TSL3102 Lecture 9 Syntax
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Transcript of TSL3102 Lecture 9 Syntax
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THE SENTENCE PATTERNS OFLANGUAGE
SYNTAX
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The origin of the word SYNTAX
SYNTAX Greek >>>> a setting out together /arrangement of elements in the linear structure ofthe sentence
System of rules and principles that allows us to
combine words into larger units. Eg: 1. The girl goes on many longwalks.
2. The girlwalks the dogs.
Noun ? Verb ?
>>> the position of a word in the sentencedetermines the syntactic category
(parts of speech/wc)
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Words can be grouped / combined in certain ways
>>>>sentence are not simply flat strings of words.They have some kind of internal structure pretty
strong intuitions
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OBJECTIVES
Distinguish simple, compound and complex sentences inanalysis of texts. Features of simple sentences
Patterns or structures in English
SV SVO
SVOO
SVC
SVA
SVOC
SVOA
Features of compound sentences
Features of complex sentences
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SYNTAX
Knowledge of sentences & their
structures.
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Grammatical or Ungrammatical?
a) The boy found the ball.b) The boy found quickly.c) The boy found in the house.d) The boy found the ball in the house.
e) Disa slept the baby.f ) Disa slept soundly.g) Sue believes Rob to be a good man.h) Sue believes to be a good man.i ) Zack tries Matt to be a gentleman.j ) Zack tries to be a gentleman.
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Grammatical or Ungrammatical?
How do you come to the
conclusion?Can you identify some of the rules
in the sentences?
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Judgments of Grammaticality
determined by syntactic rules ofgrammarthe rules are shared by the speakers
of the language.the speakers have unconscious
knowledge of the rules
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So what are syntactic rules?
It must account for:
1. the speakers ability to produce &
understand an infinite number ofsentences
2. the grammaticality of sentences
3. the ambiguity (presence of moremeaning) of sentences
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1. Syntactic Rules Account for the CreativeAspect of Language
The kind-hearted boy had manygirlfriends.
The kind-hearted, intelligent boy hadmany girlfriends.
The kind-hearted, intelligent, handsomeboy had many girlfriends.
Can you produce even longer sentences?
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2. Syntactic Rules DetermineOrder of Words
Words in a sentence occur in a certain linearorder.
Every sentence is a string of words, but is every
string of words a sentence?k ) The girl loves the cat.
l ) Girl the loves cat the.
m) Loves the girl the cat.
n ) The girl cat the loves.
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2. Syntactic Rules DetermineOrder of Words- cont
o) She has what a man wants.
p) She wants what a man has.
q) The large spider frightened Aunt Meg.
r) Aunt Meg frightened the large spider.
The meaning of a sentence depends largely on theorder in which words occur in a sentence.
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3. Syntactic Rules Determine Grammatical Relations
E.g. the relation between subject &direct object & how they are understoodin a sentence.
Mary hired Bill.Bill hired MaryBill was hired by MaryKill BillKill, BillBill was killed by someone.
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3. Syntactic Rules Determine Grammatical Relations cont.
Whether Different Structures Have DifferingMeanings or the Same Meaning The Chief Justice swore in the new President.
The Chief Justice swore the new President in. The child found the puppy.
The puppy found the child.
The puppy was found by the child.
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4. Syntactic rules determine the order of words in asentence, & how the words are grouped
Divide the sentence into sub-groups.
The girl loves the cat
(The girl) (loves the cat)(The girl) (loves) (the cat)
Natural groupings of a sentence is called constituents. Reflects the speakers intuitions about the natural
groupings of words in sentence A sentence can be viewed as having a hierarchical
structure made up of constituents of varying sizes.
The structure can be represented as a tree structure.
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A Tree Diagram
The girl loves the cat
The girl loves the cat
The girl loves the cat
The cat
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Clauses
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Compare these sentences
I suddenly remembered something.
I suddenly remembered that I had an appointment.
Your failureis most regrettable. That you failed the exam is most regrettable.
The police questioned every local resident. The police questioned every person who lived in the
neighbourhood.
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Clauses
Aclause is a group of words containing a subjectand predicate and used as part of a sentence.
Independent clauses can stand alone and make completesense.
An independent clause written with a capital letter at thebeginning and a period at the end is a simple sentence.
The coupledances.subject (S) verb (V)
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Sentence Structure: Dependent Clauses (SubordinateClauses)
Dependent clauses help to clarify and add detail toan independent clause.
Dependent clauses may appear at the beginning,
middle, or end of a sentence. Dependent clauses cannot stand alone.
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Types of Subordinate Clauses
There are three types of subordinate clauses:
adjective clauses
subordinate clause modifies a noun or pronoun
adverb clauses
subordinate clause modifies a verb, adjective or another adverb
noun clauses
subordinate clause functions as subject, object, predicatenominative, etc.
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Adjective Clause
An adjective clause is a subordinate clause thatmodifies a noun or pronoun. The house where he was born has been made a national
shrine. (adj. clause modifies house)
She is one who earned her honours. (adj. clausemodifies one)
The assignment, which I did last week, received a gradeofA+. (adj. clause modifies assignment)
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Adjective Clause (AdjC)
[S+V/] that acts like an adjective
Example: The story [that I am reading] is sad.
S V
This entire clause acts like anadjective, so it is an adjectiveclause.
AdjCs follow nouns
Often start with relative pronouns
relativepronoun
[thatIam reading]
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Relative Pronoun
Many subordinate adjective clauses begin with arelative pronoun.
The most common relative pronouns:
That Which Who Whom Whose
She didnt recognize the manwho had spoken.
K. Kangsar is the town that Bala came from.
The relative pronoun can be omitted if the clausehas another noun to serve as the subject Nearly all the people I used to know have gone.
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Adjective Clause
Two kinds of relative clause:
Restrictive vs. Non-restrictive
Defining vs. Non-defining
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Defining Adjective Clause
Explain which person or thing you are talking about.
I met the woman.
I met the womanwho lives next door.
Shortly after the robbery, the man died. Shortly after the robbery, the manwho had done it
died.
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Defining vs. Non-defining
The peoplewho work in my office are so uptight!
S essential phrase V
Without the essential phrase, this sentence does
not make complete sense : The people are so
uptight!
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Defining vs. Non-defining
The rendang that I had at Jahswas much betterthan this one!
S essential V
The word that is almost always an indicator
of an essential clause.
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Defining vs. Non-defining
A non-defining clause adds extra information to asentence.
This information can be eliminated from the
sentence without jeopardizing the meaning of thesentence.
Always place commas around non-defining clauses.
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Defining vs. Non-defining
Mybrother,who lives across town, plans to throw a party!
S non-essential V
Even without the phrase the sentence still makes
sense : My brother plans to throw a party!
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Defining vs. Non-defining
Stevesaid that he would propose to me onValentines Day,which is my favorite holiday!
S V non-essential
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Defining vs. Non-defining
Our two daughters, Hani and Ana, were born inPenang. (non-defining)
Our daughter Hani lives in Kedah. (assuming we
have more than one daughter) Our daughter, Hani, lives in Kedah. (assuming we
have only one daughter)
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Noun Clause (NC)
[S+V/] that acts like a noun
Example: I think [you are sick].
Ithink[you are sick].
S V O
Objects are nouns; this entire clauseacts like a singular noun, so it is anoun clause.
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Noun Clause
Anoun clause is a subordinate clause used as anoun.
Anounclause may begin with an indefinite relative
pronoun: that, what, whatever, who, which,whoever, whichever.
Anoun clause may begin with an indefinite relativeadjective: whose, which, whichever.
Anoun clause may begin with an indefinite relativeadverb: where, when, how, etc.
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Functions of noun clause
subject
object
object of preposition
complement
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Noun Clause:As Subject
That it snowed surprised me.
N Cl
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Noun Clause:As Subject Complement
The question was how to cross
the bridge.
Noun Clause:
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Noun Clause:As Object of Preposition
You give the drum to whoeverwants it.
Noun Clause:
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Noun Clause:As Direct Object
The boys know that reading is
fun.
Noun Clause:
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Noun Clause:As Indirect Object
Sally told whoever was nearby
her story about the fish.
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Adverb Clause
An adverb clause is a subordinate clause thatmodifies a verb, an adjective, or an adverb.
She plays golfas though she was in a hurry. [how]
She plays golfwhenever she can.[when] She plays golfwherever she travels.[where]
She plays golfbecause she enjoys it.[why]
She plays golfif the weather permits.[under what
conditions]
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Adverb Clause
Adverb clauses may also modify adjectives and otheradverbs:
She is confident that she will win.[modifies adjectiveconfident]
He played better than I did. [modifies adverb better]
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Adverb Clause
A conjunction that begins an adverb clause iscalled a subordinating conjunction. It joins theclause to the rest of the sentence and establishesthe relationship between the clause and the mainsentence.
Common subordinating conjunctions includeafter, although, because, before, if, since, than,
though, unless, until, when, where, whether,while, etc.
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Adverb Clause
[S+V] that acts like an adverb
Example: [After we drove to the mall] , we looked for abookstore.
This clause gives information abouthow or why the action happened, soit acts like an adverb.
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When and Where
The words when and where are quiteversatile. They can introduce nounclauses.
(Where I buy my groceries) is mybusiness. (nominalsubject)
I like (where I buy my groceries).(nominaldirect object)
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When and Where
They can also introduce adverb andadjective clauses.
Mary is shopping (where I buy mygroceries). (adverbmodifies is shopping)
The store (where I buy my groceries) isSeng Hup. (adjectivemodifies store)
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Non-finite Clauses
Infinitive
Participial
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Infinitive
Definition
A group of words consisting of an infinitive and allthe words related to it. An infinitive usually begins
with to.
to speak
(the infinitive)
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Infinitive Clause
My teachers wish to climb Mount Kinabalu couldhappen.
The girls like to study hard.
The trick was to carry the egg slowly. To snow hard is a wonder.
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Participial Clause
Definition: a group of words consisting of aparticiple and words related to it (present ends in -ing; past ends in -ed or -en)
Participial Clause:
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Participial Clause:Examples (present and past)
Tapping my foot, I looked out the window with longing.
Filled with anger, the woman stormed into the building.
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Types of Sentences
Classified by structure, there are three kinds ofsentences:
Simple: one independent clause, no subordinate clauses.
Compound: two independent clauses, no subordinateclauses.
Complex: one independent clause, at least onesubordinate clause.
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The Simple Sentence
One independent clause, no subordinate clauses.
A clause which can stand alone as a sentence has asubject and a verb.
It may also have other elements: an object, acomplement, or an adverbial.
Each element plays its part in the structure of aclause.
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Basic Clause structure: SV
Ive eaten.
My head aches.
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Basic Clause structure: SVO
Majid has several cats.
The elephant destroyed the plantations.
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Basic Clause structure: SVC
Kerry is clever.
Kerry is a teacher.
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Basic Clause structure: SVA
The games ended yesterday.
The kids were playing in the field.
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Basic Clause structure: SVOO
They gave Sam a pen.
We should give the kids some money.
Other verbs like give, combining with to, are: lendoffer pass pay sell sendtake write
He explained the situation to me.
Similarly: announce, describe, introduce
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Basic Clause structure: SVOO
They bought Sam a pen.
They bought a pen for Sam.
Other verbs like buy, combining with for, are:
choose, cook, do, fetch, get, keep, order, save
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Basic Clause structure: SVOC
They made Sam chairman. The project kept everyone very busy.
The group made Simon their spokesman.
Similarly: appoint, call, label, name, vote
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Basic Clause structure: SVOA
I put my credit card in my handbag. The police got the car out of the ravine.
C d S
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Compound Sentence
Acompound sentence contains twoindependent clauses that are joined together.
She works in the city, but she lives in the suburbs.
Independent Clause Independent Clause
C d S t
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Compound Sentence
You can make a compound sentence by joiningtwo logically related independent clauses by using
- a semicolon
- a coordinating conjunction
U i S i l
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Using a Semicolon
Independent Clause; Independent Clause
I love living in the city ; there are so many things to do.
Independent ClauseIndependent Clause
U i C di i C j i
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Using a Coordinating Conjunction
Independent Clause, coordinating conjunction Independent Clause
He couldnt watch the show , so he decided to tape
it.
Independent ClauseIndependent Clause
C di i C j i
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Coordinating Conjunctions
Logical Relationship CoordinatingConjunction
Addition And
Contrast But, yet
Choice Or, nor
Cause ForResult So
FANBOYS
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FANBOYS
For F And A
Nor N
But B Or O
Yet Y
So S
Another way to remember these is
C l S t
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John cannot set up his typewriter
because the wall has no outlet.
Complex Sentences
Acomplex sentence contains at least oneindependent clause and one dependent clause.
Independent Clause
Dependent ClauseSubordinating
Conjunction
E l C l S
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Example- Complex Sentence
Acomplex sentence contains at least oneindependent clause and one dependent clause.
She will go to school in the city
until she finds a job.
Independent Clause
Dependent ClauseSubordinatingConjunction
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Subordinate Clauses
Adjective/Relative/Adjectival a subordinate (or dependent) clause that functions as adjective
(tells more about the noun)
Noun
a subordinate (or dependent) clause that functions as noun (assubject, direct object, indirect object, subject complement, objectof preposition, or appositive)
Adverb a subordinate (or dependent) clause that functions as adverb (tells
when, why, how, where, under what condition)
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Subordinating Conjunctions
Subordinating conjunctions introducesubordinate clauses, which are clauses thatcannot stand by themselves as a completethought.
The subordinate conjunction connects asubordinate clause to an independent clause,
which can stand by itself.
Ex. We will go whale watching ifwe havetime.
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List of Subordinating Conjunctions
After
As As long as
As soon as
Before
In order thatSo thatThat
Since
UntilWhenWhenever
While
Time PurposeTime
Li t f S b di ti C j ti
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List of Subordinating Conjunctions
Manner
AsAs ifAs
though
Because
AsThan
Cause Comparison
Subordinating Conjunctions of
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Condition
Although Even though Though
As long as If Unless
Even if Provided that While
Complex Example
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p p
Although she worked hard to gainrecognition, many people did not know
who she was.
Although she worked hard to gain recognitionand who she was
are dependent clauses because they begin with thesubordinating conjunctionalthoughand the indefiniterelative pronoun who.
Many people did not knowwould be an independent
clause, therefore making the sentence a complexsentence.
Lets try an exercise
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y
On a scrap piece of paper, identify the followingtypes of sentences:
2. Although the volcano erupted long ago, thecollapsed mountaintop formed a lake bed that isstill hot.
3. I have always looked forward to my mid-term break.
4. Noorie plays basketball on Saturdays, and shegoes fishing on Sundays.
1. Living in Kuala Lumpur was one of the best
experiences that Carol had during college.
A
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Answers
1. Living in Kuala Lumpur was one of the best
experiences that Carol had during college.
This is a complex sentence:
Living in Kuala Lumpur was one of the best experiences=
independent clause
That Carol had during college= dependent clause
2 Although the volcano
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Complex sentence:
Although the volcano erupted long ago= dependent
clause
The collapsed mountaintop formed a lake bed=independent clause.
That is still hot= dependent clause.
2. Although the volcanoerupted long ago, the
collapsed mountaintopformed a lake bed that isstill hot.
3 I h l l k d f d id
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Simple Sentence:
I have always looked forward to my mid-termbreak= independent clause.
3. I have always looked forward to my mid-
term break.
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4. Noorie plays basketball on Saturdays,and she goes fishing on Sundays.
Compound sentence:
Noorie plays basketball on Saturdays= independent clause.
And= coordinating conjunction
She goes fishing on Sundays= independent clause.
Th S F
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The Sentence Fragment
A sentence fragment consists of one or allof the following: Dependent clause
Phrase Word
In other words, if the sentence does notcontain at least one independent clause,it is a fragment.
F t E l
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Fragment Examples
Because I was quite happy.This is a fragment: It has only onedependent clause.
The boy with the round face.
This is also a fragment: It consists of only
a phrase(s).
Tutorial Task
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Tutorial Task
Analyse two pieces of authentic text (e.g. aninstruction leaflet, and a short narrative piece) forsentence-types.
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The end