Television

Production

Handbook

N NTH ED T ON

Herbert Zettl

San Francisco State Uni versity

THOMSON ...

VVADS'WORTH

AU$T~A lI'" BR.AZll C.""~OA M UICO S INGAPOR~ SP""N

U NITED K ' NGOO~ UNI1(D SrATES

THOMSON

VVAOSVVORTH *

-f,!it:vi5ioll Prodlluion Handbook, Ninth Edition Herbert Zelt l

Publlslrer: Holl)' J. Allen Stnior De l'e!opmtllf Edilor: Renrr Dl.'ljo n A55islallf Editor: DarienI' Amidon- Brent Editorial A'5islanr: S3rah Alkn S" lIior Technology Pro;eCl MlIIger: Jealle!!t Wiseman "",lruknillg Manng"': M,ul. Orr MRTkeriug Assisfi1l11: Alt'xandra Tran

MMkt'rjngCommww;afiollS Manager: Shrmika Britt PrOjeCI Mrmagtr, &ii/arial Produaion: Jenll lfrr Klo; Crear;I'c Dirmor: Rob Hugel :uml ive Art Dirt?aor: Maria 1:.~5

C 1006 Thomson Wadswonh, a part of The Thomson Corponl!ioll. Thonlson, the Star logo, 3nd \Vadswonh are trademarks used herein under license.

All RIGHTS RESERVED. No palt o{ th is wOlk CO~'eJ'N by thc copyrighl herron mar be reproduced or used ill Jny form o r b}' any mCiltls-graphic, ele

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS -- , Once 'ga in I upo h ' Was pril'iJeged /0 . ~ t eexperlise of its 'I\ .rea . 'lave H'adswonh call

Edmon or the Ti l " m 10 produce this Ninth Allen bl' h eM SIOII ProdI/CI ;o" Halldbook: HolI,

,pu IS cr' Renee Del" ,Ma k 0 . ' . Jon, semar develo pment editor;

,r TT, ma rketmg manager; Darlene Amidon-Srem ::tSS1 Slanl cailor ' Sa , ,1 AU d' , ' ~ . .' .l en, e lIondl assistant; Maria Epl ~) e.\ ecu{n'c art dI rector; Jenni fer Klas, production proJect, manager; Robert a Broyer, pho to ed itor; Gary Palmatier of Ideas to Images, art directoT and project manager; Robaire Ream, page layout art ist and illustrator; Elizabeth von Radics. copy editor; and Ed Aiona, principal photographer. All you need to do is skim through this book 10 unders\.md my adrniraoon and deep gratit ude (or their exceptjonal worK.

A number of dedicated instructors gave me the benefit of their experience (!nd numerous excellent suggestio ns when they reco mmended changes fo r th e Ninth Ed ition. Many thanks to these revie~"e r s: Mara Alper, Ithaca Co llege; George Bagley. University of u ntral Florida; Karyn Bcown. Miss issippi Sta te University; Hamid Khan i, San Francisco State Un h'ersity; Michael Korp i, Baylo r Un iversity; Ronald J. Osgood, In d iana Universit y; Pau l Rose, University o f Utah; and Jo-An ne Ryall, Western Kentucky Universit}'.

[ am also greatly ind{'bted to Michael Korpi and Paul Rose, who a~o revie~"ed the manuscript of this {'dition and suggested numerous improvements, and to Ronald J. Osgood, who recommended some changes 10 th~ mai n text and also h{'lped r{'vise the Workbook, Many thanks 10 Josh ua Hecht a nd Vinay Shrivastava. who reviewed and hel ped update the audio chapters. I also received generOllS assistance fro m my colleagues al Sa n Franc isco State Unive rsity: Mart y Gonzales, Chul Heo, Rick Houlberg, Smart Hyde , Ha mid Kha ni, Phil Kipper, Steve lahe y, Winston Tharp, MicheUe Wolf, and Lena Zh ang.

,

I also wan! to gi\'~ a big thank-you to all of th e

and organizations who responded qu O Id' d ~e.ople

to m Ie y an POSJtlvely

y numerous requests for assist ance: Stanley Alten SyraCUSe University; Rudo lf Benzler Pt"'rn->' M ' c ' G . .,," 1;;"(113, UOIe ll ,

errnany; John Bentzhoff and Greg Goddard Sn d d . , a er an Asso~ l a l es; Corey Carbonara, Baylor Universit y; Ed COSel,

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The Television Production Process

You may think that television production is a relatively simple task. After al1, you do p ret ty

well with your camcorder. When watching a newscast from the control room al a local television station, however, you realize that television production involves much mo rE!

than just operating a camcorder. Even a seemingly simple production-such as a news anchor first introducing and then playing a videotape of the school principal showing to parents and reporters the computer lab- involves a great number of intrica te operations by news production personnel and the use of many sophisticated machines.

A 55-second chitchat between a TV news anchor in Portl,md and a tennis sta r in London

present s a formidable challenge even for highly experienced production personnel.

When watching television, viewers are largely unaware o( such production complexi ties. Bul as you can see, professional television production--regardless o ( whether it is done in a television station or in the field-is a complex creative process in which people and

machines interact to bring a va riety of messages and experiences to a large audience. Even when involved in a relatively small production, you need to know what machines

and people are necessary to achieve a certain type o( television communiC

Chaple r 1 is d esigned to provide you with an overview of the various equipment and p roduction processes. Se

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1.1 What Television Production Is All About

Tlk major probl~m in learning about television produc.tion is that to understand o ne specific production 1001or It'chnique, such as optimal lighting, you should already know the functions of the lens, the iris. maxi mum and minimum aperl ure, and depth of field . In turn, you need to know something about how' colored Jig])! behaves before you can adeq uatel y understand how a camer;1 or a color tele\'ision rc::ct'iver works. Because I can't cram an the ne

5t!'(tion 1. 1 What Television Production /5 All Abou t

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Audio signal

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V'rdeo signal Television {eThe quality-controlled pictures fro m both cameras are fed into prt'vitw monitors, one for each camera, so you can see what they look like. A third preview monitor is necessary to show the videotape of the princi pal. These thr~ video signals (from cameras I and 2 and the videolll pe) are simultaneously fed into the swi rcfrer, ....hich allows you to select and switch any of th e three video feeds to the line-o rd fo r transmission or videotape reco rd ing. Pressing Ihe button for camera 1 will put the close-u p view of one of the anchors 011 the line monitor. wh ich displays the line-oul signals th1\! go on the air or on videotape. Pressing the came ra 2 bUllon will put camera 2's dose-up o f the co-anchor on the line mon itor. PrE'ss ing the button for the videot ape insert wil! put the principal o n the line mo nito r. Whateve r appE'a rs o n ,h.. lint' moni to r wilt be sent to the line--o ut thaI feeds the transmission device (on the air or cable) andJor the video recorder.

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Section'. , What Television Produ(rion 15 All Aboul

The signals (rom the news Jllchors' microphones afe fed into the audio console, as is the audio track. of the principal's videotape. The audio console now permit s you to select among the anchors' voices and the sound track on the videotape and 10 control the quaJjty of the loret' sound inputs. You can, for example, select rhe voice 0( the person on the screen, match the volume of the three sound sources (anchor, co-anchor, and principal), or keep one lower than the olhers.

Unaware of all/he complex production maneuvers, the viewec simply sees d ose-ups nfthe personable ;'Iod knowledgeable news anchors introducing Ine upcoming stor}' about the school principal and then showing Ihe principal walking through Ihe new facihli es, pointing proudly to Ihe latest comput

8 Chapter I

PRODUCTION ElEMENTS With Ihe expanded televis.ion .witching, (5) videolape recording. (6) taptless systems (7) postproduction editing, and (8) special effeCIS. When learning aboul television prod uction, always try to see each piece of equip rm'nL ilnd its operation within the larger COntext of the teb'ision system, that is, in relation to a!ltheother pieces ofequipment that

Sec r ion '. 1 Whor Te/evision Pr oduction /s Al l AboUl

1.6 PROfESSIONAL CAMCORDER The professional camcorder is a highly pot'table. self-contained cameraJvldeo recording vnil. II is usvally baW~ry-powered.

the colors and Ihe lighl-and-dark variations 01 the n1('!olhly across Ihe studio floor while it is u not ," Iha[ is, on the air. Some news studios usc robotic cameras that arc remolely controlled via compuler by a single operatOr in the studio conlrol (oom . Because high -quality cameras can be rdativd y small and light. such robot ic systems have become quite popular in newsrooms.

UG-H~TING Like the human eye, the camera cannot see well withou l a certain amount of lighl. Because it is not objects we actually sce but the light reflected off of them, manipulating the lighl falling on objects influences the 'liay we perct'ive them on -screen . Such man ipu!ation iscaUed liglrring.

Lighting hai four broad purposes: ( I ) 10 prov ide the television camera with adequate illumination for teclmicaHy acceptable pictures; (2) to leU us what the objects shown on-screen actually look like ~ (3) to show U5 where the obj~ts are in relatiOn to one anolher and to their im mediate environment , and when the event is laking place in terms of lime of day or season; and (4) to establish Ihe gt'nerai mood of the event.

Types of illumination AI/television lighting basic.aUy involves t\\'O types of illumination : directional and diffused . Dirtcti()tI(l1 light has a ~harp beam and produces harsh shadows. You can aim the light beam 10 illum inate II prcrise area. A fla shlight and car headlights produce direClionOl llight . DifJil~td l ighr has a wide, indistinct beam th at iUuminates a relatively large area and produces soft, translucent shadows. The flUOrescent lamps in a depart ment s!Ore produce diffi.lsed lighting.

Studio lighting consists of ca refully con troUing ligh t and shadow areas. The lighting requirements fo r electronic fi eld production are usually quite different from tho$e for studio work. In eleclronic news gathering. yo u work mostly with available light or occasionaUy with a single lighting instrument that give~ just enough illumination (or the call1era to record an event relatively c1~e to the camera. fo r UP you also use al'J.ilabte light . especially when shouting outdoors, o r highly diffused light Ihat provide~ optimal visibilir)' indoo{s. Some field productions, such as documt'ntaries o( dramatic scenes, requireCOlrt'fu l int erio r lighting that resembles stud io lighting techniques. The difference is that the location lighting for EFP is done with portable light ing instruments rather than with studio ligills, which are lllore o r less permanently installed.

9

10 Chap te r I THE TELEVISION PRODUCTION PROCESS

1.7 STUDIO liGHTING The typicc}1 slUd io light ing uses spotlights and;) va riety of floo dlights.

Lighting instruments The li ghting in struments th at produce directional light a re called !polfiglllS, and the ones that produce d iffused light are called floodlights. In Ihe telc,-isia n studio, the various types of spotlights and floodlights are usu aUy suspended from the ceiling. SEE 1.7

Studio lights are much too hea\'Y and bulky 10 be used oucside the studio. Most EFPs use po rtabte lighting package; that co nsist o ( several small , highly efficient instrument s that can be plugged into ordinary electrical outlets. There are also larger fluorescent banks for large-area or virtu ally shadO\"le~ lighting. Mosl portable instruments can either be mounted on collapsible floor stands or di pped onto doors, l.,. indOI.,.s ills, o r furnilure. These inst ruments generally operate a~ tloodlights, but they cao be adjusted to ftlncti on as spotligh ts as well. To obtain more directional control, EFP lighling packages indude a number of sillall spotli ghts, which can be diffused with a colbpsible diffusian tent , oft en called soft "ox (see chapter 7). SU1.I

Lighting tec.hniques AJ I television lighting is based on a simple principle: use some instr uments (usually spotlights and floodlight s) to illuminal e specinc areas, soften shadOI.,.s, and bring ' he overall light on a scene to an intensity level at which the cameras can generate optimal pictures. In general , ({Ievision lighting has less contrast between light and shadow areas than do film and theater liglHing. Diffu sed light is therefo re IIsed exlensivel y in

television lighting, especially on news and interview sets, for game shows and siluat ion comedies, and in many field productions.

AUDIO Although the term Idevis jon does not include aUdio, the sound portion of a Ielevision show is nevenheless on(' of its most important elements. Television audio not only communicates precise information but also colltributesgreatly to the mood and the atmosphere of o:l scene. If you were to turn off the audio during a newscast, even the best news anchors would have di(ficultycommunicJtillg their stories through facial expressiom , graphics, a nd video images ato ne. The ae.slhetic fu nction of sound (10 make us perceive an event or feel in a particular Ivay) becomes obvious "" hen you listen \0 Ihe backgro und sounds during a crime show, for example. The squealing ti res durillg a high-speed chase 3re real enough, bUI the rhyt hmically fast, excjting background music that accompanies the scene is definitely artificial. Afte r aU, Ihe getaway car and \h E' po li ce car arE' nOI follo~...ed in realli(' by a third vehicle wilh musicians playing the background music. But we have grown so accustomed to such devi..:es that WE' probably would perceive the scene as less exciting if the music were mjssing.

The various ,ludio production elements arc micro phones. ENG/EFP and studio sound control equipment, ,wd sound record ing and playback devices.

Section 1. 1 What Television Production Is All About

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1.8 PORTABLE liGHTING INSTRUMENTS Portable lighting instruments (Dns'SI of vel~t ile spotlights and noodli9ht~ that can be plugged i1110 regular household outlets.

Microphon.s AU microphones convert sound w.. ves i tHO electric energy-the audio signals. The sound signals

ar~ amplified and sent to the loudspeaker, which reconverts them infO audible sound. The myriad microph ones available today are designed to perform differen t tasks. Picking lip a newscaster's voice, capturing the sounds of a ten nis match, and recording a rock co nce rt-all may require differe nt microphones or microphone sets.

ERlh... ENG/EFP sound (ontrol equipment In E.NG Ef.JP"" the audio is no rmally cont rolled by the GHnera operator, who wears a small earphone that carries the incoming sound. Because the camera operdlor is busy running the camera, the sound controls on the carncorder are often switched to Ihe au tolllatl( setti ng. In the mo re critical EFP, the volume o f inco ming sounds is usually con tro lled by a portable mixer and recorded nor only on videotape out also on a portable audi otape recorder. 5U 1.9

1.9 AUOIO MIXER The portable audio mi )(E!(" has a limited amount of jnpul~ and volume (ont(ol~.

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12 Chapler , THE TELEVISION PRODUCTION PROCESS

1.10 AUDIO CONSOLE EYen a re latively ~ imple audio console has m" ny controls to adju ~t the volume and the quality o f I!

Sec rion 1. 1 Whal Te l evis io n Produ ctio n Is All Abo ul

1.11 VIDEO PROOUCTION SWITCHER The p roduction switcher has !o(!veral rows o f buttons and other controls for selecting and mixing variOus Video Inputs and crea ting transition~ and ~pecial effec:1S. It then sends the selected video to the line-out.

10 the CCU ... Jnd then to the prev iew monilOrs. Preview monitor I shows all the picture~ that carner.! I is taking, and preview monitor 2 carries the piCt ures of ca mera 2. Preview monitor 3 shows theselect~d videotape ri'Cordings. These three video signals are fed into tht switcher. Each source (camera I, camera 2, and VTR) has its own swilcher inpu t. Pressing the camera 1 uunon puis camera I 's signal on the lin e-ou t and shows its pictures on the line moniror. Pressing the camera 1 button puts canleTa 2's pictures on the line ll1onitorand on the li nc-out. Pressing the \r[R butIon puts lhe picfures Or the videotape on the line mon itor and Ihe Ijne-out. This s\\' ilchel" "O\ltput~ (line-out ) is what goes on the:

14 Cha p ter I THE TELE VISION PRODUCTION PROCESS

1.13 VARIOUS CASSETTEFORMATS lI ideoca'iSt'Ues come in a variety of

~izes and are manufactured fOf specific Il'COfding system.

vidcoca ,~s e tl e) . Many VTR systems usc 'h-inch videocasselles (Betacam SP, digi tal Betacam SX, Digi tal-S, SNHS, and VHS), but there are also systems that use small 8mm cassetlcs (HiS) Of even nurower digital lA -inch C;lsselle~ (6.3511u n OVCAM and DVCPRO). S(E l .U

TAPELESS SYSTEMS Greal and r;,\pid progress is being made lOward a tapeless environment wherein all video recording. storage. and phlyback is done ,,,itn non-Iape-based systems. Such il tapeless systelll makes use of memory sticks and cards , optical discs such as CDs and DVDs, and large-capdeily computer d isks ralher than videotape.

Memory sticks and cards These small yel power ful Olemory devices are used in some cameras 10 reoo rd brief video sequences. Some cameras also use them as a video buffer : such a pr('re

Section / . 1 Who! Telev i sion Produc t ion Is All About

Soof{t monitor

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16 Chapter I THE TELEVISION PRODUCTION PROCESS

(omput~r mOni\Of rOl tdiling paleu~ Video monitOf Speaker

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~1.15 NONLINEAR EDITING SYSTEM tn nonli ~ilr ediliny. 311 audio and video Information is stored on large-capo