent conflict.

The Secretary General will be asking you to take this case and work backwards, helping those interested in promoting peace to understand how the conflict ended up as a violent one. What were the early stages of the conflict? What were the tensions leading to conflict based on? At what stages should peacemakers have interceded? What was the tipping point?

Your memo should have the following components:

Key PlayersIt is essential for this project that you recognize the different interests of the groups involved. For example, if you are working on the genocide in Darfur, you will need to identify a number of different actors – Dinkas, Janjaweed, the government in Khartoum, the UN, the AU, the United States – and make sure that their actions and perspectives are considered.

Stages of DevelopmentThe Secretary General understands that conflict does not simply arise out of nowhere. Thus, your memo should recognize the different stages of development of a conflict. What inequalities existed in that society previous to the conflict? How did those inequalities begin to manifest themselves in particular ways? How did that lead to violence?

Evaluation of ParticularitiesIn analyzing the conflict you are assigned, you should also use other examples from African conflicts to show those who will read your memo that this sort of thing happens elsewhere. Be sure to note when something about your conflict (the conflict assigned to you by the Secretary General) is absolutely unique to that case.

RecommendationsThe Secretary General and the Security Council will make final decisions, but they would like your recommendations about how to recognize situations that seem headed for violence. What might you recommend they do to prevent violent conflict from breaking out?

United Nations Scavenger Hunt (Lesson Five)From http://www.pbs.org/avoidingarmageddon/getInvolved/involved_02_01_lesson2.html

Objective: Students will learn about the United Nations from the UN website. Students will practice gathering information from the internet.

Teacher preparation: Familiarize yourself with the UN website, check for relevance of these questions, as the website change periodically.

Assessment: Students answer questions accurately and thoroughly and demonstrate understanding of the significance of the UN during discussion.

Possible discussion questions: What was innovative about the UN? How would you have felt at the time of establishment? How does the UN approach peacekeeping? How does that compare to your own personal understanding of peace? What are the limitations of the UN in peacekeeping? What elements need to be in place in a society for it to be peaceful?

HANDOUT:United Nations Scavenger Hunt:

Directions: Begin at www.un.org and navigate the UN website to find the answers to these questions. Be thinking about your journal entries about what peace and conflict mean to you and how that is similar or different to the approach of the UN.

1. Take the "On-line" Tour of the United Nations Headquarters in New York. Complete the "Tour Quiz" (how did you score?)

2. What is the purpose of the United Nations?

3. What does the United Nations do to promote peace?

4. What does the United Nations do for development?

5. What does the United Nations do for human rights, justice and international law?

6. Who works at the United Nations?

7. What are the goals of the United Nations Millennium Declaration?

8. How does the United Nations work?

9. Name and describe the Principal Organs of the United Nations.

10. How many member countries are in the United Nations? What are the two newest ones? How many members were there when the Charter was signed?

U.N. Scavenger Hunt, cont’d 11. How many countries are members of the Security Council? Who has veto power?

12. What are the official languages of the United Nations?

13. Why are the United Nations headquarters located in New York City? Is that area part of the United States? Explain.

14. What is UNICEF? What are their goals?

15. What is the UNDP? What are their goals?

16. What are the goals of the United Nations Department of Peacekeeping Operations?

17. What are the goals of the UN Department of Political Affairs in regards to "Preventive action and peacemaking"?

18. How does the United Nations hope to have "Peace and Security through Disarmament"?

19. Go to the website of your home country and find out what sorts of UN operations are taking place or have taken place there.

UN Involvement during the Rwandan Genocide (Lesson Five)

Read for homework: “U.N. Fact sheet on UNAMIR (Rwanda)”; “Rwanda in Retrospect”

Teacher preparation: Read background materials on the Rwanda case study.

Discussion with Framework:Spend 20 minutes outlining and clarifying the UN involvement in Rwanda. What did the students learn from the readings? What were the author’s major criticisms about the UN involvement, or lack of involvement, in peacekeeping in Rwanda? What could the UN have done differently? Why were the UN’s actions limited? What sorts of political constraints were put on the UN?

Targeted Understandings:Students should understand the process of how the UN decides when and how to enter into a conflict to promote peacekeeping. Students will gain a more complex understanding of the political forces at play in peacekeeping missions and what the limitations of the UN system are.

A Long Night’s Journey Into Day Activity (Lesson Six)

Excerpts from http://www.newsreel.org/guides/longnight.htm#Howto

Target Understandings: Students will gain insight into the workings and personal stories of the TRC and the ethical issues at hand in the process.

After viewing the film, choose any of these questions that seem appropriate to lead a discussion. Students could also be asked to write their reflections to any of these prompts in the form of an essay or letter.

DISCUSSION QUESTIONS

* What feelings came forward for you while viewing this film? * What stands out for you most about the film? * From the cases in the film, how effective has the TRC been at achieving its goals? * Do you think the TRC has satisfied all the people in the film? Why or why not? * Is there a difference in culpability between the person who commits violence to support an unjust state and the person who commits violence in order to resist state-sponsored human rights violations? * Would you want to know the details behind a violent crime that affected you in the past? Are there some details you would not want to know? * Should people be required to apologize in order to receive amnesty? If so, can the apology always be trusted? * What is necessary for forgiveness to take place? Is knowing the truth enough? Would you be able to forgive someone after they admitted to a heinous act? * What is unique about the case of the South African TRC that is different from other similar structures in other African nations? What is similar?

End the discussion with a move towards action or next steps, on a personal, community, or institutional level.

Simulation on Preventing Ethiopian-Eritrean Conflict (Lesson Eight)

What are simulations?Simulations are a kind of role-play. In role-plays, participants/students imagine they are someone else in

a given situation. Roles are taken on by students (I play the role of teacher, friend, parent) and ascribed by others (I am seen by others to be a student, friend, learner). Unlike acting, role players do not take on a role in order to influence an audience, but rather take on a role to gain insight into a process or to experience some event.

Why do we do simulations?Simulations are useful instructional tools supplementing other pedagogical approaches. In environments

that are complex and dynamic, such as the international political environment, simulations help capture what might otherwise be lost. Simulations also help make real a distant or unfamiliar environment. For African peace-conflict issues, simulations are particularly well suited, providing some insights into the complexities of conflicts in Africa.

The Simulation ProcessMorry van Ments in his book The Effective Use of Role-Play outlines the process of simulations. His

diagram appears below. This diagram may assist you in preparing for running a simulation.

Set objective

Integrate with classroom work

Debrief

Follow up

List critical factors of the

problemRun

session

Choose package or write role briefs

Determine external

constraints

Decide on type or structure of simulation

Preventing Ethiopian-Eritrean Conflict, cont’d

Introduction of Simulation on Preventing Ethiopian-Eritrean Conflict Objectives:

o Understand the complexity of negotiationo Understand the importance of building allianceso Understand how to work towards compromise and consensus

BackgroundThe Horn of Africa (alternatively Northeast Africa, and

sometimes Somali Peninsula) is a peninsula of East Africa that juts for hundreds of kilometers into the Arabian Sea, and lies along the southern side of the Gulf of Aden. It is the easternmost projection of the African continent. The term also refers to the region containing the countries of Djibouti, Ethiopia, Eritrea and Somalia. As such, it covers approximately 2,000,000 km² and is inhabited by about 90.2 million people. Sudan and Kenya are sometimes included in the region as well.

During the late 1880s, Italy colonized Eritrea. The region was desired because of its coastal location, which facilitated commerce. Italy declared war on Ethiopia and defeated it. In 1935, Italy used Eritrea as the primary military base in the region for its invasion of neighboring Ethiopia. From 1936-1941 Eritrea, Ethiopia, and Italian Somaliland were joined to form Italian East Africa. In 1941, with British military aid, Italy was defeated and Emperor Selassie returned to rule Ethiopia. The British took over Eritrea. After World War II, Ethiopia felt the need to make its presence felt internationally. It accomplished this task by becoming one of the first nations to sign the Charter of the United Nations, supporting the decolonization of Africa, and helping to establish the Organization of African Unity and the United Nations Economic Commission for Africa. Since Ethiopia did not have access to the Red Sea, it wanted to annex Eritrea, so that it could use the Eritrean coastline. Ethiopia began to claim that Eritrea had been a part of it throughout its history. A significant segment of the Eritrean population supported the unification of Ethiopia and Eritrea, but there was a considerable division of opinion due to religious concern. Christians have favored unification, while Muslims have favored Eritrean independence. Both U.S. government and the UN supported the reunification of Ethiopia and Eritrea. A resolution by the UN General Assembly joined Ethiopia and Eritrea in 1952, granting Eritrea certain fundamental rights.

Ethiopia did not recognize any of these rights. After WWII, Ethiopia itself was struggling with domestic political instability. Parties fought against each other to dominate the country; new young reformers were anxiously trying to build new social order. Meanwhile in Eritrea, the Eritrean Liberation Front (ELF) was founded in 1958 by a group of nationalists. Later, urban Christians joined, which made ELF more radical and anti-capitalist. It challenged imperial forces throughout Eritrea. By 1976, ELF has broken away into the Eritrean People’s Liberation Front (EPLF), which would fight for Eritrea’s independence in the longest civil war in African’s history till 1991.

From 1961 to 1991 when Ethiopian army left Asmara, the capital city of Eritrea, the Eritrean had suffered greatly during decades of wars. Many Eritrean grew up knowing nothing but war, and hundreds of

Preventing Ethiopian-Eritrean Conflict, cont’d

thousands had fled to Sudan. War had become their “normal daily life”. The war brought fear and suffering to the people: repression, abuse of human rights, murder, mass executions, torture, prison, robbery, forced relocation, fight, and death. Victims of the “Thirty Years War”, however, did not gain much international support. The UN were worried that allowing independence of Eritrea would cause border conflicts all across the African continent. Both super powers, the US and the USSR were concerned about Ethiopia’s access to the Red Sea, so they offered Ethiopia modern weaponry to control Eritrea, which meant control over the entrance of the Suez Canal as well as the Indian Ocean and the region close to oil fiends of Arabia. Only some Arab and Islamic states gave limited support to the Eritreans, mostly to the EPLF, to support the independence of Eritrea lead by Islamic Parties.

In May 1991, the Eritrean People's Liberation Front (EPLF) assumed control of Eritrea and established a provisional government. Eritrea was declared independent on April 27, 1993, and the United States recognized Eritrean independence on April 28. On May 24, Eritrea was proclaimed a sovereign state. There was then a close and cordial relationship with the new transitional government in Ethiopia. In December 1994, the constitution of the Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia was adopted by constituent assembly. In August 1995, the Government of the Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia was installed.

After Ethiopia and Eritrea became two separate countries, the common borders between them, however, were never clearly defined, which eventually lead to years of border conflicts between the two countries. After a few incidents between Eritreans and Ethiopians along the border of the Badme regions, in July 1997, the leaders of both countries agreed to form a joint commission to draw the boundary. The border area is crisscrossed by vocanic remains, dry river valleys, and plateau slopes. Eritrea was also involved in disputes with other neighbors, including Sudan and Yemen.

In May 1998, The Eritrean government unilaterally occupied a border area including Badme. Ethiopia then moved its army units to the area. Although Eritrea won, it has paid a lot. The Eritrean economy is dependent on Ethiopia for 67% of its export, and after the war, over 50,000 Eritreans were forced out of Ethiopia into Eritrea, which put more pressure on Eritrea economy. In a final effort to mediate the border dispute, AU delegation urged both sides to accept the US-Rwandan proposal for peace under which Eritrea would withdraw its troops from the Badme region. However, this effort failed. Later the same year, AU proposed another peace plan similar to the US-Rwandan plan, and has continued diplomatic efforts to persuade Eritrea to agree to this peace plan. Eventually, troops were driven out of the Badme area. Ethiopia claimed victory. Eritrea’s temporary acceptance of defeat led to an immediate cease-fire. However, in March 1999, the fighting resumed. This time, they argued over the peace plan that had been agreed. Although the peace plan calls for both sides to withdraw their forces from all contested areas, Ethiopia insists that Eritrea must pull over first.

Preventing Ethiopian-Eritrean Conflict, cont’d

ScenarioThe Ethiopia-Eritrea war has been a particular concern for Somalia, which has not had a central

government for almost ten years, and Sudan, where a continuous civil war in the southern region has caused widespread death and destruction for over a decade. However, the apparently spreading of the Ethiopian-Eritrean conflict into Somalia is not the only potentially dangerous extension of that conflict. Since both Ethiopia and Eritrea have actively supported Sudanese opposition forces, this action partly caused the peace process in Sudan has been postponed and possibly damaged. The Ethiopian-Eritrean conflict has made regional alliances confusion and is increasingly putting pressure on humanitarian NGOs and other regional parties.

Another problem is how to deal with the large number of refugees in the Horn of Africa countries. According to reports of the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR), 285,000 Somali refugees are in Ethiopia and, on-going wars between Somali factions have made repatriation difficult. Many Eritreans fled their country during its war for independence with Ethiopia from 1967 to 1990. The UNHCR also reports that 349,000 Eritrean refugees still remain in Sudan today. Recently, a large number of Eritrean youths have fled into Sudan to escape the forced conscription into the army. However, most of the countries in the Horn of Africa are economically unable to support these displaced refugees.

Africa-Africa is an active organization dealing with regional issues and special interests of African nations. Established in 1968, it has been working closely with organizations, including UN, AU, UNHCR, the Red Cross, the Arab League, and others. The organization will meet in 200x in South Africa.

The main purposes of this simulation are: 1.Seaching ways to prevent the war between Ethiopia and Eritrea from spilling over into the other countries. 2. Seeking any kind of assistance to ensure the safety of the refugees in the region that have been displaced due to ongoing wars. That being said, the main objectives of this simulation activity are not to resolve the Ethiopia-Eritrea conflict. Instead, students are asked, in their roles as representatives of Africa-Africa member states and other countries or organizations, to use negotiation skills to devise a blueprint for the two problems stated above.

The wars in the Horn of Africa have caused untold death and misery over the past few decades. Simulation participants are asked as well to deal with the many refugees and internally displaced persons in the Horn of Africa, a humanitarian crisis that strains the economies – and the political relations - of the countries in the region. In their roles as Africa-Africa member states, students try to obtain consensus among different actors with often competing agendas on the tools of conflict prevention.

Preventing Ethiopian-Eritrean Conflict, cont’d

Roles (23 roles)

1. Representatives of the following countries:Burkina Faso, Cameroon, Djibouti, Egypt, Eritrea, Ethiopia, Ghana, Kenya, Libya, Nigeria, Senegal,

Somalia, South Africa, Sudan, Tanzania, Uganda, Zambia, and Zimbabwe. Some countries are interested in having a stake in the outcome of the conflict, such as Djibouti, Egypt, Kenya, Somalia, Sudan, and Uganda. Thus, the committee is made up of states whose foreign policy goals will be affected by the outcome of the committee’s work as well as by outside, neutral parties.

2. Representatives from the US Government, the UN, the UNHCR (United Nations Higher Commission of Refugees), Organization of Human Rights (a humanitarian NGO), and the Red Cross.

3. Two Africa-Africa moderators. (Teachers may take these roles. One sets the agenda. The other keeps time. Both moderators are supposed to observe the group discussion, but not get involved in the discussions.)

SECTION III: READINGS