TWELFTH EDITION AP EDITION CHEMISTRY

Theodore L. BrownUniversity of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign

H. Eugene LEMay, Jr.University of Nevada, Reno

Bruce E. BurstenUniversity of Tennessee, Knoxville

Catherine J. MurphyUniversity of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign

Patrick M. WoodwardThe Ohio State University

T W E L F T H E D I T I O N A P E D I T I O N

CHEMISTRYT H E C E N T R A L S C I E N C E

A01_BLB5081_12_SE_FM_hr2.qxp 14-02-2013 14:46 Page i

Editor in Chief, Chemistry: Adam JaworskiAcquisitions Editor: Terry HaugenMarketing Manager: Erin GardnerProject Editor: Jennifer HartEditorial Assistant: Catherine MartinezMarketing Assistant: Nicola HoustonVP/Executive Director, Development: Carol TrueheartDevelopment Editor, Text: Irene NunesDevelopment Editor, Art: Greg GambinoManaging Editor, Chemistry and Geosciences: Gina M. CheselkaProject Manager: Shari ToronFull-Service Project Management/Composition: Rebecca Dunn/Preparé, Inc.Senior Manufacturing and Operations Manager: Nick SklitsisOperations Specialist: Maura ZaldivarArt Director: Mark OngSenior Technical Art Specialist: Connie LongArt Studio: Precision GraphicsPhoto Research Manager: Elaine SoaresPhoto Researcher: Eric SchraderSenior Media Producer: Angela BernhardtAssociate Media Producer: Kristin MayoMedia Supervisor: Liz WinerProduction Coordinator, Media: Shannon KongElectrostatic Potential Maps: Richard Johnson, Chemistry Department, University of New HampshireCover Credit: Graphene by Dr. Jannik C. Meyer of the University of Ulm, Germany

Copyright © 2012, 2009, 2006, 2003, 2000, 1997, 1994, 1991, 1988, 1985, 1981, 1977 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing asPearson Prentice Hall. All rights reserved. Manufactured in the United States of America. This publication is protected byCopyright and permission should be obtained from the publisher prior to any prohibited reproduction, storage in a retrievalsystem, or transmission in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or likewise. To obtainpermission(s) to use material from this work, please submit a written request to Pearson Education, Inc., PermissionsDepartment, 1900 E. Lake Ave., Glenview, IL 60025.

Many of the designations used by manufacturers and sellers to distinguish their products are claimed as trademarks. Where thosedesignations appear in this book, and the publisher was aware of a trademark claim, the designations have been printed in initialcaps or all caps.

AP® is a trademark registered and/or owned by the College Board, which was not involved in the production of, and doesnot endorse, this product.

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Chemistry: the central science / Theodore L. Brown ... [et al.]—12th ed.p. cm.

Includes bibliographical references and index.ISBN 978-0-321-69672-4 (alk. paper)1. Chemistry—Textbooks. I. Brown, Theodore L. (Theodore Lawrence), 1928-

QD31.3.C43145 2012540—dc22

2010043754

Printed in the United States of America10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1

ISBN-10: 0-13-217508-8 (High School Binding)ISBN-13: 978-0-13-217508-1 (High School Binding)

www.PearsonSchool.com/Advanced

A01_BLB5081_12_SE_FM_hr2.qxp 14-02-2013 14:46 Page ii

iii

PREFACE xxiiTips for AP Chemistry Exam Success xxv Correlation Guide for AP xxviii About the Authors xxxv

1 Introduction: Matterand Measurement 2

1.1 THE STUDY OF CHEMISTRY 4The Atomic and Molecular Perspective of Chemistry 4Why Study Chemistry? 5

1.2 CLASSIFICATIONS OF MATTER 7States of Matter 7 Pure Substances 7 Elements 7Compounds 8 Mixtures 10

1.3 PROPERTIES OF MATTER 11Physical and Chemical Changes 12 Separation of Mixtures 13

1.4 UNITS OF MEASUREMENT 14SI Units 15 Length and Mass 16 Temperature 17Derived SI Units 18 Volume 18 Density 19

1.5 UNCERTAINTY IN MEASUREMENT 20Precision and Accuracy 21 Significant Figures 22Significant Figures in Calculations 23

1.6 DIMENSIONAL ANALYSIS 25Using Two or More Conversion Factors 27 Conversions InvolvingVolume 28

CHAPTER SUMMARY AND KEY TERMS 30 KEY SKILLS 31KEY EQUATIONS 31 VISUALIZING CONCEPTS 31ADDITIONAL EXERCISES 35

CHEMISTRY PUT TO WORK Chemistry and the Chemical Industry 6

A CLOSER LOOK The Scientific Method 15

CHEMISTRY PUT TO WORK Chemistry in the News 20

STRATEGIES IN CHEMISTRY Estimating Answers 26

STRATEGIES IN CHEMISTRY The Importance of Practice 29

STRATEGIES IN CHEMISTRY The Features of this Book 30

2 Atoms, Molecules, and Ions 38

2.1 THE ATOMIC THEORY OF MATTER 40

2.2 THE DISCOVERY OF ATOMIC STRUCTURE 41Cathode Rays and Electrons 41 Radioactivity 43 The NuclearModel of the Atom 43

CONTENTS

A01_BLB5081_12_SE_FM_hr2.qxp 14-02-2013 14:46 Page iii

iv CONTENTS

2.3 THE MODERN VIEW OF ATOMIC STRUCTURE 44Atomic Numbers, Mass Numbers, and Isotopes 46

2.4 ATOMIC WEIGHTS 47The Atomic Mass Scale 47 Atomic Weight 48

2.5 THE PERIODIC TABLE 49

2.6 MOLECULES AND MOLECULAR COMPOUNDS 52Molecules and Chemical Formulas 52 Molecular and EmpiricalFormulas 53 Picturing Molecules 54

2.7 IONS AND IONIC COMPOUNDS 54Predicting Ionic Charges 55 Ionic Compounds 56

2.8 NAMING INORGANIC COMPOUNDS 59Names and Formulas of Ionic Compounds 59 Names andFormulas of Acids 64 Names and Formulas of Binary Molecular Compounds 65

2.9 SOME SIMPLE ORGANIC COMPOUNDS 66Alkanes 66 Some Derivatives of Alkanes 66

CHAPTER SUMMARY AND KEY TERMS 67 KEY SKILLS 68VISUALIZING CONCEPTS 69 ADDITIONAL EXERCISES 73

A CLOSER LOOK Basic Forces 46

A CLOSER LOOK The Mass Spectrometer 49

A CLOSER LOOK Glenn Seaborg and Seaborgium 52

CHEMISTRY AND LIFE Elements Required by Living Organisms 58

STRATEGIES IN CHEMISTRY Pattern Recognition 58

3 Stoichiometry:Calculations withChemical Formulasand Equations 76

3.1 CHEMICAL EQUATIONS 78Balancing Equations 78 Indicating the States of Reactantsand Products 81

3.2 SOME SIMPLE PATTERNS OF CHEMICAL REACTIVITY 81Combination and Decomposition Reactions 82 CombustionReactions 83

3.3 FORMULA WEIGHTS 84Formula and Molecular Weights 85 Percentage Composition fromChemical Formulas 85

3.4 AVOGADRO’S NUMBER AND THE MOLE 86Molar Mass 88 Interconverting Masses and Moles 90Interconverting Masses and Numbers of Particles 91

3.5 EMPIRICAL FORMULAS FROM ANALYSES 92Molecular Formulas from Empirical Formulas 94Combustion Analysis 95

3.6 QUANTITATIVE INFORMATION FROM BALANCEDEQUATIONS 96

A01_BLB5081_12_SE_FM_hr2.qxp 14-02-2013 14:46 Page iv

CONTENTS v

3.7 LIMITING REACTANTS 99Theoretical Yields 102

CHAPTER SUMMARY AND KEY TERMS 104 KEY SKILLS 104KEY EQUATIONS 104 VISUALIZING CONCEPTS 105ADDITIONAL EXERCISES 111 INTEGRATIVE EXERCISES 113

STRATEGIES IN CHEMISTRY Problem Solving 86

CHEMISTRY AND LIFE Glucose Monitoring 90

STRATEGIES IN CHEMISTRY How to Take a Test 103

4 Reactions in AqueousSolution 114

4.1 GENERAL PROPERTIES OF AQUEOUS SOLUTIONS 116Electrolytic Properties 116 Ionic Compounds in Water 117Molecular Compounds in Water 118 Strong and Weak Electrolytes 118

4.2 PRECIPITATION REACTIONS 119Solubility Guidelines for Ionic Compounds 120 Exchange(Metathesis) Reactions 121 Ionic Equations 122

4.3 ACIDS, BASES, AND NEUTRALIZATION REACTIONS 124Acids 124 Bases 125 Strong and Weak Acids and Bases 125Identifying Strong and Weak Electrolytes 126 NeutralizationReactions and Salts 127 Neutralization Reactions with GasFormation 129

4.4 OXIDATION-REDUCTION REACTIONS 131Oxidation and Reduction 131 Oxidation Numbers 132 Oxidationof Metals by Acids and Salts 133 The Activity Series 135

4.5 CONCENTRATIONS OF SOLUTIONS 139Molarity 139 Expressing the Concentration of an Electrolyte 140Interconverting Molarity, Moles, and Volume 140 Dilution 141

4.6 SOLUTION STOICHIOMETRY AND CHEMICAL ANALYSIS 144Titrations 145


CHEMISTRY PUT TO WORK Antacids 130

A CLOSER LOOK The Aura of Gold 138

STRATEGIES IN CHEMISTRY Analyzing Chemical Reactions 138

CHEMISTRY AND LIFE Drinking too much Water Can Kill You 143

5 Thermochemistry 158

5.1 THE NATURE OF ENERGY 160Kinetic Energy and Potential Energy 160 Units of Energy 162System and Surroundings 162 Transferring Energy: Work and Heat 163

5.2 THE FIRST LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS 164Internal Energy 164 Relating to Heat and Work 165Endothermic and Exothermic Processes 167 State Functions 167

¢E

A01_BLB5081_12_SE_FM_hr2.qxp 14-02-2013 14:46 Page v

vi CONTENTS

5.3 ENTHALPY 169

5.4 ENTHALPIES OF REACTION 172

5.5 CALORIMETRY 175Heat Capacity and Specific Heat 175 Constant-PressureCalorimetry 177 Bomb Calorimetry (Constant-Volume Calorimetry) 178

5.6 HESS’S LAW 181

5.7 ENTHALPIES OF FORMATION 183Using Enthalpies of Formation to Calculate Enthalpies of Reaction 185

5.8 FOODS AND FUELS 188Foods 188 Fuels 190 Other Energy Sources 191


A CLOSER LOOK Energy, Enthalpy, and P-V Work 172

STRATEGIES IN CHEMISTRY Using Enthalpy as a Guide 175

CHEMISTRY AND LIFE The Regulation of Body Temperature 180

CHEMISTRY PUT TO WORK The Scientific and Political Challengesof Biofuels 192

6 Electronic Structureof Atoms 206

6.1 THE WAVE NATURE OF LIGHT 208

6.2 QUANTIZED ENERGY AND PHOTONS 210Hot Objects and the Quantization of Energy 210 The PhotoelectricEffect and Photons 211

6.3 LINE SPECTRA AND THE BOHR MODEL 213Line Spectra 213 Bohr’s Model 214 The Energy States of theHydrogen Atom 214 Limitations of the Bohr Model 216

6.4 THE WAVE BEHAVIOR OF MATTER 216The Uncertainty Principle 217

6.5 QUANTUM MECHANICS AND ATOMIC ORBITALS 219Orbitals and Quantum Numbers 220

6.6 REPRESENTATIONS OF ORBITALS 222The s Orbitals 222 The p Orbitals 224 The d and fOrbitals 225

6.7 MANY-ELECTRON ATOMS 226Orbitals and Their Energies 226 Electron Spin and the PauliExclusion Principle 227

6.8 ELECTRON CONFIGURATIONS 229Hund’s Rule 229 Condensed Electron Configurations 231Transition Metals 232 The Lanthanides and Actinides 232

A01_BLB5081_12_SE_FM_hr2.qxp 14-02-2013 14:46 Page vi

CONTENTS vii

6.9 ELECTRON CONFIGURATIONS AND THE PERIODIC TABLE 233Anomalous Electron Configurations 237


A CLOSER LOOK The Speed of Light 209

A CLOSER LOOK Measurement and the Uncertainty Principle 218

A CLOSER LOOK Probability Density and Radial ProbabilityFunctions 224

A CLOSER LOOK Experimental Evidence for Electron Spin 227

CHEMISTRY AND LIFE Nuclear Spin and Magnetic ResonanceImaging 228

7 Periodic Properties of the Elements 2487.1 DEVELOPMENT OF THE PERIODIC TABLE 250

7.2 EFFECTIVE NUCLEAR CHARGE 251

7.3 SIZES OF ATOMS AND IONS 254Periodic Trends in Atomic Radii 255 Periodic Trends in Ionic Radii 256

7.4 IONIZATION ENERGY 259Variations in Successive Ionization Energies 259 Periodic Trends inFirst Ionization Energies 260 Electron Configurations of Ions 262

7.5 ELECTRON AFFINITIES 263

7.6 METALS, NONMETALS, AND METALLOIDS 264Metals 265 Nonmetals 267 Metalloids 268

7.7 TRENDS FOR GROUP 1A AND GROUP 2A METALS 268Group 1A: The Alkali Metals 269 Group 2A: The AlkalineEarth Metals 272

7.8 TRENDS FOR SELECTED NONMETALS 273Hydrogen 273 Group 6A: The Oxygen Group 273 Group 7A: TheHalogens 274 Group 8A: The Noble Gases 276


A CLOSER LOOK Effective Nuclear Charge 253

CHEMISTRY PUT TO WORK Ion Movement Powers Electronics 258

CHEMISTRY AND LIFE The Improbable Development of Lithium Drugs 271

8 Basic Concepts ofChemical Bonding 288

8.1 LEWIS SYMBOLS AND THE OCTET RULE 290The Octet Rule 290

8.2 IONIC BONDING 291Energetics of Ionic Bond Formation 292 Electron Configurationsof Ions of the s- and p-Block Elements 294 Transition-Metal Ions 296

A01_BLB5081_12_SE_FM_hr2.qxp 14-02-2013 14:46 Page vii

viii CONTENTS

8.3 COVALENT BONDING 296Lewis Structures 297 Multiple Bonds 298

8.4 BOND POLARITY AND ELECTRONEGATIVITY 298Electronegativity 299 Electronegativity and Bond Polarity 300 Dipole Moments 301 Differentiating Ionic and Covalent Bonding 304

8.5 DRAWING LEWIS STRUCTURES 305Formal Charge and Alternative Lewis Structures 307

8.6 RESONANCE STRUCTURES 309Resonance in Benzene 311

8.7 EXCEPTIONS TO THE OCTET RULE 312Odd Number of Electrons 312 Less than an Octet of ValenceElectrons 312 More than an Octet of Valence Electrons 313

8.8 STRENGTHS OF COVALENT BONDS 315Bond Enthalpies and the Enthalpies of Reactions 316Bond Enthalpy and Bond Length 318


A CLOSER LOOK Calculation of Lattice Energies: The Born–Haber Cycle 295

A CLOSER LOOK Oxidation Numbers, Formal Charges, and Actual Partial Charges 309

CHEMISTRY PUT TO WORK Explosives and Alfred Nobel 319

9 Molecular Geometry and Bonding Theories 330

9.1 MOLECULAR SHAPES 332

9.2 THE VSEPR MODEL 334Effect of Nonbonding Electrons and Multiple Bonds on BondAngles 338 Molecules with Expanded Valence Shells 339Shapes of Larger Molecules 342

9.3 MOLECULAR SHAPE AND MOLECULAR POLARITY 343

9.4 COVALENT BONDING AND ORBITAL OVERLAP 345

9.5 HYBRID ORBITALS 346sp Hybrid Orbitals 346 sp2 and sp3 Hybrid Orbitals 348Hybrid Orbital Summary 350

9.6 MULTIPLE BONDS 351Resonance Structures, Delocalization, and Bonding 355General Conclusions 356

9.7 MOLECULAR ORBITALS 358The Hydrogen Molecule 358 Bond Order 360

p

A01_BLB5081_12_SE_FM_hr2.qxp 14-02-2013 14:46 Page viii

CONTENTS ix

9.8 PERIOD 2 DIATOMIC MOLECULES 361Molecular Orbitals for Li2 and Be2 361 Molecular Orbitals from 2pAtomic Orbitals 362 Electron Configurations for B2 through Ne2 365Electron Configurations and Molecular Properties 366Heteronuclear Diatomic Molecules 369

CHAPTER SUMMARY AND KEY TERMS 372 KEY SKILLS 373KEY EQUATION 373 VISUALIZING CONCEPTS 373ADDITIONAL EXERCISES 378 INTEGRATIVE EXERCISES 380

CHEMISTRY AND LIFE The Chemistry of Vision 357

A CLOSER LOOK Phases in Atomic and Molecular Orbitals 363

CHEMISTRY PUT TO WORK Orbitals and Energy 370

10 Gases 382

10.1 CHARACTERISTICS OF GASES 384

10.2 PRESSURE 385Atmospheric Pressure and the Barometer 385

10.3 THE GAS LAWS 387The Pressure–Volume Relationship: Boyle’s Law 388The Temperature–Volume Relationship: Charles’s Law 389The Quantity–Volume Relationship: Avogadro’s Law 390

10.4 THE IDEAL-GAS EQUATION 391Relating the Ideal-Gas Equation and the Gas Laws 394

10.5 FURTHER APPLICATIONS OF THE IDEAL-GAS EQUATION 395Gas Densities and Molar Mass 396 Volumes of Gases in Chemical Reactions 397

10.6 GAS MIXTURES AND PARTIAL PRESSURES 399Partial Pressures and Mole Fractions 400 Collecting Gases overWater 401

10.7 THE KINETIC-MOLECULAR THEORY OF GASES 402Distributions of Molecular Speed 403 Application of Kinetic-Molecular Theory to the Gas Laws 404

10.8 MOLECULAR EFFUSION AND DIFFUSION 405Graham’s Law of Effusion 407 Diffusion and Mean Free Path 408

10.9 REAL GASES: DEVIATIONS FROM IDEAL BEHAVIOR 409The van der Waals Equation 411


CHEMISTRY AND LIFE Blood Pressure 388

STRATEGIES IN CHEMISTRY Calculations Involving Many Variables 393

CHEMISTRY PUT TO WORK Gas Pipelines 398

A CLOSER LOOK The Ideal-Gas Equation 405

CHEMISTRY PUT TO WORK Gas Separations 408

A01_BLB5081_12_SE_FM_hr2.qxp 14-02-2013 14:46 Page ix

x CONTENTS

11 Liquids andIntermolecular Forces 424

11.1 A MOLECULAR COMPARISON OF GASES, LIQUIDS,AND SOLIDS 426

11.2 INTERMOLECULAR FORCES 428Dispersion Forces 429 Dipole–Dipole Forces 430 HydrogenBonding 431 Ion–Dipole Forces 434 Comparing IntermolecularForces 434

11.3 SELECT PROPERTIES OF LIQUIDS 437Viscosity 437 Surface Tension 437

11.4 PHASE CHANGES 438Energy Changes Accompanying Phase Changes 439 HeatingCurves 440 Critical Temperature and Pressure 441

11.5 VAPOR PRESSURE 442Volatility, Vapor Pressure, and Temperature 443 Vapor Pressure and Boiling Point 444

11.6 PHASE DIAGRAMS 445The Phase Diagrams of H2O and CO2 446

11.7 LIQUID CRYSTALS 448Types of Liquid Crystals 449

CHAPTER SUMMARY AND KEY TERMS 452 KEY SKILLS 453VISUALIZING CONCEPTS 453 ADDITIONAL EXERCISES 459INTEGRATIVE EXERCISES 460

CHEMISTRY PUT TO WORK Ionic Liquids 436

A CLOSER LOOK The Clausius–Clapeyron Equation 444

CHEMISTRY PUT TO WORK Liquid Crystal Displays 451

12 Solids and ModernMaterials 462

12.1 CLASSIFICATIONS OF SOLIDS 464

12.2 STRUCTURES OF SOLIDS 465Crystalline and Amorphous Solids 465 Unit Cells and CrystalLattices 465 Filling the Unit Cell 467

12.3 METALLIC SOLIDS 468The Structures of Metallic Solids 469 Close Packing 470Alloys 473

12.4 METALLIC BONDING 476Electron-Sea Model 478 Molecular-Orbital Model 478

12.5 IONIC SOLIDS 481Structures of Ionic Solids 482

12.6 MOLECULAR SOLIDS 486

A01_BLB5081_12_SE_FM_hr2.qxp 14-02-2013 14:46 Page x

CONTENTS xi

12.7 COVALENT-NETWORK SOLIDS 486Semiconductors 487 Semiconductor Doping 489

12.8 POLYMERIC SOLIDS 490Making Polymers 492 Structure and Physical Propertiesof Polymers 494

12.9 NANOMATERIALS 496Semiconductors on the Nanoscale 497 Metals on the Nanoscale 498 Fullerenes, Carbon Nanotubes, and Graphene 498

CHAPTER SUMMARY AND KEY TERMS 502 KEY SKILLS 503KEY EQUATION 503 VISUALIZING CONCEPTS 504ADDITIONAL EXERCISES 510 INTEGRATIVE EXERCISES 511

A CLOSER LOOK X-ray Diffraction 468

CHEMISTRY PUT TO WORK Alloys of Gold 476

CHEMISTRY PUT TO WORK Solid-State Lighting 491

CHEMISTRY PUT TO WORK Recycling Plastics 494

13 Properties of Solutions 512

13.1 THE SOLUTION PROCESS 514The Natural Tendency toward Mixing 514 The Effect ofIntermolecular Forces on Solution Formation 514 Energetics ofSolution Formation 515 Solution Formation and ChemicalReactions 517

13.2 SATURATED SOLUTIONS AND SOLUBILITY 518

13.3 FACTORS AFFECTING SOLUBILITY 520Solute–Solvent Interactions 520 Pressure Effects 523

Temperature Effects 525

13.4 EXPRESSING SOLUTION CONCENTRATION 526Mass Percentage, ppm, and ppb 526 Mole Fraction, Molarity, andMolality 527 Converting Concentration Units 528

13.5 COLLIGATIVE PROPERTIES 530Vapor-Pressure Lowering 530 Boiling-Point Elevation 533

Freezing-Point Depression 534 Osmosis 536

Determination of Molar Mass 539

13.6 COLLOIDS 541Hydrophilic and Hydrophobic Colloids 542 Removal of Colloidal Particles 544


A CLOSER LOOK Hydrates 518

CHEMISTRY AND LIFE Fat-Soluble and Water-Soluble Vitamins 522

CHEMISTRY AND LIFE Blood Gases and Deep-Sea Diving 525

A CLOSER LOOK Ideal Solutions with Two or More VolatileComponents 532

A CLOSER LOOK Colligative Properties of Electrolyte Solutions 540

CHEMISTRY AND LIFE Sickle-Cell Anemia 545

A01_BLB5081_12_SE_FM_hr2.qxp 14-02-2013 14:46 Page xi

xii CONTENTS

14 Chemical Kinetics 556

14.1 FACTORS THAT AFFECT REACTION RATES 558

14.2 REACTION RATES 559Change of Rate with Time 561 Instantaneous Rate 561Reaction Rates and Stoichiometry 562

14.3 CONCENTRATION AND RATE LAWS 563Reaction Orders: The Exponents in the Rate Law 565 Magnitudesand Units of Rate Constants 567 Using Initial Rates to DetermineRate Laws 568

14.4 THE CHANGE OF CONCENTRATION WITH TIME 569First-Order Reactions 569 Second-Order Reactions 571Zero-Order Reactions 573 Half-life 573

14.5 TEMPERATURE AND RATE 575The Collision Model 576 The Orientation Factor 576 ActivationEnergy 577 The Arrhenius Equation 578 Determining theActivation Energy 579

14.6 REACTION MECHANISMS 581Elementary Reactions 581 Multistep Mechanisms 582 Rate Lawsfor Elementary Reactions 583 The Rate-Determining Step for aMultistep Mechanism 584 Mechanisms with a Slow Initial Step 585Mechanisms with a Fast Initial Step 586

14.7 CATALYSIS 589Homogeneous Catalysis 589 Heterogeneous Catalysis 590Enzymes 591


A CLOSER LOOK Using Spectroscopic Methods to MeasureReaction Rates 564

CHEMISTRY PUT TO WORK Methyl Bromide in the Atmosphere 574

CHEMISTRY PUT TO WORK Catalytic Converters 592

CHEMISTRY AND LIFE Nitrogen Fixation and Nitrogenase 594

15 Chemical Equilibrium 610

15.1 THE CONCEPT OF EQUILIBRIUM 612

15.2 THE EQUILIBRIUM CONSTANT 614Evaluating Kc 616 Equilibrium Constants in Terms of Pressure, Kp 617 Equilibrium Constants and Units 618

15.3 UNDERSTANDING AND WORKING WITH EQUILIBRIUMCONSTANTS 619The Magnitude of Equilibrium Constants 619 The Direction of theChemical Equation and K 620 Relating Chemical EquationStoichiometry and Equilibrium Constants 621

15.4 HETEROGENEOUS EQUILIBRIA 623

A01_BLB5081_12_SE_FM_hr2.qxp 14-02-2013 14:46 Page xii

CONTENTS xiii

15.5 CALCULATING EQUILIBRIUM CONSTANTS 625

15.6 APPLICATIONS OF EQUILIBRIUM CONSTANTS 627Predicting the Direction of Reaction 627 Calculating EquilibriumConcentrations 628

15.7 LE CHATELIER’S PRINCIPLE 630Change in Reactant or Product Concentration 632 Effects ofVolume and Pressure Changes 633 Effect of Temperature Changes 634 The Effect of Catalysts 637


CHEMISTRY PUT TO WORK The Haber Process 615

CHEMISTRY PUT TO WORK Controlling Nitric Oxide Emissions 640

16 Acid–Base Equilibria 650

16.1 ACIDS AND BASES: A BRIEF REVIEW 652

16.2 BRØNSTED–LOWRY ACIDS AND BASES 652The H+ Ion in Water 652 Proton-Transfer Reactions 653Conjugate Acid–Base Pairs 654 Relative Strengths of Acids andBases 656

16.3 THE AUTOIONIZATION OF WATER 658The Ion Product of Water 659

16.4 THE pH SCALE 660pOH and Other “p” Scales 662 Measuring pH 663

16.5 STRONG ACIDS AND BASES 664Strong Acids 664 Strong Bases 665

16.6 WEAK ACIDS 666Calculating Ka from pH 668 Percent Ionization 669 Using Ka toCalculate pH 670 Polyprotic Acids 674

16.7 WEAK BASES 676Types of Weak Bases 677

16.8 RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN Ka AND Kb 679

16.9 ACID–BASE PROPERTIES OF SALT SOLUTIONS 681An Anion’s Ability to React with Water 681 A Cation’s Ability to Reactwith Water 682 Combined Effect of Cation and Anion in Solution 683

16.10 ACID–BASE BEHAVIOR AND CHEMICAL STRUCTURE 685Factors That Affect Acid Strength 685 Binary Acids 685

Oxyacids 686 Carboxylic Acids 688

16.11 LEWIS ACIDS AND BASES 689


CHEMISTRY PUT TO WORK Amines and Amine Hydrochlorides 680

CHEMISTRY AND LIFE The Amphiprotic Behavior of Amino Acids 689

A01_BLB5081_12_SE_FM_hr2.qxp 14-02-2013 14:46 Page xiii

xiv CONTENTS

17 Additional Aspects ofAqueous Equilibria 702

17.1 THE COMMON-ION EFFECT 704

17.2 BUFFERED SOLUTIONS 707Composition and Action of Buffered Solutions 707 Calculating thepH of a Buffer 708 Buffer Capacity and pH Range 710 Additionof Strong Acids or Bases to Buffers 711

17.3 ACID–BASE TITRATIONS 714Strong Acid–Strong Base Titrations 714 Weak Acid–Strong BaseTitrations 716 Titrations of Polyprotic Acids 720 Titrating with anAcid–Base Indicator 721

17.4 SOLUBILITY EQUILIBRIA 722The Solubility-Product Constant, Ksp 722 Solubility and Ksp 723

17.5 FACTORS THAT AFFECT SOLUBILITY 726Common-Ion Effect 726 Solubility and pH 728 Formation ofComplex Ions 731 Amphoterism 733

17.6 PRECIPITATION AND SEPARATION OF IONS 734Selective Precipitation of Ions 735

17.7 QUALITATIVE ANALYSIS FOR METALLIC ELEMENTS 736


CHEMISTRY AND LIFE Blood as a Buffered Solution 713

A CLOSER LOOK Limitations of Solubility Products 726

CHEMISTRY AND LIFE Ocean Acidification 728

CHEMISTRY AND LIFE Tooth Decay and Fluoridation 730

18 Chemistry of theEnvironment 748

18.1 EARTH’S ATMOSPHERE 750Composition of the Atmosphere 750 Photochemical Reactions inthe Atmosphere 752 Ozone in the Stratosphere 754

18.2 HUMAN ACTIVITIES AND EARTH’S ATMOSPHERE 756The Ozone Layer and Its Depletion 756 Sulfur Compounds and Acid Rain 758 Nitrogen Oxides and Photochemical Smog 760 Greenhouse Gases: Water Vapor, Carbon Dioxide, and Climate 761

18.3 EARTH’S WATER 764The Global Water Cycle 764 Salt Water: Earth’s Oceans and Seas 765 Freshwater and Groundwater 766

18.4 HUMAN ACTIVITIES AND EARTH’S WATER 767Dissolved Oxygen and Water Quality 768 Water Purification:Desalination 768 Water Purification: Municipal Treatment 769

A01_BLB5081_12_SE_FM_hr2.qxp 14-02-2013 14:46 Page xiv

CONTENTS xv

18.5 GREEN CHEMISTRY 771Supercritical Solvents 773 Greener Reagents and Processes 773


A CLOSER LOOK Other Greenhouse Gases 764

A CLOSER LOOK Water Softening 770

19 Chemical Thermodynamics 784

19.1 SPONTANEOUS PROCESSES 786Seeking a Criterion for Spontaneity 788 Reversible and IrreversibleProcesses 788

19.2 ENTROPY AND THE SECOND LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS 790Entropy Change 790 ¢S for Phase Changes 791 The SecondLaw of Thermodynamics 792

19.3 MOLECULAR INTERPRETATION OF ENTROPY 793Expansion of a Gas at the Molecular Level 793 Boltzmann’sEquation and Microstates 794 Molecular Motions and Energy 796Making Qualitative Predictions About ¢S 797 The Third Law ofThermodynamics 799

19.4 ENTROPY CHANGES IN CHEMICAL REACTIONS 800Entropy Changes in the Surroundings 802

19.5 GIBBS FREE ENERGY 803Standard Free Energy of Formation 806

19.6 FREE ENERGY AND TEMPERATURE 809

19.7 FREE ENERGY AND THE EQUILIBRIUM CONSTANT 811Free Energy Under Nonstandard Conditions 811 RelationshipBetween and K 813


A CLOSER LOOK The Entropy Change when a Gas ExpandsIsothermally 792

CHEMISTRY AND LIFE Entropy and Human Society 800

A CLOSER LOOK What’s “Free” about Free Energy? 808

CHEMISTRY AND LIFE Driving Nonspontaneous Reactions 814

20 Electrochemistry 826

20.1 OXIDATION STATES AND OXIDATION-REDUCTIONREACTIONS 828

20.2 BALANCING REDOX EQUATIONS 830Half-Reactions 830 Balancing Equations by the Method of Half-Reactions 830 Balancing Equations for Reactions Occurring in Basic Solution 833

¢G°

A01_BLB5081_12_SE_FM_hr2.qxp 14-02-2013 14:46 Page xv

xvi CONTENTS

20.3 VOLTAIC CELLS 835

20.4 CELL POTENTIALS UNDER STANDARD CONDITIONS 838Standard Reduction Potentials 839 Strengths of Oxidizing andReducing Agents 843

20.5 FREE ENERGY AND REDOX REACTIONS 845Emf, Free Energy, and the Equilibrium Constant 847

20.6 CELL POTENTIALS UNDER NONSTANDARD CONDITIONS 849The Nernst Equation 849 Concentration Cells 852

20.7 BATTERIES AND FUEL CELLS 854Lead-Acid Battery 855 Alkaline Battery 855 Nickel-Cadmium,Nickel-Metal-Hydride, and Lithium-Ion Batteries 856 Hydrogen FuelCells 856

20.8 CORROSION 857Corrosion of Iron (Rusting) 858 Preventing Corrosion of Iron 859

20.9 ELECTROLYSIS 860Quantitative Aspects of Electrolysis 861


A CLOSER LOOK Electrical Work 849

CHEMISTRY AND LIFE Heartbeats and Electrocardiography 853

CHEMISTRY PUT TO WORK Direct Methanol Fuel Cells 857

CHEMISTRY PUT TO WORK Electrometallurgy of Aluminum 862

21 Nuclear Chemistry 874

21.1 RADIOACTIVITY 876Nuclear Equations 877 Types of Radioactive Decay 878

21.2 PATTERNS OF NUCLEAR STABILITY 880Neutron-to-Proton Ratio 880 Radioactive Series 882 FurtherObservations 882

21.3 NUCLEAR TRANSMUTATIONS 884Accelerating Charged Particles 884 Reactions Involving Neutrons 885 Transuranium Elements 885

21.4 RATES OF RADIOACTIVE DECAY 886Radiometric Dating 887 Calculations Based on Half-Life 888

21.5 DETECTION OF RADIOACTIVITY 891Radiotracers 892

21.6 ENERGY CHANGES IN NUCLEAR REACTIONS 894Nuclear Binding Energies 895

21.7 NUCLEAR POWER: FISSION 896Nuclear Reactors 898 Nuclear Waste 900

21.8 NUCLEAR POWER: FUSION 902

A01_BLB5081_12_SE_FM_hr2.qxp 14-02-2013 14:46 Page xvi

CONTENTS xvii

21.9 RADIATION IN THE ENVIRONMENT AND LIVING SYSTEMS 902Radiation Doses 904 Radon 906

SUMMARY AND KEY TERMS 908 KEY SKILLS 909KEY EQUATIONS 909 VISUALIZING CONCEPTS 909ADDITIONAL EXERCISES 913 INTEGRATIVE EXERCISES 915

CHEMISTRY AND LIFE Medical Applications of Radiotracers 893

A CLOSER LOOK The Dawning of the Nuclear Age 898

A CLOSER LOOK Nuclear Synthesis of the Elements 903

CHEMISTRY AND LIFE Radiation Therapy 907

22 Chemistry of theNonmetals 916

22.1 PERIODIC TRENDS AND CHEMICAL REACTIONS 918Chemical Reactions 919

22.2 HYDROGEN 920Isotopes of Hydrogen 920 Properties of Hydrogen 921

Production of Hydrogen 922 Uses of Hydrogen 923

Binary Hydrogen Compounds 923

22.3 GROUP 8A: THE NOBLE GASES 924Noble-Gas Compounds 925

22.4 GROUP 7A: THE HALOGENS 926Properties and Production of the Halogens 926 Uses of theHalogens 927 The Hydrogen Halides 928 InterhalogenCompounds 929 Oxyacids and Oxyanions 929

22.5 OXYGEN 930Properties of Oxygen 930 Production of Oxygen 930

Uses of Oxygen 931 Ozone 931 Oxides 932 Peroxides andSuperoxides 933

22.6 THE OTHER GROUP 6A ELEMENTS: S, Se, Te, AND Po 934General Characteristics of the Group 6A Elements 934

Occurrence and Production of S, Se, and Te 934 Properties andUses of Sulfur, Selenium, and Tellurium 934 Sulfides 935

Oxides, Oxyacids, and Oxyanions of Sulfur 935

22.7 NITROGEN 937Properties of Nitrogen 937 Production and Uses of Nitrogen 937

Hydrogen Compounds of Nitrogen 937 Oxides and Oxyacids ofNitrogen 939

22.8 THE OTHER GROUP 5A ELEMENTS: P, As, Sb, AND Bi 941General Characteristics of the Group 5A Elements 941

Occurrence, Isolation, and Properties of Phosphorus 942

Phosphorus Halides 942 Oxy Compounds of Phosphorus 942

22.9 CARBON 945Elemental Forms of Carbon 945 Oxides of Carbon 946 CarbonicAcid and Carbonates 948 Carbides 948 Other InorganicCompounds of Carbon 949

22.10 THE OTHER GROUP 4A ELEMENTS: Si, Ge, Sn, AND Pb 949General Characteristics of the Group 4A Elements 949

A01_BLB5081_12_SE_FM_hr2.qxp 14-02-2013 14:46 Page xvii

xviii CONTENTS

Occurrence and Preparation of Silicon 950 Silicates 950

Glass 952 Silicones 952

22.11 BORON 953


A CLOSER LOOK The Hydrogen Economy 922

CHEMISTRY AND LIFE How Much Perchlorate is Too Much? 930

CHEMISTRY AND LIFE Nitroglycerin and Heart Disease 941

CHEMISTRY AND LIFE Arsenic in Drinking Water 945

CHEMISTRY PUT TO WORK Carbon Fibers and Composites 947

23 Transition metals and Coordinationchemistry 962

23.1 THE TRANSITION METALS 964Physical Properties 964 Electron Configurations and OxidationStates 965 Magnetism 967

23.2 TRANSITION METAL COMPLEXES 968The Development of Coordination Chemistry: Werner’s Theory 969

The Metal–Ligand Bond 971 Charges, Coordination Numbers,and Geometries 972

23.3 COMMON LIGANDS IN COORDINATION CHEMISTRY 974Metals and Chelates in Living Systems 976

23.4 NOMENCLATURE AND ISOMERISM IN COORDINATIONCHEMISTRY 979Isomerism 981 Structural Isomerism 981 Stereoisomerism 982

23.5 COLOR AND MAGNETISM IN COORDINATION CHEMISTRY 985Color 985 Magnetism of Coordination Compounds 987

23.6 CRYSTAL-FIELD THEORY 987Electron Configurations in Octahedral Complexes 990

Tetrahedral and Square-Planar Complexes 991


A CLOSER LOOK Entropy and the Chelate Effect 977

CHEMISTRY AND LIFE The Battle for Iron in Living Systems 978

A CLOSER LOOK Charge-Transfer Color 993

24 The Chemistry of Life:Organic and BiologicalChemistry 1004

24.1 GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS OF ORGANIC MOLECULES 1006The Structures of Organic Molecules 1006 The Stabilities of

A01_BLB5081_12_SE_FM_hr2.qxp 14-02-2013 14:46 Page xviii

CONTENTS xix

Organic Substances 1007 Solubility and Acid–Base Properties ofOrganic Substances 1007

24.2 INTRODUCTION TO HYDROCARBONS 1008Structures of Alkanes 1009 Structural Isomers 1009 Nomenclatureof Alkanes 1010 Cycloalkanes 1013 Reactions of Alkanes 1013

24.3 ALKENES, ALKYNES, AND AROMATIC HYDROCARBONS 1014Alkenes 1015 Alkynes 1017 Addition Reactions of Alkenes andAlkynes 1017 Aromatic Hydrocarbons 1019 Stabilization of Electrons by Delocalization 1020 Substitution Reactions 1020

24.4 ORGANIC FUNCTIONAL GROUPS 1021Alcohols 1023 Ethers 1024 Aldehydes and Ketones 1024

Carboxylic Acids and Esters 1025 Amines and Amides 1028

24.5 CHIRALITY IN ORGANIC CHEMISTRY 1028

24.6 INTRODUCTION TO BIOCHEMISTRY 1029

24.7 PROTEINS 1029Amino Acids 1030 Polypeptides and Proteins 1030Protein Structure 1032

24.8 CARBOHYDRATES 1034Disaccharides 1035 Polysaccharides 1036

24.9 LIPIDS 1037Fats 1037 Phospholipids 1038

24.10 NUCLEIC ACIDS 1038


CHEMISTRY PUT TO WORK Gasoline 1014

A CLOSER LOOK Mechanism of Addition Reactions 1019

STRATEGIES IN CHEMISTRY What Now? 1042

AppendicesA Mathematical Operations 1051

B Properties of Water 1058

C Thermodynamic Quantities forSelected Substances at 298.15 K (25 °C) 1059

D Aqueous Equilibrium Constants 1062

E Standard Reduction Potentials at 25 °C 1064

F ap exam practice problems 1065

Chemical Applications and Essays 1074

Answers to Selected Exercises A-1Answers to Give it Some Thought A-33Answers to Go Figure A-41Glossary G-1Photo/Art Credits P-1Index I-1

p

A01_BLB5081_12_SE_FM_hr2.qxp 14-02-2013 14:46 Page xix

xx

TO THE TEACHER

PhilosophyThe cover of this new edition of Chemistry: The Central Science, AP Edition features a striking illustration of the structure ofgraphene, a recently discovered form of carbon. As we began preparing the previous edition in 2006, single-layer graphene was vir-tually unknown. The extraordinary properties of graphene, and its promise for future applications, has already resulted in a NobelPrize. An understanding of the structure and many of the properties of graphene is well within the reach of an undergraduatestudent of general chemistry. Through such examples, it is possible to demonstrate in a general chemistry course that chemistry is adynamic science in continuous development. New research leads to new applications of chemistry in other fields of science and intechnology. In addition, environmental and economic concerns bring about changes in the place of chemistry in society. Our text-book reflects this dynamic, changing character. We hope that it also conveys the excitement that scientists experience in making newdiscoveries that contribute to our understanding of the physical world.

New ideas about how to teach chemistry are constantly being developed, and many of them are reflected in how our textbook isorganized and in the ways in which topics are presented. This edition incorporates a number of new methodologies to assist stu-dents, including use of the Internet, computer-based classroom tools, Web-based tools, particularly MasteringChemistry®, andmore effective means of testing.

As authors, we want this text to be a central, indispensable learning tool for students. It can be carried everywhere and used atany time. It is the one place students can go to obtain the information needed for learning, skill development, reference, and testpreparation. At the same time, the text provides the background in modern chemistry that students need to serve their professionalinterests and, as appropriate, to prepare for more advanced chemistry courses.

If the text is to be effective in supporting your role as teacher, it must be addressed to the students. We have done our best to keepour writing clear and interesting and the book attractive and well illustrated. The book has numerous in-text study aids for students,including carefully placed descriptions of problem-solving strategies. Together we have logged many years of teaching experience. Wehope this is evident in our pacing, choice of examples, and the kinds of study aids and motivational tools we have employed. Because webelieve that students are more enthusiastic about learning chemistry when they see its importance to their own goals and interests, wehave highlighted many important applications of chemistry in everyday life. We hope you make use of this material.

A textbook is only as useful to students as the teacher permits it to be. This book is replete with features that can help studentslearn and that can guide them as they acquire both conceptual understanding and problem-solving skills. But the text and all thesupplementary materials provided to support its use must work in concert with you, the teacher. There is a great deal for the stu-dents to use here, too much for all of it to be absorbed by any one student. You will be the guide to the best use of the book. Onlywith your active help will the students be able to utilize most effectively all that the text and its supplements offer. Students careabout grades, of course, and with encouragement they will also become interested in the subject matter and care about learning.Please consider emphasizing features of the book that can enhance student appreciation of chemistry, such as the Chemistry Putto Work and Chemistry and Life boxes that show how chemistry impacts modern life and its relationship to health and lifeprocesses. Learn to use, and urge students to use, the rich Internet resources available. Emphasize conceptual understanding andplace less emphasis on simple manipulative, algorithmic problem solving.

What’s New in This Edition?A great many changes have been made in producing this twelfth edition. The entire art program for the text has been reworked, andnew features connected with the art have been introduced.

• Nearly every figure in the book has undergone some modification, and hundreds of figures have been entirely redone.• A systematic effort has been made to move information that was contained in figure captions directly into the figures.• Explanatory labels have been employed extensively in figures to guide the student in understanding the art.• In several important places, art has been modified to convey the notion of progression in time, as in a reaction. See, for instance,

Figures 4.4 and 14.27.• New designs have been employed to more closely integrate photographic materials into figures that convey chemical principles,

as in Figure 2.21.• A new feature called Go Figure has been added to about 40% of the figures. This feature asks the student a question that can be an-

swered by examining the figure. It tests whether the student has in fact examined the figure and understands its primary message.Answers to the Go Figure questions are provided in the back of the text.

PREFACE

A01_BLB5081_12_SE_FM_hr2.qxp 14-02-2013 14:46 Page xx

PREFACE xxi

• New end-of-chapter exercises have been added, and many of those carried over from the eleventh edition have been significantlyrevised. Results from analysis of student responses to MasteringChemistry, the online homework program connected with the text,have been used to eliminate questions that did not appear to be functioning well and to assess the degree to which teachers haveused the end-of-chapter materials. On the basis of these analyses, many exercises have been revised or eliminated.

• Chapter introductions have been redesigned to enhance the student’s exposure to the aims of the chapter and its contents.• The presentation of hybrid orbitals in Chapter 9 and elsewhere has been rewritten to limit the treatment to s and p orbitals,

based on theoretical work indicating that d orbital participation in hybridization is not significant.• The treatment of condensed phases, liquids and solids, has been reorganized into two chapters that contain much new materi-

al. Chapter 11 deals with liquids and intermolecular forces, while Chapter 12 deals with solids, starting from the basics of crys-tal structures and covering a broad range of materials (including metals, semiconductors, polymers, and nanomaterials) in acohesive manner.

• Chapter 18 on the Chemistry of the Environment has been substantially revised to focus on how human activities affect Earth’satmosphere and water, and to enlarge the coverage of the green chemistry initiative.

• The treatment of metals, Chapter 23 of the eleventh edition, has been reorganized and augmented. Structure and bonding in met-als and alloys are now covered in Chapter 12 (Solids and Modern Materials), and other parts of Chapter 23 have been combinedwith material from Chapter 24 of the eleventh edition to form a new chapter, Transition Metals and Coordination Chemistry.Material covering occurrences and production of metals that was not widely used by teachers has been eliminated.

Throughout the text, the writing has been improved by enhancing the clarity and flow of ideas while achieving an economy ofwords. Thus, despite the addition of new features, the length of the text has not changed significantly.

Organization and ContentsThe first five chapters give a largely macroscopic, phenomenological view of chemistry. The basic concepts introduced—such asnomenclature, stoichiometry, and thermochemistry—provide necessary background for many of the laboratory experimentsusually performed in AP Chemistry. We believe that an early introduction to thermochemistry is desirable because so much of ourunderstanding of chemical processes is based on considerations of energy changes. Thermochemistry is also important when wecome to a discussion of bond enthalpies. We believe we have produced an effective, balanced approach to teaching thermodynamicsin general chemistry, as well as providing students with an introduction to some of the global issues involving energy production andconsumption. It is no easy matter to walk the narrow pathway between—on the one hand—trying to teach too much at too high a leveland—on the other hand—resorting to oversimplifications. As with the book as a whole, the emphasis has been on impartingconceptual understanding, as opposed to presenting equations into which students are supposed to plug numbers.

The next four chapters (Chapters 6–9) deal with electronic structure and bonding. We have largely retained our presentation ofatomic orbitals. For more advanced students, Closer Look boxes in Chapters 6 and 9 deal with radial probability functions and the phas-es of orbitals. Our approach of placing this latter discussion in a Closer Look box in Chapter 9 enables those who wish to cover this topicto do so, while others may wish to bypass it. In treating this topic and others in Chapters 7 and 9 we have materially enhanced the ac-companying figures to more effectively bring home their central messages.

The focus of the text then changes (Chapters 10–13) to the next level of the organization of matter, examining the states of matter.Chapters 10 and 11 deal with gases, liquids, and intermolecular forces, much as in earlier editions. Chapter 12, however, is now devotedto solids, presenting an enlarged and more contemporary view of the solid state as well as of modern materials. This change is appro-priate, given the ever-increasing importance of solid-state materials in solar energy, illumination, and electronics. Chapter 12 providesan opportunity to show how abstract chemical bonding concepts impact real-world applications. The modular organization of thechapter allows you to tailor your coverage to focus on materials (semiconductors, polymers, nanomaterials, and so forth) that are mostrelevant to your students and your own interests. Chapter 13 treats the formation and properties of solutions in much the same man-ner as the previous edition.

The next several chapters examine the factors that determine the speed and extent of chemical reactions: kinetics (Chapter 14),equilibria (Chapters 15–17), thermodynamics (Chapter 19), and electrochemistry (Chapter 20). Also in this section is a chapter onenvironmental chemistry (Chapter 18), in which the concepts developed in preceding chapters are applied to a discussion of the at-mosphere and hydrosphere. This chapter has been revised to focus more sharply on the impacts of human activities on Earth’s waterand atmosphere and on green chemistry.

After a discussion of nuclear chemistry (Chapter 21), the book ends with three survey chapters. Chapter 22, on nonmetals, hasbeen consolidated slightly from the eleventh edition. Chapter 23 now deals with the chemistry of transition metals, including coor-dination compounds, and the last chapter deals with the chemistry of organic compounds and elementary biochemical themes.These final four chapters are developed in a parallel fashion and can be treated in any order.

Our chapter sequence provides a fairly standard organization, but we recognize that not everyone teaches all the topics in just theorder we have chosen. We have therefore made sure that teachers can make common changes in teaching sequence with no loss in studentcomprehension. In particular, many teachers prefer to introduce gases (Chapter 10) after stoichiometry (Chapter 3) rather than withstates of matter. The chapter on gases has been written to permit this change with no disruption in the flow of material. It is also possibleto treat balancing redox equations (Sections 20.1 and 20.2) earlier, after the introduction of redox reactions in Section 4.4. Finally, someteachers like to cover organic chemistry (Chapter 24) right after bonding (Chapters 8 and 9). This, too, is a largely seamless move.

A01_BLB5081_12_SE_FM_hr2.qxp 14-02-2013 14:46 Page xxi

We have brought students into greater contact with descriptive organic and inorganic chemistry by integrating examples through-out the text. You will find pertinent and relevant examples of “real” chemistry woven into all the chapters to illustrate principles and ap-plications. Some chapters, of course, more directly address the “descriptive” properties of elements and their compounds, especiallyChapters 4, 7, 11, 18, and 22–24. We also incorporate descriptive organic and inorganic chemistry in the end-of-chapter exercises.

Changes in This EditionThe What’s New in This Edition on page xxvii details changes made throughout the new edition. Beyond a mere listing, however, itis worth dwelling on the general goals we set in formulating the twelfth edition. Chemistry: The Central Science, AP Edition hastraditionally been valued for its clarity of writing, its scientific accuracy and currency, its strong end-of-chapter exercises, and itsconsistency in level of coverage. In making changes, we have made sure not to compromise these characteristics, and we have alsocontinued to employ an open, clean design in the layout of the book.

The major systemic change in the new edition involves the art program. It is widely recognized that contemporary students relymore on visual learning materials than in the past, yet for the most part textbook art has not evolved greatly in response other thana greater use of molecular art. In this edition, with the help of a strong editorial development team, we have redone a large portionof the figures with the aim of increasing their power as teaching tools. What can we do to encourage students to study a figure, andhow can we help them learn from it? The first step has been to incorporate elements that direct attention to the figure’s major fea-tures. The flow from one important aspect to the next, particularly involving processes occurring over time, has been emphasizedthrough new layouts and through the use of both visual and textual cues, as in Figures 2.15, 4.3, 4.9, and 14.17. Our aim is to drawthe student into a more careful and thoughtful viewing through extensive use of explanatory labels and other devices. A new featurecalled Go Figure, analogous to the Give It Some Thought exercises we pioneered in the tenth edition, directs attention to the art andprovides an opportunity for students to judge whether they have really absorbed the content of the figure. We have also found newand more effective ways to show trends and relationships in figures involving presentations of data, as in Figures 7.6, 8.8, and 8.15.

We have continued to use the What’s Ahead overview at the opening of each chapter, introduced in the ninth edition. Conceptlinks (•) continue to provide easy-to-see cross-references to pertinent material covered earlier in the text. The essays titledStrategies in Chemistry, which provide advice to students on problem solving and “thinking like a chemist,” continue to be an im-portant feature. The Give It Some Thought exercises that we introduced in the tenth edition have proved to be very popular, and wehave continued to refine their use. These informal, sharply focused questions give students opportunities to test whether they are“getting it” as they read along.

We have continued to emphasize conceptual exercises in the end-of-chapter exercise materials. The Visualizing Concepts exer-cise category has been continued in this edition. These exercises are designed to facilitate concept understanding through use of mod-els, graphs, and other visual materials. They precede the regular end-of-chapter exercises and are identified in each case with therelevant chapter section number. The Integrative Exercises, which give students the opportunity to solve problems that integrate con-cepts from the present chapter with those of previous chapters, have been continued. The importance of integrative problem solvingis highlighted by the Sample Integrative Exercise that ends each chapter beginning with Chapter 4. In general, we have included moreconceptual end-of-chapter exercises and have made sure that there is a good representation of somewhat more difficult exercises toprovide a better mix in terms of topic and level of difficulty. The results from student use of MasteringChemistry have enabled us tomore reliably evaluate the effectiveness of our end-of-chapter exercises and make changes accordingly.

New essays in our well-received Chemistry Put to Work and Chemistry and Life series emphasize world events, scientific dis-coveries, and medical breakthroughs that have occurred since publication of the eleventh edition. We maintain our focus on the pos-itive aspects of chemistry without neglecting the problems that can arise in an increasingly technological world. Our goal is to helpstudents appreciate the real-world perspective of chemistry and the ways in which chemistry affects their lives.

TO THE STUDENT

Chemistry: The Central Science, AP Edition has been written to introduce you to modern chemistry. As authors, we have, in effect,been engaged by your teacher to help you learn chemistry. Based on the comments of students and teachers who have used this bookin its previous editions, we believe that we have done that job well. Of course, we expect the text to continue to evolve through futureeditions. We invite you to write to tell us what you like about the book so that we will know where we have helped you most. Also, wewould like to learn of any shortcomings so that we might further improve the book in subsequent editions. Our addresses are given atthe end of the Preface.

Advice for Learning and Studying ChemistryLearning chemistry requires both the assimilation of many concepts and the development of analytical skills. In this text we haveprovided you with numerous tools to help you succeed in both tasks. If you are going to succeed in your chemistry course, you willhave to develop good study habits. Science courses, and chemistry in particular, make different demands on your learning skills thando other types of courses. We offer the following tips for success in your study of chemistry:

xxii PREFACE

A01_BLB5081_12_SE_FM_hr2.qxp 14-02-2013 14:46 Page xxii

PREFACE xxiii

Don’t fall behind! As the course moves along, new topics will build on material already presented. If you don’t keep up in yourreading and problem solving, you will find it much harder to follow the discussions on current topics. Experienced teachers knowthat students who read the relevant sections of the text before coming to a class learn more from the class and retain greater recall.“Cramming” just before an exam has been shown to be an ineffective way to study any subject, chemistry included. So now youknow. How important to you in this competitive world is a good grade in chemistry?

Focus your study. The amount of information you will be expected to learn can sometimes seem overwhelming. It is essential torecognize those concepts and skills that are particularly important. Pay attention to what your teacher is emphasizing. As you workthrough the Sample Exercises and homework assignments, try to see what general principles and skills they employ. Use theWhat’s Ahead feature at the beginning of each chapter to help orient yourself to what is important in each chapter. A singlereading of a chapter will simply not be enough for successful learning of chapter concepts and problem-solving skills. You willneed to go over assigned materials more than once. Don’t skip the Give It Some Thought and Go Figure features, SampleExercises, and Practice Exercises. They are your guides to whether you are learning the material. The Key Skills and KeyEquations at the end of the chapter should help you focus your study.

Keep good notes. Your notes will provide you with a clear and concise record of what your teacher regards as the most importantmaterial to learn. Using your notes in conjunction with this text is the best way to determine which material to study.

Skim topics in the text before they are covered in class. Reviewing a topic before class will make it easier for you to take goodnotes. First read the What’s Ahead points and the end-of-chapter Summary; then quickly read through the chapter, skippingSample Exercises and supplemental sections. Paying attention to the titles of sections and subsections gives you a feeling for thescope of topics. Try to avoid thinking that you must learn and understand everything right away.

After class, carefully read the topics covered in class. As you read, pay attention to the concepts presented and to the applicationof these concepts in the Sample Exercises. Once you think you understand a Sample Exercise, test your understanding by workingthe accompanying Practice Exercise.

Learn the language of chemistry. As you study chemistry, you will encounter many new words. It is important to pay attention tothese words and to know their meanings or the entities to which they refer. Knowing how to identify chemical substances from theirnames is an important skill; it can help you avoid painful mistakes on tests. For example, “chlorine” and “chloride” refer to verydifferent things.

Attempt the assigned end-of-chapter exercises. Working the exercises selected by your teacher provides necessary practice inrecalling and using the essential ideas of the chapter. You cannot learn merely by observing; you must be a participant. Inparticular, try to resist checking the Student Solutions Manual (if you have one) until you have made a sincere effort to solve theexercise yourself. If you get stuck on an exercise, however, get help from your teacher or another student. Spending more than 20minutes on a single exercise is rarely effective unless you know that it is particularly challenging.

Use online resources. Some things are more easily learned by discovery, and others are best shown in three dimensions. If yourteacher has included MasteringChemistry with your book, take advantage of the unique tools it provides to get the most out ofyour time in chemistry.

The bottom line is to work hard, study effectively, and use the tools available to you, including this textbook. We want to help youlearn more about the world of chemistry and why chemistry is the central science. If you really learn chemistry, you can be the lifeof the party, impress your friends and parents, and . . . well, also pass the course with a good grade.

TIPS FOR AP CHEMISTRY EXAM SUCCESS

Ed Waterman, Rocky Mountain High School

The Content and Nature of the AP Exam in ChemistryThe Advanced Placement Examination in Chemistry is a comprehensive evaluation of knowledge of all areas of general chemistry atthe first year college level. It consists of two equally weighted 90 minute sessions. Section I contains 60 multiple-choice questionsworth 50% of the total score. Three multipart and four single-part free-response questions, counting for another 50%, compose Sec-tion II. Use of calculators is allowed only on the free-response section. A periodic table and a list of pertinent formulas and equationsis available for the entire exam.

Pearson Education also publishes Pearson Education Test Prep Workbook for AP Chemistry, a companion workbook to accompa-ny Chemistry: The Central Science, AP Edition. Thoroughly revised and redesigned, the 2014 Test Prep Workbook for AP Chemistrycorrelates to the new AP Chemistry Curriculum Framework (CF) which launches in the 2013-2014 school year. The test prep

A01_BLB5081_12_SE_FM_hr2.qxp 14-02-2013 14:46 Page xxiii

workbook contains concise content summaries of chapters that are relevant to the AP Chemistry Exam, test taking tips, hundreds ofmultiple choice and free response practice questions, two complete practice exams with scoring guidelines, answers and detailed ex-planations of all questions. It also presents a review of spectroscopy, including mass spectrometry, photoelectron spectroscopy andUV-visible spectrophotometry. To order your own copy of the test prep workbook please visit Pearsonschool.com/Advanced or call 1-800-848-9500.

For more information and published examples of recent exams, please refer to the College Board’s Advanced Placement websiteat http://apcentral.collegeboard.com/.

Big Ideas and Learning ObjectivesThe AP Chemistry Curriculum Framework outlines the content of the course around six Big Ideas and 117 learning objectives. Thefollowing outline identifies the important AP Chemistry curriculum topics found in each chapter and section of this text organizedby the six Big Ideas. The tables that follow correlate the 117 curriculum learning objectives to the pertinent chapters and sections ofChemistry the Central Science.

Besides mastering content, students should be able to visualize and interpret atomic and molecular models, analyze data forpatterns and relationships, predict atomic and molecular properties, justify their trends and select and perform chemical calcula-tions for a variety of chemical systems.

AP Chemistry Curriculum Topics Correlated to Chemistry: The Central Science Table of ContentsBIG IDEA 1. All matter is composed of atoms. The content for Big Idea 1 is found primarily in Chapters 1, 2, 3, 6 and 7 of Chem-istry the Central Science.

1. Introduction: Matter and Measurement1.2 Classification of matter. Gas, liquid, solid, pure substance, elements, symbols, compounds, mixtures.

1.3 Properties of Matter. Physical properties, chemical properties, physical change, chemical change, separation of mixtures, filtra-tion, distillation, chromatography.

2. Atoms, Molecules and Ions2.1 The Atomic Theory of Matter. Atoms, law of constant composition, law of conservation of mass, law of multiple proportions,Dalton’s atomic theory.

2.3 The Modern View of Atomic Structure. Nucleus, electrons, structure of the atom, atomic mass unit, electrical charges of sub-atomic particles, atomic number, mass number, isotopes, Coulomb’s law, mass spectrometry.

2.6 Molecules and Molecular Compounds. Molecules, chemical formulas, molecular formulas, empirical formulas, structuralformulas.

2.7 Ions and Ionic Compounds. Ion, cation, anion, polyatomic ions, ionic charges, ionic compounds.

3. Stoichiometry: Calculations with Chemical Formulas and Equations3.3 Formula weights. Molar mass, percentage composition.

3.4 Avogadro’s Number and the Mole. Moles, Avogadro’s number, molar mass, interconverting mass, moles and number ofparticles.

3.5 Empirical Formulas from Analysis. Calculation of empirical and molecular formulas, combustion analysis.

6. Electronic Structure of Atoms6.2 Quantized Energy and Photons. Quantum, photoelectric effect.

6.5 Quantum Mechanics and Atomic Orbitals. Quantum mechanical model, orbitals, electron shell, subshell.

6.6 Representations of Orbitals. Shell model, orbitals designated s, p, d and f, relative energies, relative distance from the nucleus,probability distributions, electron density.

6.8 Electron Configurations. Electron configuration, orbital diagram, core electrons, valence electrons.

6.9 Electron Configurations and the Periodic Table. Representative elements, transition elements, f-block elements.

7. Periodic Properties of the Elements7.2 Effective nuclear charge. Effective nuclear charge, screening effect, valence electrons, inner core electrons, trends in effective nu-clear charge.

xxiv PREFACE

A01_BLB5081_12_SE_FM_hr2.qxp 14-02-2013 14:46 Page xxiv

PREFACE xxv

7.3 Sizes of Ions. Atomic radius, ionic radius, trends in atomic and ionic radii, isoelectronic series.

7.4 Ionization energy. First ionization energy, successive ionization energies, trends in ionization energies, shells, subshells andtrends, electron configurations of ions.

7.6 Metals, Nonmetals and Metalloids. Metals, metallic character, metallic properties, nonmetals, nonmetal properties, metalloids,group trends.

BIG IDEA 2. Bonding, intermolecular forces and the structures of atoms, ions and molecules explain the physical and chemical prop-erties of matter. The content for Big Idea 2 is found primarily in Chapters 8, 9, 10, 11, 12 and 13 of Chemistry the Central Science.

Chapter 8. Basic Concepts of Chemical Bonding8.1 Lewis Symbols and the Octet Rule. Lewis electron-dot symbols, octet rule.

8.2 Ionic Bonding. Electron transfer, lattice energy, Coulomb’s law, s- and p-block electron configurations, transition metal ions

8.3 Covalent Bonding. Lewis structures, multiple bonds.

8.4 Bond Polarity and Electronegativity. Bond polarity, polar and nonpolar bonds, electron density, polar molecules, dipoles, dif-ferentiating covalent and ionic bonding.

8.5 Drawing Lewis Structures. Determining Lewis structures, formal charge.

8.6 Resonance Structures. Resonance structures, delocalized electrons, depiction of resonance structures.

8.7 Exceptions to the Octet Rule. Odd electrons, six electrons, expanded octets.

8.8 Strengths of Covalent Bonds. Bond enthalpy, bond breaking, bond forming, calculations using bond enthalpies, bond lengths.

9. Molecular Geometry and Bonding Theory9.1 Molecular Shapes. Linear, bent, trigonal planar, tetrahedral, trigonal pyramidal, bond angles.

9.2 The VSEPR Model. Valence shell electron pair repulsion, bonding pair, electron domain, nonbonding pair, molecular geometry,electron domain geometry, expanded valence shells, T-shaped, trigonal bipyramidal, see-saw, octahedral.

9.3 Molecular Shape and Polarity. Bond dipole, polar molecules, electron densities in molecules.

9.5 Hybrid Orbitals. sp, sp2 and sp3 hybridization, orbital overlap, multiple bonds, � and � bonds, delocalized electrons.

10. Gases10.2 Pressure. Standard atmospheric pressure, atmospheres, torr.

10.3 The Gas Laws. Boyle’s law (pressure-volume), Charles law (temperature-volume), Boyles law and Charles law plots, absolutezero, Avogadro’s law.

10.4 The Ideal-Gas Equation. Ideal gas, ideal-gas constant, calculations using ideal gas law.

10.5 Further Applications of the Ideal-Gas Equation. Calculations of gas density, molar mass and volumes in chemical reactions.

10.6 Gas Mixtures and Partial Pressures. Partial pressure, Dalton’s law, water vapor pressure.

10.7 The Kinetic-Molecular Theory of Gases. Summary of KMT, molecular collisions, molecular origin of gas properties, molecu-lar speed distributions (Maxwell-Boltzmann), temperature as average kinetic energy.

10.9 Real Gases: Deviations From Ideal Behavior. Real vs. ideal gases, effect of intermolecular forces, structure of particles.

11. Liquids and Intermolecular Forces11.1 A Molecular Comparison of Gases, Liquids and Solids. Properties of the states of matter, particle explanations.

11.2 Intermolecular Forces. Dispersion forces, polarizability, dipole-dipole forces, hydrogen bonding, ion-dipole forces, relativestrengths of forces, explanation of molecular properties, solution formation.

11.3 Select Properties of Liquids. Viscosity, surface tension, capillary action.

11.4 Phase Changes. Energetics of phase changes, heat of fusion, heat of vaporization, heat of sublimation, heating curves, criticaltemperature and pressure.

11.5 Vapor Pressure. Dynamic equilibrium, vapor pressure, volatility, distributions of kinetic energy, boiling point, vapor pressureplots.

12. Solids and Modern Materials12.1 Classification of Solids. Metallic, ionic, covalent-network and molecular solids, atomic and molecular explanations, polymers.

12.2 Structures of Solids. Crystals, crystalline solids, amorphous solids.

A01_BLB5081_12_SE_FM_hr2.qxp 14-02-2013 14:46 Page xxv

12.3 Metallic Solids. Metallic solids, alloys, substitutional and interstitial alloys.

12.4 Metallic Bonding. Electron-sea model, delocalized electrons, thermal and electrical conductivity, malleability and ductility.

12.5 Ionic Solids. Ionic crystals, ionic interactions, atomic explanation of properties, brittleness, melting points, boiling points.

12.6 Molecular Solids. Molecules, intermolecular forces, structural explanation of properties.

12.7 Covalent-network solids. Diamond, graphite, semiconductors, doping, p-type, n-type, atomic explanations of properties.

13. Properties of Solutions13.1 The Solution Process. Energetics of solution formation, spontaneous processes, entropy, effect of intermolecular forces, solva-tion, hydration, particle depictions.

13.2 Saturated Solutions and Solubility. Crystallization, solubility, saturated, unsaturated, supersaturated.

13.3 Factors Affecting Solubility. Miscible, immiscible, solute-solvent interactions, molecular structure, energetics, like dissolveslike, pressure effects, temperature effects.

13.4 Expressing Solution Concentration. Molarity, particle views, calculations involving molarity.

13.6 Colloids. Energetics of colloidal dispersions, Tyndall effect, hydrophilic, hydrophobic, examples of colloids.

BIG IDEA 3. Chemical reactions involve the rearrangement of atoms and describe how matter changes. The content for Big Idea 3 isfound primarily in Chapters 3, 4, 16 and 20 of Chemistry the Central Science.

Chapter 3. Stoichiometry: Calculations with Chemical Formulas and Equations 3.1 Chemical Equations. Chemical equations, reactants, products, balancing equations, coefficients.

3.2. Some Simple Patterns of Chemical Reactivity. Combination (synthesis), decomposition, combustion.

3.6. Quantitative Information from Balanced Equations. Stoichiometry, using equations to interconvert mass, moles and numberof particles.

3.7 Limiting reactants. Limiting reatcatnt, theoretical yield, actual yield, percentage theoretical yield.

Chapter 4. Reactions in Aqueous Solution4.1 General Properties of Aqueous Solutions. Molecules in water, non-electrolytes, ions in solution, strong electrolytes, weak elec-trolytes, chemical equilibrium.

4.2 Precipitation Reactions. Precipitate, solubility, solubility guidelines, molecular (complete) equations, ionic equations, net ionicequations, spectator ions, writing net ionic equations.

4.3 Acids, Bases, and Neutralization Reactions. Acids, proton donors, monoprotoc acids, diprotic acids, bases, proton acceptors,hydroxides, strong and weak acids and bases, strong acids and bases as strong electrolytes, neutralization reactions, salts.

4.4 Oxidation-Reduction reactions. Oxidation, reduction, redox reactions, oxidation numbers, determining oxidation numbers,displacement reactions, activity series.

4.5 Concentrations of Solutions. Molarity, calculating molarity, interconverting molarity, moles and solution volume, dilution,preparing solution concentrations.

4.6 Solution Stoichiometry andChemical Analysis. Titration, standard solution, equivalence point, titration calculations, mass re-lations in a neutralization reaction.

Chapter 5. Thermochemistry5.2 The First Law of Thermodynamics. Energy diagrams, exothermic and endothermic reactions, temperature change, energyfrom foods and fuels.

BIG IDEA 4. Molecular collisions determine the rates of chemical reactions. The content for Big Idea 4 is found primarily in Chap-ter 14 of Chemistry the Central Science.

14. Chemical Kinetics

14.1 Factors that Affect Reaction Rates. Effects of temperature, physical state, concentration and catalysts.

14.2 Reaction Rates. Reaction rate as change in concentration per time, graphical representations of rate, rate and stoichiometry.

14.3 Concentration and Rate Laws. Initial rate, spectroscopic measurement of rates, rate law, rate constant, reaction order, rateconstant units, method of initial rate.

xxvi PREFACE

A01_BLB5081_12_SE_FM_hr2.qxp 14-02-2013 14:46 Page xxvi

PREFACE xxvii

14.4 The Change of Concentration with Time. Integrated rate law, zeroth, first and second order reactions, graphical representa-tions, half-life, radioactive decay.

14.5 Temperature and Rate. The collision model, orientation factor, activation energy, activated complex, transition state, energyprofile and reaction rate, graphical representations, Arrhenius equation (qualitative).

14.6 Reaction Mechanisms. Mechanisms, elementary reaction, unimolecular, bimolecular and termolecular reactions, overallequation from elementary steps, intermediate, rate-determining step, mechanism and rate-determining step.

14.7 Catalysis. Catalyst, homogeneous and heterogeneous catalysis, effect of catalyst on energy profile, surface catalyst, acid-basecatalysts, enzymes, active site, substrate, lock-and-key model.

5. Thermochemistry5.1 The Nature of Energy. Energy, work, kinetic energy, potential energy, Coulomb’s law, electrostatic potential energy, measure-ment of energy, joules, calories, system, surroundings, force, work and heat.

5.2 The First Law of Thermodynamics. Internal energy (�E), relating �E to work and heat, exothermic, endothermic.

5.3 Enthalpy. Enthalpy, pressure-volume work (P�V).

5.4 Enthalpies of Reaction. Enthalpy of reaction (�H), thermochemical equation, enthalpy diagram, signs of ΔH, relating heats tostoichiometry.

5.5 Calorimetry. Constant pressure calorimetry, calorimeter, heat capacity, molar heat capacity, specific heat capacity, calculatingheats.

5.6 Hess’s Law. Heats added and subtracted like chemical equations.

5.7 Enthalpies of Formation. Standard enthalpy of formation (�Hf), formation reaction, using �Hf to calculate enthalpies of reac-tion, enthalpy diagrams.

5.8 Foods and Fuels. Combustion of natural gas, fossil fuels, petroleum, coal, sugars and fats, renewable energy sources.

19. Chemical Thermodynamics19.1 Spontaneous Processes. Spontaneous process, direction and extent of a reaction, reversible and irreversible processes.

19.2 Entropy and the Second Law ofThermodynamics. Entropy (S), randomness, change in entropy (�S), �S for phase changes,second law of thermodynamics.

19.3 Molecular Interpretation of Entropy. Translational, vibrational and rotational energy, entropy and phase, third law of ther-modynamics.

19.4 Entropy Change in Chemical Reactions. Standard molar entropies, entropy and temperature, molecular complexity.

19.5 Gibbs Free Energy. Free energy (�G), free energy and equilibrium, �G = �H - T�S, standard free energy of formation.

19.6 Free Energy and Temperature. Temperature and spontaneous processes, phase changes.

19.7 Free Energy and the Equilibrium Constant. Standard and nonstandard conditions, relationship between �G and K.

BIG IDEA 6. Equilibrium represents a balance between enthalpy and entropy for reversible physical and chemical changes. The con-tent for Big Idea 6 is found primarily in Chapters 15, 16, and 17 of Chemistry the Central Science.

Chapter 15. Chemical Equilibrium15.1 The Concept of Equilibrium. Rates of forward and reverse reactions, equilibrium mixtures.

15.2 The Equilibrium Constant. Law of mass action, equilibrium constant expression, equilibrium constant (K), Kc and Kp.

15.3 Understanding and Working with Equilibrium Constants. Magnitudes of K, chemical equations and K, stoichiometry and K,calculating K.

15.4 Heterogeneous Equilibria. Homogeneous and heterogeneous equilibria and K.

15.5 Calculating Equilibrium Constants. K from concentrations, K from initial conditions, ICE tables.

15.6 Applications of Equilibrium Constants. Reaction quotient (Q), predicting direction, calculating concentrations.

15.7 LeChâtelier’s Principle. LeChâtelier’s principle, changes in concentration, volume, pressure or temperature, catalysts, opti-mizing a product.

Chapter 16. Acid-Base Equilibria16.2 Brønsted-Lowry Acids and Bases. Hydronium ion, proton transfer reactions, Brønsted-Lowry acids, Brønsted-Lowry bases,conjugate acid-base pairs, proton acceptor, proton donor, relative acid and base strengths.

A01_BLB5081_12_SE_FM_hr2.qxp 14-02-2013 14:46 Page xxvii

16.3 The Autoionization of Water. Ion-product constant (Kw), effect of temperature.

16.4 The pH Scale. pH, pOH, measuring pH, indicators.

16.5 Strong Acids and Bases. Complete ionization, calculating pH.

16.6 Weak Acids. Incomplete ionization, acid-dissociation constant (Ka), calculating concentration, Ka and pH, percent ionization,polyprotic acids.

16.7 Weak Bases. Base-dissociation constant (Kb), amines as weak bases, calculating pH and pOH.

16.8 Relationship Between Ka and Kb. KaKb = Kw, K’s of conjugate acid-base pairs.

16.9 Acid-Base Properties of Salt Solutions. Hydrolysis, anions as bases, cations as acids.

16.10 Acid-Base Behavior and Chemical Structure. Factors that affect acid strength, oxidation number, electronegativity, oxyacids,carboxylic acids.

17. Additional Aspects of Aqueous Equilibria17.1 The Common-Ion Effect. Common ions and equilibrium.

17.2 Buffered Solutions. Buffers, buffer composition, buffer action, buffer pH, buffer capacity, buffer calculations.

17.3 Acid-base Titrations. Titration curve, pH of equivalence point, weak acid-strong base titrations, pKa of weak acid from titra-tion data, polyprotic acid titrations, indicators.

17.4 Solubility Equilibria. Solubility product constant (Ksp), solubility, calculating solubilities.

17.5 Factors that Affect Solubility. Common ions, pH.

xxviii PREFACE

BIG IDEA 1. All matter is composed of atoms.

Learning Objective Science Chapter/Practice Section

1.1 Use atomic molecular theory to explain that the element mass ratio in any pure compound is always identical. 6.1 1.2

1.2 Use mass data to quantitatively identify or infer the compositions of pure substances and mixtures. 2.2 2.1, 2.4

1.3 Use calculations of mass data to determine the identity or purity of a substance. 2.2, 6.1 1.6

1.4 Interconvert the number of particles,moles, mass, and volume of substances,both qualitatively and quantitatively. 7.1 3.4

1.5 Use data to explain electron distributions in atoms or ions. 1.5, 6.2 6.8, 6.9

1.6 Analyze data of electron energies for 6.8 patterns and relationships. 5.1 TPWB

1.7 Explain how energies of electrons vary within atomic shells using data from photoelectron spectroscopy, ionization 6.8energy data, and Coulomb’s law. 5.1, 6.2 TPWB

1.8 Analyze measured energies and explain electron configurations using Coulomb’s 6.8law. 6.2 TPWB

1.9 Explain trends in atomic properties using the shell model or location on the 7.2, 7.3,periodic table. 6.4 7.4

1.10 Use experimental evidence to explain the

arrangement of the periodic table and

apply periodic properties to chemical

reactivity. 6.1 7.6, 7.7

1.11 Analyze and identify patterns in data of 8.2, 8.4

binary compounds to predict properties T8.1, T8.2,

of related compounds. 3.1, 5.1 T8.3

1.12 Explain how data sets support either the

classical shell atomic model or the 6.2, 6.3,

quantum mechanical model. 6.3 6.4, 6.5, 6.6

1.13 Determine if an atomic model is 2.1, 2.2,

consistent with a given set of data. 5.3 2.3, 6.3,

1.14 Use mass spectral data to identify

elements and isotopes. 1.4, 1.5 2.4

1.15 Explain why various types of spectroscopy

are used to measure vibrational and

electronic motions of molecules. 4.1

1.16 Design and interpret an experiment that

uses spectrophotometry to determine

the concentration of a substance in a 14.3,

solution. 4.2, 5.1 4.5 TPWB

1.17 Use both symbols and particle drawings

to quantitatively and qualitatively express

the law of conservation of mass. 1.5 3.1

1.18 Apply conservation of atoms to particle

views of balanced chemical reactions

and physical changes. 1.4 3.1, 3.2

CORRELATION GUIDE FOR AP

AP Chemistry Topics correlated to Chemistry: The Central Science, Twelfth Edition, AP Edition

A01_BLB5081_12_SE_FM_hr2.qxp 14-02-2013 14:46 Page xxviii

PREFACE xxix

1.19 Design or interpret data from a gravimetric analysis experiment to determine the concentration of a substance in solution. 4.2, 5.1 3.6, 3.7

1.20 Design or interpret data from a titration experiment to determine the concentration of a substance in solution. 4.2, 5.1 4.5, 4.6

BIG IDEA 2. Bonding, intermolecular forces and the structuresof atoms, ions and molecules explain the physical and chemicalproperties of matter.


2.1 Predict and explain properties based on 8.2, 8.3,chemical formulas and particle views. 6.4, 7.1 8.4

2.2 Explain the strengths of acids and bases using molecular structure, intermolecular 16.2, 16.6,forces, and solution equilibrium. 7.2 16.9, 16.10

2.3 Use particulate models to explain 11.1 to differences between solids and liquids. 6.4, 7.1 11.7

2.4 Use KMT and intermolecular forces to 10.1, 10.2,predict the macroscopic properties of real 10.3, 10.7,and ideal gases. 1.4, 6.4 10.9

2.5 Use particle representations to explain the effect of changes in the macroscopic 1.3, 6.4,properties of gases. 7.2 10.3, 10.4

2.6 Calculate temperature, pressure, volume 10.3, 10.4,and moles for an ideal gas. 2.2, 2.3 10.5, 10.6

2.7 Use intermolecular forces to explain how 13.3 solutes separate by chromatography. 6.2 TPWB

2.8 Draw and interpret particle representations of solutions showing interactions 1.1, 1.2, 13.1, 13.2,between the solute and solvent particles. 6.4 13.3

2.9 Create particle views of solutions to 13.4, 13.5interpret molar concentration. 1.1, 1.4 VC 4.1–4.5

2.10 Design an experiment to separate substances using filtration, paper chromatography,column chromatography, or distillation and explain how substances separate using 13.3 intermolecular interactions. 4.2, 5.1 TPWB

2.11 Use London dispersion forces to predict properties and explain trends for nonpolar substances. 6.2, 6.4 11.2

2.12 Analyze data for real gases to identify deviations from ideal behavior and explain using molecular interactions. 5.1, 6.5 10.9

2.13 Explain how the structural features of polar molecules affect the forces of attraction between them. 1.4, 6.4 11.2, 13.3

2.14 Using particle views, qualitatively apply Coulomb’s law to explain how the solubility of ionic compounds is affected by interactions of ions, and attractions 13.3 + VC between ions and solvents. 1.4, 6.4 13.1–13.12

2.15 Explain the solubility of ionic solids and molecules in water and other solvents using particle views to show intermolecular forces and entropy. 1.4, 6.2 13.2, 13.3

2.16 Use the strengths and types of intermolecular forces to explain the properties of molecules such as phase, vapor pressure, viscosity,melting point and boiling point. 6.2 11.3

2.17 Predict the type of bonding in a binary compound based on electronegativity of the elements and position on the periodic table. 6.4 8.3, 8.4

2.18 Use location of atoms on the periodic table to rank and explain bond polarity. 6.1 8.4

2.19 Use particle views of ionic compounds to explain the effect of microscopic structure on macroscopic properties such as boiling point, solubility, hardness, brittleness, low volatility, and lack of malleability, 1.1, 1.4,ductility, and conductivity. 7.1 12.5

2.20 Explain how delocalized electrons affect the macroscopic properties of metals such as conductivity, malleability, ductility, and low volatility. 6.2, 7.1 12.3, 12.4

2.21 Use Lewis diagrams and VSEPR to predict geometry, hybridization, and polarity of 9.2, 9.3,molecules. 1.4 9.4, 9.5

2.22 Design and evaluate an experimental plan to collect and interpret data to deduce the 12.1 types of bonding in solids. 4.2 TPWB

2.23 Create a visual representation of an ionic solid showing its structure and particle interactions. 1.1 12.5

2.24 Use a visual representation of an ionic solid to explain its structure and particle interactions. 1.1, 6.2, 7.1 12.5

2.25 Compare properties of alloys and metals,identify alloy types and explain properties on the atomic level. 1.4, 7.2 12.3

2.26 Use the electron sea model to explain the macroscopic properties of metals and 6.4alloys. 7.1 12.3, 12.4

2.27 Create a visual representation of a metallic solid showing its structure and particle interactions. 1.1 12.3, 12.4

2.28 Use a visual representation of a metallic solid to explain its structure and particle 1.1, 1.2,interactions. 6.4 12.3, 12.4

2.29 Create a visual representation of a covalent solid showing its structure and particle interactions. 1.1 12.7

2.30 Use a visual representation of a covalent solid to explain its structure and particle 1.1, 1.2,interactions. 6.4 12.7

2.31 Create a visual representation of a molecular solid showing its structure and particle interactions. 1.1 12.6, 12.8

2.32 Use a visual representation of a molecular solid to explain its structure and particle 1.1, 1.2,interactions. 6.4 12.6, 12.8

A01_BLB5081_12_SE_FM_hr2.qxp 14-02-2013 14:46 Page xxix

BIG IDEA 3. Chemical reactions involve the rearrangement ofatoms and describe how matter changes.


3.1 Interpret macroscopic observations ofchange using symbols, chemical equations,and particle views. 1.5, 7.1 4.1, 4.2, 4.3

3.2 Interpret an observed chemical change using a balanced molecular (complete),ionic or net ionic equation and justify why 3.2, 4.1,each is used in a given situation. 1.5, 7.1 4.2, 4.3

3.3 Use stoichiometry calculations to model laboratory chemical reactions and analyze deviations from the expected results. 2.2, 5.1 3.6, 3.7, 4.6

3.4 Apply stoichiometry calculations to convert measured quantities such as mass, volumes of solutions, or volumes and pressures ofgases to other quantities in chemical reactions, including reactions with 2.2, 5.1,limiting reactants or unreacted products. 6.4 3.6, 3.7, 4.6

3.5 Design an experiment or analyze data from an experiment involving the synthesis or decomposition of a compound to confirm the conservation of mass and the law ofdefinite proportions. 2.1, 2.4 3.5

3.6 Use data from synthesis or decomposition ofa compound to confirm the conservation ofmass and the law of definite proportions. 2.2, 6.1 3.5

3.7 Use proton-transfer reactions to identify compounds as Brønsted-Lowry acids and bases and conjugate acid-base pairs. 6.1 16.1, 16.2

3.8 Use electron transfer to identify redox reactions. 6.1 3.2, 4.4

3.9 Design or interpret the results of a redox 4.4, 4.6,titration experiment. 4.2, 5.1 4.5 TPWB

3.10 Classify a process as a physical change, a chemical change, or an ambiguous change using macroscopic observations and the formation or breaking of chemical bonds 1.3, 4.2,or intermolecular forces. 1.4, 6.1 4.3, 4.4

3.11 Create symbolic and graphical representations to describe an observed change in energy associated with a chemical or physical change. 1.5, 4.4 5.2, 5.3, 5.4

3.12 Use half-cell reactions, potentials and Faraday’s laws to make quantitative predictions about voltaic (galvanic) or 2.2, 2.3,electrolytic reactions. 6.4 20.3, 20.9

3.13 Analyze voltaic (galvanic) or electrolytic cell data to identify properties of redox reactions. 5.1 20.3, 20.9

BIG IDEA 4. Molecular collisions determine the rates of chem-ical reactions.


4.1 Design and interpret an experiment to determine the factors that affect reaction rate such as temperature, concentration, 14.1and surface area. 4.2, 5.1 TPWB 14.1

4.2 Analyze concentration vs. time data to determine the rate law for a zeroth-, first-,and second-order reaction. 5.1 14.3, 14.4

4.3 Determine half-life from the rate constant of a first-order reaction. 2.1, 2.2 14.4

4.4 Relate the rate law, order and rate constant for an elementary reaction to the frequency and success of molecular collisions. 7.1 14.5, 14.6

4.5 Explain effective and ineffective reactant collisions using energy distributions 14.5,and molecular orientation. 6.2 TPWB 14.5

4.6 Make qualitative predictions about the temperature dependence of reaction rate using an energy profile for an elementary reaction including reactants, transition state and products. 1.4, 6.4 14.5

4.7 Evaluate alternative reaction mechanisms that correspond to rate data and infer the presence or absence of an intermediate. 6.5 14.6

4.8 Use various representations including energy profiles, particle views and chemical equations to describe chemical reactions that occur with and without catalysts. 1.5 14.7

4.9 Explain rate changes due to acid-base,surface, and enzyme catalysts, and select appropriate mechanisms with or without catalysts. 6.2, 7.2 14.7

BIG IDEA 5. Thermodynamics describes the role energy playsin physical and chemical changes.


5.1 Create and interpret graphical representations to explain how and why potential energy varies with distance between atoms such as in bond order,strength and length in covalent bonds and in the magnitudes of intermolecular forces between polar molecules. 1.1, 1.4, 7.2 9.7

5.2 Explain how temperature relates to molecular motion using particle views ofmoving molecules or kinetic energy distribution (Maxwell-Boltzmann) plots. 1.1, 1.4, 7.1 10.7

5.3 Use molecular collisions to explain or predict the transfer of heat between systems. 7.1 5.2

xxx PREFACE

A01_BLB5081_12_SE_FM_hr2.qxp 14-02-2013 14:46 Page xxx

5.4 Use conservation of energy to explain energy transfer between systems including the quantity of energy transferred, the direction of energy flow, and the type ofenergy (heat or work). 1.4, 2.2 5.2, 5.3

5.5 Use conservation of energy to explain the quantity of energy change that occurs when two substances of different temperatures interact. 2.2 5.5

5.6 Calculate or estimate energy changes associated with chemical reactions, heating or cooling a substance or changing its phase using quantities such as enthalpy of reaction,heat capacity and heat of fusion or vaporization, and relate energy changes to 5.2, 5.3,P�V work. 2.2, 2.3 11.4

5.7 Design and interpret a constant pressure calorimetry experiment to determine change in enthalpy of a chemical or physical process. 4.2, 5.1 5.5

5.8 Use bond energies to calculate or estimate 2.3,enthalpies of reaction. 7.1, 7.2 5.4, 8.8

5.9 Explain and predict the relative strengths and types of intermolecular forces acting between molecules using molecular electron density distributions. 6.4 11.2, 11.3

5.10 Use chemical bonds and intermolecular forces to classify and justify chemical and physical changes. 5.1 11.1, 11.2

5.11 Use the strengths of intermolecular forces,such as hydrogen bonding and London dispersions, to explain the shape and 24.7 to function of large molecules. 7.2 24.10

5.12 Use particle views and models to predict the signs and relative magnitudes of the entropy changes associated with chemical 19.2, 19.3,or physical processes. 1.4 19.4

5.13 Use the signs of both �H° and �S° and a calculation or estimation of �G°, to predict the favorability of a physical or chemical change. 2.2, 2.3, 6.4 19.5

5.14 Calculate the change in standard Gibbs free energy to determine the favorability of a chemical or physical change. 2.2 19.5

5.15 Explain how nonspontaneous processes,such as those in living systems, can be made favorable by coupling them with 19.5 & spontaneous reactions. 6.2 p808, p814

5.16 Use LeChâtelier’s principle to predict outcomes for systems in which coupled reactions share a common intermediate. 6.4 15.7

5.17 Use the equilibrium constant for combined reactions to make predictions for systems involving coupled reactions sharing a common intermediate. 6.4 19.7

5.18 Explain how initial conditions can greatly affect product formation for unfavorable reactions using thermodynamic and kinetic arguments. 1.3, 7.2 19.7

BIG IDEA 6. Equilibrium represents a balance between en-thalpy and entropy for physical and chemical changes.


6.1 Use a given a set of experimental observations to explain the reversibility of a chemical, biological or environmental process. 6.2 15.1

6.2 Predict the effects of changing conditions 15.2, 15.3,on Q or K of a chemical system. 2.2 15.4

6.3 Predict the relative rates of the forward and reverse reactions using LeChâtelier’s principle and principles of kinetics. 7.2 15.2, 15.7

6.4 Given initial conditions, use Q and K to predict the direction a reaction will proceed toward equilibrium. 2.2, 6.4 15.6

6.5 Calculate the equilibrium constant, K, given the appropriate tabular or graphical data for a system at equibrium. 2.2 15.5

6.6 Given a set of initial conditions and the equilibrium constant, K, use stoichiometry and the law of mass action to determine qualitatively or quantitatively equilibrium concentrations or partial pressures. 2.2, 6.4 15.5, 15.6

6.7 Given an equilibrium system with a large or small K, determine which chemical species will have relatively large and small concentrations. 2.2, 2.3 15.5, 15.6

6.8 Use LeChâtelier’s principle to predict the direction a reaction at equilibrium will proceed as a result of a given change. 1.4, 6.4 15.7

6.9 Design a set of conditions that will optimize a desired result using LeChatelier’s principle. 4.2 15.7

6.10 Use LeChâtelier’s principle to explain the effect a change will have on Q or K. 1.4, 7.2 15.7

6.11 Construct a particle representation of a strong or weak acid to illustrate which species will have large and small concentrations at equilibrium. 1.1, 1.4, 2.3 16.6

6.12 Contrast pH, percentage ionization,concentrations and the amount of base required to reach an equivalence point when comparing solutions of strong and 16.4, 16.5,weak acids. 1.4 16.6

6.13 Interpret titration data to determine concentration of a weak acid or base and its pKa or pKb. 5.1 17.3

PREFACE xxxi

A01_BLB5081_12_SE_FM_hr2.qxp 14-02-2013 14:46 Page xxxi

6.14 Explain why a neutral solution requires [H+] = [OH-] rather than pH = 7, using 16.3, 16.4 the dependence of Kw on temperature. 2.2, 6.2 + p713

6.15 Calculate or estimate the pH and the concentrations of all species in a mixture of strong acids and bases 2.2, 2.3, 6.4 16.5

6.16 Identify a solution as a weak acid or base,calculate its pH and the concentration ofall species in the solution, and infer its relative strength. 2.2, 6.4 16.6, 16.7

6.17 Given a mixture of weak and strong acids and bases, identify the chemical reaction and tell which species are present in large concentrations at equilibrium. 6.4 17.3

6.18 Select an appropriate conjugate acid-base pair to design a buffer solution with a target pH and estimate the concentrations needed to achieve a desired buffer 16.2, 17.1,capacity. 2.3, 4.2, 6.4 17.2

6.19 Given the pKa, predict the predominant form of a weak acid in a solution of a 2.3, 5.1,given pH. 6.4 16.9, 17.3

6.20 Identify a buffer solution and explain how it behaves upon addition of acid or base. 6.4 17.2

6.21 Predict and rank the solubilities of 2.2, 2.3,various salts, given their Ksp values. 6.4 17.4, 17.5

6.22 Interpret solubility data of various salts 2.2, 2.3,to determine or rank Ksp values. 6.4 17.4, 17.5

6.23 Use data to predict the influence of pH and common ions on the relative solubilities of salts. 5.1 17.5

6.24 Use particle representations to explain changes in enthalpy and entropy associated with the dissolution of a salt. 1.4, 7.1 17.5

6.25 Use the relationship between �G° and K (�G° = -RT lnK) to estimate the magnitude of K and the thermodynamic favorability of a process. 2.3 19.7

xxxii PREFACE

Upon publication, this text was correlated to the College Board’s AP Chemistry Curriculum Framework dated 2013-2014. We continually monitor the College Board’s APCourse Description for updates to exam topics. For the most current correlation for this textbook, visit PearsonSchool.com/AdvancedCorrelations.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTSThe production of a textbook is a team effort requiring the involvement of many people besides the authors who contributed hardwork and talent to bring this edition to life. Although their names don’t appear on the cover of the book, their creativity, time, andsupport have been instrumental in all stages of its development and production.

Each of us has benefited greatly from discussions with colleagues and from correspondence with teachers and students bothhere and abroad. Colleagues have also helped immensely by reviewing our materials, sharing their insights, and providing sugges-tions for improvements. On this edition we were particularly blessed with an exceptional group of accuracy checkers who readthrough our materials looking for both technical inaccuracies and typographical errors.

AP Preface Contributor

Ed Waterman Rocky Mountain High School

Twelfth Edition Reviewers

Rebecca Barlag Ohio University

Hafed, Bascal University of Findlay

Donald Bellew University of New Mexico

Elzbieta Cook Louisiana State University

Robert Dunn University of Kansas

Michael Hay Pennsylvania State University

Carl Hoeger University of California at San Diego

Kathryn Rowberg Purdue University at Calumet

Lewis Silverman University of Missouri at Columbia

Clyde Webster University of California at Riverside

Troy Wood University of Buffalo

Twelfth Edition Accuracy Reviewers

Rebecca Barlag Ohio University

Kelly Beefus Anoka-Ramsey Community College

Louis J. Kirschenbaum University of Rhode Island

Barbara Mowery York College

Maria Vogt Bloomfield College

A01_BLB5081_12_SE_FM_hr2.qxp 14-02-2013 14:46 Page xxxii

PREFACE xxxiii

Twelth Edition Focus Group Participants

Robert Carter University of Massachusetts at Boston Harbor

Tom Clayton Knox College

Elzbieta Cook Louisiana State University

Debra Feakes Texas State University at San Marcos

Robert Gellert Glendale Community College

John Gorden Auburn University

Thomas J. Greenbowe Iowa State University

Kingston Jesudoss Iowa State University

Daniela Kohen Carleton University

Sergiy Kryatov Tufts University

Jeff McVey Texas State University at San Marcos

Michael Seymour Hope College

Matthew Stoltzfus The Ohio State University

We would also like to express our gratitude to our many team members at Pearson Prentice Hall whose hard work, imagination, andcommitment have contributed so greatly to the final form of this edition: Nicole Folchetti, our former Editor in Chief, brought en-ergy and imagination not only to this edition but to earlier ones as well; Terry Haugen, our Chemistry Editor, for many fresh ideasand his unflagging enthusiasm, continuous encouragement, and support; Jennifer Hart, our Project Editor, who very effectivelycoordinated the scheduling and tracked the multidimensional deadlines that come with a project of this magnitude; Erin Gardner,our marketing manager, for her energy, enthusiam, and creative promotion of our text; Irene Nunes, our Development Editor,whose diligence and careful attention to detail were invaluable to this revision, especially in keeping us on task in terms of consisten-cy and student understanding; Donna Mulder, our Copy Editor, for her keen eye; Greg Gambino, our Art Developmental Editor,who managed the complex task of bringing our sketches into final form and who contributed so many great ideas to the new artprogram; Shari Toron, our Project Manager, who managed the complex responsibilities of bringing the design, photos, artwork, andwriting together with efficiency and good cheer. The Pearson Prentice Hall team is a first-class operation.

There are many others who also deserve special recognition, including the following: Eric Schrader, our photo researcher, who wasso effective in finding photos to bring chemistry to life for students, and Roxy Wilson (University of Illinois), who so ably coordinated thedifficult job of working out solutions to the end-of-chapter exercises. We thank Dr. Jannik C. Meyer of the University of Ulm, Germany,for providing us with a high resolution image of graphene used in the cover design.

Finally, we wish to thank our families and friends for their love, support, encouragement, and patience as we brought thistwelfth edition to completion.

Theodore L. BrownDepartment of ChemistryUniversity of Illinois at Urbana-ChampaignUrbana, IL [email protected] [email protected]

H. Eugene LeMay, Jr.Department of ChemistryUniversity of NevadaReno, NV [email protected]

Bruce E. BurstenCollege of Arts and SciencesUniversity of TennesseeKnoxville, TN [email protected]

Catherine J. MurphyDepartment of ChemistryUniversity of Illinois at Urbana-ChampaignUrbana, IL [email protected].

Patrick M. WoodwardDepartment of ChemistryThe Ohio State UniversityColumbus, OH [email protected]

A01_BLB5081_12_SE_FM_hr2.qxp 14-02-2013 14:46 Page xxxiii

xxxiv PREFACE

LIST OF RESOURCES

MasteringChemistry®

(www.masteringchemistry.com) MasteringChemistry is the most effective, widely used onlinetutorial, homework and assessment system for chemistry. Ithelps teachers maximize class time with customizable, easy-to-assign, and automatically graded assessments that motivatestudents to learn outside of class and arrive prepared forlecture. These assessments can easily be customized andpersonalized by teachers to suit their individual teaching style.The powerful gradebook provides unique insight into studentand class performance even before the first test. As a result,teachers can spend class time where students need it most.

Pearson eText The integration of Pearson eText withinMasteringChemistry gives students easy access to the electronictext when they are logged into MasteringChemistry. PearsoneText pages look exactly like the printed text, offering powerfulnew functionality for students and teachers. Users can createnotes, highlight text in different colors, create bookmarks,zoom, view in single-page or two-page view, and more.

Access to MasteringChemistry is provided with thepurchase of this text. Students, ask your teacher for access.Teachers, see page ( insert page number for: Extended LearningMastering Page) for access information.

For StudentsPearson Education Test Prep Workbook for AP®

Chemistry The test prep workbook contains concise contentsummaries of each chapter that are relevant to the APChemistry Exam, test taking tips, hundreds of multiple-choiceand free-response practice questions, a diagnostic exam andtwo complete practice exams with scoring guidelines, andanswers and detailed explanations of all questions andanswers. Available for purchase.

Student’s Guide This book assists students through thetext material with chapter overviews, learning objectives, areview of key terms, as well as self-tests with answers andexplanations. This edition also features MCAT practicequestions. Available for purchase.

Solutions to Red Exercises Full solutions to all the red-numbered exercises in the text are provided. (Short answers tored exercises are found in the appendix of the text.) Availablefor purchase.

Solutions to Black Exercises Full solutions to all theblack-numbered exercises in the text are provided. Available forpurchase.

Laboratory Experiments This manual contains 43 finelytuned experiments chosen to introduce students to basic labtechniques and to illustrate core chemical principles. This newedition has been revised to correlate more tightly with the textand now includes GIST questions and section references to thetext. Available for purchase.(You can also customize these labs through Catalyst, ourcustom database program. For more information, visithttp://www.pearsoncustom.com/custom-library/.)

For AP TeachersMost of the teacher supplements and resources for this text areavailable electronically to qualified adopters on the InstructorResource Center (IRC). Upon adoption or to preview, pleasego to www.PearsonSchool.com/Access_Request and select“Instructor Resource Center.” You will be required to completea brief one-time registration subject to verification of educatorstatus. Upon verification, access information and instructionswill be sent to you via email. Once logged into the IRC, enterISBN 0-13-217508-8 in the “Search our Catalog” box to locateyour resources.

Solutions to Exercises This manual contains all end-of-chapter exercises in the text.

Instructor Resource DVD This resource provides anintegrated collection of resources to help instructors makeefficient and effective use of their time. This DVD features allartwork from the text, including figures and tables in PDFformat for high-resolution printing, as well as four prebuiltPowerPoint™ presentations. The first presentation contains theimages embedded within PowerPoint slides. The secondincludes a complete lecture outline that is modifiable by theuser. The final two presentations contain worked “in-chapter”sample exercises and questions to be used with ClassroomResponse Systems. This DVD also contains movies, animations,and electronic files of the Instructor’s Resource Manual, as wellas the Test Item File.

Printed Test Bank The Test Bank now provides a selectionof more than 4000 test questions with 300 new questions in thetwelfth edition and 200 additional algorithmic questions.

Instructor’s Resource Manual Organized by chapter,this manual offers detailed lecture outlines and completedescriptions of all available lecture demonstrations, interactivemedia assets, common student misconceptions, and more.

Transparencies Approximately 275 full-colortransparencies put principles into visual perspective and saveyou time when preparing for class.

Annotated Instructor’s Edition to LaboratoryExperiments This Annotated Instructor’s Editioncombines the full student lab manual with appendicescovering the proper disposal of chemical waste, safetyinstructions for the lab, descriptions of standard labequipment, answers to questions, and more.

ExamView™ CD-ROM The ExamView computerized testbank CD-ROM includes hundreds of questions, allowingteachers to build, edit, print, and administer tests based on textobjectives. Algorithmically based, ExamView enables teachersto create multiple but equivalent versions of the same questionor test with a click of a button.

A01_BLB5081_12_SE_FM_hr2.qxp 14-02-2013 14:46 Page xxxiv

ABOUT THE AUTHORSTHEODORE L. BROWN received his Ph.D. from Michigan State University in 1956. Since then, he has been amember of the faculty of the University of Illinois, Urbana-Champaign, where he is now Professor of Chemistry, Emeri-tus. He served as Vice Chancellor for Research, and Dean of The Graduate College, from 1980 to 1986, and as FoundingDirector of the Arnold and Mabel Beckman Institute for Advanced Science and Technology from 1987 to 1993. ProfessorBrown has been an Alfred P. Sloan Foundation Research Fellow and has been awarded a Guggenheim Fellowship. In 1972he was awarded the American Chemical Society Award for Research in Inorganic Chemistry and received the AmericanChemical Society Award for Distinguished Service in the Advancement of Inorganic Chemistry in 1993. He has beenelected a Fellow of the American Association for the Advancement of Science, the American Academy of Arts andSciences, and the American Chemical Society.

H. EUGENE LEMAY, JR., received his B.S. degree in Chemistry from Pacific Lutheran University (Washington)and his Ph.D. in Chemistry in 1966 from the University of Illinois, Urbana-Champaign. He then joined the faculty of theUniversity of Nevada, Reno, where he is currently Professor of Chemistry, Emeritus. He has enjoyed Visiting Professor-ships at the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, at the University College of Wales in Great Britain, and at theUniversity of California, Los Angeles. Professor LeMay is a popular and effective teacher, who has taught thousands ofstudents during more than 40 years of university teaching. Known for the clarity of his lectures and his sense of humor,he has received several teaching awards, including the University Distinguished Teacher of the Year Award (1991) and thefirst Regents’ Teaching Award given by the State of Nevada Board of Regents (1997).

BRUCE E. BURSTEN received his Ph.D. in Chemistry from the University of Wisconsin in 1978. After two yearsas a National Science Foundation Postdoctoral Fellow at Texas A&M University, he joined the faculty of The Ohio StateUniversity, where he rose to the rank of Distinguished University Professor. In 2005, he moved to the University ofTennessee, Knoxville, as Distinguished Professor of Chemistry and Dean of the College of Arts and Sciences. ProfessorBursten has been a Camille and Henry Dreyfus Foundation Teacher-Scholar and an Alfred P. Sloan Foundation ResearchFellow, and he is a Fellow of both the American Association for the Advancement of Science and the American ChemicalSociety. At Ohio State he has received the University Distinguished Teaching Award in 1982 and 1996, the Arts andSciences Student Council Outstanding Teaching Award in 1984, and the University Distinguished Scholar Award in 1990.He received the Spiers Memorial Prize and Medal of the Royal Society of Chemistry in 2003, and the Morley Medal of theCleveland Section of the American Chemical Society in 2005. He was President of the American Chemical Society for2008. In addition to his teaching and service activities, Professor Bursten’s research program focuses on compounds ofthe transition-metal and actinide elements.

xxxv

CATHERINE J. MURPHY received two B.S. degrees, one in Chemistry and one in Biochemistry, from the Uni-versity of Illinois, Urbana-Champaign, in 1986. She received her Ph.D. in Chemistry from the University of Wisconsin in1990. She was a National Science Foundation and National Institutes of Health Postdoctoral Fellow at the California In-stitute of Technology from 1990 to 1993. In 1993, she joined the faculty of the University of South Carolina, Columbia,becoming the Guy F. Lipscomb Professor of Chemistry in 2003. In 2009 she moved to the University of Illinois, Urbana-Champaign, as the Peter C. and Gretchen Miller Markunas Professor of Chemistry. Professor Murphy has been honoredfor both research and teaching as a Camille Dreyfus Teacher-Scholar, an Alfred P. Sloan Foundation Research Fellow, aCottrell Scholar of the Research Corporation, a National Science Foundation CAREER Award winner, and a subsequentNSF Award for Special Creativity. She has also received a USC Mortar Board Excellence in Teaching Award, the USCGolden Key Faculty Award for Creative Integration of Research and Undergraduate Teaching, the USC Michael J. MungoUndergraduate Teaching Award, and the USC Outstanding Undergraduate Research Mentor Award. Since 2006, Profes-sor Murphy has served as a Senior Editor for the Journal of Physical Chemistry. In 2008 she was elected a Fellow of theAmerican Association for the Advancement of Science. Professor Murphy’s research program focuses on the synthesisand optical properties of inorganic nanomaterials, and on the local structure and dynamics of the DNA double helix.

PATRICK M. WOODWARD received B.S. degrees in both Chemistry and Engineering from Idaho State Universi-ty in 1991. He received a M.S. degree in Materials Science and a Ph.D. in Chemistry from Oregon State University in 1996.He spent two years as a postdoctoral researcher in the Department of Physics at Brookhaven National Laboratory. In 1998,he joined the faculty of the Chemistry Department at The Ohio State University where he currently holds the rank ofProfessor. He has enjoyed visiting professorships at the University of Bordeaux in France and the University of Sydney inAustralia. Professor Woodward has been an Alfred P. Sloan Foundation Research Fellow and a National Science FoundationCAREER Award winner. He currently serves as an Associate Editor to the Journal of Solid State Chemistry and as the direc-tor of the Ohio REEL program, an NSF-funded center that works to bring authentic research experiments into the labora-tories of first- and second-year chemistry classes in 15 colleges and universities across the state of Ohio. ProfessorWoodward’s research program focuses on understanding the links between bonding, structure, and properties of solid-state inorganic functional materials.

A01_BLB5081_12_SE_FM_hr2.qxp 14-02-2013 14:46 Page xxxv

A GUIDE TO USING THIS TEXT

Visualizing concepts makes chemistry accessible

Chemistry is by nature an abstract subject. First, it relies on a symbolic language based on chemicalformulas and equations. Second, it is based on the behavior of atoms and molecules—particles far too small to see. By presenting chemistry visually, the authors help you to “see” the chemistry you need to learn and increase your success in the course and on the AP Exam.

Multi-Focus GraphicsTo help you develop a more complete understanding of the topic presented, Multi-Focus Graphics provide macroscopic,microscopic, and symbolic perspectives to portray various chemical concepts. The Twelfth Edition adds to these graphicsan intermediate process that shows you where chemistry isoccurring in problem solving.

Molecular IllustrationsMolecular Illustrations are computer-generated renditionsof molecules and materials thatrepresent matter visually at the atomic level. These drawingshelp you visualize molecules in three dimensions, and enhance your understanding ofmolecular architecture.

Twelfth Edition

Twelfth Edition

Eleventh Edition

Eleventh Edition

ElEleven hth EdiEdi ition

ElEleven hth EdiEdi ition

TTwelflfth Eh Ediditiion

TTwelflfth Eh Ediditiion

Chemistry: The Central Science, AP Edition has been the leader in AP Chemistry for decades. Now, its unrivaled problems, scientific accuracy, and clarity have been upheld and are woven seamlessly with each new feature. The Twelfth Edition isthis text’s most ambitious revision to date; every word and piece of art has been scrutinized for effectiveness by all five authors, and many revisions are based onstudent performance data gathered through MasteringChemistry.®

xxxvi

A01_BLB5081_12_SE_FM_hr2.qxp 14-02-2013 14:46 Page xxxvi

A focus on relevance makes chemistry meaningful

Chemistry occurs all around us, throughout every day. Recognizing the importance ofchemistry in your daily life can improve your understanding of chemical concepts.

Macro to Micro ArtThese illustrations offer three parts: a macroscopic image (what you can see with your eyes); a molecular image (what the molecules are doing); and a symbolicrepresentation (how chemists represent the process with symbols and equations).

A new intermediate step has been added,showing where chemistry occurs in the problem-solving process.

Chemistry Put to Work and Chemistry and LifeChemistry’s connection to world events, scientific discoveries, and medical breakthroughs are showcased in Chemistry and Life and ChemistryPut to Work features throughout the text.

e

e

eH (aq) is reduced(gains electrons)

HMg2

H2

MgCl Mg(s) is oxidized(loses electrons)

H2(g) MgCl2(aq)2 HCl(aq) Mg(s)Oxidationnumber

1 2 101 0

ProductsReactants

FIGURE 4.13 Reaction of magnesium metal with hydrochloric acid. The metal is readily oxidized by the acid, producing hydrogengas, H2(g), and MgCl2(aq).

xxxvii

A01_BLB5081_12_SE_FM_hr2.qxp 14-02-2013 14:47 Page xxxvii

XXXVIII

The authors help you achieve a deeper understanding of concepts through a variety oflearning aids, including Give it Some Thought and NEW! Go Figure questions.

NEW! Go Figure questions Go Figure questions encourage you to stop and analyze the artwork in the text,for conceptual understanding. “Voice Balloons” in selected figures help you break down and understand the components of the image. These questions are also available in MasteringChemistry.

Give It Some Thought (GIST) questionsThese informal, sharply focused exercises give you opportunities to test whether you are “getting it” as you read along. We’ve increased the number of GIST questions in the Twelfth Edition.

Final volumereading

Solution becomes basic on passing equivalence point, triggering indicator color changeBuretInitial volume

reading

20.0 mL of acid solution added to flask

1 A few drops of acid–base indicator added

2 Standard NaOH solution added from buret

3 4

FIGURE 4.19 Procedure for titrating an acid against a standard solution of NaOH.The acid–base indicator, phenolphthalein, is colorless in acidic solution but takes on a pink color in basic solution.

G O F I G U R E

How would the volume of standard solution added change if that solution were Ba(OH)2(aq) instead of NaOH(aq)?

CONCEPTUAL UNDERSTANDINGBRINGS CHEMISTRY TO LIFE

xxxviii

A01_BLB5081_12_SE_FM_hr2.qxp 14-02-2013 14:47 Page xxxviii

XXXIX

A consistent problem-solving process is incorporated throughout, soyou’ll always know where to go when solving problems.

Analyze/Plan/Solve/CheckThis four-step problem-solving method helps you understand what you are being asked to solve, to planhow you will solve eachproblem, to work your way through the solution, and to check your answers. Thismethod is introduced inChapter 3 and reinforcedthroughout the book.

Dual-Column Problem-Solving StrategiesFound in Selected SampleExercises, these strategiesexplain the thought process involved in each step of a mathematical calculationusing a unique layout for clarity. They help you develop a conceptual understanding ofthose calculations.

Strategies in Chemistry Strategies in Chemistry teach ways to analyze information and organize thoughts, helping to improve your problem-solving and critical-thinking abilities.

PROBLEM-SOLVING SKILLS HELPYOU SUCCEED IN YOUR COURSE

xxxix

A01_BLB5081_12_SE_FM_hr2.qxp 14-02-2013 14:47 Page xxxix

UPDATED END-OF-CHAPTER MATERIALSBOOST YOUR COMPREHENSION

Unique to the Twelfth Edition, the end-of-chapter materials have been updated and streamlined basedon student performance data gathered through MasteringChemistry. Only content that has proven toincrease student comprehension of fundamental concepts has been retained.

Summary with Key TermsThese list all of the chapter’s boldfaced items, organized by section in order of appearance, with page references. Definitions are found in the Glossary.

Key SkillsThe Key Skills section in each chapter lists the fundamental concepts you should comprehend.

Key Equations The Key Equations sectionlists each of the key equations and important quantitativerelationships from the chapter.

xl

A01_BLB5081_12_SE_FM_hr2.qxp 14-02-2013 14:47 Page xl

Visualizing ConceptsVisualizing Concepts exercises begin the end-of-chapter exercises and ask you to consider concepts through the use ofmodels, graphs, and other visual materials.These help you develop a conceptualunderstanding of the key ideas in the chapter. Additional conceptual exercises are found among the end-of-chapter exercises.

ExercisesEnd-of-Chapter Exercises are grouped by topicand presented in matched pairs based on datagathered from MasteringChemistry, giving you multiple opportunities to test each concept.

Additional ExercisesAdditional Exercises follow the pairedexercises and are not categorized, because many of these exercises draw on multipleconcepts from within the chapter.

Integrative ExercisesIncluded among the exercises at the end of Chapters 3-24, Integrative Exercisesconnect concepts for the current chapter with those from previous chapters. Thesehelp you gain a deeper understanding ofhow chemistry fits together and serve as anoverall review of key concepts.

Bracketed Challenge ProblemsThe Bracketed Challenge Problems havebeen revised for the Twelfth Edition,based on student performance datagathered through MasteringChemistryreflecting the difficulty of the problem.

xli

A01_BLB5081_12_SE_FM_hr2.qxp 14-02-2013 14:47 Page xli

MasteringChemistry is the most effective, widely used online tutorial, homework and assessment system for chemistry. It helps teachers maximize class time with customizable, easy-to-assign, and automaticallygraded assessments that motivate students to learn outside of class and arrive prepared for lecture. These assessments can easily be customized and personalized by teachers to suit their individual teaching style.To learn more, visit www.masteringchemistry.com.

Student Tutorials MasteringChemistry is the only system to provide instantaneous feedback specific to the most-common wrong answers. Studentscan submit an answer and receive immediate,error-specific feedback. Simpler sub-problems—“hints”—are provided upon request.

GradebookMasteringChemistry is the only system to capture the step-by-step work of eachstudent in class, including wrong answers submitted, hints requested, and time taken on every step. This data powers anunprecedented gradebook.

Student Performance SnapshotThis screen provides your favorite weekly diagnostics. With a single click, charts summarize the most difficult problems, vulnerable students, grade distribution, and even score improvement over the course.

PERSONALIZED COACHING AND FEEDBACK AT YOUR FINGERTIPS

xlii

A01_BLB5081_12_SE_FM_hr2.qxp 14-02-2013 14:47 Page xlii

Pearson eTextThe Pearson eText gives students access to the text whenever and wherever they can access the Internet. The eText pages look exactly like the printed text, and include powerful interactive and customization features.

Students can:Create notes, highlight text in different colors, create bookmarks, zoom, click hyperlinked words and phrases to view definitions, and view in single-page or two-page format.

Link directly to associated media files, enabling them to view an animation as they read the text.

Perform a full-text search and save or export notes.

Teachers can share their notes and highlights with students, and can also hide chapters that they do not want students to read.

EXTEND LEARNINGBEYOND THE CLASSROOM

Upon textbook purchase, students and teachers are granted access to MasteringChemistry with Pearson eText. High school teachers can obtain preview or adoption access for MasteringChemistry in one of the following ways:

Preview AccessTeachers can request preview access online by visiting www.pearsonschool.com/access_request and using Option 2. Preview Access information will be sent to the teacher via e-mail.

Adoption Access

delivered with your textbook purchase. (ISBN: 0-13-034391-9)

OR

Students, ask your teacher for access.

NEW! VisualizationsThese new tutorials enable students to make connections between real-life phenomena and the underlying chemistry that explains suchphenomena. The tutorials increase your understanding of chemistry and clearly illustrate cause-and-effect relationships.

NEW! Reading QuizzesChapter-specific quizzes and activities focus on important, hard-to-grasp chemistry concepts.

1

A01_BLB5081_12_SE_FM_hr2.qxp 14-02-2013 14:47 Page 1

TWELFTH EDITION AP EDITION CHEMISTRY

Documents

Transcript of TWELFTH EDITION AP EDITION CHEMISTRY