Two Personal ty Var ables and the Cross-cultural …...69 F r o n t i e r s : The Interd sc pl nary...

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F r o n t i e r s : The Interd�sc�pl�nary Journal of Study Abroad

Two Personal�ty Var�ables and the Cross-cultural Adjustment of Study Abroad Students

J . K l i n e H a r r i s o n

Wake Forest University

E l i z a b e t h V o e l k e r

Wake Forest University

In �ts Open Doors 2005 annual report, the Inst�tute of Internat�onal Educa-t�on reports that the number of students who study abroad has stead�ly �ncreased over the past few decades, w�th a record number of over 190,000 go�ng abroad �n 2003/04 (“U.S. Study Abroad,” 2005). The programs �n wh�ch these stu-dents part�c�pate are no longer seen str�ctly as a campus extens�on of academ�c exerc�se, but as an overall educat�onal exper�ence that develops hol�st�c l�fe sk�lls �n the part�c�pants (Berg, 2003). In a survey focused on the personal, academ�c, and profess�onal l�ves of study abroad alumn� from 1950 to 1999, Dwyer and Peters (2004) found that sojourns abroad have a s�gn�ficant, pos�t�ve �nfluence on the career path, worldv�ew, and self-confidence of students.

G�ven the growth and �mpact of �nternat�onal educat�onal exper�ences, �t �s �mportant to assess the effect�veness of study abroad programs and to �dent�fy and evaluate the contr�but�ng factors to students’ success; however, a recent survey of lead�ng U.S. study abroad �nst�tut�ons found that 96% of quest�onna�res only assessed students’ sat�sfact�on as the s�ngle measurement of success (Berg, 2003). In contrast, the l�terature on �nternat�onal job ass�gn-ments �dent�fies cross-cultural adjustment as the v�tal construct underly�ng the success of expatr�ate employee exper�ences (Bhaskar-Shr�n�vas, Harr�son, Shaffer, & Luk, 2005). Furthermore, personal�ty character�st�cs are cons�d-ered among the most �mportant factors affect�ng the adjustment of expatr�ate employees, and thus the�r success (Huang, Ch� & Lawler, 2005; Jassawalla, Trugl�a, & Garvey, 2004).

One personal�ty character�st�c �dent�fied �n recent l�terature on cross-cultural adjustment �s emot�onal �ntell�gence (EI). Gabel, Dolan and Cerd�n (2005) found EI to play an �mportant role �n expla�n�ng cross-cultural adjust-ment and thereby expatr�ate employee success. Nevertheless, a l�terature rev�ew

©2015 The Forum on Education Abroad

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J . K l i n e H a r r i s o n a n d E l i z a b e t h V o e l k e r

revealed no research on the potent�al �mpact of emot�onal �ntell�gence on the adjustment of study abroad students.

Another personal�ty character�st�c, entrepreneur�al att�tude, �s a compos�te of four constructs that �nd�v�dually have been �nvest�gated �n prev�ous research on expatr�ate employee adjustment. These constructs — need for ach�evement, �nnovat�on, personal control and self-confidence (Rob�nson, St�mpson, Huef-ner & Hunt, 1991) — wh�ch have been reflected �n the adjustment l�terature as consc�ent�ousness (Shaffer, Harr�son, Gregersen, Black & Ferzand�, 2006), openness to exper�ence (Huang et al., 2005), locus of control (Black, 1990), and self-efficacy (Harr�son, Chadw�ck & Scales, 1996), respect�vely. Nevertheless, ne�ther entrepreneur�al att�tude nor �ts underly�ng constructs have been exam-�ned prev�ously �n the l�terature on adjustment among study abroad students.

Therefore, th�s study focuses on the above personal�ty character�st�cs wh�ch are expected to �mpact the cross-cultural adjustment of students wh�le study�ng abroad. Based on self-assessments by un�vers�ty students who have stud�ed abroad for a semester, th�s research exam�nes the �mpact of both emo-t�onal �ntell�gence (EI) and entrepreneur�al att�tude or�entat�on (EAO) on the�r adjustment to the�r host culture.

C r o s s - C u l t u r a l A d j u s t m e n tCross-cultural adjustment �s generally conceptual�zed as the degree of

a person’s psycholog�cal comfort w�th a var�ety of aspects of a host culture (Black, 1988; N�cholson, 1984). Th�s comfort develops as uncerta�nty �s reduced through the learn�ng of behav�ors that are appropr�ate �n the new culture and those that are not (Black & Gregersen, 1991). Hence, a major challenge to expatr�ate adjustment �s overcom�ng cultural barr�ers. Expatr�ates must adapt the�r att�tudes/behav�ors to better fit w�th�n the�r host culture and thus, �ncrease the�r effect�veness (Huang et al., 2005).

Accord�ng to Black, Mendenhall and Oddou (1991), cross-cultural adjust-ment �s a mult�d�mens�onal construct rather than a un�tary phenomenon. The three d�mens�ons that compr�se th�s construct are: general adjustment to the fore�gn culture (�.e., l�v�ng cond�t�ons abroad such as food, hous�ng, transpor-tat�on, and shopp�ng); interaction adjustment w�th host country nat�onals (�.e., soc�al�z�ng and speak�ng w�th �nd�v�duals �n the host culture), and work adjust-ment (�.e., adapt�ng to job requ�rements, organ�zat�onal culture, work superv�-s�on, and performance expectat�ons) (Gabel et al., 2005). In research conducted among students, the th�rd d�mens�on �s excluded for obv�ous reasons (Rob�e & Ryan, 1996).


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As stated prev�ously, the l�terature has �dent�fied personal�ty character�s-t�cs as �mportant potent�al factors lead�ng to expatr�ate adjustment (Jassawalla et al., 2004). Accord�ng to Huang et al. (2005), �f a clear relat�onsh�p can be found between spec�fic personal�ty character�st�cs and cross-cultural adjust-ment, then more effect�ve select�on cr�ter�a can be developed and greater expa-tr�ate successes can be ach�eved. Two aforement�oned character�st�cs that seem appl�cable to adjustment �n study abroad s�tuat�ons are emot�onal �ntell�gence and entrepreneur�al att�tude.

E m o t i o n a l I n t e l l i g e n c e Mayer and Salovey (1993) define the personal�ty character�st�c of emo-

t�onal �ntell�gence (EI) as “a type of soc�al �ntell�gence that �nvolves the ab�l�ty to mon�tor one’s own and others’ emot�ons, to d�scr�m�nate among them, and to use the �nformat�on to gu�de one’s th�nk�ng and act�ons” (p.433). Hence, EI relates to a number of non-cogn�t�ve sk�lls, ab�l�t�es, or competenc�es that �mpact an �nd�v�dual’s ab�l�ty to deal w�th env�ronmental demands and pres-sures (Rah�m & Psen�cka, 2002).

Salovey and Mayer (1990) and Mayer and Salovey (1997) conceptual�ze EI as a compos�te of four d�st�nct d�mens�ons: self emot�onal appra�sal (the ab�l�ty to understand one’s deep emot�ons and to express them naturally); others’ emo-t�onal appra�sal (the ab�l�ty to understand the emot�ons w�th�n other people); use of emot�on (the ab�l�ty to make use of one’s emot�ons �n construct�ve and product�ve ways); and regulat�on of emot�on (the ab�l�ty to regulate one’s emo-t�on and to rebound from d�stress). These d�mens�ons of EI play an �mportant role �n expla�n�ng the cross-cultural adjustment and thus, the correspond�ng success of expatr�ates. Accord�ng to Gabel et al. (2005), EI helps to d�m�n�sh the cultural d�fferences between the host and home cultures of expatr�ates, and thereby �ncreases the poss�b�l�t�es for better cross-cultural adjustment.

G�ven that pr�or research has advocated the value of tra�n�ng �n EI for prospect�ve study abroad students (Ornste�n & Nelson, 2006) and has shown the �mpact of EI on expatr�ate adjustment (Gabel et al., 2005), �t seems log�-cal to extend th�s research to determ�ne �f EI enables students to better adjust to the�r host cultures and thus have a more successful sojourn. Therefore, �t �s hypothes�zed that:

H1: Study abroad students w�th h�gh emot�onal �ntell�gence scores on (a) self emot�onal appra�sal, (b) others’ emot�onal appra�sal, (c) use of emot�on, and (d) regulat�on of emot�on w�ll demonstrate greater general adjustment


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to the host culture than the�r counterparts who are lower on these EI d�mens�ons.

H2: Study abroad students w�th h�gh emot�onal �ntell�gence scores on (a) self emot�onal appra�sal, (b) others’ emot�onal appra�sal, (c) use of emot�on, and (d) regulat�on of emot�on w�ll demonstrate greater interaction adjust-ment to the host culture than the�r counterparts who are lower on these EI d�mens�ons.

Entrepreneurial Attitude Orientation (EAO)Huefner and Hunt (1994) broadly define entrepreneursh�p as: “recogn�z-

�ng an opportun�ty and marshall�ng the resources to take advantage of or act on that opportun�ty” (p. 61). It seems that entrepreneur�al �nd�v�duals have personal character�st�cs that g�ve them the propens�ty to prosper am�d change, chaos, and confus�on (McCl�ne, Bhat & Baj, 2000). Based on the�r rev�ew of the l�terature on both personal�ty and entrepreneursh�p, Rob�nson et al. (1991) �dent�fied four personal�ty constructs that have been commonly used �n research on entrepreneurs: need for ach�evement, �nnovat�on, personal control, and self-confidence. Accord�ng to Rob�nson et al. (1991), these four constructs, taken together, const�tute a compos�te personal�ty character�st�c �dent�fied as “entrepreneur�al att�tude or�entat�on” or EAO.

Although, no research was found on EAO among expatr�ate employees or study abroad students, a rev�ew of the l�terature on expatr�ate employee adjust-ment revealed a var�ety of stud�es on personal�ty attr�butes that reflect the underly�ng constructs of EAO. Spec�fically, need for ach�evement �s reflected �n the research on consc�ent�ousness (Shaffer, Harr�son, Gregersen, Black & Ferzand�, 2006), wh�ch scholars �nd�cate �ncludes the mot�vat�on to ach�eve (McShane & Von Gl�now, 2005); �nnovat�on �s al�gned w�th stud�es on open-ness to exper�ence (Huang et al., 2005), wh�ch descr�bes �nd�v�duals �n terms of the�r be�ng or�g�nal, �nnovat�ve, and w�ll�ng to take r�sks (Costa & McCrae, 1992); personal control �s exam�ned �n the l�terature on locus of control (Black, 1990), wh�ch �s the degree to wh�ch �nd�v�duals feel they have control over the�r personal l�ves (McShane & Von Gl�now, 2005); and self-confidence �s reflected �n the research on self-efficacy (Harr�son et al., 1996), wh�ch �s defined as the level of confidence that �nd�v�duals have �n the�r ab�l�ty to accompl�sh tasks (Bandura, 1986).

G�ven these underly�ng constructs �mpact expatr�ate employee adjust-ment, �t seems log�cal that, taken together as EAO, they w�ll have a com-


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parable �mpact on study abroad students’ adjustment to the�r host culture. Because these students are more l�kely to be ach�evement-or�ented (Schroth & McCormack, 2000) and open to exper�ence (Bakal�s & Jo�ner, 2004) than non-sojourners, and because the�r self-determ�nat�on (�.e., self-efficacy and locus of control) has been found to �mpact the�r global awareness and apprec�at�on (Harr�son, 2006), �t follows that they, too, should exper�ence greater cultural adjustment. Therefore, �t �s hypothes�zed that:

H3: Study abroad students w�th a h�gh EAO w�ll demonstrate greater general adjustment to the host culture than the�r counterparts who have a lower EAO.

H4: Study abroad students w�th a h�gh EAO w�ll demonstrate great inter-action adjustment to the host culture than the�r counterparts who have a lower EAO.

M e t h o dRespondentsTh�s study was conducted among undergraduate sojourners from a small,

pr�vate un�vers�ty �n the southeastern Un�ted States. A sample of 456 students was surveyed v�a e-ma�l, w�th 347 rece�v�ng a web-based quest�onna�re after return�ng from a fall semester abroad and another 109 rece�v�ng the same ques-t�onna�re towards the end of the spr�ng semester wh�le they were st�ll abroad. Approx�mately two weeks after the �n�t�al ma�l�ng was sent, a follow-up e-ma�l was posted ask�ng nonrespondents for the�r cooperat�on �n complet�ng the quest�onna�re. One hundred n�nety-one total surveys were ult�mately returned for a 42% representat�on, wh�ch �s an average response rate for electron�c sur-veys �n the academ�c sector (Il�eva, Baron, and Healey, 2002).

Regard�ng the background of respondents, 59 were males and 132 were females. Of these 191 students, 147 completed the survey dur�ng the fall semester and 44 completed �t dur�ng the spr�ng. Twelve percent of the total group were �n the�r sophomore year of study, 85 percent �n the�r jun�or year, and 3 percent �n the�r sen�or year. Bus�ness majors represented the h�gh-est number of respondents w�th�n a d�sc�pl�ne at 23 percent. Psychology majors followed at 21 percent, w�th a cross-sect�on of majors compr�s�ng the rema�n�ng 56 percent. Wh�le only 17 percent of the respondents had l�ved abroad prev�ously, 78 percent had traveled �nternat�onally before the�r study abroad exper�ence.


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MeasuresThe quest�onna�re used �n th�s study cons�sted of part�c�pants’ self-assess-

ment on both �ndependent and dependent measures. Spec�fically, w�dely recog-n�zed standard�zed �nstruments w�th h�gh rel�ab�l�t�es were used to assess the dependent var�able of cross-cultural adjustment, as well as the �ndependent var�ables of emot�onal �ntell�gence and entrepreneur�al att�tude or�entat�on.

To measure cross-cultural adjustment, a n�ne-�tem measure was drawn from Black and Stephens’ (1989) study of expatr�ate adjustment. The cur-rent vers�on was adapted by Rob�e and Ryan (1996) to fit a school context by reword�ng or exclud�ng work-related �tems (see Append�x 1). As expected, the result�ng n�ne nonwork �tems y�elded two subd�mens�ons of general and �nteract�on adjustment, w�th alpha coeffic�ents of .76 and .88, respect�vely. All responses were measured on a 5-po�nt L�kert scale rang�ng from “almost no adjustment” to “tremendous adjustment.”

To assess respondents’ level of emot�onal �ntell�gence, a psychometr�cally sound and pract�cal short measure developed by Wong and Law (2002) was used (see Append�x 2). The�r research on the measure confirmed �ts rel�ab�l�ty and val�d�ty based on analyses of factor structure, �nternal cons�stency, convergence, and d�scr�m�nant and �ncremental val�d�ty. In the present study, responses to the measure were assessed on a 5-po�nt L�kert scale rang�ng from “strongly d�s-agree” to “strongly agree” and y�elded an alpha coeffic�ent of .83. Furthermore, cons�stent w�th the analyses by Wong and Law (2002), subd�mens�ons of the construct were confirmed by rel�ab�l�ty analys�s, w�th alpha coeffic�ents of .80, .81, .79, and .87 for self emot�onal appra�sal, others’ emot�onal appra�sal, use of emot�on, and regulat�on of emot�on, respect�vely.

To assess entrepreneur�al att�tude or�entat�on (EAO), an abbrev�ated ver-s�on of Rob�nson et al.’s (1991) scale was used. Th�s measure cons�sted of 27 �tems taken from the or�g�nal scale conta�n�ng 76 �tems (see Append�x 3). Because the l�terature suggests that behav�or components of att�tude (e.g., behav�oral �ntent�ons) are better pred�ctors of subsequent overt behav�or than affect�ve or cogn�t�ve components (Breckler, 1984; Kothandapan�, 1971), only �tems focused on behav�oral �ntent�ons were �ncluded for pract�cal�ty. Us�ng a 5-po�nt L�kert scale rang�ng from “strongly d�sagree” to “strongly agree,” these �tems were then rewr�tten from a bus�ness context to a general, nonspec�fic context per Huefner and Hunt (1994). Comparable to Rob�nson et al.’s (1991) find�ng on the behav�or component of the EAO, the rel�ab�l�ty of the measure was affirmed �n the present study w�th an alpha coeffic�ent of .79. It should be noted, however, that contrary to other stud�es on the EAO


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(e.g., Rob�nson et al. [1991] and van Wyk and Boshoff [2004]), subd�men-s�ons of ach�evement, �nnovat�on, percept�on of personal control and perce�ved self-esteem were not spec�fied through confirmatory factor analys�s us�ng the behav�oral �tems only.

In add�t�on to the aforement�oned measures, the quest�onna�re also �ncluded �tems regard�ng relevant background �nformat�on. These �tems addressed gen-der, year of academ�c study, college major, and prev�ous exper�ence abroad e�ther as a res�dent or tour�st.

R e s u l t sTest of HypothesesHypotheses 1 stated that study abroad students w�th h�gh emot�onal �ntel-

l�gence scores on (a) self emot�onal appra�sal, (b) others’ emot�onal appra�sal, (c) use of emot�on, and (d) regulat�on of emot�on would demonstrate greater general adjustment to the host culture than the�r counterparts who were lower on these EI d�mens�ons. One-ta�led correlat�onal tests �nd�cated a s�gn�ficant, pos�t�ve correlat�on between general adjustment and self emot�onal appra�sal (r = .33, p < .01), others’ emot�onal appra�sal (r = .19, p < .01), use of emo-t�on (r = .22, p < .01) and regulat�on of emot�on (r = .19, p < .01) as shown �n Table 1.

Cons�stent w�th past research on personal�ty var�ables and cross-cultural adjustment (e.g., Black, 1990; Harr�son et al., 1996), a med�an spl�t procedure was performed on the personal�ty var�ables w�th�n th�s study. Respondents w�th EI above the med�an on each subd�mens�on were categor�zed as hav�ng h�gh EI and those below the med�an were categor�zed as hav�ng low EI. One-way ANOVA results generally supported the first hypothes�s (see Table 2). Those w�th h�gh self emot�onal appra�sal (x = 27.21, sd = 4.12) were s�gn�ficantly d�fferent from those w�th lower self emot�onal appra�sal (x = 24.53, sd = 4.48) on general adjustment (F[1, 181] = 16.56, p < .01); those w�th h�gh others’ emot�onal appra�sal (x = 26.74, sd = 4.44) were s�gn�ficantly d�fferent from those w�th lower others’ emot�onal appra�sal (x = 25.14, sd = 4.23) on general adjustment (F[1, 182] = 5.25, p < .05); and those w�th h�gh use of emot�on (x = 26.72, sd = 4.42) were s�gn�ficantly d�fferent from those w�th lower use of emot�on (x = 25.28, sd = 4.32) on general adjustment (F[1, 182] = 4.42, p < .05). The d�fference between those w�th h�gh regulat�on of emot�on (x = 26.75, sd = 4.56) and those w�th lower regulat�on of emot�on (x = 25.48, sd = 4.14) only approached s�gn�ficance at the p < .10 level �n terms of general adjustment (F[1, 182] = 3.66, p < .06).


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Tab

le 1

: M

eans

, Sta

ndar

d D

ev�a

t�on

s, a

nd C

orre

lat�

ons

TA

BLE

1: M

eans

, Sta

ndar

d D

evia

tions

, and

Cor

rela

tions

Mea

nS

D1

23

45

6

1.G

ener

al A

djus

tmen

t 26

.24

4.43

(.76

)ª

2.In

tera

ctio

n A

djus

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t 7.

142.

05.4

7**

(.88

)

3.E

I - S

elf a

ppra

isal

16

.34

2.46

.33*

*.1

4*(.

80)

4.E

I - O

ther

s ap

prai

sal

16.0

92.

37.1

9**

.17*

.19*

*(.

81)

5.E

I - U

se o

f em

otio

n16

.47

2.51

.22*

*0.

11.3

1**

.31*

*(.

79)

6.E

I - R

egul

atio

n of

em

otio

n15

.18

2.98

.19*

*0.

08.3

0**

0.17

.20*

*(.

87)

7.E

AO

93.2

49.

43.1

7**

.24*

*.3

1**

.39*

*.5

9**

0.11

(.79

)

ªNum

bers

in p

aren

thes

es a

re r

elia

bilit

y co

effic

ient

s

**C

orre

latio

n is

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nific

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t the

.01

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l

*Cor

rela

tion

is s

igni

fican

t at t

he .0

5 le

vel


77


Hypothes�s 2 stated that study abroad students w�th h�gh emot�onal �ntel-l�gence scores on (a) self emot�onal appra�sal, (b) others’ emot�onal appra�sal, (c) use of emot�on, and (d) regulat�on of emot�on would demonstrate greater �nter-act�on adjustment to the host culture than the�r counterparts who are lower on these EI d�mens�ons. One-ta�led correlat�onal tests (see Table 1) �nd�cated a s�gn�ficant, pos�t�ve correlat�on between �nteract�on adjustment and both self emot�onal appra�sal (r = .14, p < .05) and others’ emot�onal appra�sal (r = .17,

1

TABLE 2 Means and Standard Deviations of Median Splits for Emotional Intelligence

High Self Emotional Appraisal

Low Self Emotional Appraisal F

General Adjustment M 27.21 24.53 16.56**

General Adjustment SD 4.12 4.48

Interaction Adjustment M 7.30 6.85 2.10

Interaction Adjustment SD 2.08 1.99High Others' Emotional Appraisal

Low Others' Emotional Appraisal F

General Adjustment M 26.74 25.14 5.25*


Interaction Adjustment M 7.44 6.53 8.43**

Interaction Adjustment SD 2.06 1.92High Use of

EmotionLow Use of

Emotion F

General Adjustment M 27.72 25.28 4.42*



Interaction Adjustment SD 2.14 1.87High

Regulation of Emotion

Low Regulation of

Emotion F

General Adjustment M 26.75 25.48 3.36



Interaction Adjustment SD 1.97 2.19a Numbers in parentheses are reliability coefficients ** Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (1-tailed) * Correlation is significant at the 0.05 level (1-tailed).

Hypotheses 3 and 4 stated that, compared to study abroad students with a lower entrepreneurial attitude orientation (EAO), study abroad students with a high EAO would demonstrate greater general adjustment

Table 2: Means and Standard Dev�at�ons of Med�an Spl�ts for Emot�onal Intell�gence


78


p < .05). Although the correlat�on between �nteract�on adjustment and the use of emot�on approached s�gn�ficance at the .10 level (r = .11, p < .07), there was no s�gn�ficant relat�onsh�p between �nteract�on adjustment and regulat�on of emot�on (r = .08, ns).

Aga�n, a med�an spl�t procedure was performed �n wh�ch respondents w�th EI above the med�an on each subd�mens�on were categor�zed as hav�ng h�gh EI and those below the med�an were categor�zed as hav�ng low EI. One-way ANOVA results supported only hypothes�s 2(b) (see Table 2). Those w�th h�gh others’ emot�onal appra�sal (x = 7.44, sd = 2.06) were s�gn�ficantly d�fferent from those w�th lower others’ emot�onal appra�sal (x = 6.53, sd = 1.92) on �nteract�on adjustment (F[1, 188] = 8.43, p < .01).

Hypotheses 3 and 4 stated that, compared to study abroad students w�th a lower entrepreneur�al att�tude or�entat�on (EAO), study abroad students w�th a h�gh EAO would demonstrate greater general adjustment and greater �nterac-t�on adjustment, respect�vely. One-ta�led correlat�onal tests �nd�cated a s�gn�fi-cant, pos�t�ve correlat�on between EAO and both general adjustment (r = .17, p < .05) and �nteract�on adjustment (r = .24, p < .01) as shown �n Table 1.

Cons�stent w�th the procedure for EI, a med�an spl�t procedure was performed �n wh�ch respondents w�th EAO scores above the med�an were categor�zed as hav-�ng a h�gh EAO and those below the med�an were categor�zed as hav�ng a low EAO. One-way ANOVA results supported hypothes�s 4, but not 3 (see Table 3). Respondents w�th a h�gh EAO (x = 7.47, sd = 2.11) were s�gn�ficantly d�fferent from those w�th a lower EAO (x = 6.80, sd = 1.95) on �nteract�on adjustment (F[1, 187] = 5.21, p < .05); however, respondents w�th a h�gh EAO (x = 26.60, sd = 4.46) were not s�gn�ficantly d�fferent from those w�th a lower EAO (x = 25.96, sd = 4.38) on general adjustment (F[1, 181] = .98, ns).

Table 3: Means and Standard Dev�at�ons of Med�an Spl�ts for Entrepreneur�al Att�tude Or�entat�on

2

and greater interaction adjustment, respectively. One-tailed correlational tests indicated a significant, positive correlation between EAO and both general adjustment (r = .17, p < .05) and interaction adjustment (r = .24, p < .01) as shown in Table 1.

Consistent with the procedure for EI, a median split procedure was performed in which respondents with EAO scores above the median were categorized as having a high EAO and those below the median were categorized as having a low EAO. One-way ANOVA results supported hypothesis 4, but not 3 (see Table 3). Respondents with a high EAO (x = 7.47, sd = 2.11) were significantly different from those with a lower EAO (x = 6.80, sd = 1.95) on interaction adjustment (F[1, 187] = 5.21, p < .05); however, respondents with a high EAO (x = 26.60, sd = 4.46) were not significantly different from those with a lower EAO (x = 25.96, sd = 4.38) on general adjustment (F[1, 181] = .98, ns).

TABLE 3 Means and Standard Deviations of Median Splits for Entrepreneurial Attitude Orientation

HighEAO

Low EAO F

General Adjustment M 26.60 25.96 0.98


Interaction Adjustment M 7.47 6.80 5.21*

Interaction Adjustment SD 2.11 1.95

* Correlation is significant at the 0.05 level (1-tailed).

DiscussionThe purpose of this research was to investigate the

cross-cultural adjustment of study abroad students and the associated impact of two personality variables – emotional intelligence and entrepreneurial attitude


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D i s c u s s i o nThe purpose of th�s research was to �nvest�gate the cross-cultural adjust-

ment of study abroad students and the assoc�ated �mpact of two personal�ty var�ables — emot�onal �ntell�gence and entrepreneur�al att�tude or�entat�on. Results �nd�cated that three subd�mens�ons of EI were s�gn�ficantly related to general adjustment �n a host culture, w�th the fourth subd�mens�on tend-�ng to be �nfluent�al. Ind�v�duals w�th h�gher self-emot�onal appra�sal, h�gher others’ emot�onal appra�sal, and h�gher use of emot�on exh�b�ted stronger general adjustment than those who scored lower on these d�mens�ons. S�m�-larly, those who were h�gher on regulat�on of emot�on tended to have stronger general adjustment. It seems that d�mens�ons of EI play an �mportant role �n the general adjustment of study abroad students.

W�th respect to interaction adjustment, the results were not as strong. Only one of the subd�mens�ons of EI was s�gn�ficant. Students w�th h�gher others’ emot�onal appra�sal exh�b�ted stronger interaction adjustment than the�r counter-parts. It seems that emot�onal appra�sal of others plays the most �mportant role for study abroad students when soc�al�z�ng and speak�ng w�th host nat�onals. One explanat�on for the lack of s�gn�ficance �n the self-appra�sal, use, and regu-lat�on of emot�on may be students’ l�m�ted t�me �n the host culture (�.e., 12–15 weeks). G�ven th�s relat�vely br�ef per�od, they may have been �nt�m�dated by �nteract�ons w�th local nat�onals and therefore, focused pr�mar�ly on read�ng others’ emot�ons. Rather than intentionally assess�ng, us�ng, or regulat�ng the�r own emot�ons to fac�l�tate �nteract�on, they seemed to feel most adjusted when they could better gauge and understand the emot�ons of the�r hosts.

Results on the relat�onsh�p between cross-cultural adjustment and EAO were m�xed. Study abroad students w�th a h�gher EAO demonstrated stronger interaction adjustment than those w�th a lower EAO; however, there was no s�g-n�ficant d�fference between the two groups on general adjustment. One explana-t�on for the latter find�ng may be that hous�ng and log�st�cs for many students are pre-determ�ned �n the host culture, thus d�m�n�sh�ng the�r need to take r�sks or assume respons�b�l�ty for much of the�r l�v�ng cond�t�ons. Nevertheless, �t seems that an entrepreneur�al att�tude fac�l�tates the degree of adjustment students feel �n �nteract�ng w�th host nat�onals. Perhaps they are more consc�en-t�ous and open about soc�al�z�ng and �nteract�ng w�th locals, wh�le hav�ng the perce�ved confidence and ab�l�ty to handle such �nteract�ons successfully.

At least two l�m�tat�ons should be kept �n m�nd regard�ng the find�ngs �n th�s study. F�rst, because the sample came from a s�ngle un�vers�ty, the results may have l�m�ted general�zab�l�ty. Nevertheless, the respondents represented a


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cross-sect�on of d�sc�pl�nes, w�th a m�x of males and females and both exper�-enced and �nexper�enced �nternat�onal travelers. Second, the lack of more s�g-n�ficant results assoc�ated w�th the EAO may be attr�buted to the abbrev�ated vers�on of the measure used. Compared to the or�g�nal vers�on, the current measure d�d not �nclude cogn�t�ve and affect�ve components along w�th behav-�oral components. Although the behav�oral components alone were rel�able, mult�ple d�mens�ons may have y�elded more r�gorous results.

Desp�te these l�m�tat�ons, the find�ngs are suggest�ve of at least two �mpl�cat�ons. F�rst, the generally strong relat�onsh�ps found between cultural adjustment and both EI and EAO suggest that these personal�ty character�st�cs may �nform the select�on and/or tra�n�ng of prospect�ve study abroad students. Know�ng that those students h�gh on EI demonstrate stronger cultural adjust-ment may lead study abroad select�on comm�ttees to assess th�s character�st�c among appl�cants to determ�ne �f add�t�onal understand�ng and development of EI �s warranted. S�m�larly, know�ng that students w�th a h�gher EAO dem-onstrate stronger interaction adjustment may lead to an assessment and fac�l�ta-t�on of th�s character�st�c �n appl�cants as well.

Second, g�ven the dearth of l�terature on personal�ty character�st�cs that �mpact the adjustment and success of study abroad students, future research on personal�ty var�ables beyond EI and EAO seems warranted. If other key character�st�cs foster�ng adjustment can be �dent�fied, developed, and exh�b-�ted among these students, then the�r �nternat�onal sojourn can be even more successful, thus hav�ng a more profound effect on the�r personal, academ�c, and ult�mately, profess�onal l�ves.

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Appendix 1Cross-cultural Adjustment Measure

9

Appendix 1 Cross-cultural Adjustment Measure

Please answer the following questions about how unadjusted or adjusted you were to the following during your study abroad experience:

Almost no adjustment

1 2 3 4 5 Tremendous adjustment

1. Living conditions (in general)

2. Housing conditions 3. Food

4. Shopping 5. Cost of living

6. Entertainment/recreation facilities

7. Health care facilities

8. Socializing with host nationals (i.e., local citizens)

9. Interacting with host nationals (i.e., local citizens) on a day-to-day basis


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Appendix 2Emotional Intelligence Measure

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Appendix 2 Emotional Intelligence Measure

Below are several statements about you with which you may agree or disagree. Please indicate your (dis)agreement with each item by using the scale below.

Scale:Strongly disagree 1 2 3 4 5 Strongly agree

1.I have a good sense of why I have certain feelings most of the time.

2. I have good understanding of my own emotions. 3. I really understand what I feel. 4. I always know whether or not I am happy. 5. I always know my friends’ emotions from their behavior. 6. I am a good observer of others’ emotions. 7. I am sensitive to the feelings and emotions of others.

8.I have good understanding of the emotions of people around me.

9.I always set goals for myself and then try my best to achieve them.

10. I always tell myself I am a competent person. 11. I am a self-motivated person. 12. I would always encourage myself to try my best. 13. I am able to control my temper and handle difficulties rationally. 14. I am quite capable of controlling my own emotions. 15. I can always calm down quickly when I am very angry. 16. I have good control of my own emotions.

Appendix 3


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Appendix 3 Entrepreneurial Attitude Orientation Measure

11

Entrepreneurial Attitude Orientation Measure

Below are several more statements about you with which you may agree or disagree. Using the scale below, indicate your (dis)agreement with each item.

Scale Strongly disagree 1 2 3 4 5 Strongly agree

1. I seldom follow instructions unless the task I am working on is too complex.

2. I never put important matters off until a more convenient time.

3. I have always worked hard in order to be among the best.

4. I create the opportunities I take advantage of.

5. I spend a considerable amount of time making any organization I belong to function better.

6. I usually perform very well on my part of any project I am involved with.

*7. I seem to spend a lot of time looking for someone who can help me solve my problems.

8. I often sacrifice personal comfort in order to take advantage of new opportunities.

9. I do every task as thoroughly as possible.

10. I make a conscientious effort to get the most out of the resources available to me.

*11. I often put on a show to impress the people I work with.

*12. Even though I spend some time trying to influence events around me every day, I have had very little success.

*13. I feel best about my work when I know I have followed accepted procedures.

14. Most of my time is spent working on several ideas at the same time.

15. I usually delegate routine tasks after only a short period of time.

16. I will spend a considerable amount of time analyzing my future goals before making decisions.

17. I make it a point to do something significant and meaningful every day.

18. I usually take control in unstructured situations.

*19. I never persist very long on a difficult task before giving up.

20. I spend a lot of time planning my activities.

21. I often approach tasks in unique ways.

[continued on next page]

22. I take an active part in my community so that I can influence events that affect me.


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23. My knack for dealing with people has enabled me to create many new opportunities.

24. I always try to make friends with people who may be useful in my personal success.

25. I usually seek out colleagues who are excited about exploring new ways of doing things.

*26. I always follow accepted social or professional practices in the dealings I have with others.

*27. I rarely question the value of established procedures.


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