Tresillo Thesis

TRESILLO A RHYTHMIC FRAMEWORK CONNECTING

DIFFERING RHYTHMIC STYLES

A PROJECT REPORT

Presented to the Bob Cole Conservatory of Music

California State University Long Beach

In Partial Fulfillment

of the Requirements for the Degree

Master of Music

Committee Members

Alicia Doyle PhD (Chair) Michael Carney DMA David Gerhart DMA

College Designee

John Carnahan MA

By Andrew Acquista

BA 2000 Humboldt State University

August 2009

UMI Number 1472279

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ABSTRACT



By

Andrew Acquista

August 2009

This paper examines the origins of the rhythm known as tresillo Through

transcriptions and analysis an examination will be made noting the systematic use of this

rhythm in musical structures from Africa Brazil and Cuba This paper also explores the

roots of tresillo as stemming from the African 32 cross-rhythm and the evolution of

clave from the 12-bell pattern Finally the challenging aspects of swing in non-

Western Afro-centric music are discussed

A variety of sources were used to gain the necessary information about tresillo

and the music presented books dissertations and journals written by

ethnomusicologists interviews and lessons with master teachers and information found

on the world wide web Through this paper I hope to provide insight into more accurate

performance practice of the rhythms presented and the evolution of tresillo and clave

which is relevant in a musical world that is being ever increasingly blended with different

influences from around the globe

PREFACE







Chapter 1 provides a brief introduction to the rhythm tresillo The methods used

in this paper are discussed including terminology specific to this paper New

terminology is proposed for the term standard pattern in relation to the 12-bell pattern

The second chapter focuses on the roots of tresillo as evolving from the African

32 cross-rhythm It begins by presenting the African 12-bell pattern and breaking it

down into its component parts of two 32 cross-rhythms It then explores the

characteristics of tresillo and the on-beat 32 cross-rhythm noting the similarities in

functions and role of each rhythm Finally the possibility of tresillo being a derivative of

cinquillo is explored

Chapter 3 examines folkloric music examples from Africa specifically Agbadza

and Kuku The instrumentation of these rhythms is explained in-depth and the various

rhythmic principles of each are examined Previous misinterpretations in the area of

meter are examined and ideas about better performance practice models are proposed

iii

Chapter 4 focuses on folkloric music examples from Cuba and examines the role

tresillo plays as an organizational structure Rumba Guaguanco drum pattems are

presented and the influence of tresillo in the construct of the overall rhythm is explored

Makuta drum pattems are presented in a similar fashion and the relationship to tresillo is

likewise explored Ideas about better performance practice are also presented in an effort

to help those interested to achieve a more representative performance

The fifth chapter concentrates on musical examples from Brazil The multitude of

parts from Samba reggae and samba batucada are analyzed and relevant historical

information discussed The different function of each part in the whole ensemble is

analyzed and the inherent tresillo based properties of these two genres are explored

Chapter 6 focuses on the way that Afro-centric music seemingly swings in-

between ternary and binary forms and how this phenomenon defies Western notation

classification Alternative ways to describe this phenomenon and ways to play these

innuendos correctly for performance practice are discussed Finally audio examples are

given to help better understand the concept of playing in fix








iv

CONTENTS

Page

PREFACE iii

LIST OF FIGURES viii

CHAPTER

1 INTRODUCTIONS 1

Tresillo A Rhythmic Framework Connecting Differing Rhythmic Styles 1

Methodology 2

2 AFRICAN ROOTS OF TRESILLO 8

12-Bell Pattern Derived from African 32 Cross-Rhythm 8

Tresillo as a Duple Manifestation of the African 32 Cross-Rhythm 10

3 AFRICAN FOLKLORIC EXAMPLES 16

Agbadza 16

Kuku 24

4 CUBAN FOLKLORIC EXAMPLES 29

Rumba Guaguanco 29

Makuta 35

5 BRAZILIAN FOLKLORIC EXAMPLES 39

Samba Reggae 39 Samba Batucada 46

6 DISCUSSION OF FIX 54 v

CHAPTER Page

7 CONCLUSION 57

APPENDIX GLOSSARY OF TERMS 59

BIBLIOGRAPHY 64

vi

LIST OF FIGURES

FIGURE Page

1 Tresillo 1

2 On-beat32 9

3 Off-beat 32 9

4 12-bell 9

5 On-beat 32 cross-rhythm 10

6 Tresillo 10

7 12-bell 7 stroke partern 11

8 12-bell 5 stroke pattern (more on-beat) 11

9 32 son clave 11

10 12-bell 5 stroke pattern (more off-beat) 12

11 32 rumba clave 12

12 Cinquillo 12

13 5 stroke pattern 13


15 Passport 13

16 Middle drum part for Makuta 13


vii

Page



20 Ewe familiy of drums 18

21 Axase 19

22 Gankoqui part shown with underlying beat scheme 19

23 12-bell shown in misconstrued meter 20

24 Axase also shown in wrong meter 20

25 Kidi and sogo parts shown correctly 20

26 Kagan part 21

27 12-bell shown in 3 measuresof24 21

28 Kidi and sogo parts 21

29 34 relationship in common 128 meter 21

30 Simplified 34 relationship of kidisogo part with underlying beat scheme 22

31 Dununpicture 24

32 Djembe picture 25

33 Kuku break 25

34 Kenkeni part 26

35 Sangban part 26

36 Dundunbapart 26

37 Dundunba variation 26

38 Sangban and dundunba composite 27

viii

Page

39 Djembe 1 27

40 Djembe 2 28

41 Djembe 3 28


43 Gua gua pattern 30

44 Tumbador basic part 31

45 Segundopart 31

46 Tumbador part above with tresillo below 31

47 Tumbador part above with 32 rumba clave below 32

48 Quinto basic 1 32


50 Quinto part utilizing an inverted tresillo 32

51 Clave pattern above with quinto pattern below 33

52 Clave and quinto composite 33

53 Condensed three drum melody 34

54 Makuta bell pattern 36

55 Makuta quinto part 36

56 Makuta segundo part 36

57 Makuta tumbador part 37

58 Tumbador simple solo variation 37

59 Tamborim part 41

ix

Page

60 Repenique part 42

61 Caixapart 42

62 Surdo 4 42

63 Surdo 3 43

64 Surdo 2 43

65 Surdo 1 43

66 Surdos 12 and 4 43

67 Simplified surdo melody outlining an augmented tresillo 44

68 Tamborim playing 32 rumba clave key pattern 44

69 Repenique 44

70 Caixa 45

71 Surdo 4 and surdo 3 (played tutti) 45

72 Surdo 2 46

73 Surdo 1 46

74 Tamborim playing teleco teco 51

75 Teleco teco shown with 32 son clave 51

76 Caixa 52

77 Repenique 52

78 Surdo 3 52

79 Surdo 2 53

80 Surdo 1 53

x

FIGURE Page

81 Chocalho 53

82 Fix 56

83 Flammed triplet 56

84 Commonly notated caixa pattern 57

XI

CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTIONS

Tresillo A Rhythmic Framework Connecting Differing Rhvthmic Styles

Tresillo is defined in the Salsa Guidebook by Rebecca Mauleon1 as either 1) The

term which refers to the three side of clave or 2) Triplet This rhythm is also

commonly referred to as a 3+3+2 additive rhythm by many scholars The first definition

will be used here as the working definition for the rhythm tresillo (see figure 1)

^ Zt EacuteS FIGURE 1 Tresillo

Tresillo has been shown to be the most common rhythm found cross-culturally

and has even been referred to as a universal rhythm This paper will focus on the

historical significance of this rhythm as used in folkloric literature globally and show

how it can be used compositionally as a common ground connecting differing rhythmic

styles Developmental circumstances surrounding the evolution of the rhythm will also

Rebecca Mauleon Salsa Guidebook for Piano and Ensemble (Sher Music San Francisco 1993)

1

be examined including the distinctly Afirican origins of tresillo as a duple manifestation

of the African three against two (32) cross-rhythm2 Traditional folkloric songs which

utilize this organizational structure will be examined in the music from West Africa

Brazil and Cuba African examples will include Agbadza and Kuku Brazilian examples

will include songs by the group Olodum and pieces in the samba batucada style Cuban

examples will include Makuta and Guaguanco

Whether the music is in a binary rhythmic structure or a ternary rhythmic

structure tresillo will fit into the framework because of its inherent evolution from a

triple to a duple division Music that swings in between these western notated meters will

be referred to as playing in fix a term coined by recognized Afro-Cuban scholar

Michael Spiro as the aet of playing in four and six simultaneously The inherent qualities

of tresillo not only fit into fix but to actually help promote it is a significant realization

that can help with the interpretation and conception of rhythmic frameworks

Methodology

This paper will examine African music and music of the African Diaspora which

will include Afro-Cuban and Afro-Brazilian music Tresillo and its evolution from the

African based 32 cross-rhythm will be examined as a basic foundation for musics that

are African derived and promote the practice of playing in fix Some of the problems

with the way Western music defines meter and subdivisions will be examined and ways

to achieve a working performance practice model will be explored The Western

notational system will be used to represent all musical examples Conclusions are based

2 CK Ladzekpo Personal Instruction and Conversations (Fresno CA 1998-2004)

2

on thorough analysis and practice approaching all of the examples through the point of

view of a performer The ideas presented in this paper have come from studying the

literature of these diasporas and working with musicians and master teachers in the

United States In this light I must give special thanks to my teachers that have opened the

door of understanding for me for these musics Anlo-Ewe master drummer CK

Ladzekpo Afro-Cuban scholar and performer Michael Spiro Afro-Cuban and Afro-

Brazilian performer and scholar Mark Lamson African master drummer Dramane Kone

from Burkina Faso and scholar and performer Doctor Eugene Novotney

Before the analysis of the rhythms put forth in this paper begins there are a few

terms which deserve defining due to the ambiguous nature of present day definitions

Polyrhythm and cross-rhythm in particular are the subject of this debate First I would

first like to thank my former teacher Dr Eugene Novotney for imparting this enlightening

knowledge to me and while his dissertation The 32 Relationship as the Foundation of

Timelines in West African Music utilizes this terminology more than my thesis will I feel

it is important for the field of percussion to clarify as he did the specific and important

terms of polyrhythm and cross-rhythm

The Harvard Dictionary of Music defines polyrhythm as the simultaneous use of

two or more rhythms that are not readily perceived as deriving from one another or as

simple manifestations of the same meter sometimes also cross-rhythm traditional

African music abounds in polyrhythm and it is evident in African derived musics of the

3

New World Grove s Dictionary ofMusic defines polyrhythm more generally as The

superposition of different rhythms or metres and finishes with the term is closely

related to (and sometimes used simultaneously with) CROSS-RHYTHM though the

latter is properly restricted to rhythm that contradicts a given metric pulse or beat4 Not

surprisingly Merriam-Webster s Dictionary provides the most general definition of

polyrhythm defining it as the simultaneous combination of contrasting rhythms in

music5 Cross-rhythm is defined in the Harvard Dictionary ofMusic as a rhythm in

which the regular pattern of accents of the prevailing meter is contradicted by a

conflicting pattern and not merely by a momentary displacement that leaves the

prevailing meter fundamentally unchallenged See also Syncopation Polyrhythm6

Grove s definition of cross-rhythm appears as the regular shift of some beats in a metric

pattern to points ahead of behind their normal positions in that pattern for instance the

division of 44 into 3+3+2 quavers or 98 into 2+2+2+3 quavers if every beat is shifted

the most generic definition which is virtually identical to the earlier definition of by the

Don Michael Randel ed The New Harvard Dictionary ofMusic (Cambridge The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press 1986) 646

4 Polyrhythm Grove Music Online Oxford Music Online httpwwwoxford musiconlinecommcclLibrarycsulbedusubscriberarticlegrovemusic22059 (accessed February 102009)

5 Polyrhythm Merriam-Webster Online Dictionary httpwwwmeriam-webstercomdictionarypolyrhythm (accessed February 10 2009)

6 Don Michael Randel ed The New Harvard Dictionary ofMusic (Cambridge The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press 1986) 216

4

same amount this is cailed syncopation Webster s Dictionary provides us with

polyrhythm stating that cross-rhythm is the simultaneous use of contrasting rhythmic

patterns8

From these definitions we can discern that cross-rhythm is a subset of

polyrhythm It seems by definition that polyrhythm is something that occurs when things

are momentarily displaced while cross-rhythmic examples use a systematic displacement

of the regular accent scheme that happen over the long term While all examples of

cross-rhythm would be considered examples of polyrhythm not all examples of

polyrhythm could be described as cross-rhythm The term cross-rhythm will be used to

describe the African 32 rhythm in this paper because of its systematic regularity of

accenting against the pulse of the 128 meter9

Standard pattern is a word that has been used by many scholarly journals to

describe the 12-bell pattern also known as the African 128 clave Many of the first

scholarly works written concerning this pattern were grossly inaccurate and I believe that

the first accepted terminology was probably not the best choice Instead of using an

adjective that only refers to this one rhythm instead I would like to propose an alternative

adjective that can be applied to a group or classification of rhythms that take on similar

Cross-rhythm Grove Music Online Oxford Music Online httpwwwoxford musiconlinecommcc 1 librarycsulbedusubscriberarticlegrovemusic06882 (accessed February 102009)

8 Websters II New Riverside Dictionary (New York Berkley Books Houghton Mifflin Company 1984) 543

9 Eugene Novotney The 32 Relationship as the Foundation of Timelines in West African Musics (PhD diss University of Illinois 1998) 6

5

roles and fiinctions in a group ensemble Since the function of the word standard is that

of an adjective it should be describing something about the nature of the pattern The

adjective standard is defined in the Merriam-Webster Dictionary as having recognized

and permanent valuelta standard reference workgt10 or in dictionarycom as of

recognized excellence or established authority11 These were the best fit definitions that

could be found for the use of the adjective standard in reference to the word pattern

I will not be using the terminology standard pattern and will instead be using the term

key pattern to describe this rhythm as well as other related rhythms that embody the

same functional characteristics Key as an adjective appears in the Merriam-Webster onshy

line dictionary with the definition as simply IMPORTANT FUNDAMENTAL12 and

dictionarycom defines key as chief major important essential fundamental

1 X

pivotal Although I do believe that the 12-bell pattern deserves recognition and has

permanent value the term key best captures the role that this important and fundamental

rhythm plays in the drumming ensemble Also instead of having one standard pattern we

have key patterns that fulfill a specific role in ensemble drumming for example the

rhythm clave also functions as a key pattern It is interesting to note that one of the many

Standard Merriam-Webster Online Dictionary httpwwwmerriam-webstercomdictionarypolyrhythm (accessed February 102009)

11 Standard Dictionarycom httpdictionaryreferencecombrowsestandard (accessed February 10 2009)

12 Key Merriam-Webster Online Dictionary httpwwwmerriam-webstercomdictionarykey5B35D (accessed February 102009)

13 Key Dictionarycom httpdictionaryreferencecombrowsekey (accessed February 102009)

6

definitions for the word clave is simply key not only in the English language but in

the romance languages as well

Fix is also a term that will that will be used in this paper to describe music that

can be felt in 44 and 68 simultaneously This term will be discussed in detail and

defined later in this thesis Audio examples will also be included to give the reader a

better idea of the principles at work when dealing with rhythms in fix

As an experienced performer of these styles of music rhythms will be presented

from my repertoire as I have learned them from respected master teachers Scholarly

journals and books as well as information found on the internet will be used to support

this topic as well as relevant historical background information

7

CHAPTER 2

AFRICAN ROOTS OF TRESILLO

12-bell pattern derived from African 32 cross-rhythm

The 12-bell key pattern also referred to as the standard pattern- by many

scholarly journals when describing African music is the most widespread pattern

throughout the African continent I will be using the term key to denote this temporal

referent because the cycles of this pattern (contrary to the western concept of measures)

provide the fundamental rhythmic foundation for the music performed For example

instead of a part starting in a certain subdivision within a measure of 128 it starts in a

place that has a direct relationship with the key pattern There is a correlating place in the

128 beat scheme that can be put into western notation but the African way of thinking is

one of relationship not one of abstract piacement Abstract in this sense refers to the

westernized abstract model of musical notation abstract piacement refers to placing a

note somewhere inside (for example the e of beat 2) instead of placing a note in

reference to its relationship to another pattern being played

The basic units (or building blocks) that comprise the 12-bell pattern can be

broken down in western terms as two 32 (three against two) cross-rhythms The first

three notes of this seven stroke pattern is built on what we will call the on-beat 32 cross-

rhythm The final four strokes of the seven stroke key pattern is comprised of what will

8

be referred to as the off-beat 32 cross-rhythm The term on-beat 32 describes this first

rhythm because the first attack starts on beat one of the western notated 128 measure

This rhythm resolves on beat one and beat three of the four pulse beat scheme

v Jgty J~3 y J^y Jgtv Jgt g T

FIGURE2 On-beat 32

Conversely the term off beat 32 describes this next example because the primary

attack of this pattern occurs off of first beat striking the next subdivision of the western

notated 128 measure The off-beat 32 pattern resolves on beats two and four of the four

pulse beat scheme

E Jgt7 Jgt7 Jgt7 Jgt7 jgt7 Jgt7 r r r

FIGURE3 Off-beat 32

The first half of the 12 bell key pattern is comprised of the on-beat 32 cross-rhythm and

the second part is comprised of the off-beat 32 cross-rhythm exemplified in figure 4

FIGURE4 12 bell

Through the Western notational concepts presented we have systematically

discovered the building blocks that comprise the African 12-bell key pattern the most

widespread pattern on the African continent In the sections that follow I will be

examining how the 12 bell pattern form the core of fixed rhythmic groups in African

ensembles and also the relationship to the development of clave another pattern that also

forms the core of fixed rhythmic groups in African and Afro-influenced musics around

the world Examples of the building blocks and rhythmic cells that comprise these key

patterns will also be examined noting the development of one from the other

Tresillo as a Duple Manifestation of the African 32 Cross-Rhythm

In my personal conversations and studies with master drummer and CK

Lazekpo PhD he has proposed that the tresillo rhythm we know today carne about as a

duple manifestation of the African 32 cross-rhythm Both of these rhythms are

constructed using with same amount of notes utilizing a similar spacing

I S j ) 7 j)y j ) 7 J)7 j ) 7 Jy IH p p fSEEEpi

FIGURE5 On-beat 32 cross-rhythm

|^J~]v J^Jl m FIGURE6 Tresillo

Notice how close these patterns resemble each other with relationship to the four

pulse beat scheme Each pattern utilizes three notes which cross two beats of the

underlying pulse Next examine how the 12-bell key pattern morphed into the clave key

pattern most associated today with Cuban music

10

m JW Jgty J3 y iW Jgt 7 ^ f=r f=

FIGURE 7 12-bell 7 stroke pattern

The omission of two of the connecting notes between the on-beat and off-beat

sections leaves the more on-beat 5 stroke bell pattern exemplified here in figure 8

7 S1- J v 7 JS J1^^

FIGURE 8 12-bell 5 stroke pattern (more on-beat)

The 128 example of the 5 stroke key pattern is what would later become the 44

key pattern known as 32 son clave shown here in figure 9

Hy JO | FIGURE 9 32 son clave

Notice while playing these two different examples from above how virtually non-

discernable they become to the ear This is an important phenomenon to note because of

the inherent way Afro-centric music swings It is sometimes hard to discern if the

music we are hearing is in a 44 or 68 time signature Afro-Cuban scholar Michael Spiro

coined this phenomenon playing in fix the aet of playing in 44 and 68 at the same time

or playing somewhere in-between the two Because of this phenomenon a soloist can

often choose to play a phrase in ternary or binary form or in faet use a combination of

the two to create a melody The next two examples illustrate this same matter

11

FIGURE 10 12-bell 5 stroke pattern (more off-beat)

FIGURE 11 32 rumba clave

Christopher Washbourne in his article The Clave of Jazz stated that it is widely

believed that tresillo is a derivative of a five stroke pattern referred to as the cinquillo

pattern It is argued that by leaving out the second and fourth attack of this pattern the

tresillo rhythm is revealed and therefore tresillo is a product of cinquillo14

FIGURE 12 Cinquillo

As simple as it might be to draw this conclusion allow the presentation of an

alternative possibility cinquillo is simply one of many ornamenteddecorated forms of a

more simple underlying structure tresillo Take these other examples of common five

stroke patterns that also accentuate the same tresillo pattern

Christopher Washborne The Clave of Jazz A Caribbean Contribution to the Rhythmic Foundation of African American Music Black Music Research Journal 17 no 1 (spring 1997) 66

12

FIGURE13 5 stroke pattern


The next example is a common djembe accompaniment for many 44 styles of

music found in Guinea Mali Ivory Coast and Burkina Faso in West Africa This

particular accompaniment was coined passport by Mamady Keita because of the

frequency of its occurrence in many different rhythms

FIGURE 15 Passport

FIGURE 16 Middle drum part for Makuta (which will be discussed later in this paper)

All of the previous five stroke examples above arguably contain the rhythm

tresillo as a basic rhythmic structure These five stroke variants are different from the

cinquillo pattern from which it is argued tresillo came from in that tresillo could have

been derived from any one of these previous examples but more likely they were all a

derivative of tresillo Here are three 6-stroke patterns that also punctuate the underlying

rhythm of tresillo The first example (figure 17) is a common conga accompaniment for 13

Steel drum bands playing calypso a style from Trinidad and Tobago in the Caribbean it

is also the second djembe accompaniment for Kuku a rhythm from the forest people of

Guinea West Africa

FIGURE 17 6 stroke pattern



It comes down to the age old question which came first the chicken or the egg

Did quarter notes arise by leaving out every other eight note or were eight notes derived

from doubling every quarter Speaking from a general point of view things usually

move from simple (undecorated) to more complex (decorated) Any of the above five

note or six note patterns arguably contain the skeleton tresillo so why couldnt have

tresillo been derived from one of these patterns instead of the cinquillo pattern Tresillo

as a common denominator for all the above examples lends more probability to the theory

that they are all derivatives stemming from a common ancestor tresillo The faet that the

32 cross-rhythm is the cornerstone of African music lends more probability to tresillo

the building block for duple or quasi-duple(fix) key parterns having been derived directly

14

from the African 32 cross-rhythm and not from cinquillo as Washborne and his

references suspected

Examine next the 12-bell pattern (a ternary form) transitioning to clave (a duple

form) Clave (a 44 key pattern) is the duple manifestation of the 12-bell five stroke

pattern (128 key pattern) just as tresillo is the duple manifestation of the African 32

cross-rhythm Just as in the last example of tresillocinquillo how things evolve from the

simple to the more ornate this example is no different When comparing the seven

stroke pattern to the five stroke pattern the insight lies not with the number of notes

involved but with how the rhythm is constructed The seven stroke pattern is the simpler

of the two because it is the composed of the on-beat 32 back to back with the off-beat

32 The five stroke patterns are therefore arrived at by omission of two of the attacks

that link one group (the on-beat) to the other group (the off-beat)

15

CHAPTER 3

AFRICAN FOLKLORIC EXAMPLES

The purpose of this section is to acquaint the reader with knowledge about how

African music is constructed and how the music functions With an informed knowledge

base it becomes clearer how these concepts moved on into the diasporas to create new yet

very similar forms

Agbadza

The principal instruments among the Anlo-Ewe fall under the category of

vibrating membranes metals and gourds A vibrating membrane is commonly called

evu (drum) A vibrating metal is called gankogui (bi-tonal bell) and atoke (boat shaped

bell) and a vibrating gourd with an external network of beads is known as axaste (gourd

rattle) 15

Let Evu be defined as as a vibrating membrane (usually an animal skin) fastened

across the mouth of a single cylindrical shaped piece of solid wood which has been

hollowed out More recently a modern adaption is to use slats of curved wood bound

together with glue and held in place with attached metal bands creating a barrel shape

15 CK Ladzekpo Foundation Course in African Dance Drumming httpbmrc berkeleyedupeopleladzekpoFoundationhtml (accessed November 112008)

16

Striking the membrane with a stick or haringnd causes the skin to vibrate and thus the air

inside the drum to vibrate within a resonating chamber resulting in the sound we hear1

In my studies with master drummer CK Ladzekpo he explained that however

loud an animal cried when it was alive he could make it cry louder when it was dead

This concept is a well known Anlo-Ewe metaphor and in my teachers language they say

ela kuku deagbe wu la gbagbe which translates to a dead animal cries louder than a

live one17 On CK Ladzekpos website he states that

A human being has a tendency to attraringet a lot more attention when dead than when alive So when the need came to communicate louder a super voice surrogate was built out of a skin of a dead animal that could deliver the message louder and clearer In Anlo-Ewe cultural understanding a drum is a super projection of the human voice In this view the role and power of the drum in play embodies the Sub-Saharan concept of combining natural forces of the universe in forming the supernaturals In the composition of this conscious experience human force is combined with other natural forces mdash skin of animal hollowed solid tree-trunk etc -- as a medium for arousing the attention and reaction of mankind In a variety of tonal properties mdash pitch timbre intensity and intricate rhythms mdash the drum and the drummer in mutual cooperation create patterns of consciousness that give a moment of inspiration to those they touch18

Agbadza is an Ewe social dance of the Ga people of Ghana The drumming

ensemble that accompanies this dance is traditionally made up one lead drum called the

atsimevu (the largest drum) three support drums sogo kidi kagan a rattle called an

axase and a two toned bell referred to as a gankoqui The kagan axase and the gankoqui

CK Ladzekpo Foundation Course in African Dance Drumming httpbmrc berkeleyedupeopleladzekpoFoundationhtml (accessed November 112008)

17CK Ladzekpo Foundation Course in African Dance Drumming httpbmrc berkeleyedupeopleladzekpoFoundationhtml (accessed November 11 2008)

CK Ladzekpo Foundation Course in African Dance Drumming httpbmrc berkeleyedupeopleladzekpoFoundationhtml (accessed November 11 2008)

17

comprise a group whose basic rhythmic pattems remain unaltered for the duration of the

piece The sogo and the kidi while having basic parts that may change from section to

section also respond and create dialogue with the atsimevu in accordance with the dance

In essence the supporting drums can be broken down into two sections

a fixed rhythmic section consisting of instruments whose rhythmic pattems are maintained essentially throughout the piece and a variable rhythmic section consisting of instruments whose rhythmic patterns change during the course of that piece The gankoqui (metal gong) the axase (calabash rattle with external beads) and the kagan (small membrane keg drum) form the fixed rhythmic group The kidi (medium-sized membrane keg drum) and the sogo (a medium-large membrane keg drum) comprise the variable rhythmic group19

The atsimevu is the largest drum pictured below in figure 20 to the left of the atimevu

from smallest to largest are the kagan kidi and the sogo Two gankoqui and one axase

are shown in the lower portion of the picture

FIGURE 20 Ewefamilyof drums

Next examine the way the Agbadza rhythm is constructed The axase is played

holding the handle of the gourd in the strong haringnd and striking the leg with the beads

19 Olly Wilson The Significance of the Relationship between Afro-American Music and West African Music The Black Perspective in Music 2 no 1 (spring 1974) 9

18

surrounding the gourd utilizing a downstroke this action is followed by striking the

weak haringnd (held above the rattle) with an upstroke

FIGURE21 Axase

In this next example the gankoqui plays the key pattern in and the axase serves to

reinforce this pattern by doubling the part and filling eleven of the twelve subdivisions of

the 128 measure

Wtt JW Jgt7 J l 7 Jgt7 Jgt7 igt| H r r r p- ^

FIGURE 22 Gankoqui part shown with underlying beat scheme

It is also important to note that singing is an integral part of the performance and

that the importance of the melodys relationship to the fixed rhythmic group is

recognized in various musical traditions Ghanaian master drammer CK Ladzekpo

emphasizes in his instruction that the art of an Ewe song lies not only in the text and

melody but in how it interacts with and reinforces the bell and other instrumental

parts This interacting and reinforcing of the bell pattern is integral to African and

African derived musics and applies not only to the singing and songs but to all the

instruments involved in the performance As with many African derived music the fixed

Shannon Dudley Judging by The Beat Calypso versus Soca Ethnomusicology 40 no 2 (spring-summer 1996) 279

19

rhythmic group are comprised of the time keeping instruments Although they do not

have measures or bar lines in African derived music they do incorporate an unchanging

pattern (key pattern) which marks the passage of time In this case the gankoqui bell is

the temporal point of reference and every rhythm is played in reference to this pattern

starting in a place that coincides with the pattern or a place that falls in-between the

pattern creating cross-rhythm

Although every part can be notated in a 128 time signature there has been much

misinterpretation of how these parts fit together As Olly Wilson wrote in his article the

polymeter results from a clash of the implied 24 in the fixed group (bell and shaker) with

the implied 128 meter being performed simultaneously in the variable group (supporting

drums) He then pro vides the following examples

J l 1 Jraquol V J 7 j j

FIGURE 23 12 bell shown in misconstrued meter

i PM FIGURE 24 Axase also shown in wrong meter

ff^rrrr^f 21 Olly Wilson The Significance of the Relationship between Afro-American

Music and West African Music The Black Perspective in Music 2 no 1 (spring 1974) 11

20

FIGURE 25 Kidi and sogo parts shown correctly (top notes indicate press or muted

strokes lower notes indicate open tones) All notes played with sticks

ffi JJy J J J 7 J j j

FIGURE 26 Kagan part (also shown correctly)

Notice how when putting two of these examples together (kidisogo part and 12-

bell key pattern) a 34 relationship is revealed This relationship is a common rhythmic

device used in many styles of African music as a compositional structure and is

frequently used by soloists to create rhythmic interest

pound 1 J I Hi Jl Jiy Jl

FIGURE 27 12-bell shown in three measures of 24

FIGURE 28 Kidi and sogo parts

JW JS V J3 y J) 7 J) 7 h

FIGURE 29 34 relationship in common 128 meter

A simplified version of the open tone attack points against the 12 bell reveals a

34 cross-rhythm which connects andor starts on beat two of the four pulse beat scheme

21

This rhythm accents every fourth subdivision crossing the normal beat scheme of four

beats utilizing three attack points

^ gt bull gt bull

I ^ y 7 y p y y y p y y y p

FIGURE 30 Simplified 34 relationship of kidisogo part with underlying four pulse beat

scheme

These types of cross-rhythmic relationships can cause a lot of confusion to the

untrained ear African music sets up rhythmic relationships that we are unaccustomed to

experiencing in Western music and not surprisingly other scholars like AM Jones and

Anthony King have made similar misinterpretations in the area of polymeter I cannot

agree with Olly Wilsons interpretation of the fixed rhythmic group for performance

practice because perceiving different parts as having different beat schemes is

uncharacteristic to African music

The reference for a player performing cross-rhythms like the 34 cross-rhythm

above is how the rhythm interlocks with the key pattern where it connects and where it

falls in-between to create polyrhythm is what an experienced performer of this music

listens for With only a western concept of subdivisions as a reference the natural

tendency is to perceive different parts as existing in their own separate time lines (as Olly

Wilson did as well as many of his predecessors) and to become hopelessly lost and

estranged from the ensemble With the 12-bell key pattern as a temporal reference

everyone stays together and ever involved in the music that is being created

22

The realization that all of the parts examined are part of the 128 time scheme and

that the position of the fixed rhythmic group is the foundation or key pattern that holds

everything together holds importance for a working performance practice model The

fixed rhythmic group pro vides a solid foundation for the rest of the ensemble play and

change in response to the lead drum So instead of polymeter we have what is referred

to as polyrhythm or cross-rhythm which exists in one meter only Just as in western

music meter and subdivisions are the glue that give music and compositions their

continuity we will move to see how key patterns are the cohesive structure that hold

everything together in Afro-centric based musics Key patterns have an intrinsic

relationship to each other both in their function and in their roots all stemming from the

African based relationship of the 32 cross-rhythm and all providing rhythmic

foundations for these differing styles of music

Kuku

Kuku originated as a social dance of the Manian people from the forest region of

southeastern Guinea around Beyla near the borders of Mali and Ivory Coast West

Africa Originally played for women as they returned from fishing they would take their

fishing tools and dance to celebrate the fruits of their labor Kuku was traditionally

played without duniin (large bass drums) and utilized only djembes with one djembe (the

solo voice) tuned lower than the rest Dunun were added later by the Malinke people

who adopted this rhythm and added to it with as many as three different dunun parts22

B Michael Williams Mamady Keitas Kuku Percussive Notes August 2002 p 26 httpwwwbmichaelwilliamscomPNMamadyKeitaKukupdf (accessed November 152008)

23

The dunun family of drums are carved in a cylindrical shape from one piece of solid

wood There are three sizes of drums in the dunun family 1) kenkeni (smallest) 2)

sangbart (medium) 3) dundunba (largest) Dundun are traditionally played with the

drum heads facing parallel to the ground and are played with one large wooden stick in

the dominant haringnd which strikes the head of the drum with a sideways motion A small

metal stick is held in the weak haringnd which strikes downward on an upward facing metal

bell attached to the rope on the side of the drum The playing surface of the drum has

thick cow skin stretched over it and ropes are used for tuning using a system of pulled

knots

FIGURE31 Dunun picture

The djembe drum comes in various sizes from large to small and is carved from a

single piece of wood into an hourglass shape utilizing a similar rope tuning system as the

dunun drums A single goat skin or thin calf is stretched over the large opening of the

shell and is tuned using the attached rope on the side which pulls down on a metal ring

fashioned around the cylindrical mouth of the drum increasing the tension on the skin and

thereby raising the pitch of the instrument

24

Figure 32 Djembe picture

All djembe rhythms start and end with a drum call also referred to as a break

The break is also played as a cue for the dancers to begin end or change a movement

The break for Kuku outlines the 32 rumba clave pattern and is notated in western

notation as foliows in figure 33

FIGURE 33 Kuku break (lower notes represent open tones upper notes represent open

slap)

After the lead drummer plays the break the ensemble enters either on the

downbeat of the measure after the break or the pickup to the down beat following the

break depending on the part being played For example djembe 1 and the sangban part

traditionally enter on the pickup note starting on the and of beat four in a western

notated 44 measure First examine the dunun parts these next examples will proceed

from the highest tuned drum to the lowest starting with the kenkeni

25

n n n Zf ZT Zf

plusmn1

FIGURE 34 Kenkeni part (notes with stems up represent bell notes stems down

represent open notes played on cow skin)

F=B ^

FIGURE 35 Sangban part (notes with stems up represent bell notes lowest note denotes

open tones middle notes denote muted or press stroke)

FIGURE 36 Dundunba part (notes with stems up represent bell notes lowest note

denotes open tones middle notes denote muted or press stroke)

J 99 3 9 9 n-^n p t u

TP

FIGURE 37 Dundunba variation

So by examining the dunun parts notice that the sangban and dundunba drums

carry a melody based on the tresillo rhythm and although there is no clave part actually

being played the dundunba helps to define the 3 side of the clave by playing an open

note on what would be the second note of the three side of clave also referred to as the 26

bombo note in Cuban music Figure 38 shows the sangban and dundunba composite

which creates a whole tresillo melody on the three side and a fragmented tresillo melody

(with the omission of the bombo note) on the two side of clave

J J ^ 7 Jgtiy bdquo J] FIGURE 38 Sangban (upper note) and dundunba (lower note) composite

In djembe music from West Africa there is always a solo djembe player that leads

the group and cues the dancers and there are also support djembes who play interlocking

repeated patterns to create a polyrhythmic texture In Kuku there are three common

accompaniments that are all played together to create the appropriate texture It is

important to note that if there are not enough people to fulfill all the accompaniment roles

that the first part (djembe 1) is the one that should be played the other two are secondary

and should only be played if someone is already playing the first djembe accompaniment

FIGURE 39 Djembe 1 (lowest note represents bass note midle note represents open

tone upper note represents slap)

See how the first accompaniment part in figure 39 outlines the tresillo rhythm

with its four note pattern In figure 40 the second djembe accompaniment part also

outlines tresillo with its six note pattern referenced earlier in figure 17

27

FIGURE 40 Djembe 2 (lower note represents tone upper note represents slap)

The third accompaniment part is not a tresillo based pattern but instead functions

as a melodic answer to the sangban and dundun composite the tones falling in the space

on the two side of clave to create a nice conversation

FIGURE 41 Djembe 3 (lower note represents bass upper note represents tone)

Thus far examination of six rhythms (not counting the break or any variations)

that comprise Kuku reveals that four out of these six rhythms are tresillo based patterns

Looking at the bell patterns of the dunun parts reveals that they are also derivatives of the

tresillo pattern (with the exception of the kenkeni whose part functions as a rhythmic

driver driving the rhythm forward) This rhythm is indisputably of African origin and

was constructed using uniquely African rhythmic principles Next an in-depth

examination of how these ideas of rhythmic construction made their way off the African

continent to influence other music in the African Diaspora specifically Cuba and Brazil

28

CHAPTER4

FOLKLORIC EXAMPLES IN CUBA OF TRESILLO AS AN ORGANIZATIONAL

STRUCTURE

Rumba Guaguanco

The word rumba has different connotations when applied to Cuban folk and

popular musics The word originally denoted a style of exuberant and flirtatious partner

dancing but more recent application refers to a distinct musical genre of dance-

drumming23 There are three types of rumba Yambu Columbia and Guaguanco

Guaguanco is the most popular and world renowned of the three and has made its way

outside the island into most Latin dance music24 There are currently two major

competing styles of rumba guaguanco in Cuba each with slight variations in the drum

parts Havana style and Matanzas style This section will focus on the style from

Matanzas Cuba The common drum instrumentation of guaguanco is three conga drums

a low conga (tumbador) a middle conga (segundo) and a high conga (quinto) The

tumbador (or tumba) and the segundo play a supporting role with room for improvisation

in the form of conversations between them The quinto drum takes the role of soloist

23 Gerard Beacutehague Improvisation in Latin American Musics Music Educators Journal 66 no 5 (January 1980) 121-122


29

utilizing highly syncopated ideas and polyrhythmic phrasings There is also a fixed

rhythmic group in this ensemble as there are in African ensembles The fixed rhythmic

group includes the clave (in this instance clave refers to a set of short thick dowels that

produce a short percussive tone when struck together) and the gua gua a slated piece of

bamboo There is typically a lead singersoloist and a group of supporting singers who

sing in a call and response manner to the lead singer Guaguanco uses the 32 rumba

clave which was discussed previously

FIGURE42 32 rumba clave

The clave is then reinforced by the gua gua pattern traditionally played on a piece

of bamboo which has a slit in it this part can also be played on a woodblock the side of a

conga or like object This eleven note pattern plays all the notes contained in clave as

well as defining some of the subdivisiojis surrounding it

FIGURE43 Gua gua pattern

The tumbador accentuates the second notes of the tresillo pattern with bass notes

and the third notes of tresillo using open tones The segundo part completes every other

tresillo pattern with an open tone falling on beat 3 the 2 side of the clave The segundo

part also utilizes a heel-toe stroke in addition to the open tone stroke The heel portion

entails dropping the haringnd on the drum just like a bass tone would the toe stroke is

30

initiated as the wrist pulls back and the haringnd lands flat back on the drum Combined

these two strokes create a soft texture similar in comparison to a drum-set player playing

ghost notes on a snare drum to fill in a groove

FIGURE 44 Tumbador basic part (lower notes denote bass upper notes denote tones)

3 J J J J J J J J J J J J J J J FIGURE 45 Segundo part (lower notes denote heeltoe upper note represents open

tone)

Take a look at how the closely the tumbador part follows the tresillo pattern

Notice the vertical relationship between these two rhythms in this next example

FIGURE 46 Tumbador part above with tresillo below

Next look at the relationship between the tumbador and the 32 rumba clave key

pattern Notice how the accent in the bass of the tumbador corresponds directly to the

second note of the three side of clave this note is referred to as the bombo note in Cuban

music and stress of this note rather than the downbeat is stylistic to this music This

coming together of the bombo note with clave creates a resolution on the three side of

31

clave just as the same note played on the two side of clave creates a feeling of conflict

falling in-between the two notes of the clave key pattern In 32 clave the music is set up

resolutionconflict and in 23 clave it is set up conflictresolution of which the latter of the

two is what out western ear is more accustomed to hearing

I JjJJ J - j J ^

i poundjgt- p psp FIGURE 47 Tumbador part above with 32 rumba clave below

The quinto part is variable and improvised by the soloist but there are patterns to

fall back on Here are a few examples of a ride pattern (basic part) for the quinto

performer Notice how the two bars contain the same rhythm but the melody from one

bar to the next is re-voiced playing a tone where before there was a slap and playing a

slap where before there was a tone This technique referred to as re-voicing creates

longer sounding phrases to the ear while still utilizing a short basic rhythmic motive

2fp7 T f p 1 yp7 r p r p FIGURE 48 Quinto basic l(Upper notes denote slap lower notes denote tone)

ftfCfyT- r p l y e y r P ^ FIGURE 49 Quinto basic 2

32

rpTcj -p 1(T Wr p FIGURE 50 Quinto part utilizing an inverted tresillo

Notice in figure 50 how a displaced version of tresillo can be used as a

counterpoint to the basic melody of the rumba Observe also that in all of these basic

parts the quinto drum resolves with the clave on the third strike on the 3 side This

note (the uh of beat two in a western 44 bar) also conveniently falls in-between the

tumbador and segundo part creating a distinct and recognizable melody This point of

resolution is also where an experienced quinto player resolves a lot of his phrases on the

syncopated upbeat right before the second measure before returning to the basic part A

composite of the clave and the quinto together would look like this

^ ^tefepound

^ Pgt Y ~$ Y f l

Y JW Jgt J

Praquo Y $ Y fl FIGURE 51 Clave pattern above with quinto pattem below

r poundjr FIGURE 52 Clave and quinto composite

Since the quinto pattern is such a seemingly abstract grouping of syncopated

sixteenth notes the clave and quinto composite can be used as a useful tool in playing the

quinto part The African way of thinking is one based on relationship not on abstract

piacement (ie e uh uh) of notes therefore keeping the quintoclave composite in

33

your head as you play the any of the quinto basic ride patterns is essential when learning

playing and especially soloing in this style of music

Next look at a reduction of the three part melody using the quinto part (top notes)

segundo tone note (middle notes) and the tumbador bass notes and tone notes (lowest

note represents bass note second from bottom represents tone note) Notice the tresillo

rhythm on the lower staff and how the three drum melody (with exception of the first

downbeat) outlines this underlying structure

yJT|T p f^F

FIGURE 53 Condensed three drum melody

Observe how similar the three drum melody is to the tresillo pattern If the fixed

rhythmic group played tresillo or a solely tresillo based pattern this music would be

without conflict and just be bar after bar of resolution creating a static environment If

however we use the 32 rumba clave key pattern changing just this one thing adds a lot

of rhythmic interest and resolutionconflict formula which contains both tension and

resolution giving us a stronger feeling of movement

In rumba we can see how important tresillo is to not only fixed rhythmic groups

but to all parts of this dance-drumming style From supporting parts and ride patterns to

soloistic phrases and improvisations tresillo is found from the rhythmic foundation to the

highest constructs in the parts that comprise rumba guaguanco

34

Makuta

Although a lot the religious music traditions in Cuba can be traced back to the

Yoruba people from Nigeria and Cameroon there was another ethnic group from the

Congo from who brought the Makuta Palo and Yuka music styles to Cuba These Bantu

speaking Congolese people danced and drummed Makuta as a fertility dance for the earth

and for humans as well The dance uses movements that indicate thanks to the earth for

her fertility and also encouragement during planting and harvest26 These traditions

eventually gave rise to more popular secular musics such as the mambo the rumba and

the conga The Makuta drums brought to Cuba by these Bantu people also had a direct

influence on the development of the modern day conga drum A vibrating membrane is

attached over the mouth of a barrel shaped tubular wooden shell with an open bottom

The skin was tacked on to the wood and would be heated next to a fire to tighten the skin

and produce a higher tone In modern times the skin is held on by a metal rim and tuned

using a system of lugs and turn screws28

Uzoma O Miller Santerias Convergence of Music Dance and Spirituality Historical Note httphistoricaltextarchivecomsectionsphpop=viewarticlelaquoampartid=441 (accessed September 14 2008)

Kim Atkinson Glossary of Rhythms httpwwwpulsewavecomglossary rhythmhtml (accessed November 252008)

27 Ana Maria Hernandez The African Roots of Latin Music Yoruba and Bantu Traditions httpfacultylagcccunyeduahernandezafrootsmodulel htm (accessed September 14 2008)

Dr Olavo Alen Rodriguez A History of the Congas httpwwwafrocuba webcomcidmuchtmHistory (accessed November 272008)

35

As with the other rhythms discussed this rhythm is formed with the same

principles consistent with the dance-drumming traditions There is a fixed rhythmic

group in this case represented with a bell that plays the cinquillo pattern which is an

ornamented form of tresillo

FIGURE 54 Makuta bell pattern

In part drumming music it is the tones played by the drums which carry the

melody and the slaps contribute to the overall texture of the music Notice in the next

example how the quinto support part mimics the bell pattern for Makuta but also how the

tone notes played mark the tresillo pattern exactly

FIGURE 55 Makuta quinto part (lower notes represent open tones upper notes denote

slap)

In this next example the segundo plays one of the five note patterns discussed

previously in the paper (figure 16) one of the many patterns that utilizes tresillo as a

basic skeleton pattern

g J J J J ^ J i J J J J _h

FIGURE 56 Makuta segundo part (lower notes represent bass upper notes represent

tones)

36

The tumbador plays the part of the solo instrument in this dance oriented piece

The basic part marks the beginning of each western measure which is critical for marking

the dancers feet

FIGURE 57 Makuta tumbador part (lower note represents tone upper notes denote

slap)

The simplicity of the lead drum part marks the pulse of this 44 metered song and

dance This basic pattern is improvised heavily upon by the soloist and gets more

complicated as the music and dance progresses Figure 58 provides a simple example of

a commonly used improvisation by the soloist

FIGURE 58 Tumbador simple solo variation

After making a soloistic statement it is common to return to the basic part Notice

how this simple solo phrase breaks away from the quarter note pulses and accentuates the

basic underlying rhythmic framework of the tresillo pattern implied in this particular

rhythm by the cinquillo pattern played on the bell

In examining all of the parts of Makuta it is clear how integral of a role tresillo

plays as an underlying structure From the bell pattern to the two supporting drums all

the supporting groups utilize the tresillo framework as a basis for their parts The lead

drum using only quarter notes for a basic part uses tresillo as a tool for improvisation

37

creating phrases moving in and out of this integral structure Tresillo and all the rhythmic

manifestations of this cornerstone rhythm not unlike the African 32 cross-rhythm in

African music forms the basis for this style of dance-drumming

38

CHAPTER 5

FOLKLORIC EXAMPLES IN BRAZIL OF TRESILLO AS AN ORGANIZATIONAL

STRUCTURE

Samba Reggae

Since the early 1720s carnival has been celebrated in Brazil29 But until the

middle of last century the big events and parades associated with carnival were restricted

to the attendance of lighter-skinned people which comprised about only 10-20 of the

populace Bahia with its high concentration of African heritage has become a center of

musical innovation A place where blending of music and musical styles became

commonplace the musicians in Bahia are well known for taking rhythm and musical

styles not only from Brazil but from around the world and synthesizing new structures

rhythms and forms of music In 1974 a group cailed Ileacute Aiyeacute (House of Life) was

created on the streets of Salvador Using their Yoruba heritage as a basis for inspiration

for music their membership was restricted to dark-skinned Afro-Brazilians In 1975 they

played their first Carnival event and paraded playing dynamic Afican derived rhythms

During a time when the government was more racially accepting then in previous years

Ileacute Aiyeacute expressed their African pride more demonstratively than any organization

The Drums of Bahia and Biocos Afros httpwwwgorogoroinfogorogoro blocos01htm (accessed November 302008)

39

previously This was inspiration for many groups to come and start a whole genre based

on African derived rhythms which would eventually lead to other musical styles such as

Samba Reggae and Axeacute (pronounced a-shae) music

Biocos were created as a community support program by people in specific

communities in order to help with social issues that the government was not addressing

These community created social programs empowered the surrounding people and

created a support network of community self-reliance While creating a positive and safe

environment for youth to learn and express themselves effectively keeping them off the

streets which were increasingly become saturated with guns and violence the biocos also

aimed to raise money through their endeavors and give back to their community Biocos

are usually run by a leader or musical director (similar to a samba school) who provides

guidance and provides each bloco with an identity This identity usually includes a

distinct and recognizable rhythm that they can call their own original costumes and

logos and of course a name which is often incorporated into the songs that are sung in

accordance with the rhythms

One of these biocos Grupo Cultural do Olodum has its roots in Salvador Bahia

in the town square known of the historie district known as the Pelourinho Olodum takes

its name from the Yoruba deity Olodumareacute (God of Gods in Yoruba language)30

Aside from being a gifted group of performers the bloco Olodum not only became a

cultural center for learning but also facilitated support for their community monetarily

Originally a bloco afro (a Bahian Carnival association devoted to research and the

Alvaro Neder Olodum Biography httpwwwanswerscomtopicolodum (accessed November 30 2008)

40

celebration of black culture) the group drew 800 people to the streets in their first

Carnival appearance in 198031 In the next year their membership had risen to 2000

affiliates In 1983 Neguinho do Samba (Antonio Luiz Alves de Souza former director of

Ile Aiyeacute) joined the group as musical director and is the figure responsible for combining

elements of samba and reggae that would come to characterize the groups musical

approach This combination also credits Olodum with the invention of Samba Reggae a

new form which mixed elements of samba Jamaican reggae and other Brazilian and

Afro-Caribbean styles Like reggae the rhythm emphasizes the upbeat while the surdo

bass drums imitate characteristics of a reggae style bass line Due to the efforts of

Olodum the once unsafe crime-ridden square of the Perlourinho of yesterday is a major

tourist destination today

On my trip to Brazil in 2003 I was fortunate enough to take classes from some

prominent members of Ile Aiyeacute as well as Olodum Here is a look at two Olodum

rhythms that I was taught while in Brazil These rhythms were transcribed in Brazil by

Dr Eugene Novotney

FIGURE 59 Tamborim part

In this Afro-centric style of drumming the tamborim takes on the role of the fixed

rhythmic group and like the clave in Afro-Cuban music or the bell in African music

31 Olodum Biography httpwwwanswerscomtopicolodum (accessed November 302008)

41

holds the key pattern to which the rest of the ensemble locks into and plays off of Notice

the prominent characteristics of tresillo embodied in this pattern with the first downbeat

of tresillo moved to the first sixteenth note subdivision off the beat While otherwise

having all of the characteristics of tresillo this simple syncopation provides a longer

phrase with more rhythmic interest while still incorporating all of the essential

components of tresillo Next observe how the repeninque part accentuates the tamborim

part with the accents while also embodying the tresillo rhythm in entirety

FIGURE60 Repenique part

Notice here in the caixa rhythm that even though the part is running sixteenth

notes that the accents correlate directly with the key pattern implying tresillo

4 I II I I I 14

FIGURE61 Caixa part

Next examine the surdo parts which carry the bass melody in this style of

drumming starting with the highest tuned surdo and working down to the lowest tuned

drum

a-v i Figure62 Surdo 4

42

Ilp-Urpl FIGURE63 Surdo3

W^=f I 3

FIGURE64 Surdo2

tr ri FIGURE65 Surdol

The surdos in this music carry a bass melody Looking closely at surdos 12 and

4 a different manifestation of the tresillo rhythm is revealed

FIGURE 66 Surdos 12 and 4 (lowest notes represent 1 middle notes represent 2

and the upper note represents 3)

The melody of these three surdos combined produce an augmented tresillo shown

simplified in this next example

43

f plusmn eacute i f FIGURE 67 Simplified surdo melody outlining an augmented tresillo

Notice how by examining all of the previous parts outlined in this section that

this rhythm was built almost entirely with the tresillo structure in mind from the

foundation parts all the way to the upper constructs

In this next rhythm transcribed by Dr Eugene Novotney and categorized simply

as Olodum 2 in his transcription notebook a similar structure to the previous rhythm is

evident with a structure that still utilizes the tresillo rhythm as an important building

block for the music First take a look at the tamborim part which plays the key pattern

for this song

Jlr ih jjy FIGURE 68 Tamborim playing 32 rumba clave key pattern

The next example shows the repenique part which although a little busier

functions in a similar way to the tamborim part Notice how the accents in the repenique

part serve to reinforce the key pattern set up by the tamborim

FIGURE 69 Repenique

44

The caixa in this rhythmic framework holds down the groove with a repeated

pattern accenting the ands of the beat and creates rhythmic counterpoint to the key

pattern The repetitiveness of this part on a beat per beat basis also functions as a

rhythmic driver giving forward momentum and intensity to the feeling of the music

FIGURE70 Caixa

Now examine the surdo parts from the highest to lowest In this particular song

surdos three and four play the same part at the same time

apPS FIGURE 71 Surdo 4 and surdo 3 (played tutti)

Turning back to Olodum 1 a comparison can be made with how the surdo

melodic composite produced an augmented tresillo rhythm In figure 71 observe how

the parts for surdos three and four also outline an augmented tresillo Next look at the

parts for surdos one and two and how they hold down a basic part consistent with most

samba rhythms from Bahia and Rio de Janeiro These two parts combined create the

basic pulse of a 44 time signature

45

FIGURE72 Surdo2

FIGURE73 Surdol

After closely examining the key parts that comprise this style of drumming unique

to Bahia Brazil it is apparant the integral role tresillo plays in the construction of these

rhythms The way tresillo is used to create key patterns the way in which it functions as

other key patterns function in the African Diaspora and the way it is used in an

augmented form to create underlying melodies are all important in understanding the

foundational functions of this key rhythm The rhythms analyzed in this section after

close examination were seemingly built on the foundation of the tresillo rhythm from

bottom to top Any rhythm contained in them that does not follow suit functions

primarily as a rhythmic driver creating forward momentum to keep this style of dance-

drumming pushing forward

Samba Batucada

The origins of samba batucada can be traced back to the 17th century in Bahia

This is where slaves captured from the Angola and Congo regions of Africa were

brought It was here that the slaves participated in traditional African semba gatherings

46

(at the time cailed umbigada or belly bumping Aptly named for a style of dance in

which literally involved bumping or rubbing their navels together) It is believed that

Angolas traditional semba music was an influential cornerstone to the rhythm of present

day Brazilian samba Used as a means of celebrating and religious worship the semba

incorporated an old traditional African rhythm which accompanied a dance form that is

reminiscent of modern day samba Near the end of the 19th century the then current

capital of Brazil Rio de Janeiro became Brazils major cultural center where musical

styles of European African and native origins would blend together with the end result

being Samba Samba was created as a musical genre in the region of Bahia well known

as the most African city in the Americas

Samba was created as a musical genre in the region of Bahia well known as the

most African city in the Americas The religious Condombleacute houses founded by

priestesses known as Baianas are a branch of the African derived Santeria religion which

is found in a similar form in Cuba These religions utilize rhythms and songs to invoke

the spirit of their gods During these ceremonies a style known as samba de roda

(pronounced samba g hoda) was danced to African drum rhythms From this point of

departure people created and composed variations which eventually led to the first

official broadcast of a samba song entitled Pelo Telefone which was recorded in 1917

The London School of Samba Carnival History Samba httpwwwlondon schoolofsambacoukpublicdefaultaspsection=Carnivalamppage=samba(accessed September 92008)

47

by Donga and Mauro Almeida in the city of Rio de Janeiro There is however some

controversy surrounding this historical information Who created the music is uncertain

but it was most probably the work of the group around Tia Ciata among them

Pixinguinha and Joao da Bahiana34 Tia Ciata was the nickname of a woman in Rio

renowned as a maker of sweets and a party hostess Her real name was Hilaria Batista de

Alameda and she lived between 1854-1924 It was at her house that musicians would

congregate and play together a hot spot for Rios first generation of professional song

writers The authors oiBrasil Musical and the series Nova Historia da Musica Popular

Brasileira (edited by Navarro) cite Alfredo Carlos Bricios Em Casa da Baiana (in the

Baianas House) released in 1911 by Rios casa Faulhaber as the first samba ever

recorded However the consensus among the majority of Brazilian musicologists is that

Pelo Telefone created at Tia Ciatas house deserves the distinction35

After the abolition of slavery on May 13 1888 mass migration from Bahia to Rio

resulted Escolas de Samba (samba schools) were set up in favelas (ghettos) as a creative

and artistic outlet for the youth Biocos (groups of dancers) sung and danced in

celebration of Carnival through their neighborhoods and neighboring favelas

accompanied by a bateria (an ensemble of percussion instruments) At first as in many

of the facets of the African Diaspora the music and dance expression of samba was

Global Oneness Samba-History Encyclopedia II- Samba-History http wwwexperiencefestivaleomaSamba_-_Historyid598932 (accessed October 22008)

34 Global Oneness Samba-History Encyclopedia II- Samba-History http wwwexperiencefestivaleomaSamba_-_Historyid598932 (accessed October 22008)

35 Chris McGowan and Ricardo Pessanha The Brazilian Sound Samba Bossa Nova and the Popular Music ofBrazil (New York Billboard Books 1991) 23

48

prohibited seen as obscene and improper in the eyes of the Brazilian upper class

Angenor de Oliveira a pioneer of samba has been quoted as saying In my childhood

we played the Samba in the backyards of the old ladies whom we call tias and the police

stopped us often because the Samba then was considered athing of bums and bandits

36 For these reasons samba was often practiced in secret away from the prying eyes of

public scrutiny With the end of slavery and the migration that followed the biocos are

what formed the basis for what would later become the first escolas de samba In 1917

with the release of the song Pelo Telefone on the radio samba was legitimized and

made public and samba rose out of its underground secret societies to become an

accepted musical genre

The instruments that make up a batucada bateria are surdos (commonly metal or

less commonly wood large bass drums slung over the shoulder by a strap with the

striking surface of the drum facing up and struck with a large mallet) caixas (metal snare

drums with two plastic or calf heads slung over the shoulder by a strap or propped on the

shoulder struck with two sticks on the head of the drum that contain the snares)

repeniques (commonly metal or less commonly wood cylindrical drums with two plastic

or calf heads slung over the shoulder with a strap and played with one stick and one haringnd

on the upward facing head) chocalhos (made out of metal or wood large shaker style

instruments which have many attached small cymbals similar to tambourine jingles

played by shaking with a forward and back motion) tamborims (small metal or less

Chilemwa Harriet Nkowane Samba Brasileiro - A History httpworld musiccentralorgarticlephpstory=20040720105726323ampmode=print (accessed November 272008)

49

commonly wood drums open on the bottom with a single plastic head on top struck with

a plastic flexible stick or more commonly a conglomeration of two or three plastic sticks

bound together held upright in front of the performer with the head facing towards the

player and played with a flipping motion) cuicas (a metal cylinder with a calf skin on the

top open at the bottom with a small bamboo stick attached to the head on the inside of

the drum (played by rubbing a moist cloth up and down along the bamboo stick with one

haringnd producing high and low tones with the resulting vibrations to the attached head)

There are typically three sizes of surdos small medium and large These drums

provide the bass end of the bateria and create the underlying melody The caixas play

syncopated accents and maintain the inner working of the grooves subdivisions as well

as supplying the necessary swing associated with Brazilian samba The chocalhos also

maintain the grooves subdivision playing a steady unaccented pattern The tamborims

have a variety of possibilities depending on the rhythm performed sometimes they play a

steady stream of subdivisions and other times they play the clave rhythm or a rhythm

known as teleco teco which has clave built into its structure and performs a similar

function The repeniques play patterns that interlock with the surdos or play patterns that

accentuate the subdivisions The leader of the group often plays repenique calling the

group in and out of the music creating call and response frameworks and layers

instruments in and out to create different textures to accompany songs Cuica rhythms

will not be discussed in this section but are mentioned because they are a part of the

bateria

The tamborim plays the part of the fixed rhythmic group in this example holding a

key pattern that has the characteristics of 32 son clave

50

FIGURE 74 Tamborim playing teleco teco

In figure 75 32 son clave is shown below the teleco teco part although the teleco

teco rhythm contains more notes notice how it outlines the rhythmic structure of the 32

clave key pattern and thereby assumes the same function role in the music as a key

pattern

h 7 J 3J wnt mnt t m m t

bullfy $y$ r y ppf FIGURE 75 Teleco teco shown with 32 son clave

Next examine the caixa part which also accentuates the 32 son clave in the part

shown below in figure 76 It is important to note that there are many patterns that can be

played by this drum depending on what each samba school prefers This particular

pattern is a trademark rhythm of the Viradouro samba school in Rio de Janeiro It is also

important to note that there are many patterns that can be played simultaneously at any

given time within a caixa section in a bateria and that this rhythm represents merely one

of many patterns that could be played during a samba performance

FIGURE 76 Caixa

51

This next example (as like the previous example) is also one of many parts that

can be played by a repenique pattern during a samba performance This particular

example is a part that complements the Viradouro caixa pattern above Notice how this

pattern also accentuates the 32 son clave key pattern

fl JJJJJJJJJJJJjJ

FIGURE77 Repenique

The Surdo examples below are a common example of the bass melody that

happens in a samba bateria Surdos 1 and 2 carry the basic pulse of a 44 time signature

while surdo 3 plays in-between creating a recognizable melody While Surdos 1 and 2

play a standard part consistent with batucada styles the surdo 3 part is free to improvise

and create variations to the basic part The surdo 3 part shown here is one of many that

could be played A major difference in the bottom two surdo parts between batucada

from Rio and samba reggae music from Bahia is that in the batucada style the lowest

surdo (surdo 1) plays on beats 2 and 4 with the slightly higher surdo (surdo 2) plays on

beats 1 and 3 In samba reggae the roles of the bottom two surdos are reversed with the

lowest surdo playing on beats 1 and 3 and the higher surdo 2 playing on beats 2 and 4

2 flaquoi 1 f FIGURE78 Surdo 3

52

FIGURE79 Surdo2

m r r i FIGURE80 Surdol

The chocalho is a large shaker instrument (discussed earlier) and maintains a

consistent stream of sub-divisions

FIGURE81 Chocalho

So this section has shown how the tamborim sets up a key pattem part based on

clave which is then reinforced by accents in the caixa and repenique parts The surdos

create a simple and recognizable bass melody and the chucalhos function to help push the

rhythm forward All of the parts above have been notated in Western notation but as

discussed earlier there is a certain lilt or swing associated with this style of playing

that cannot be accurately transcribed using this system These parts are all played in a

rhytnmic feel referred to as fix which will be discussed in the next section of this

paper Finding fix is essential for performance practice of the samba batucada style

and in faet all of the styles previously discussed in this paper

53

CHAPTER 6

DISCUSSION OF FIX

All of the examples of Afro-Centric musics discussed in this paper have a certain

swing or lilt to them that do not fit into any of the strict subdivisions of our

westernized structures of meter Although all of them have been put into a categorical

structure for the purpose of conveyance it is important to discuss for performance

practice purposes how to execute these rhythms with the correct timing and feel

Michael Spiro states in his book The Conga Drummer s Guidebook that a

major difficulty for those of us raised in Western cultures is that in Afro-centric musics

the rhythmic distinction between three subdivisions per beat and four subdivisions per

beat (triple versus duple) is frequently-blurred In several cases the distinction does not

exist at all- there is a completely new kind of subdivision at work This is what gives

Rumba from Cuba Samba from Brazil and even certain kinds of Be-bop their unique

characters37 As a performer of rumba and samba I agree with what Michael Spiro has

expressed Michael Spiro has coined this phenomenon of averaging between a 44 and a

68 time signature fix (four and six) In this system of playing there is no such thing as

a strict sixteenth note subdivision instead groupings of four are made to fit

Michael Spiro The Conga Drummer s Guidebook (Petaluma Sher Music Co 2006) 38

54

asymmetrically inside groupings of three Take for example the timing of the triplet

figure illustrated below the first and second sixteenth notes underneath should line up

exactly with the triplet as well as the last two notes The notes in-between these points

are rushed a little so that the and of the beat arrives a little earlier than in straight

sixteenth note time

l l i s

li raquo ^

laquo

ffiEacutei Figure 82 Fix

In figure 82 the main beats land squarely in time even though some of the

subdivisions are played ahead and others behind the conventional sixteenth note

piacement model Another interpretation of the fix model can be expressed by triplets

with the second note containing a flam shown in this next example

JiyjJJEJJJJSgg FIGURE 83 Flammed triplet

This example of flammed triplets is a better expression of the rhythmic feel of a basic

samba caixa pattern This pattern is commonly usually noted as straight sixteenth notes

as illustrated in figure 83 To be stylistically accurate the flam should be played at the

same volume consistent with every note in this pattern and should not be played quieter

55

FIGURE63 Commonly notated caixa pattern

Although notated in even 16th notes to play a samba caixa pattern like this would

be stylistically incorrect for two reasons one being that the part is not played straight as

written and the second being that this pattern is stylistically played unaccented

Unfortunately most samba literature acquired for a western performance of this genre

would be written like example 93 however in actual performance practice figure 93

should be played more like example 92 to achieve the appropriate rhythmic texture

In performance practice the flam on the second triplet (in addition to being played

at the same volume as the rest of the notes) should be played open and wider than a

normal flam to achieve the desired feeling Spiro states in his book that if al6th note is

25100 of a beat and a triplet is 33 13100 of a beat then (in fix) we are falling

somewhere around 29 and leacute^lOO of a beat38 Although this sounds like a trivial

amount it is just enough to give the music its characteristic feeling of pushing forward

and creating something that you cant tell is even or swung With tresillo being

derived from the African 32 cross-rhythm and the clave being derived from the African

12-bell it is easy to see how the scenario of fix fits into the picture of duple meters that

use a derivative of a ternary concept to create a unique musical expression that defies

strict definition within our western conceptions of meter

Michael Spiro The Conga Drummers Guidebook (Petaluma Sher Music Co 2006) 42

56

CHAPTER 7

CONCLUSION

This paper has examined two African rhythms Agbadza from Ghana and Kuku

from the forest region of Guinea have been examined Two Afro-Cuban rhythms from

Cuba rumba guaguanco and Makuta were examined Finally we examined two musical

styles from Brazil samba reggae from Bahia and samba batucada from Rio de Janeiro

In all of the examples the integral role tresillo as a fundamental building block was

apparent From creating key patterns to creating parts tresillo is a common element in all

of these musics regardless of the style or rhythmic feel that is being implied from playing

in fix

Examining the origins of tresillo as evolving from the African 32 cross-rhythm

and the evolution of tresillo from a ternary form to a quasi-duple form is an important

concept to keep in mind while exploring rhythms which swing in-between four and six in

that gray area which Michael Spiro so aptly coined fix Audio examples were also

given to help discern slight variations in the degree of swing between different musical

examples The difference between sixteenth note interpretation in western music varies

from the styles that utilize fix as the basic substructure for playing time is an important

concept to internalize for the performance practice of these different styles of music The

57

subtle difference between sixteenth note interpretation can create a rift between two

musicians who come from different cultural backgrounds who for one reason or another

get together to play perhaps for ran perhaps for a performance I personally have

witnessed situations like this where Brazilian percussionists were performing with an

American drum set player the end result being a clash of subdivisions with the dram set

player trying to pulse even sixteenth notes and the Brazilian percussionists pulsing

sixteenth notes based in fix The purpose of this paper was to not only explore the origins

of the tresillo but to show the commonality of the rhythm to both music that is pulsed in

a straight 44 and to music that is pulsed in fix The most important concept to grasp is

that tresillo is a rhythmic framework connecting differing rhythmic styles meaning that

in all the music discussed even western based music while sometimes differing on the

interpretation of the underlying subdivisions all share tresillo as a common rhythmic

construct Therefore if a situation occurs in which a drummerpercussionist isnt in

rhythmic harmony with the other people around himher then playing something that is

less based upon the concept of subdivisions and more based on utilizing tresillo as an

organizational structure is a more practical approach This is a useful tool in a musical

world that is being ever increasingly blended with different influences from around the

globe In conclusion tresillo a derivative of the African 32 cross-rhythm functions as a

rhythmic framework that connects differing rhythmic styles giving us a different way of

looking at rhythm and ways of fitting in cross-culturally in musics around the world

58

APENDIX

GLOSSARY OF TERMS

59

Audio Demonstrations of Fix

1 Sixteenth notes played straight

2 Sixteenth notes played in fix

3 Sixteenth notes played with flammed triplet interpretation

60

GLOSSARY OF TERMS

Beat The basic temporal reference of a composition usually divided

into smaller pulsations often referred to as subdivisions The

history of the term is related to the marking of time by movements

of a conductors haringnd

Bombo A term that refers specifically to the second note of the three side

of clave

Break A term used to describe a drum call that starts or ends a dance-

drurnrning piece of music used specifically in this paper to refer

specifically to djembe music

Cross-Rhythm A specific term reserved to define examples of polyrhythm

consisting of rhythmicmetric contradiction which is regular and

systematic and which occurs in the longer sparingn- that is systematic

rhythmicmetric contradiction that significantly disrupts the

prevailing meter or accent pattern of the music

Downbeat The first beat of every measure of a musical composition usually

marked by the downward motion of a conductors haringnd It is also

sometimes used to signify only the first beat of a composition

61

Fix A musical term used by Michael Spiro to describe and averaging

between 44 and 68 (four and six) Instead of being evenly

spaced certain subdivisions are pushed closer together making it

hard to distinguish whether the musicians are playing in binary or

ternary form

Ghost Note Musical notes which are purposely de-emphasized to create an

underlying rhythmic texture

Offbeat Any attack point or subdivision that does not coincide with a beat

Polyrhythm A general and nonspecific term for the simultaneous occurrence of

two or more conflicting rhythms of which cross-rhythm is a

specific and definable subset

Pulse(s) The smaller equal subdivisions between the beats

Tresillo An afro-Cuban music term used to describe the rhythm that is the

three side of clave also referenced by many scholars as the 3+3+2

additive rhythm

62

BIBLIOGRAPHY

63

BIBLIOGRAPHY

A History of Samba httpbrazilianmusiccomsambahtml (accessed September 10 2008)

Beacutehague Gerard Improvisation in Latin American Musics Music Educators Journal 66 No 5 (January 1980) 118-125

Dudley Shannon Judging By the Beat Calypso versus Soca Ethnomusicology 40 No 2 (Spring-Summer 1996) 269-298

Eisentraut Jochen Samba in Wales Making Sense of Adopted Music British Journal of Ethnomusicology 10 No 1 Music and Meaning (2001) 85-105 Database online Available from JSTOR Article 3395789

Global Oneness Samba-History Encyclopedia II- Samba-History httpwww experiencefestivalcomaSamba-Historyid598932 (accessed October 2 2008)

Hernandez Ana Maria The African Roots of Latin Music Yoruba and Bantu Traditions httpfacultylagcccunyeduahernandezafrootsmodulelhtm (accessed September 142008)

Hill Donald R West African and Haitian Influences on the Ritual and Popular Music of Carriacou Trinidad and Cuba Black Music Resaerch Journal 18 No Vi (Spring- Autumn 1998) 183-201

Ladzekpo CK Foundation Course in African Dance Drumming httpbmrcberkley edupeopleladzekpoFoundationhtml (accessed November 112008)

Ladzekpo CK Personal Instruction and Conversations Fresno and Arcata California 1998-2004

Locke David Ethnomusicology 26 No 2 (May 1982) 217-246

Mauleon Rebecca Salsa Guidebookfor Piano amp Ensemble Sher Music San Francisco 1993

McGowan Chris and Pessanha Ricardo The Brazilian Sound Samba Bossa Nova and the Popular Music ofBrazil New York Billboard Books 1991

64

Miller Uzoma O Santerias Convergence of Music Dance and Spirituality Historical Note httphistorical textarchivecomsectionsphpop=viewarticleampartid=441 (accessed September 14 2008)

Neder Alvaro Olodum Biography httpwwwanswerscomtopicolodum (accessed November 30 2008)

Nkowane Chilemwa Harriet Samba Brasileiro - A History httpworldmusiccentral orgarticlephpstory=20040720105726323ampmode=print (accessed November 27 2008)

Nodal Roberto The Social Evolution ofthe Afro-CubanDrum The Black Perspective in Music 11 No 2 (Autumn 1983) 157-177

Novotney Eugene Domenic The 32 Relationship as the Foundation of Timelines in West African Musics PhD diss University of Illinois 1998

Olodum httpwwwnarincomolodumindexhtml(accessed November 302008)

Olodum Biography httpwwwanswerscomtopicolodum (accessed November 30 2008)

Olodum-site official httpolodumuolcombr (accessed November 302008)

Pantaleoini Hewitt Three Principals of Timing in Anlo Dance Drumming African Music 5 No 2 (1972) 50-63

Pulsewave Percussion Glossary of Rhythms httpwwwpulsewavecomglossary rhythmhtml (accessed September 142008)

Randel Don Michael ed The New Harvard Dictionary of Music Cambridge The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press 1986

Rahn Jay Turning the Analysis Around Africa-Derived Rhythms and Europe-Derived Music Theory Black Music Research Journal 16 No 1 (Spring 1996) 71-89

Raphael Alison From Popular Culture to Microenterprise The History of Brazilian Samba Schools Latin American Music ReviewRevista de Musica Latinoamericana 11 No 1 (Spring-Summer 1990) 73-83

Rodriguez Olavo Alen A History ofthe Congas httpwwwafrocubawebcom cidmuchtmHistory (accessed November 272008)

65

Spiro Michael The Conga Drummer s Guidebook Ed Chuck Sher Petaluma CA Sher Music Co 2006

Spiro Michael Personal Instruction and Conversations Fresno and San Francisco California 1998-2004

Starr Eric Batucada Samba and Bossa Nova-History and Development Drummers Guide httpwwwabcarticledirectorycomArticleBatucada--Samba-And-Bossa- Novamdash -History-And-Development-Drummers-Guide114530 (accessed September 102008)

The Drums of Bahia and Biocos Afro httpwwwgorogoroinfogorogoroblocos 01htm (accessed 10 September 2008)

The London School of Samba Carnival History Samba httpwwwlondon schoolofsambaxo uk publicdefaultaspsection=Camivalamppage=samba (accessed September 92008)

Washbourne Christopher The Clave of Jazz A Caribbean Contribution to the Rhythmic Foundation of African American Music Black Music Research Journal Vol 17 Nol (Spring 1997) 59-80

Websters II New Riverside Dictionary New York Berkley Books Houghton Mifflin Company 1984

Williams B Michael Mamady Keitas Kuku httpwwwbmichaelwilliamscom PNMamadyKeitaKukupdf (accessed 15 November 2008)

Wilson Olly The Significance of the Relationship between Afro-American Music and West African Music The Black Perspective in Music Vol 2 No 1 (Spring 1974) 3-22

66

UMI Number 1472279

INFORMATION TO USERS

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UMI UMI Microform 1472279

Copyright 2009 by ProQuest LLC All rights reserved This microform edition is protected against

unauthorized copying under Title 17 United States Code

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PO Box1346 Ann Arbor Ml 48106-1346

ABSTRACT



By

Andrew Acquista

August 2009














PREFACE




















iii























iv

CONTENTS

Page

PREFACE iii


CHAPTER

1 INTRODUCTIONS 1


Methodology 2





Agbadza 16

Kuku 24


Rumba Guaguanco 29

Makuta 35




CHAPTER Page

7 CONCLUSION 57


BIBLIOGRAPHY 64

vi

LIST OF FIGURES

FIGURE Page

1 Tresillo 1

2 On-beat32 9

3 Off-beat 32 9

4 12-bell 9


6 Tresillo 10



9 32 son clave 11



12 Cinquillo 12



15 Passport 13



vii

Page




21 Axase 19





26 Kagan part 21





31 Dununpicture 24


33 Kuku break 25

34 Kenkeni part 26

35 Sangban part 26

36 Dundunbapart 26



viii

Page

39 Djembe 1 27

40 Djembe 2 28

41 Djembe 3 28




45 Segundopart 31














59 Tamborim part 41

ix

Page


61 Caixapart 42

62 Surdo 4 42

63 Surdo 3 43

64 Surdo 2 43

65 Surdo 1 43




69 Repenique 44

70 Caixa 45


72 Surdo 2 46

73 Surdo 1 46



76 Caixa 52

77 Repenique 52

78 Surdo 3 52

79 Surdo 2 53

80 Surdo 1 53

x

FIGURE Page

81 Chocalho 53

82 Fix 56



XI

CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTIONS













1














Methodology









2





















3



















4



patterns8


















5












1 X










6











7

CHAPTER 2



















8





FIGURE2 On-beat 32




pulse beat scheme


FIGURE3 Off-beat 32



FIGURE4 12 bell





















10





7 S1- J v 7 JS J1^^













11







FIGURE 12 Cinquillo






12







FIGURE 15 Passport










Guinea West Africa














14













15

CHAPTER 3





very similar forms

Agbadza





rattle) 15






16
















17













18



FIGURE21 Axase



the 128 measure












19

















20
















21



^ gt bull gt bull



scheme
















22













Kuku









23









knots








24







slap)







25

n n n Zf ZT Zf

plusmn1



F=B ^





J 99 3 9 9 n-^n p t u

TP






















27














28

CHAPTER4


STRUCTURE

Rumba Guaguanco















29



















30






tone)









31





I JjJJ J - j J ^










32










^ ^tefepound

^ Pgt Y ~$ Y f l

Y JW Jgt J







33








yJT|T p f^F












34

Makuta


















35











slap)






tones)

36



the dancers feet


slap)














37




38

CHAPTER 5


STRUCTURE

Samba Reggae















39























40















Dr Eugene Novotney





41











4 I II I I I 14

FIGURE61 Caixa part



drum


42


W^=f I 3

FIGURE64 Surdo2








43









for this song





FIGURE 69 Repenique

44





FIGURE70 Caixa










45

FIGURE72 Surdo2

FIGURE73 Surdol











Samba Batucada




46




















47






















48






















49





















bateria



50





pattern










FIGURE 76 Caixa

51





fl JJJJJJJJJJJJjJ

FIGURE77 Repenique












52

FIGURE79 Surdo2




FIGURE81 Chocalho










53

CHAPTER 6

DISCUSSION OF FIX

















54





sixteenth note time

l l i s

li raquo ^

laquo











55




















56

CHAPTER 7

CONCLUSION








in fix









57





















58

APENDIX

GLOSSARY OF TERMS

59





60

GLOSSARY OF TERMS






of clave












61





ternary form










additive rhythm

62

BIBLIOGRAPHY

63

BIBLIOGRAPHY













64















65










66

ABSTRACT



By

Andrew Acquista

August 2009














PREFACE




















iii























iv

CONTENTS

Page

PREFACE iii


CHAPTER

1 INTRODUCTIONS 1


Methodology 2





Agbadza 16

Kuku 24


Rumba Guaguanco 29

Makuta 35




CHAPTER Page

7 CONCLUSION 57


BIBLIOGRAPHY 64

vi

LIST OF FIGURES

FIGURE Page

1 Tresillo 1

2 On-beat32 9

3 Off-beat 32 9

4 12-bell 9


6 Tresillo 10



9 32 son clave 11



12 Cinquillo 12



15 Passport 13



vii

Page




21 Axase 19





26 Kagan part 21





31 Dununpicture 24


33 Kuku break 25

34 Kenkeni part 26

35 Sangban part 26

36 Dundunbapart 26



viii

Page

39 Djembe 1 27

40 Djembe 2 28

41 Djembe 3 28




45 Segundopart 31














59 Tamborim part 41

ix

Page


61 Caixapart 42

62 Surdo 4 42

63 Surdo 3 43

64 Surdo 2 43

65 Surdo 1 43




69 Repenique 44

70 Caixa 45


72 Surdo 2 46

73 Surdo 1 46



76 Caixa 52

77 Repenique 52

78 Surdo 3 52

79 Surdo 2 53

80 Surdo 1 53

x

FIGURE Page

81 Chocalho 53

82 Fix 56



XI

CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTIONS













1














Methodology









2





















3



















4



patterns8


















5












1 X










6











7

CHAPTER 2



















8





FIGURE2 On-beat 32




pulse beat scheme


FIGURE3 Off-beat 32



FIGURE4 12 bell





















10





7 S1- J v 7 JS J1^^













11







FIGURE 12 Cinquillo






12







FIGURE 15 Passport










Guinea West Africa














14













15

CHAPTER 3





very similar forms

Agbadza





rattle) 15






16
















17













18



FIGURE21 Axase



the 128 measure












19

















20
















21



^ gt bull gt bull



scheme
















22













Kuku









23









knots








24







slap)







25

n n n Zf ZT Zf

plusmn1



F=B ^





J 99 3 9 9 n-^n p t u

TP






















27














28

CHAPTER4


STRUCTURE

Rumba Guaguanco















29



















30






tone)









31





I JjJJ J - j J ^










32










^ ^tefepound

^ Pgt Y ~$ Y f l

Y JW Jgt J







33








yJT|T p f^F












34

Makuta


















35











slap)






tones)

36



the dancers feet


slap)














37




38

CHAPTER 5


STRUCTURE

Samba Reggae















39























40















Dr Eugene Novotney





41











4 I II I I I 14

FIGURE61 Caixa part



drum


42


W^=f I 3

FIGURE64 Surdo2








43









for this song





FIGURE 69 Repenique

44





FIGURE70 Caixa










45

FIGURE72 Surdo2

FIGURE73 Surdol











Samba Batucada




46




















47






















48






















49





















bateria



50





pattern










FIGURE 76 Caixa

51





fl JJJJJJJJJJJJjJ

FIGURE77 Repenique












52

FIGURE79 Surdo2




FIGURE81 Chocalho










53

CHAPTER 6

DISCUSSION OF FIX

















54





sixteenth note time

l l i s

li raquo ^

laquo











55




















56

CHAPTER 7

CONCLUSION








in fix









57





















58

APENDIX

GLOSSARY OF TERMS

59





60

GLOSSARY OF TERMS






of clave












61





ternary form










additive rhythm

62

BIBLIOGRAPHY

63

BIBLIOGRAPHY













64















65










66

PREFACE




















iii























iv

CONTENTS

Page

PREFACE iii


CHAPTER

1 INTRODUCTIONS 1


Methodology 2





Agbadza 16

Kuku 24


Rumba Guaguanco 29

Makuta 35




CHAPTER Page

7 CONCLUSION 57


BIBLIOGRAPHY 64

vi

LIST OF FIGURES

FIGURE Page

1 Tresillo 1

2 On-beat32 9

3 Off-beat 32 9

4 12-bell 9


6 Tresillo 10



9 32 son clave 11



12 Cinquillo 12



15 Passport 13



vii

Page




21 Axase 19





26 Kagan part 21





31 Dununpicture 24


33 Kuku break 25

34 Kenkeni part 26

35 Sangban part 26

36 Dundunbapart 26



viii

Page

39 Djembe 1 27

40 Djembe 2 28

41 Djembe 3 28




45 Segundopart 31














59 Tamborim part 41

ix

Page


61 Caixapart 42

62 Surdo 4 42

63 Surdo 3 43

64 Surdo 2 43

65 Surdo 1 43




69 Repenique 44

70 Caixa 45


72 Surdo 2 46

73 Surdo 1 46



76 Caixa 52

77 Repenique 52

78 Surdo 3 52

79 Surdo 2 53

80 Surdo 1 53

x

FIGURE Page

81 Chocalho 53

82 Fix 56



XI

CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTIONS













1














Methodology









2





















3



















4



patterns8


















5












1 X










6











7

CHAPTER 2



















8





FIGURE2 On-beat 32




pulse beat scheme


FIGURE3 Off-beat 32



FIGURE4 12 bell





















10





7 S1- J v 7 JS J1^^













11







FIGURE 12 Cinquillo






12







FIGURE 15 Passport










Guinea West Africa














14













15

CHAPTER 3





very similar forms

Agbadza





rattle) 15






16
















17













18



FIGURE21 Axase



the 128 measure












19

















20
















21



^ gt bull gt bull



scheme
















22













Kuku









23









knots








24







slap)







25

n n n Zf ZT Zf

plusmn1



F=B ^





J 99 3 9 9 n-^n p t u

TP






















27














28

CHAPTER4


STRUCTURE

Rumba Guaguanco















29



















30






tone)









31





I JjJJ J - j J ^










32










^ ^tefepound

^ Pgt Y ~$ Y f l

Y JW Jgt J







33








yJT|T p f^F












34

Makuta


















35











slap)






tones)

36



the dancers feet


slap)














37




38

CHAPTER 5


STRUCTURE

Samba Reggae















39























40















Dr Eugene Novotney





41











4 I II I I I 14

FIGURE61 Caixa part



drum


42


W^=f I 3

FIGURE64 Surdo2








43









for this song





FIGURE 69 Repenique

44





FIGURE70 Caixa










45

FIGURE72 Surdo2

FIGURE73 Surdol











Samba Batucada




46




















47






















48






















49





















bateria



50





pattern










FIGURE 76 Caixa

51





fl JJJJJJJJJJJJjJ

FIGURE77 Repenique












52

FIGURE79 Surdo2




FIGURE81 Chocalho










53

CHAPTER 6

DISCUSSION OF FIX

















54





sixteenth note time

l l i s

li raquo ^

laquo











55




















56

CHAPTER 7

CONCLUSION








in fix









57





















58

APENDIX

GLOSSARY OF TERMS

59





60

GLOSSARY OF TERMS






of clave












61





ternary form










additive rhythm

62

BIBLIOGRAPHY

63

BIBLIOGRAPHY













64















65










66























iv

CONTENTS

Page

PREFACE iii


CHAPTER

1 INTRODUCTIONS 1


Methodology 2





Agbadza 16

Kuku 24


Rumba Guaguanco 29

Makuta 35




CHAPTER Page

7 CONCLUSION 57


BIBLIOGRAPHY 64

vi

LIST OF FIGURES

FIGURE Page

1 Tresillo 1

2 On-beat32 9

3 Off-beat 32 9

4 12-bell 9


6 Tresillo 10



9 32 son clave 11



12 Cinquillo 12



15 Passport 13



vii

Page




21 Axase 19





26 Kagan part 21





31 Dununpicture 24


33 Kuku break 25

34 Kenkeni part 26

35 Sangban part 26

36 Dundunbapart 26



viii

Page

39 Djembe 1 27

40 Djembe 2 28

41 Djembe 3 28




45 Segundopart 31














59 Tamborim part 41

ix

Page


61 Caixapart 42

62 Surdo 4 42

63 Surdo 3 43

64 Surdo 2 43

65 Surdo 1 43




69 Repenique 44

70 Caixa 45


72 Surdo 2 46

73 Surdo 1 46



76 Caixa 52

77 Repenique 52

78 Surdo 3 52

79 Surdo 2 53

80 Surdo 1 53

x

FIGURE Page

81 Chocalho 53

82 Fix 56



XI

CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTIONS













1














Methodology









2





















3



















4



patterns8


















5












1 X










6











7

CHAPTER 2



















8





FIGURE2 On-beat 32




pulse beat scheme


FIGURE3 Off-beat 32



FIGURE4 12 bell





















10





7 S1- J v 7 JS J1^^













11







FIGURE 12 Cinquillo






12







FIGURE 15 Passport










Guinea West Africa














14













15

CHAPTER 3





very similar forms

Agbadza





rattle) 15






16
















17













18



FIGURE21 Axase



the 128 measure












19

















20
















21



^ gt bull gt bull



scheme
















22













Kuku









23









knots








24







slap)







25

n n n Zf ZT Zf

plusmn1



F=B ^





J 99 3 9 9 n-^n p t u

TP






















27














28

CHAPTER4


STRUCTURE

Rumba Guaguanco















29



















30






tone)









31





I JjJJ J - j J ^










32










^ ^tefepound

^ Pgt Y ~$ Y f l

Y JW Jgt J







33








yJT|T p f^F












34

Makuta


















35











slap)






tones)

36



the dancers feet


slap)














37




38

CHAPTER 5


STRUCTURE

Samba Reggae















39























40















Dr Eugene Novotney





41











4 I II I I I 14

FIGURE61 Caixa part



drum


42


W^=f I 3

FIGURE64 Surdo2








43









for this song





FIGURE 69 Repenique

44





FIGURE70 Caixa










45

FIGURE72 Surdo2

FIGURE73 Surdol











Samba Batucada




46




















47






















48






















49





















bateria



50





pattern










FIGURE 76 Caixa

51





fl JJJJJJJJJJJJjJ

FIGURE77 Repenique












52

FIGURE79 Surdo2




FIGURE81 Chocalho










53

CHAPTER 6

DISCUSSION OF FIX

















54





sixteenth note time

l l i s

li raquo ^

laquo











55




















56

CHAPTER 7

CONCLUSION








in fix









57





















58

APENDIX

GLOSSARY OF TERMS

59





60

GLOSSARY OF TERMS






of clave












61





ternary form










additive rhythm

62

BIBLIOGRAPHY

63

BIBLIOGRAPHY













64















65










66

CONTENTS

Page

PREFACE iii


CHAPTER

1 INTRODUCTIONS 1


Methodology 2





Agbadza 16

Kuku 24


Rumba Guaguanco 29

Makuta 35




CHAPTER Page

7 CONCLUSION 57


BIBLIOGRAPHY 64

vi

LIST OF FIGURES

FIGURE Page

1 Tresillo 1

2 On-beat32 9

3 Off-beat 32 9

4 12-bell 9


6 Tresillo 10



9 32 son clave 11



12 Cinquillo 12



15 Passport 13



vii

Page




21 Axase 19





26 Kagan part 21





31 Dununpicture 24


33 Kuku break 25

34 Kenkeni part 26

35 Sangban part 26

36 Dundunbapart 26



viii

Page

39 Djembe 1 27

40 Djembe 2 28

41 Djembe 3 28




45 Segundopart 31














59 Tamborim part 41

ix

Page


61 Caixapart 42

62 Surdo 4 42

63 Surdo 3 43

64 Surdo 2 43

65 Surdo 1 43




69 Repenique 44

70 Caixa 45


72 Surdo 2 46

73 Surdo 1 46



76 Caixa 52

77 Repenique 52

78 Surdo 3 52

79 Surdo 2 53

80 Surdo 1 53

x

FIGURE Page

81 Chocalho 53

82 Fix 56



XI

CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTIONS













1














Methodology









2





















3



















4



patterns8


















5












1 X










6











7

CHAPTER 2



















8





FIGURE2 On-beat 32




pulse beat scheme


FIGURE3 Off-beat 32



FIGURE4 12 bell





















10





7 S1- J v 7 JS J1^^













11







FIGURE 12 Cinquillo






12







FIGURE 15 Passport










Guinea West Africa














14













15

CHAPTER 3





very similar forms

Agbadza





rattle) 15






16
















17













18



FIGURE21 Axase



the 128 measure












19

















20
















21



^ gt bull gt bull



scheme
















22













Kuku









23









knots








24







slap)







25

n n n Zf ZT Zf

plusmn1



F=B ^





J 99 3 9 9 n-^n p t u

TP






















27














28

CHAPTER4


STRUCTURE

Rumba Guaguanco















29



















30






tone)









31





I JjJJ J - j J ^










32










^ ^tefepound

^ Pgt Y ~$ Y f l

Y JW Jgt J







33








yJT|T p f^F












34

Makuta


















35











slap)






tones)

36



the dancers feet


slap)














37




38

CHAPTER 5


STRUCTURE

Samba Reggae















39























40















Dr Eugene Novotney





41











4 I II I I I 14

FIGURE61 Caixa part



drum


42


W^=f I 3

FIGURE64 Surdo2








43









for this song





FIGURE 69 Repenique

44





FIGURE70 Caixa










45

FIGURE72 Surdo2

FIGURE73 Surdol











Samba Batucada




46




















47






















48






















49





















bateria



50





pattern










FIGURE 76 Caixa

51





fl JJJJJJJJJJJJjJ

FIGURE77 Repenique












52

FIGURE79 Surdo2




FIGURE81 Chocalho










53

CHAPTER 6

DISCUSSION OF FIX

















54





sixteenth note time

l l i s

li raquo ^

laquo











55




















56

CHAPTER 7

CONCLUSION








in fix









57





















58

APENDIX

GLOSSARY OF TERMS

59





60

GLOSSARY OF TERMS






of clave












61





ternary form










additive rhythm

62

BIBLIOGRAPHY

63

BIBLIOGRAPHY













64















65










66

CHAPTER Page

7 CONCLUSION 57


BIBLIOGRAPHY 64

vi

LIST OF FIGURES

FIGURE Page

1 Tresillo 1

2 On-beat32 9

3 Off-beat 32 9

4 12-bell 9


6 Tresillo 10



9 32 son clave 11



12 Cinquillo 12



15 Passport 13



vii

Page




21 Axase 19





26 Kagan part 21





31 Dununpicture 24


33 Kuku break 25

34 Kenkeni part 26

35 Sangban part 26

36 Dundunbapart 26



viii

Page

39 Djembe 1 27

40 Djembe 2 28

41 Djembe 3 28




45 Segundopart 31














59 Tamborim part 41

ix

Page


61 Caixapart 42

62 Surdo 4 42

63 Surdo 3 43

64 Surdo 2 43

65 Surdo 1 43




69 Repenique 44

70 Caixa 45


72 Surdo 2 46

73 Surdo 1 46



76 Caixa 52

77 Repenique 52

78 Surdo 3 52

79 Surdo 2 53

80 Surdo 1 53

x

FIGURE Page

81 Chocalho 53

82 Fix 56



XI

CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTIONS













1














Methodology









2





















3



















4



patterns8


















5












1 X










6











7

CHAPTER 2



















8





FIGURE2 On-beat 32




pulse beat scheme


FIGURE3 Off-beat 32



FIGURE4 12 bell





















10





7 S1- J v 7 JS J1^^













11







FIGURE 12 Cinquillo






12







FIGURE 15 Passport










Guinea West Africa














14













15

CHAPTER 3





very similar forms

Agbadza





rattle) 15






16
















17













18



FIGURE21 Axase



the 128 measure












19

















20
















21



^ gt bull gt bull



scheme
















22













Kuku









23









knots








24







slap)







25

n n n Zf ZT Zf

plusmn1



F=B ^





J 99 3 9 9 n-^n p t u

TP






















27














28

CHAPTER4


STRUCTURE

Rumba Guaguanco















29



















30






tone)









31





I JjJJ J - j J ^










32










^ ^tefepound

^ Pgt Y ~$ Y f l

Y JW Jgt J







33








yJT|T p f^F












34

Makuta


















35











slap)






tones)

36



the dancers feet


slap)














37




38

CHAPTER 5


STRUCTURE

Samba Reggae















39























40















Dr Eugene Novotney





41











4 I II I I I 14

FIGURE61 Caixa part



drum


42


W^=f I 3

FIGURE64 Surdo2








43









for this song





FIGURE 69 Repenique

44





FIGURE70 Caixa










45

FIGURE72 Surdo2

FIGURE73 Surdol











Samba Batucada




46




















47






















48






















49





















bateria



50





pattern










FIGURE 76 Caixa

51





fl JJJJJJJJJJJJjJ

FIGURE77 Repenique












52

FIGURE79 Surdo2




FIGURE81 Chocalho










53

CHAPTER 6

DISCUSSION OF FIX

















54





sixteenth note time

l l i s

li raquo ^

laquo











55




















56

CHAPTER 7

CONCLUSION








in fix









57





















58

APENDIX

GLOSSARY OF TERMS

59





60

GLOSSARY OF TERMS






of clave












61





ternary form










additive rhythm

62

BIBLIOGRAPHY

63

BIBLIOGRAPHY













64















65










66

LIST OF FIGURES

FIGURE Page

1 Tresillo 1

2 On-beat32 9

3 Off-beat 32 9

4 12-bell 9


6 Tresillo 10



9 32 son clave 11



12 Cinquillo 12



15 Passport 13



vii

Page




21 Axase 19





26 Kagan part 21





31 Dununpicture 24


33 Kuku break 25

34 Kenkeni part 26

35 Sangban part 26

36 Dundunbapart 26



viii

Page

39 Djembe 1 27

40 Djembe 2 28

41 Djembe 3 28




45 Segundopart 31














59 Tamborim part 41

ix

Page


61 Caixapart 42

62 Surdo 4 42

63 Surdo 3 43

64 Surdo 2 43

65 Surdo 1 43




69 Repenique 44

70 Caixa 45


72 Surdo 2 46

73 Surdo 1 46



76 Caixa 52

77 Repenique 52

78 Surdo 3 52

79 Surdo 2 53

80 Surdo 1 53

x

FIGURE Page

81 Chocalho 53

82 Fix 56



XI

CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTIONS













1














Methodology









2





















3



















4



patterns8


















5












1 X










6











7

CHAPTER 2



















8





FIGURE2 On-beat 32




pulse beat scheme


FIGURE3 Off-beat 32



FIGURE4 12 bell





















10





7 S1- J v 7 JS J1^^













11







FIGURE 12 Cinquillo






12







FIGURE 15 Passport










Guinea West Africa














14













15

CHAPTER 3





very similar forms

Agbadza





rattle) 15






16
















17













18



FIGURE21 Axase



the 128 measure












19

















20
















21



^ gt bull gt bull



scheme
















22













Kuku









23









knots








24







slap)







25

n n n Zf ZT Zf

plusmn1



F=B ^





J 99 3 9 9 n-^n p t u

TP






















27














28

CHAPTER4


STRUCTURE

Rumba Guaguanco















29



















30






tone)









31





I JjJJ J - j J ^










32










^ ^tefepound

^ Pgt Y ~$ Y f l

Y JW Jgt J







33








yJT|T p f^F












34

Makuta


















35











slap)






tones)

36



the dancers feet


slap)














37




38

CHAPTER 5


STRUCTURE

Samba Reggae















39























40















Dr Eugene Novotney





41











4 I II I I I 14

FIGURE61 Caixa part



drum


42


W^=f I 3

FIGURE64 Surdo2








43









for this song





FIGURE 69 Repenique

44





FIGURE70 Caixa










45

FIGURE72 Surdo2

FIGURE73 Surdol











Samba Batucada




46




















47






















48






















49





















bateria



50





pattern










FIGURE 76 Caixa

51





fl JJJJJJJJJJJJjJ

FIGURE77 Repenique












52

FIGURE79 Surdo2




FIGURE81 Chocalho










53

CHAPTER 6

DISCUSSION OF FIX

















54





sixteenth note time

l l i s

li raquo ^

laquo











55




















56

CHAPTER 7

CONCLUSION








in fix









57





















58

APENDIX

GLOSSARY OF TERMS

59





60

GLOSSARY OF TERMS






of clave












61





ternary form










additive rhythm

62

BIBLIOGRAPHY

63

BIBLIOGRAPHY













64















65










66

6 stroke pattern 14



21 Axase 19





26 Kagan part 21





31 Dununpicture 24


33 Kuku break 25

34 Kenkeni part 26

35 Sangban part 26

36 Dundunbapart 26



viii

Page

39 Djembe 1 27

40 Djembe 2 28

41 Djembe 3 28




45 Segundopart 31














59 Tamborim part 41

ix

Page


61 Caixapart 42

62 Surdo 4 42

63 Surdo 3 43

64 Surdo 2 43

65 Surdo 1 43




69 Repenique 44

70 Caixa 45


72 Surdo 2 46

73 Surdo 1 46



76 Caixa 52

77 Repenique 52

78 Surdo 3 52

79 Surdo 2 53

80 Surdo 1 53

x

FIGURE Page

81 Chocalho 53

82 Fix 56



XI

CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTIONS













1














Methodology









2





















3



















4



patterns8


















5












1 X










6











7

CHAPTER 2



















8





FIGURE2 On-beat 32




pulse beat scheme


FIGURE3 Off-beat 32



FIGURE4 12 bell





















10





7 S1- J v 7 JS J1^^













11







FIGURE 12 Cinquillo






12







FIGURE 15 Passport










Guinea West Africa














14













15

CHAPTER 3





very similar forms

Agbadza





rattle) 15






16
















17













18



FIGURE21 Axase



the 128 measure












19

















20
















21



^ gt bull gt bull



scheme
















22













Kuku









23









knots








24







slap)







25

n n n Zf ZT Zf

plusmn1



F=B ^





J 99 3 9 9 n-^n p t u

TP






















27














28

CHAPTER4


STRUCTURE

Rumba Guaguanco















29



















30






tone)









31





I JjJJ J - j J ^










32










^ ^tefepound

^ Pgt Y ~$ Y f l

Y JW Jgt J







33








yJT|T p f^F












34

Makuta


















35











slap)






tones)

36



the dancers feet


slap)














37




38

CHAPTER 5


STRUCTURE

Samba Reggae















39























40















Dr Eugene Novotney





41











4 I II I I I 14

FIGURE61 Caixa part



drum


42


W^=f I 3

FIGURE64 Surdo2








43









for this song





FIGURE 69 Repenique

44





FIGURE70 Caixa










45

FIGURE72 Surdo2

FIGURE73 Surdol











Samba Batucada




46




















47






















48






















49





















bateria



50





pattern










FIGURE 76 Caixa

51





fl JJJJJJJJJJJJjJ

FIGURE77 Repenique












52

FIGURE79 Surdo2




FIGURE81 Chocalho










53

CHAPTER 6

DISCUSSION OF FIX

















54





sixteenth note time

l l i s

li raquo ^

laquo











55




















56

CHAPTER 7

CONCLUSION








in fix









57





















58

APENDIX

GLOSSARY OF TERMS

59





60

GLOSSARY OF TERMS






of clave












61





ternary form










additive rhythm

62

BIBLIOGRAPHY

63

BIBLIOGRAPHY













64















65










66

Djembe 1 27

40 Djembe 2 28

41 Djembe 3 28




45 Segundopart 31














59 Tamborim part 41

ix

Page


61 Caixapart 42

62 Surdo 4 42

63 Surdo 3 43

64 Surdo 2 43

65 Surdo 1 43




69 Repenique 44

70 Caixa 45


72 Surdo 2 46

73 Surdo 1 46



76 Caixa 52

77 Repenique 52

78 Surdo 3 52

79 Surdo 2 53

80 Surdo 1 53

x

FIGURE Page

81 Chocalho 53

82 Fix 56



XI

CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTIONS













1














Methodology









2





















3



















4



patterns8


















5












1 X










6











7

CHAPTER 2



















8





FIGURE2 On-beat 32




pulse beat scheme


FIGURE3 Off-beat 32



FIGURE4 12 bell





















10





7 S1- J v 7 JS J1^^













11







FIGURE 12 Cinquillo






12







FIGURE 15 Passport










Guinea West Africa














14













15

CHAPTER 3





very similar forms

Agbadza





rattle) 15






16
















17













18



FIGURE21 Axase



the 128 measure












19

















20
















21



^ gt bull gt bull



scheme
















22













Kuku









23









knots








24







slap)







25

n n n Zf ZT Zf

plusmn1



F=B ^





J 99 3 9 9 n-^n p t u

TP






















27














28

CHAPTER4


STRUCTURE

Rumba Guaguanco















29



















30






tone)









31





I JjJJ J - j J ^










32










^ ^tefepound

^ Pgt Y ~$ Y f l

Y JW Jgt J







33








yJT|T p f^F












34

Makuta


















35











slap)






tones)

36



the dancers feet


slap)














37




38

CHAPTER 5


STRUCTURE

Samba Reggae















39























40















Dr Eugene Novotney





41











4 I II I I I 14

FIGURE61 Caixa part



drum


42


W^=f I 3

FIGURE64 Surdo2








43









for this song





FIGURE 69 Repenique

44





FIGURE70 Caixa










45

FIGURE72 Surdo2

FIGURE73 Surdol











Samba Batucada




46




















47






















48






















49





















bateria



50





pattern










FIGURE 76 Caixa

51





fl JJJJJJJJJJJJjJ

FIGURE77 Repenique












52

FIGURE79 Surdo2




FIGURE81 Chocalho










53

CHAPTER 6

DISCUSSION OF FIX

















54





sixteenth note time

l l i s

li raquo ^

laquo











55




















56

CHAPTER 7

CONCLUSION








in fix









57





















58

APENDIX

GLOSSARY OF TERMS

59





60

GLOSSARY OF TERMS






of clave












61





ternary form










additive rhythm

62

BIBLIOGRAPHY

63

BIBLIOGRAPHY













64















65










66

Repenique part 42

61 Caixapart 42

62 Surdo 4 42

63 Surdo 3 43

64 Surdo 2 43

65 Surdo 1 43




69 Repenique 44

70 Caixa 45


72 Surdo 2 46

73 Surdo 1 46



76 Caixa 52

77 Repenique 52

78 Surdo 3 52

79 Surdo 2 53

80 Surdo 1 53

x

FIGURE Page

81 Chocalho 53

82 Fix 56



XI

CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTIONS













1














Methodology









2





















3



















4



patterns8


















5












1 X










6











7

CHAPTER 2



















8





FIGURE2 On-beat 32




pulse beat scheme


FIGURE3 Off-beat 32



FIGURE4 12 bell





















10





7 S1- J v 7 JS J1^^













11







FIGURE 12 Cinquillo






12







FIGURE 15 Passport










Guinea West Africa














14













15

CHAPTER 3





very similar forms

Agbadza





rattle) 15






16
















17













18



FIGURE21 Axase



the 128 measure












19

















20
















21



^ gt bull gt bull



scheme
















22













Kuku









23









knots








24







slap)







25

n n n Zf ZT Zf

plusmn1



F=B ^





J 99 3 9 9 n-^n p t u

TP






















27














28

CHAPTER4


STRUCTURE

Rumba Guaguanco















29



















30






tone)









31





I JjJJ J - j J ^










32










^ ^tefepound

^ Pgt Y ~$ Y f l

Y JW Jgt J







33








yJT|T p f^F












34

Makuta


















35











slap)






tones)

36



the dancers feet


slap)














37




38

CHAPTER 5


STRUCTURE

Samba Reggae















39























40















Dr Eugene Novotney





41











4 I II I I I 14

FIGURE61 Caixa part



drum


42


W^=f I 3

FIGURE64 Surdo2








43









for this song





FIGURE 69 Repenique

44





FIGURE70 Caixa










45

FIGURE72 Surdo2

FIGURE73 Surdol











Samba Batucada




46




















47






















48






















49





















bateria



50





pattern










FIGURE 76 Caixa

51





fl JJJJJJJJJJJJjJ

FIGURE77 Repenique












52

FIGURE79 Surdo2




FIGURE81 Chocalho










53

CHAPTER 6

DISCUSSION OF FIX

















54





sixteenth note time

l l i s

li raquo ^

laquo











55




















56

CHAPTER 7

CONCLUSION








in fix









57





















58

APENDIX

GLOSSARY OF TERMS

59





60

GLOSSARY OF TERMS






of clave












61





ternary form










additive rhythm

62

BIBLIOGRAPHY

63

BIBLIOGRAPHY













64















65










66

FIGURE Page

81 Chocalho 53

82 Fix 56



XI

CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTIONS













1














Methodology









2





















3



















4



patterns8


















5












1 X










6











7

CHAPTER 2



















8





FIGURE2 On-beat 32




pulse beat scheme


FIGURE3 Off-beat 32



FIGURE4 12 bell





















10





7 S1- J v 7 JS J1^^













11







FIGURE 12 Cinquillo






12







FIGURE 15 Passport










Guinea West Africa














14













15

CHAPTER 3





very similar forms

Agbadza





rattle) 15






16
















17













18



FIGURE21 Axase



the 128 measure












19

















20
















21



^ gt bull gt bull



scheme
















22













Kuku









23









knots








24







slap)







25

n n n Zf ZT Zf

plusmn1



F=B ^





J 99 3 9 9 n-^n p t u

TP






















27














28

CHAPTER4


STRUCTURE

Rumba Guaguanco















29



















30






tone)









31





I JjJJ J - j J ^










32










^ ^tefepound

^ Pgt Y ~$ Y f l

Y JW Jgt J







33








yJT|T p f^F












34

Makuta


















35











slap)






tones)

36



the dancers feet


slap)














37




38

CHAPTER 5


STRUCTURE

Samba Reggae















39























40















Dr Eugene Novotney





41











4 I II I I I 14

FIGURE61 Caixa part



drum


42


W^=f I 3

FIGURE64 Surdo2








43









for this song





FIGURE 69 Repenique

44





FIGURE70 Caixa










45

FIGURE72 Surdo2

FIGURE73 Surdol











Samba Batucada




46




















47






















48






















49





















bateria



50





pattern










FIGURE 76 Caixa

51





fl JJJJJJJJJJJJjJ

FIGURE77 Repenique












52

FIGURE79 Surdo2




FIGURE81 Chocalho










53

CHAPTER 6

DISCUSSION OF FIX

















54





sixteenth note time

l l i s

li raquo ^

laquo











55




















56

CHAPTER 7

CONCLUSION








in fix









57





















58

APENDIX

GLOSSARY OF TERMS

59





60

GLOSSARY OF TERMS






of clave












61





ternary form










additive rhythm

62

BIBLIOGRAPHY

63

BIBLIOGRAPHY













64















65










66

CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTIONS













1














Methodology









2





















3



















4



patterns8


















5












1 X










6











7

CHAPTER 2



















8





FIGURE2 On-beat 32




pulse beat scheme


FIGURE3 Off-beat 32



FIGURE4 12 bell





















10





7 S1- J v 7 JS J1^^













11







FIGURE 12 Cinquillo






12







FIGURE 15 Passport










Guinea West Africa














14













15

CHAPTER 3





very similar forms

Agbadza





rattle) 15






16
















17













18



FIGURE21 Axase



the 128 measure












19

















20
















21



^ gt bull gt bull



scheme
















22













Kuku









23









knots








24







slap)







25

n n n Zf ZT Zf

plusmn1



F=B ^





J 99 3 9 9 n-^n p t u

TP






















27














28

CHAPTER4


STRUCTURE

Rumba Guaguanco















29



















30






tone)









31





I JjJJ J - j J ^










32










^ ^tefepound

^ Pgt Y ~$ Y f l

Y JW Jgt J







33








yJT|T p f^F












34

Makuta


















35











slap)






tones)

36



the dancers feet


slap)














37




38

CHAPTER 5


STRUCTURE

Samba Reggae















39























40















Dr Eugene Novotney





41











4 I II I I I 14

FIGURE61 Caixa part



drum


42


W^=f I 3

FIGURE64 Surdo2








43









for this song





FIGURE 69 Repenique

44





FIGURE70 Caixa










45

FIGURE72 Surdo2

FIGURE73 Surdol











Samba Batucada




46




















47






















48






















49





















bateria



50





pattern










FIGURE 76 Caixa

51





fl JJJJJJJJJJJJjJ

FIGURE77 Repenique












52

FIGURE79 Surdo2




FIGURE81 Chocalho










53

CHAPTER 6

DISCUSSION OF FIX

















54





sixteenth note time

l l i s

li raquo ^

laquo











55




















56

CHAPTER 7

CONCLUSION








in fix









57





















58

APENDIX

GLOSSARY OF TERMS

59





60

GLOSSARY OF TERMS






of clave












61





ternary form










additive rhythm

62

BIBLIOGRAPHY

63

BIBLIOGRAPHY













64















65










66














Methodology









2





















3



















4



patterns8


















5












1 X










6











7

CHAPTER 2



















8





FIGURE2 On-beat 32




pulse beat scheme


FIGURE3 Off-beat 32



FIGURE4 12 bell





















10





7 S1- J v 7 JS J1^^













11







FIGURE 12 Cinquillo






12







FIGURE 15 Passport










Guinea West Africa














14













15

CHAPTER 3





very similar forms

Agbadza





rattle) 15






16
















17













18



FIGURE21 Axase



the 128 measure












19

















20
















21



^ gt bull gt bull



scheme
















22













Kuku









23









knots








24







slap)







25

n n n Zf ZT Zf

plusmn1



F=B ^





J 99 3 9 9 n-^n p t u

TP






















27














28

CHAPTER4


STRUCTURE

Rumba Guaguanco















29



















30






tone)









31





I JjJJ J - j J ^










32










^ ^tefepound

^ Pgt Y ~$ Y f l

Y JW Jgt J







33








yJT|T p f^F












34

Makuta


















35











slap)






tones)

36



the dancers feet


slap)














37




38

CHAPTER 5


STRUCTURE

Samba Reggae















39























40















Dr Eugene Novotney





41











4 I II I I I 14

FIGURE61 Caixa part



drum


42


W^=f I 3

FIGURE64 Surdo2








43









for this song





FIGURE 69 Repenique

44





FIGURE70 Caixa










45

FIGURE72 Surdo2

FIGURE73 Surdol











Samba Batucada




46




















47






















48






















49





















bateria



50





pattern










FIGURE 76 Caixa

51





fl JJJJJJJJJJJJjJ

FIGURE77 Repenique












52

FIGURE79 Surdo2




FIGURE81 Chocalho










53

CHAPTER 6

DISCUSSION OF FIX

















54





sixteenth note time

l l i s

li raquo ^

laquo











55




















56

CHAPTER 7

CONCLUSION








in fix









57





















58

APENDIX

GLOSSARY OF TERMS

59





60

GLOSSARY OF TERMS






of clave












61





ternary form










additive rhythm

62

BIBLIOGRAPHY

63

BIBLIOGRAPHY













64















65










66





















3



















4



patterns8


















5












1 X










6











7

CHAPTER 2



















8





FIGURE2 On-beat 32




pulse beat scheme


FIGURE3 Off-beat 32



FIGURE4 12 bell





















10





7 S1- J v 7 JS J1^^













11







FIGURE 12 Cinquillo






12







FIGURE 15 Passport










Guinea West Africa














14













15

CHAPTER 3





very similar forms

Agbadza





rattle) 15






16
















17













18



FIGURE21 Axase



the 128 measure












19

















20
















21



^ gt bull gt bull



scheme
















22













Kuku









23









knots








24







slap)







25

n n n Zf ZT Zf

plusmn1



F=B ^





J 99 3 9 9 n-^n p t u

TP






















27














28

CHAPTER4


STRUCTURE

Rumba Guaguanco















29



















30






tone)









31





I JjJJ J - j J ^










32










^ ^tefepound

^ Pgt Y ~$ Y f l

Y JW Jgt J







33








yJT|T p f^F












34

Makuta


















35











slap)






tones)

36



the dancers feet


slap)














37




38

CHAPTER 5


STRUCTURE

Samba Reggae















39























40















Dr Eugene Novotney





41











4 I II I I I 14

FIGURE61 Caixa part



drum


42


W^=f I 3

FIGURE64 Surdo2








43









for this song





FIGURE 69 Repenique

44





FIGURE70 Caixa










45

FIGURE72 Surdo2

FIGURE73 Surdol











Samba Batucada




46




















47






















48






















49





















bateria



50





pattern










FIGURE 76 Caixa

51





fl JJJJJJJJJJJJjJ

FIGURE77 Repenique












52

FIGURE79 Surdo2




FIGURE81 Chocalho










53

CHAPTER 6

DISCUSSION OF FIX

















54





sixteenth note time

l l i s

li raquo ^

laquo











55




















56

CHAPTER 7

CONCLUSION








in fix









57





















58

APENDIX

GLOSSARY OF TERMS

59





60

GLOSSARY OF TERMS






of clave












61





ternary form










additive rhythm

62

BIBLIOGRAPHY

63

BIBLIOGRAPHY













64















65










66



















4



patterns8


















5












1 X










6











7

CHAPTER 2



















8





FIGURE2 On-beat 32




pulse beat scheme


FIGURE3 Off-beat 32



FIGURE4 12 bell





















10





7 S1- J v 7 JS J1^^













11







FIGURE 12 Cinquillo






12







FIGURE 15 Passport










Guinea West Africa














14













15

CHAPTER 3





very similar forms

Agbadza





rattle) 15






16
















17













18



FIGURE21 Axase



the 128 measure












19

















20
















21



^ gt bull gt bull



scheme
















22













Kuku









23









knots








24







slap)







25

n n n Zf ZT Zf

plusmn1



F=B ^





J 99 3 9 9 n-^n p t u

TP






















27














28

CHAPTER4


STRUCTURE

Rumba Guaguanco















29



















30






tone)









31





I JjJJ J - j J ^










32










^ ^tefepound

^ Pgt Y ~$ Y f l

Y JW Jgt J







33








yJT|T p f^F












34

Makuta


















35











slap)






tones)

36



the dancers feet


slap)














37




38

CHAPTER 5


STRUCTURE

Samba Reggae















39























40















Dr Eugene Novotney





41











4 I II I I I 14

FIGURE61 Caixa part



drum


42


W^=f I 3

FIGURE64 Surdo2








43









for this song





FIGURE 69 Repenique

44





FIGURE70 Caixa










45

FIGURE72 Surdo2

FIGURE73 Surdol











Samba Batucada




46




















47






















48






















49





















bateria



50





pattern










FIGURE 76 Caixa

51





fl JJJJJJJJJJJJjJ

FIGURE77 Repenique












52

FIGURE79 Surdo2




FIGURE81 Chocalho










53

CHAPTER 6

DISCUSSION OF FIX

















54





sixteenth note time

l l i s

li raquo ^

laquo











55




















56

CHAPTER 7

CONCLUSION








in fix









57





















58

APENDIX

GLOSSARY OF TERMS

59





60

GLOSSARY OF TERMS






of clave












61





ternary form










additive rhythm

62

BIBLIOGRAPHY

63

BIBLIOGRAPHY













64















65










66



patterns8


















5












1 X










6











7

CHAPTER 2



















8





FIGURE2 On-beat 32




pulse beat scheme


FIGURE3 Off-beat 32



FIGURE4 12 bell





















10





7 S1- J v 7 JS J1^^













11







FIGURE 12 Cinquillo






12







FIGURE 15 Passport










Guinea West Africa














14













15

CHAPTER 3





very similar forms

Agbadza





rattle) 15






16
















17













18



FIGURE21 Axase



the 128 measure












19

















20
















21



^ gt bull gt bull



scheme
















22













Kuku









23









knots








24







slap)







25

n n n Zf ZT Zf

plusmn1



F=B ^





J 99 3 9 9 n-^n p t u

TP






















27














28

CHAPTER4


STRUCTURE

Rumba Guaguanco















29



















30






tone)









31





I JjJJ J - j J ^










32










^ ^tefepound

^ Pgt Y ~$ Y f l

Y JW Jgt J







33








yJT|T p f^F












34

Makuta


















35











slap)






tones)

36



the dancers feet


slap)














37




38

CHAPTER 5


STRUCTURE

Samba Reggae















39























40















Dr Eugene Novotney





41











4 I II I I I 14

FIGURE61 Caixa part



drum


42


W^=f I 3

FIGURE64 Surdo2








43









for this song





FIGURE 69 Repenique

44





FIGURE70 Caixa










45

FIGURE72 Surdo2

FIGURE73 Surdol











Samba Batucada




46




















47






















48






















49





















bateria



50





pattern










FIGURE 76 Caixa

51





fl JJJJJJJJJJJJjJ

FIGURE77 Repenique












52

FIGURE79 Surdo2




FIGURE81 Chocalho










53

CHAPTER 6

DISCUSSION OF FIX

















54





sixteenth note time

l l i s

li raquo ^

laquo











55




















56

CHAPTER 7

CONCLUSION








in fix









57





















58

APENDIX

GLOSSARY OF TERMS

59





60

GLOSSARY OF TERMS






of clave












61





ternary form










additive rhythm

62

BIBLIOGRAPHY

63

BIBLIOGRAPHY













64















65










66












1 X










6











7

CHAPTER 2



















8





FIGURE2 On-beat 32




pulse beat scheme


FIGURE3 Off-beat 32



FIGURE4 12 bell





















10





7 S1- J v 7 JS J1^^













11







FIGURE 12 Cinquillo






12







FIGURE 15 Passport










Guinea West Africa














14













15

CHAPTER 3





very similar forms

Agbadza





rattle) 15






16
















17













18



FIGURE21 Axase



the 128 measure












19

















20
















21



^ gt bull gt bull



scheme
















22













Kuku









23









knots








24







slap)







25

n n n Zf ZT Zf

plusmn1



F=B ^





J 99 3 9 9 n-^n p t u

TP






















27














28

CHAPTER4


STRUCTURE

Rumba Guaguanco















29



















30






tone)









31





I JjJJ J - j J ^










32










^ ^tefepound

^ Pgt Y ~$ Y f l

Y JW Jgt J







33








yJT|T p f^F












34

Makuta


















35











slap)






tones)

36



the dancers feet


slap)














37




38

CHAPTER 5


STRUCTURE

Samba Reggae















39























40















Dr Eugene Novotney





41











4 I II I I I 14

FIGURE61 Caixa part



drum


42


W^=f I 3

FIGURE64 Surdo2








43









for this song





FIGURE 69 Repenique

44





FIGURE70 Caixa










45

FIGURE72 Surdo2

FIGURE73 Surdol











Samba Batucada




46




















47






















48






















49





















bateria



50





pattern










FIGURE 76 Caixa

51





fl JJJJJJJJJJJJjJ

FIGURE77 Repenique












52

FIGURE79 Surdo2




FIGURE81 Chocalho










53

CHAPTER 6

DISCUSSION OF FIX

















54





sixteenth note time

l l i s

li raquo ^

laquo











55




















56

CHAPTER 7

CONCLUSION








in fix









57





















58

APENDIX

GLOSSARY OF TERMS

59





60

GLOSSARY OF TERMS






of clave












61





ternary form










additive rhythm

62

BIBLIOGRAPHY

63

BIBLIOGRAPHY













64















65










66











7

CHAPTER 2



















8





FIGURE2 On-beat 32




pulse beat scheme


FIGURE3 Off-beat 32



FIGURE4 12 bell





















10





7 S1- J v 7 JS J1^^













11







FIGURE 12 Cinquillo






12







FIGURE 15 Passport










Guinea West Africa














14













15

CHAPTER 3





very similar forms

Agbadza





rattle) 15






16
















17













18



FIGURE21 Axase



the 128 measure












19

















20
















21



^ gt bull gt bull



scheme
















22













Kuku









23









knots








24







slap)







25

n n n Zf ZT Zf

plusmn1



F=B ^





J 99 3 9 9 n-^n p t u

TP






















27














28

CHAPTER4


STRUCTURE

Rumba Guaguanco















29



















30






tone)









31





I JjJJ J - j J ^










32










^ ^tefepound

^ Pgt Y ~$ Y f l

Y JW Jgt J







33








yJT|T p f^F












34

Makuta


















35











slap)






tones)

36



the dancers feet


slap)














37




38

CHAPTER 5


STRUCTURE

Samba Reggae















39























40















Dr Eugene Novotney





41











4 I II I I I 14

FIGURE61 Caixa part



drum


42


W^=f I 3

FIGURE64 Surdo2








43









for this song





FIGURE 69 Repenique

44





FIGURE70 Caixa










45

FIGURE72 Surdo2

FIGURE73 Surdol











Samba Batucada




46




















47






















48






















49





















bateria



50





pattern










FIGURE 76 Caixa

51





fl JJJJJJJJJJJJjJ

FIGURE77 Repenique












52

FIGURE79 Surdo2




FIGURE81 Chocalho










53

CHAPTER 6

DISCUSSION OF FIX

















54





sixteenth note time

l l i s

li raquo ^

laquo











55




















56

CHAPTER 7

CONCLUSION








in fix









57





















58

APENDIX

GLOSSARY OF TERMS

59





60

GLOSSARY OF TERMS






of clave












61





ternary form










additive rhythm

62

BIBLIOGRAPHY

63

BIBLIOGRAPHY













64















65










66

CHAPTER 2



















8





FIGURE2 On-beat 32




pulse beat scheme


FIGURE3 Off-beat 32



FIGURE4 12 bell





















10





7 S1- J v 7 JS J1^^













11







FIGURE 12 Cinquillo






12







FIGURE 15 Passport










Guinea West Africa














14













15

CHAPTER 3





very similar forms

Agbadza





rattle) 15






16
















17













18



FIGURE21 Axase



the 128 measure












19

















20
















21



^ gt bull gt bull



scheme
















22













Kuku









23









knots








24







slap)







25

n n n Zf ZT Zf

plusmn1



F=B ^





J 99 3 9 9 n-^n p t u

TP






















27














28

CHAPTER4


STRUCTURE

Rumba Guaguanco















29



















30






tone)









31





I JjJJ J - j J ^










32










^ ^tefepound

^ Pgt Y ~$ Y f l

Y JW Jgt J







33








yJT|T p f^F












34

Makuta


















35











slap)






tones)

36



the dancers feet


slap)














37




38

CHAPTER 5


STRUCTURE

Samba Reggae















39























40















Dr Eugene Novotney





41











4 I II I I I 14

FIGURE61 Caixa part



drum


42


W^=f I 3

FIGURE64 Surdo2








43









for this song





FIGURE 69 Repenique

44





FIGURE70 Caixa










45

FIGURE72 Surdo2

FIGURE73 Surdol











Samba Batucada




46




















47






















48






















49





















bateria



50





pattern










FIGURE 76 Caixa

51





fl JJJJJJJJJJJJjJ

FIGURE77 Repenique












52

FIGURE79 Surdo2




FIGURE81 Chocalho










53

CHAPTER 6

DISCUSSION OF FIX

















54





sixteenth note time

l l i s

li raquo ^

laquo











55




















56

CHAPTER 7

CONCLUSION








in fix









57





















58

APENDIX

GLOSSARY OF TERMS

59





60

GLOSSARY OF TERMS






of clave












61





ternary form










additive rhythm

62

BIBLIOGRAPHY

63

BIBLIOGRAPHY













64















65










66





FIGURE2 On-beat 32




pulse beat scheme


FIGURE3 Off-beat 32



FIGURE4 12 bell





















10





7 S1- J v 7 JS J1^^













11







FIGURE 12 Cinquillo






12







FIGURE 15 Passport










Guinea West Africa














14













15

CHAPTER 3





very similar forms

Agbadza





rattle) 15






16
















17













18



FIGURE21 Axase



the 128 measure












19

















20
















21



^ gt bull gt bull



scheme
















22













Kuku









23









knots








24







slap)







25

n n n Zf ZT Zf

plusmn1



F=B ^





J 99 3 9 9 n-^n p t u

TP






















27














28

CHAPTER4


STRUCTURE

Rumba Guaguanco















29



















30






tone)









31





I JjJJ J - j J ^










32










^ ^tefepound

^ Pgt Y ~$ Y f l

Y JW Jgt J







33








yJT|T p f^F












34

Makuta


















35











slap)






tones)

36



the dancers feet


slap)














37




38

CHAPTER 5


STRUCTURE

Samba Reggae















39























40















Dr Eugene Novotney





41











4 I II I I I 14

FIGURE61 Caixa part



drum


42


W^=f I 3

FIGURE64 Surdo2








43









for this song





FIGURE 69 Repenique

44





FIGURE70 Caixa










45

FIGURE72 Surdo2

FIGURE73 Surdol











Samba Batucada




46




















47






















48






















49





















bateria



50





pattern










FIGURE 76 Caixa

51





fl JJJJJJJJJJJJjJ

FIGURE77 Repenique












52

FIGURE79 Surdo2




FIGURE81 Chocalho










53

CHAPTER 6

DISCUSSION OF FIX

















54





sixteenth note time

l l i s

li raquo ^

laquo











55




















56

CHAPTER 7

CONCLUSION








in fix









57





















58

APENDIX

GLOSSARY OF TERMS

59





60

GLOSSARY OF TERMS






of clave












61





ternary form










additive rhythm

62

BIBLIOGRAPHY

63

BIBLIOGRAPHY













64















65










66



















10





7 S1- J v 7 JS J1^^













11







FIGURE 12 Cinquillo






12







FIGURE 15 Passport










Guinea West Africa














14













15

CHAPTER 3





very similar forms

Agbadza





rattle) 15






16
















17













18



FIGURE21 Axase



the 128 measure












19

















20
















21



^ gt bull gt bull



scheme
















22













Kuku









23









knots








24







slap)







25

n n n Zf ZT Zf

plusmn1



F=B ^





J 99 3 9 9 n-^n p t u

TP






















27














28

CHAPTER4


STRUCTURE

Rumba Guaguanco















29



















30






tone)









31





I JjJJ J - j J ^










32










^ ^tefepound

^ Pgt Y ~$ Y f l

Y JW Jgt J







33








yJT|T p f^F












34

Makuta


















35











slap)






tones)

36



the dancers feet


slap)














37




38

CHAPTER 5


STRUCTURE

Samba Reggae















39























40















Dr Eugene Novotney





41











4 I II I I I 14

FIGURE61 Caixa part



drum


42


W^=f I 3

FIGURE64 Surdo2








43









for this song





FIGURE 69 Repenique

44





FIGURE70 Caixa










45

FIGURE72 Surdo2

FIGURE73 Surdol











Samba Batucada




46




















47






















48






















49





















bateria



50





pattern










FIGURE 76 Caixa

51





fl JJJJJJJJJJJJjJ

FIGURE77 Repenique












52

FIGURE79 Surdo2




FIGURE81 Chocalho










53

CHAPTER 6

DISCUSSION OF FIX

















54





sixteenth note time

l l i s

li raquo ^

laquo











55




















56

CHAPTER 7

CONCLUSION








in fix









57





















58

APENDIX

GLOSSARY OF TERMS

59





60

GLOSSARY OF TERMS






of clave












61





ternary form










additive rhythm

62

BIBLIOGRAPHY

63

BIBLIOGRAPHY













64















65










66





7 S1- J v 7 JS J1^^













11







FIGURE 12 Cinquillo






12







FIGURE 15 Passport










Guinea West Africa














14













15

CHAPTER 3





very similar forms

Agbadza





rattle) 15






16
















17













18



FIGURE21 Axase



the 128 measure












19

















20
















21



^ gt bull gt bull



scheme
















22













Kuku









23









knots








24







slap)







25

n n n Zf ZT Zf

plusmn1



F=B ^





J 99 3 9 9 n-^n p t u

TP






















27














28

CHAPTER4


STRUCTURE

Rumba Guaguanco















29



















30






tone)









31





I JjJJ J - j J ^










32










^ ^tefepound

^ Pgt Y ~$ Y f l

Y JW Jgt J







33








yJT|T p f^F












34

Makuta


















35











slap)






tones)

36



the dancers feet


slap)














37




38

CHAPTER 5


STRUCTURE

Samba Reggae















39























40















Dr Eugene Novotney





41











4 I II I I I 14

FIGURE61 Caixa part



drum


42


W^=f I 3

FIGURE64 Surdo2








43









for this song





FIGURE 69 Repenique

44





FIGURE70 Caixa










45

FIGURE72 Surdo2

FIGURE73 Surdol











Samba Batucada




46




















47






















48






















49





















bateria



50





pattern










FIGURE 76 Caixa

51





fl JJJJJJJJJJJJjJ

FIGURE77 Repenique












52

FIGURE79 Surdo2




FIGURE81 Chocalho










53

CHAPTER 6

DISCUSSION OF FIX

















54





sixteenth note time

l l i s

li raquo ^

laquo











55




















56

CHAPTER 7

CONCLUSION








in fix









57





















58

APENDIX

GLOSSARY OF TERMS

59





60

GLOSSARY OF TERMS






of clave












61





ternary form










additive rhythm

62

BIBLIOGRAPHY

63

BIBLIOGRAPHY













64















65










66







FIGURE 12 Cinquillo






12







FIGURE 15 Passport










Guinea West Africa














14













15

CHAPTER 3





very similar forms

Agbadza





rattle) 15






16
















17













18



FIGURE21 Axase



the 128 measure












19

















20
















21



^ gt bull gt bull



scheme
















22













Kuku









23









knots








24







slap)







25

n n n Zf ZT Zf

plusmn1



F=B ^





J 99 3 9 9 n-^n p t u

TP






















27














28

CHAPTER4


STRUCTURE

Rumba Guaguanco















29



















30






tone)









31





I JjJJ J - j J ^










32










^ ^tefepound

^ Pgt Y ~$ Y f l

Y JW Jgt J







33








yJT|T p f^F












34

Makuta


















35











slap)






tones)

36



the dancers feet


slap)














37




38

CHAPTER 5


STRUCTURE

Samba Reggae















39























40















Dr Eugene Novotney





41











4 I II I I I 14

FIGURE61 Caixa part



drum


42


W^=f I 3

FIGURE64 Surdo2








43









for this song





FIGURE 69 Repenique

44





FIGURE70 Caixa










45

FIGURE72 Surdo2

FIGURE73 Surdol











Samba Batucada




46




















47






















48






















49





















bateria



50





pattern










FIGURE 76 Caixa

51





fl JJJJJJJJJJJJjJ

FIGURE77 Repenique












52

FIGURE79 Surdo2




FIGURE81 Chocalho










53

CHAPTER 6

DISCUSSION OF FIX

















54





sixteenth note time

l l i s

li raquo ^

laquo











55




















56

CHAPTER 7

CONCLUSION








in fix









57





















58

APENDIX

GLOSSARY OF TERMS

59





60

GLOSSARY OF TERMS






of clave












61





ternary form










additive rhythm

62

BIBLIOGRAPHY

63

BIBLIOGRAPHY













64















65










66







FIGURE 15 Passport










Guinea West Africa














14













15

CHAPTER 3





very similar forms

Agbadza





rattle) 15






16
















17













18



FIGURE21 Axase



the 128 measure












19

















20
















21



^ gt bull gt bull



scheme
















22













Kuku









23









knots








24







slap)







25

n n n Zf ZT Zf

plusmn1



F=B ^





J 99 3 9 9 n-^n p t u

TP






















27














28

CHAPTER4


STRUCTURE

Rumba Guaguanco















29



















30






tone)









31





I JjJJ J - j J ^










32










^ ^tefepound

^ Pgt Y ~$ Y f l

Y JW Jgt J







33








yJT|T p f^F












34

Makuta


















35











slap)






tones)

36



the dancers feet


slap)














37




38

CHAPTER 5


STRUCTURE

Samba Reggae















39























40















Dr Eugene Novotney





41











4 I II I I I 14

FIGURE61 Caixa part



drum


42


W^=f I 3

FIGURE64 Surdo2








43









for this song





FIGURE 69 Repenique

44





FIGURE70 Caixa










45

FIGURE72 Surdo2

FIGURE73 Surdol











Samba Batucada




46




















47






















48






















49





















bateria



50





pattern










FIGURE 76 Caixa

51





fl JJJJJJJJJJJJjJ

FIGURE77 Repenique












52

FIGURE79 Surdo2




FIGURE81 Chocalho










53

CHAPTER 6

DISCUSSION OF FIX

















54





sixteenth note time

l l i s

li raquo ^

laquo











55




















56

CHAPTER 7

CONCLUSION








in fix









57





















58

APENDIX

GLOSSARY OF TERMS

59





60

GLOSSARY OF TERMS






of clave












61





ternary form










additive rhythm

62

BIBLIOGRAPHY

63

BIBLIOGRAPHY













64















65










66



Guinea West Africa














14













15

CHAPTER 3





very similar forms

Agbadza





rattle) 15






16
















17













18



FIGURE21 Axase



the 128 measure












19

















20
















21



^ gt bull gt bull



scheme
















22













Kuku









23









knots








24







slap)







25

n n n Zf ZT Zf

plusmn1



F=B ^





J 99 3 9 9 n-^n p t u

TP






















27














28

CHAPTER4


STRUCTURE

Rumba Guaguanco















29



















30






tone)









31





I JjJJ J - j J ^










32










^ ^tefepound

^ Pgt Y ~$ Y f l

Y JW Jgt J







33








yJT|T p f^F












34

Makuta


















35











slap)






tones)

36



the dancers feet


slap)














37




38

CHAPTER 5


STRUCTURE

Samba Reggae















39























40















Dr Eugene Novotney





41











4 I II I I I 14

FIGURE61 Caixa part



drum


42


W^=f I 3

FIGURE64 Surdo2








43









for this song





FIGURE 69 Repenique

44





FIGURE70 Caixa










45

FIGURE72 Surdo2

FIGURE73 Surdol











Samba Batucada




46




















47






















48






















49





















bateria



50





pattern










FIGURE 76 Caixa

51





fl JJJJJJJJJJJJjJ

FIGURE77 Repenique












52

FIGURE79 Surdo2




FIGURE81 Chocalho










53

CHAPTER 6

DISCUSSION OF FIX

















54





sixteenth note time

l l i s

li raquo ^

laquo











55




















56

CHAPTER 7

CONCLUSION








in fix









57





















58

APENDIX

GLOSSARY OF TERMS

59





60

GLOSSARY OF TERMS






of clave












61





ternary form










additive rhythm

62

BIBLIOGRAPHY

63

BIBLIOGRAPHY













64















65










66













15

CHAPTER 3





very similar forms

Agbadza





rattle) 15






16
















17













18



FIGURE21 Axase



the 128 measure












19

















20
















21



^ gt bull gt bull



scheme
















22













Kuku









23









knots








24







slap)







25

n n n Zf ZT Zf

plusmn1



F=B ^





J 99 3 9 9 n-^n p t u

TP






















27














28

CHAPTER4


STRUCTURE

Rumba Guaguanco















29



















30






tone)









31





I JjJJ J - j J ^










32










^ ^tefepound

^ Pgt Y ~$ Y f l

Y JW Jgt J







33








yJT|T p f^F












34

Makuta


















35











slap)






tones)

36



the dancers feet


slap)














37




38

CHAPTER 5


STRUCTURE

Samba Reggae















39























40















Dr Eugene Novotney





41











4 I II I I I 14

FIGURE61 Caixa part



drum


42


W^=f I 3

FIGURE64 Surdo2








43









for this song





FIGURE 69 Repenique

44





FIGURE70 Caixa










45

FIGURE72 Surdo2

FIGURE73 Surdol











Samba Batucada




46




















47






















48






















49





















bateria



50





pattern










FIGURE 76 Caixa

51





fl JJJJJJJJJJJJjJ

FIGURE77 Repenique












52

FIGURE79 Surdo2




FIGURE81 Chocalho










53

CHAPTER 6

DISCUSSION OF FIX

















54





sixteenth note time

l l i s

li raquo ^

laquo











55




















56

CHAPTER 7

CONCLUSION








in fix









57





















58

APENDIX

GLOSSARY OF TERMS

59





60

GLOSSARY OF TERMS






of clave












61





ternary form










additive rhythm

62

BIBLIOGRAPHY

63

BIBLIOGRAPHY













64















65










66

CHAPTER 3





very similar forms

Agbadza





rattle) 15






16
















17













18



FIGURE21 Axase



the 128 measure












19

















20
















21



^ gt bull gt bull



scheme
















22













Kuku









23









knots








24







slap)







25

n n n Zf ZT Zf

plusmn1



F=B ^





J 99 3 9 9 n-^n p t u

TP






















27














28

CHAPTER4


STRUCTURE

Rumba Guaguanco















29



















30






tone)









31





I JjJJ J - j J ^










32










^ ^tefepound

^ Pgt Y ~$ Y f l

Y JW Jgt J







33








yJT|T p f^F












34

Makuta


















35











slap)






tones)

36



the dancers feet


slap)














37




38

CHAPTER 5


STRUCTURE

Samba Reggae















39























40















Dr Eugene Novotney





41











4 I II I I I 14

FIGURE61 Caixa part



drum


42


W^=f I 3

FIGURE64 Surdo2








43









for this song





FIGURE 69 Repenique

44





FIGURE70 Caixa










45

FIGURE72 Surdo2

FIGURE73 Surdol











Samba Batucada




46




















47






















48






















49





















bateria



50





pattern










FIGURE 76 Caixa

51





fl JJJJJJJJJJJJjJ

FIGURE77 Repenique












52

FIGURE79 Surdo2




FIGURE81 Chocalho










53

CHAPTER 6

DISCUSSION OF FIX

















54





sixteenth note time

l l i s

li raquo ^

laquo











55




















56

CHAPTER 7

CONCLUSION








in fix









57





















58

APENDIX

GLOSSARY OF TERMS

59





60

GLOSSARY OF TERMS






of clave












61





ternary form










additive rhythm

62

BIBLIOGRAPHY

63

BIBLIOGRAPHY













64















65










66
















17













18



FIGURE21 Axase



the 128 measure












19

















20
















21



^ gt bull gt bull



scheme
















22













Kuku









23









knots








24







slap)







25

n n n Zf ZT Zf

plusmn1



F=B ^





J 99 3 9 9 n-^n p t u

TP






















27














28

CHAPTER4


STRUCTURE

Rumba Guaguanco















29



















30






tone)









31





I JjJJ J - j J ^










32










^ ^tefepound

^ Pgt Y ~$ Y f l

Y JW Jgt J







33








yJT|T p f^F












34

Makuta


















35











slap)






tones)

36



the dancers feet


slap)














37




38

CHAPTER 5


STRUCTURE

Samba Reggae















39























40















Dr Eugene Novotney





41











4 I II I I I 14

FIGURE61 Caixa part



drum


42


W^=f I 3

FIGURE64 Surdo2








43









for this song





FIGURE 69 Repenique

44





FIGURE70 Caixa










45

FIGURE72 Surdo2

FIGURE73 Surdol











Samba Batucada




46




















47






















48






















49





















bateria



50





pattern










FIGURE 76 Caixa

51





fl JJJJJJJJJJJJjJ

FIGURE77 Repenique












52

FIGURE79 Surdo2




FIGURE81 Chocalho










53

CHAPTER 6

DISCUSSION OF FIX

















54





sixteenth note time

l l i s

li raquo ^

laquo











55




















56

CHAPTER 7

CONCLUSION








in fix









57





















58

APENDIX

GLOSSARY OF TERMS

59





60

GLOSSARY OF TERMS






of clave












61





ternary form










additive rhythm

62

BIBLIOGRAPHY

63

BIBLIOGRAPHY













64















65










66













18



FIGURE21 Axase



the 128 measure












19

















20
















21



^ gt bull gt bull



scheme
















22













Kuku









23









knots








24







slap)







25

n n n Zf ZT Zf

plusmn1



F=B ^





J 99 3 9 9 n-^n p t u

TP






















27














28

CHAPTER4


STRUCTURE

Rumba Guaguanco















29



















30






tone)









31





I JjJJ J - j J ^










32










^ ^tefepound

^ Pgt Y ~$ Y f l

Y JW Jgt J







33








yJT|T p f^F












34

Makuta


















35











slap)






tones)

36



the dancers feet


slap)














37




38

CHAPTER 5


STRUCTURE

Samba Reggae















39























40















Dr Eugene Novotney





41











4 I II I I I 14

FIGURE61 Caixa part



drum


42


W^=f I 3

FIGURE64 Surdo2








43









for this song





FIGURE 69 Repenique

44





FIGURE70 Caixa










45

FIGURE72 Surdo2

FIGURE73 Surdol











Samba Batucada




46




















47






















48






















49





















bateria



50





pattern










FIGURE 76 Caixa

51





fl JJJJJJJJJJJJjJ

FIGURE77 Repenique












52

FIGURE79 Surdo2




FIGURE81 Chocalho










53

CHAPTER 6

DISCUSSION OF FIX

















54





sixteenth note time

l l i s

li raquo ^

laquo











55




















56

CHAPTER 7

CONCLUSION








in fix









57





















58

APENDIX

GLOSSARY OF TERMS

59





60

GLOSSARY OF TERMS






of clave












61





ternary form










additive rhythm

62

BIBLIOGRAPHY

63

BIBLIOGRAPHY













64















65










66



FIGURE21 Axase



the 128 measure












19

















20
















21



^ gt bull gt bull



scheme
















22













Kuku









23









knots








24







slap)







25

n n n Zf ZT Zf

plusmn1



F=B ^





J 99 3 9 9 n-^n p t u

TP






















27














28

CHAPTER4


STRUCTURE

Rumba Guaguanco















29



















30






tone)









31





I JjJJ J - j J ^










32










^ ^tefepound

^ Pgt Y ~$ Y f l

Y JW Jgt J







33








yJT|T p f^F












34

Makuta


















35











slap)






tones)

36



the dancers feet


slap)














37




38

CHAPTER 5


STRUCTURE

Samba Reggae















39























40















Dr Eugene Novotney





41











4 I II I I I 14

FIGURE61 Caixa part



drum


42


W^=f I 3

FIGURE64 Surdo2








43









for this song





FIGURE 69 Repenique

44





FIGURE70 Caixa










45

FIGURE72 Surdo2

FIGURE73 Surdol











Samba Batucada




46




















47






















48






















49





















bateria



50





pattern










FIGURE 76 Caixa

51





fl JJJJJJJJJJJJjJ

FIGURE77 Repenique












52

FIGURE79 Surdo2




FIGURE81 Chocalho










53

CHAPTER 6

DISCUSSION OF FIX

















54





sixteenth note time

l l i s

li raquo ^

laquo











55




















56

CHAPTER 7

CONCLUSION








in fix









57





















58

APENDIX

GLOSSARY OF TERMS

59





60

GLOSSARY OF TERMS






of clave












61





ternary form










additive rhythm

62

BIBLIOGRAPHY

63

BIBLIOGRAPHY













64















65










66

















20
















21



^ gt bull gt bull



scheme
















22













Kuku









23









knots








24







slap)







25

n n n Zf ZT Zf

plusmn1



F=B ^





J 99 3 9 9 n-^n p t u

TP






















27














28

CHAPTER4


STRUCTURE

Rumba Guaguanco















29



















30






tone)









31





I JjJJ J - j J ^










32










^ ^tefepound

^ Pgt Y ~$ Y f l

Y JW Jgt J







33








yJT|T p f^F












34

Makuta


















35











slap)






tones)

36



the dancers feet


slap)














37




38

CHAPTER 5


STRUCTURE

Samba Reggae















39























40















Dr Eugene Novotney





41











4 I II I I I 14

FIGURE61 Caixa part



drum


42


W^=f I 3

FIGURE64 Surdo2








43









for this song





FIGURE 69 Repenique

44





FIGURE70 Caixa










45

FIGURE72 Surdo2

FIGURE73 Surdol











Samba Batucada




46




















47






















48






















49





















bateria



50





pattern










FIGURE 76 Caixa

51





fl JJJJJJJJJJJJjJ

FIGURE77 Repenique












52

FIGURE79 Surdo2




FIGURE81 Chocalho










53

CHAPTER 6

DISCUSSION OF FIX

















54





sixteenth note time

l l i s

li raquo ^

laquo











55




















56

CHAPTER 7

CONCLUSION








in fix









57





















58

APENDIX

GLOSSARY OF TERMS

59





60

GLOSSARY OF TERMS






of clave












61





ternary form










additive rhythm

62

BIBLIOGRAPHY

63

BIBLIOGRAPHY













64















65










66
















21



^ gt bull gt bull



scheme
















22













Kuku









23









knots








24







slap)







25

n n n Zf ZT Zf

plusmn1



F=B ^





J 99 3 9 9 n-^n p t u

TP






















27














28

CHAPTER4


STRUCTURE

Rumba Guaguanco















29



















30






tone)









31





I JjJJ J - j J ^










32










^ ^tefepound

^ Pgt Y ~$ Y f l

Y JW Jgt J







33








yJT|T p f^F












34

Makuta


















35











slap)






tones)

36



the dancers feet


slap)














37




38

CHAPTER 5


STRUCTURE

Samba Reggae















39























40















Dr Eugene Novotney





41











4 I II I I I 14

FIGURE61 Caixa part



drum


42


W^=f I 3

FIGURE64 Surdo2








43









for this song





FIGURE 69 Repenique

44





FIGURE70 Caixa










45

FIGURE72 Surdo2

FIGURE73 Surdol











Samba Batucada




46




















47






















48






















49





















bateria



50





pattern










FIGURE 76 Caixa

51





fl JJJJJJJJJJJJjJ

FIGURE77 Repenique












52

FIGURE79 Surdo2




FIGURE81 Chocalho










53

CHAPTER 6

DISCUSSION OF FIX

















54





sixteenth note time

l l i s

li raquo ^

laquo











55




















56

CHAPTER 7

CONCLUSION








in fix









57





















58

APENDIX

GLOSSARY OF TERMS

59





60

GLOSSARY OF TERMS






of clave












61





ternary form










additive rhythm

62

BIBLIOGRAPHY

63

BIBLIOGRAPHY













64















65










66



^ gt bull gt bull



scheme
















22













Kuku









23









knots








24







slap)







25

n n n Zf ZT Zf

plusmn1



F=B ^





J 99 3 9 9 n-^n p t u

TP






















27














28

CHAPTER4


STRUCTURE

Rumba Guaguanco















29



















30






tone)









31





I JjJJ J - j J ^










32










^ ^tefepound

^ Pgt Y ~$ Y f l

Y JW Jgt J







33








yJT|T p f^F












34

Makuta


















35











slap)






tones)

36



the dancers feet


slap)














37




38

CHAPTER 5


STRUCTURE

Samba Reggae















39























40















Dr Eugene Novotney





41











4 I II I I I 14

FIGURE61 Caixa part



drum


42


W^=f I 3

FIGURE64 Surdo2








43









for this song





FIGURE 69 Repenique

44





FIGURE70 Caixa










45

FIGURE72 Surdo2

FIGURE73 Surdol











Samba Batucada




46




















47






















48






















49





















bateria



50





pattern










FIGURE 76 Caixa

51





fl JJJJJJJJJJJJjJ

FIGURE77 Repenique












52

FIGURE79 Surdo2




FIGURE81 Chocalho










53

CHAPTER 6

DISCUSSION OF FIX

















54





sixteenth note time

l l i s

li raquo ^

laquo











55




















56

CHAPTER 7

CONCLUSION








in fix









57





















58

APENDIX

GLOSSARY OF TERMS

59





60

GLOSSARY OF TERMS






of clave












61





ternary form










additive rhythm

62

BIBLIOGRAPHY

63

BIBLIOGRAPHY













64















65










66













Kuku









23









knots








24







slap)







25

n n n Zf ZT Zf

plusmn1



F=B ^





J 99 3 9 9 n-^n p t u

TP






















27














28

CHAPTER4


STRUCTURE

Rumba Guaguanco















29



















30






tone)









31





I JjJJ J - j J ^










32










^ ^tefepound

^ Pgt Y ~$ Y f l

Y JW Jgt J







33








yJT|T p f^F












34

Makuta


















35











slap)






tones)

36



the dancers feet


slap)














37




38

CHAPTER 5


STRUCTURE

Samba Reggae















39























40















Dr Eugene Novotney





41











4 I II I I I 14

FIGURE61 Caixa part



drum


42


W^=f I 3

FIGURE64 Surdo2








43









for this song





FIGURE 69 Repenique

44





FIGURE70 Caixa










45

FIGURE72 Surdo2

FIGURE73 Surdol











Samba Batucada




46




















47






















48






















49





















bateria



50





pattern










FIGURE 76 Caixa

51





fl JJJJJJJJJJJJjJ

FIGURE77 Repenique












52

FIGURE79 Surdo2




FIGURE81 Chocalho










53

CHAPTER 6

DISCUSSION OF FIX

















54





sixteenth note time

l l i s

li raquo ^

laquo











55




















56

CHAPTER 7

CONCLUSION








in fix









57





















58

APENDIX

GLOSSARY OF TERMS

59





60

GLOSSARY OF TERMS






of clave












61





ternary form










additive rhythm

62

BIBLIOGRAPHY

63

BIBLIOGRAPHY













64















65










66









knots








24







slap)







25

n n n Zf ZT Zf

plusmn1



F=B ^





J 99 3 9 9 n-^n p t u

TP






















27














28

CHAPTER4


STRUCTURE

Rumba Guaguanco















29



















30






tone)









31





I JjJJ J - j J ^










32










^ ^tefepound

^ Pgt Y ~$ Y f l

Y JW Jgt J







33








yJT|T p f^F












34

Makuta


















35











slap)






tones)

36



the dancers feet


slap)














37




38

CHAPTER 5


STRUCTURE

Samba Reggae















39























40















Dr Eugene Novotney





41











4 I II I I I 14

FIGURE61 Caixa part



drum


42


W^=f I 3

FIGURE64 Surdo2








43









for this song





FIGURE 69 Repenique

44





FIGURE70 Caixa










45

FIGURE72 Surdo2

FIGURE73 Surdol











Samba Batucada




46




















47






















48






















49





















bateria



50





pattern










FIGURE 76 Caixa

51





fl JJJJJJJJJJJJjJ

FIGURE77 Repenique












52

FIGURE79 Surdo2




FIGURE81 Chocalho










53

CHAPTER 6

DISCUSSION OF FIX

















54





sixteenth note time

l l i s

li raquo ^

laquo











55




















56

CHAPTER 7

CONCLUSION








in fix









57





















58

APENDIX

GLOSSARY OF TERMS

59





60

GLOSSARY OF TERMS






of clave












61





ternary form










additive rhythm

62

BIBLIOGRAPHY

63

BIBLIOGRAPHY













64















65










66







slap)







25

n n n Zf ZT Zf

plusmn1



F=B ^





J 99 3 9 9 n-^n p t u

TP






















27














28

CHAPTER4


STRUCTURE

Rumba Guaguanco















29



















30






tone)









31





I JjJJ J - j J ^










32










^ ^tefepound

^ Pgt Y ~$ Y f l

Y JW Jgt J







33








yJT|T p f^F












34

Makuta


















35











slap)






tones)

36



the dancers feet


slap)














37




38

CHAPTER 5


STRUCTURE

Samba Reggae















39























40















Dr Eugene Novotney





41











4 I II I I I 14

FIGURE61 Caixa part



drum


42


W^=f I 3

FIGURE64 Surdo2








43









for this song





FIGURE 69 Repenique

44





FIGURE70 Caixa










45

FIGURE72 Surdo2

FIGURE73 Surdol











Samba Batucada




46




















47






















48






















49





















bateria



50





pattern










FIGURE 76 Caixa

51





fl JJJJJJJJJJJJjJ

FIGURE77 Repenique












52

FIGURE79 Surdo2




FIGURE81 Chocalho










53

CHAPTER 6

DISCUSSION OF FIX

















54





sixteenth note time

l l i s

li raquo ^

laquo











55




















56

CHAPTER 7

CONCLUSION








in fix









57





















58

APENDIX

GLOSSARY OF TERMS

59





60

GLOSSARY OF TERMS






of clave












61





ternary form










additive rhythm

62

BIBLIOGRAPHY

63

BIBLIOGRAPHY













64















65










66

n n n Zf ZT Zf

plusmn1



F=B ^





J 99 3 9 9 n-^n p t u

TP






















27














28

CHAPTER4


STRUCTURE

Rumba Guaguanco















29



















30






tone)









31





I JjJJ J - j J ^










32










^ ^tefepound

^ Pgt Y ~$ Y f l

Y JW Jgt J







33








yJT|T p f^F












34

Makuta


















35











slap)






tones)

36



the dancers feet


slap)














37




38

CHAPTER 5


STRUCTURE

Samba Reggae















39























40















Dr Eugene Novotney





41











4 I II I I I 14

FIGURE61 Caixa part



drum


42


W^=f I 3

FIGURE64 Surdo2








43









for this song





FIGURE 69 Repenique

44





FIGURE70 Caixa










45

FIGURE72 Surdo2

FIGURE73 Surdol











Samba Batucada




46




















47






















48






















49





















bateria



50





pattern










FIGURE 76 Caixa

51





fl JJJJJJJJJJJJjJ

FIGURE77 Repenique












52

FIGURE79 Surdo2




FIGURE81 Chocalho










53

CHAPTER 6

DISCUSSION OF FIX

















54





sixteenth note time

l l i s

li raquo ^

laquo











55




















56

CHAPTER 7

CONCLUSION








in fix









57





















58

APENDIX

GLOSSARY OF TERMS

59





60

GLOSSARY OF TERMS






of clave












61





ternary form










additive rhythm

62

BIBLIOGRAPHY

63

BIBLIOGRAPHY













64















65










66

















27














28

CHAPTER4


STRUCTURE

Rumba Guaguanco















29



















30






tone)









31





I JjJJ J - j J ^










32










^ ^tefepound

^ Pgt Y ~$ Y f l

Y JW Jgt J







33








yJT|T p f^F












34

Makuta


















35











slap)






tones)

36



the dancers feet


slap)














37




38

CHAPTER 5


STRUCTURE

Samba Reggae















39























40















Dr Eugene Novotney





41











4 I II I I I 14

FIGURE61 Caixa part



drum


42


W^=f I 3

FIGURE64 Surdo2








43









for this song





FIGURE 69 Repenique

44





FIGURE70 Caixa










45

FIGURE72 Surdo2

FIGURE73 Surdol











Samba Batucada




46




















47






















48






















49





















bateria



50





pattern










FIGURE 76 Caixa

51





fl JJJJJJJJJJJJjJ

FIGURE77 Repenique












52

FIGURE79 Surdo2




FIGURE81 Chocalho










53

CHAPTER 6

DISCUSSION OF FIX

















54





sixteenth note time

l l i s

li raquo ^

laquo











55




















56

CHAPTER 7

CONCLUSION








in fix









57





















58

APENDIX

GLOSSARY OF TERMS

59





60

GLOSSARY OF TERMS






of clave












61





ternary form










additive rhythm

62

BIBLIOGRAPHY

63

BIBLIOGRAPHY













64















65










66














28

CHAPTER4


STRUCTURE

Rumba Guaguanco















29



















30






tone)









31





I JjJJ J - j J ^










32










^ ^tefepound

^ Pgt Y ~$ Y f l

Y JW Jgt J







33








yJT|T p f^F












34

Makuta


















35











slap)






tones)

36



the dancers feet


slap)














37




38

CHAPTER 5


STRUCTURE

Samba Reggae















39























40















Dr Eugene Novotney





41











4 I II I I I 14

FIGURE61 Caixa part



drum


42


W^=f I 3

FIGURE64 Surdo2








43









for this song





FIGURE 69 Repenique

44





FIGURE70 Caixa










45

FIGURE72 Surdo2

FIGURE73 Surdol











Samba Batucada




46




















47






















48






















49





















bateria



50





pattern










FIGURE 76 Caixa

51





fl JJJJJJJJJJJJjJ

FIGURE77 Repenique












52

FIGURE79 Surdo2




FIGURE81 Chocalho










53

CHAPTER 6

DISCUSSION OF FIX

















54





sixteenth note time

l l i s

li raquo ^

laquo











55




















56

CHAPTER 7

CONCLUSION








in fix









57





















58

APENDIX

GLOSSARY OF TERMS

59





60

GLOSSARY OF TERMS






of clave












61





ternary form










additive rhythm

62

BIBLIOGRAPHY

63

BIBLIOGRAPHY













64















65










66

CHAPTER4


STRUCTURE

Rumba Guaguanco















29



















30






tone)









31





I JjJJ J - j J ^










32










^ ^tefepound

^ Pgt Y ~$ Y f l

Y JW Jgt J







33








yJT|T p f^F












34

Makuta


















35











slap)






tones)

36



the dancers feet


slap)














37




38

CHAPTER 5


STRUCTURE

Samba Reggae















39























40















Dr Eugene Novotney





41











4 I II I I I 14

FIGURE61 Caixa part



drum


42


W^=f I 3

FIGURE64 Surdo2








43









for this song





FIGURE 69 Repenique

44





FIGURE70 Caixa










45

FIGURE72 Surdo2

FIGURE73 Surdol











Samba Batucada




46




















47






















48






















49





















bateria



50





pattern










FIGURE 76 Caixa

51





fl JJJJJJJJJJJJjJ

FIGURE77 Repenique












52

FIGURE79 Surdo2




FIGURE81 Chocalho










53

CHAPTER 6

DISCUSSION OF FIX

















54





sixteenth note time

l l i s

li raquo ^

laquo











55




















56

CHAPTER 7

CONCLUSION








in fix









57





















58

APENDIX

GLOSSARY OF TERMS

59





60

GLOSSARY OF TERMS






of clave












61





ternary form










additive rhythm

62

BIBLIOGRAPHY

63

BIBLIOGRAPHY













64















65










66



















30






tone)









31





I JjJJ J - j J ^










32










^ ^tefepound

^ Pgt Y ~$ Y f l

Y JW Jgt J







33








yJT|T p f^F












34

Makuta


















35











slap)






tones)

36



the dancers feet


slap)














37




38

CHAPTER 5


STRUCTURE

Samba Reggae















39























40















Dr Eugene Novotney





41











4 I II I I I 14

FIGURE61 Caixa part



drum


42


W^=f I 3

FIGURE64 Surdo2








43









for this song





FIGURE 69 Repenique

44





FIGURE70 Caixa










45

FIGURE72 Surdo2

FIGURE73 Surdol











Samba Batucada




46




















47






















48






















49





















bateria



50





pattern










FIGURE 76 Caixa

51





fl JJJJJJJJJJJJjJ

FIGURE77 Repenique












52

FIGURE79 Surdo2




FIGURE81 Chocalho










53

CHAPTER 6

DISCUSSION OF FIX

















54





sixteenth note time

l l i s

li raquo ^

laquo











55




















56

CHAPTER 7

CONCLUSION








in fix









57





















58

APENDIX

GLOSSARY OF TERMS

59





60

GLOSSARY OF TERMS






of clave












61





ternary form










additive rhythm

62

BIBLIOGRAPHY

63

BIBLIOGRAPHY













64















65










66






tone)









31





I JjJJ J - j J ^










32










^ ^tefepound

^ Pgt Y ~$ Y f l

Y JW Jgt J







33








yJT|T p f^F












34

Makuta


















35











slap)






tones)

36



the dancers feet


slap)














37




38

CHAPTER 5


STRUCTURE

Samba Reggae















39























40















Dr Eugene Novotney





41











4 I II I I I 14

FIGURE61 Caixa part



drum


42


W^=f I 3

FIGURE64 Surdo2








43









for this song





FIGURE 69 Repenique

44





FIGURE70 Caixa










45

FIGURE72 Surdo2

FIGURE73 Surdol











Samba Batucada




46




















47






















48






















49





















bateria



50





pattern










FIGURE 76 Caixa

51





fl JJJJJJJJJJJJjJ

FIGURE77 Repenique












52

FIGURE79 Surdo2




FIGURE81 Chocalho










53

CHAPTER 6

DISCUSSION OF FIX

















54





sixteenth note time

l l i s

li raquo ^

laquo











55




















56

CHAPTER 7

CONCLUSION








in fix









57





















58

APENDIX

GLOSSARY OF TERMS

59





60

GLOSSARY OF TERMS






of clave












61





ternary form










additive rhythm

62

BIBLIOGRAPHY

63

BIBLIOGRAPHY













64















65










66





I JjJJ J - j J ^










32










^ ^tefepound

^ Pgt Y ~$ Y f l

Y JW Jgt J







33








yJT|T p f^F












34

Makuta


















35











slap)






tones)

36



the dancers feet


slap)














37




38

CHAPTER 5


STRUCTURE

Samba Reggae















39























40















Dr Eugene Novotney





41











4 I II I I I 14

FIGURE61 Caixa part



drum


42


W^=f I 3

FIGURE64 Surdo2








43









for this song





FIGURE 69 Repenique

44





FIGURE70 Caixa










45

FIGURE72 Surdo2

FIGURE73 Surdol











Samba Batucada




46




















47






















48






















49





















bateria



50





pattern










FIGURE 76 Caixa

51





fl JJJJJJJJJJJJjJ

FIGURE77 Repenique












52

FIGURE79 Surdo2




FIGURE81 Chocalho










53

CHAPTER 6

DISCUSSION OF FIX

















54





sixteenth note time

l l i s

li raquo ^

laquo











55




















56

CHAPTER 7

CONCLUSION








in fix









57





















58

APENDIX

GLOSSARY OF TERMS

59





60

GLOSSARY OF TERMS






of clave












61





ternary form










additive rhythm

62

BIBLIOGRAPHY

63

BIBLIOGRAPHY













64















65










66










^ ^tefepound

^ Pgt Y ~$ Y f l

Y JW Jgt J







33








yJT|T p f^F












34

Makuta


















35











slap)






tones)

36



the dancers feet


slap)














37




38

CHAPTER 5


STRUCTURE

Samba Reggae















39























40















Dr Eugene Novotney





41











4 I II I I I 14

FIGURE61 Caixa part



drum


42


W^=f I 3

FIGURE64 Surdo2








43









for this song





FIGURE 69 Repenique

44





FIGURE70 Caixa










45

FIGURE72 Surdo2

FIGURE73 Surdol











Samba Batucada




46




















47






















48






















49





















bateria



50





pattern










FIGURE 76 Caixa

51





fl JJJJJJJJJJJJjJ

FIGURE77 Repenique












52

FIGURE79 Surdo2




FIGURE81 Chocalho










53

CHAPTER 6

DISCUSSION OF FIX

















54





sixteenth note time

l l i s

li raquo ^

laquo











55




















56

CHAPTER 7

CONCLUSION








in fix









57





















58

APENDIX

GLOSSARY OF TERMS

59





60

GLOSSARY OF TERMS






of clave












61





ternary form










additive rhythm

62

BIBLIOGRAPHY

63

BIBLIOGRAPHY













64















65










66








yJT|T p f^F












34

Makuta


















35











slap)






tones)

36



the dancers feet


slap)














37




38

CHAPTER 5


STRUCTURE

Samba Reggae















39























40















Dr Eugene Novotney





41











4 I II I I I 14

FIGURE61 Caixa part



drum


42


W^=f I 3

FIGURE64 Surdo2








43









for this song





FIGURE 69 Repenique

44





FIGURE70 Caixa










45

FIGURE72 Surdo2

FIGURE73 Surdol











Samba Batucada




46




















47






















48






















49





















bateria



50





pattern










FIGURE 76 Caixa

51





fl JJJJJJJJJJJJjJ

FIGURE77 Repenique












52

FIGURE79 Surdo2




FIGURE81 Chocalho










53

CHAPTER 6

DISCUSSION OF FIX

















54





sixteenth note time

l l i s

li raquo ^

laquo











55




















56

CHAPTER 7

CONCLUSION








in fix









57





















58

APENDIX

GLOSSARY OF TERMS

59





60

GLOSSARY OF TERMS






of clave












61





ternary form










additive rhythm

62

BIBLIOGRAPHY

63

BIBLIOGRAPHY













64















65










66

Makuta


















35











slap)






tones)

36



the dancers feet


slap)














37




38

CHAPTER 5


STRUCTURE

Samba Reggae















39























40















Dr Eugene Novotney





41











4 I II I I I 14

FIGURE61 Caixa part



drum


42


W^=f I 3

FIGURE64 Surdo2








43









for this song





FIGURE 69 Repenique

44





FIGURE70 Caixa










45

FIGURE72 Surdo2

FIGURE73 Surdol











Samba Batucada




46




















47






















48






















49





















bateria



50





pattern










FIGURE 76 Caixa

51





fl JJJJJJJJJJJJjJ

FIGURE77 Repenique












52

FIGURE79 Surdo2




FIGURE81 Chocalho










53

CHAPTER 6

DISCUSSION OF FIX

















54





sixteenth note time

l l i s

li raquo ^

laquo











55




















56

CHAPTER 7

CONCLUSION








in fix









57





















58

APENDIX

GLOSSARY OF TERMS

59





60

GLOSSARY OF TERMS






of clave












61





ternary form










additive rhythm

62

BIBLIOGRAPHY

63

BIBLIOGRAPHY













64















65










66











slap)






tones)

36



the dancers feet


slap)














37




38

CHAPTER 5


STRUCTURE

Samba Reggae















39























40















Dr Eugene Novotney





41











4 I II I I I 14

FIGURE61 Caixa part



drum


42


W^=f I 3

FIGURE64 Surdo2








43









for this song





FIGURE 69 Repenique

44





FIGURE70 Caixa










45

FIGURE72 Surdo2

FIGURE73 Surdol











Samba Batucada




46




















47






















48






















49





















bateria



50





pattern










FIGURE 76 Caixa

51





fl JJJJJJJJJJJJjJ

FIGURE77 Repenique












52

FIGURE79 Surdo2




FIGURE81 Chocalho










53

CHAPTER 6

DISCUSSION OF FIX

















54





sixteenth note time

l l i s

li raquo ^

laquo











55




















56

CHAPTER 7

CONCLUSION








in fix









57





















58

APENDIX

GLOSSARY OF TERMS

59





60

GLOSSARY OF TERMS






of clave












61





ternary form










additive rhythm

62

BIBLIOGRAPHY

63

BIBLIOGRAPHY













64















65










66



the dancers feet


slap)














37




38

CHAPTER 5


STRUCTURE

Samba Reggae















39























40















Dr Eugene Novotney





41











4 I II I I I 14

FIGURE61 Caixa part



drum


42


W^=f I 3

FIGURE64 Surdo2








43









for this song





FIGURE 69 Repenique

44





FIGURE70 Caixa










45

FIGURE72 Surdo2

FIGURE73 Surdol











Samba Batucada




46




















47






















48






















49





















bateria



50





pattern










FIGURE 76 Caixa

51





fl JJJJJJJJJJJJjJ

FIGURE77 Repenique












52

FIGURE79 Surdo2




FIGURE81 Chocalho










53

CHAPTER 6

DISCUSSION OF FIX

















54





sixteenth note time

l l i s

li raquo ^

laquo











55




















56

CHAPTER 7

CONCLUSION








in fix









57





















58

APENDIX

GLOSSARY OF TERMS

59





60

GLOSSARY OF TERMS






of clave












61





ternary form










additive rhythm

62

BIBLIOGRAPHY

63

BIBLIOGRAPHY













64















65










66




38

CHAPTER 5


STRUCTURE

Samba Reggae















39























40















Dr Eugene Novotney





41











4 I II I I I 14

FIGURE61 Caixa part



drum


42


W^=f I 3

FIGURE64 Surdo2








43









for this song





FIGURE 69 Repenique

44





FIGURE70 Caixa










45

FIGURE72 Surdo2

FIGURE73 Surdol











Samba Batucada




46




















47






















48






















49





















bateria



50





pattern










FIGURE 76 Caixa

51





fl JJJJJJJJJJJJjJ

FIGURE77 Repenique












52

FIGURE79 Surdo2




FIGURE81 Chocalho










53

CHAPTER 6

DISCUSSION OF FIX

















54





sixteenth note time

l l i s

li raquo ^

laquo











55




















56

CHAPTER 7

CONCLUSION








in fix









57





















58

APENDIX

GLOSSARY OF TERMS

59





60

GLOSSARY OF TERMS






of clave












61





ternary form










additive rhythm

62

BIBLIOGRAPHY

63

BIBLIOGRAPHY













64















65










66

CHAPTER 5


STRUCTURE

Samba Reggae















39























40















Dr Eugene Novotney





41











4 I II I I I 14

FIGURE61 Caixa part



drum


42


W^=f I 3

FIGURE64 Surdo2








43









for this song





FIGURE 69 Repenique

44





FIGURE70 Caixa










45

FIGURE72 Surdo2

FIGURE73 Surdol











Samba Batucada




46




















47






















48






















49





















bateria



50





pattern










FIGURE 76 Caixa

51





fl JJJJJJJJJJJJjJ

FIGURE77 Repenique












52

FIGURE79 Surdo2




FIGURE81 Chocalho










53

CHAPTER 6

DISCUSSION OF FIX

















54





sixteenth note time

l l i s

li raquo ^

laquo











55




















56

CHAPTER 7

CONCLUSION








in fix









57





















58

APENDIX

GLOSSARY OF TERMS

59





60

GLOSSARY OF TERMS






of clave












61





ternary form










additive rhythm

62

BIBLIOGRAPHY

63

BIBLIOGRAPHY













64















65










66























40















Dr Eugene Novotney





41











4 I II I I I 14

FIGURE61 Caixa part



drum


42


W^=f I 3

FIGURE64 Surdo2








43









for this song





FIGURE 69 Repenique

44





FIGURE70 Caixa










45

FIGURE72 Surdo2

FIGURE73 Surdol











Samba Batucada




46




















47






















48






















49





















bateria



50





pattern










FIGURE 76 Caixa

51





fl JJJJJJJJJJJJjJ

FIGURE77 Repenique












52

FIGURE79 Surdo2




FIGURE81 Chocalho










53

CHAPTER 6

DISCUSSION OF FIX

















54





sixteenth note time

l l i s

li raquo ^

laquo











55




















56

CHAPTER 7

CONCLUSION








in fix









57





















58

APENDIX

GLOSSARY OF TERMS

59





60

GLOSSARY OF TERMS






of clave












61





ternary form










additive rhythm

62

BIBLIOGRAPHY

63

BIBLIOGRAPHY













64















65










66















Dr Eugene Novotney





41











4 I II I I I 14

FIGURE61 Caixa part



drum


42


W^=f I 3

FIGURE64 Surdo2








43









for this song





FIGURE 69 Repenique

44





FIGURE70 Caixa










45

FIGURE72 Surdo2

FIGURE73 Surdol











Samba Batucada




46




















47






















48






















49





















bateria



50





pattern










FIGURE 76 Caixa

51





fl JJJJJJJJJJJJjJ

FIGURE77 Repenique












52

FIGURE79 Surdo2




FIGURE81 Chocalho










53

CHAPTER 6

DISCUSSION OF FIX

















54





sixteenth note time

l l i s

li raquo ^

laquo











55




















56

CHAPTER 7

CONCLUSION








in fix









57





















58

APENDIX

GLOSSARY OF TERMS

59





60

GLOSSARY OF TERMS






of clave












61





ternary form










additive rhythm

62

BIBLIOGRAPHY

63

BIBLIOGRAPHY













64















65










66











4 I II I I I 14

FIGURE61 Caixa part



drum


42


W^=f I 3

FIGURE64 Surdo2








43









for this song





FIGURE 69 Repenique

44





FIGURE70 Caixa










45

FIGURE72 Surdo2

FIGURE73 Surdol











Samba Batucada




46




















47






















48






















49





















bateria



50





pattern










FIGURE 76 Caixa

51





fl JJJJJJJJJJJJjJ

FIGURE77 Repenique












52

FIGURE79 Surdo2




FIGURE81 Chocalho










53

CHAPTER 6

DISCUSSION OF FIX

















54





sixteenth note time

l l i s

li raquo ^

laquo











55




















56

CHAPTER 7

CONCLUSION








in fix









57





















58

APENDIX

GLOSSARY OF TERMS

59





60

GLOSSARY OF TERMS






of clave












61





ternary form










additive rhythm

62

BIBLIOGRAPHY

63

BIBLIOGRAPHY













64















65










66


W^=f I 3

FIGURE64 Surdo2








43









for this song





FIGURE 69 Repenique

44





FIGURE70 Caixa










45

FIGURE72 Surdo2

FIGURE73 Surdol











Samba Batucada




46




















47






















48






















49





















bateria



50





pattern










FIGURE 76 Caixa

51





fl JJJJJJJJJJJJjJ

FIGURE77 Repenique












52

FIGURE79 Surdo2




FIGURE81 Chocalho










53

CHAPTER 6

DISCUSSION OF FIX

















54





sixteenth note time

l l i s

li raquo ^

laquo











55




















56

CHAPTER 7

CONCLUSION








in fix









57





















58

APENDIX

GLOSSARY OF TERMS

59





60

GLOSSARY OF TERMS






of clave












61





ternary form










additive rhythm

62

BIBLIOGRAPHY

63

BIBLIOGRAPHY













64















65










66









for this song





FIGURE 69 Repenique

44





FIGURE70 Caixa










45

FIGURE72 Surdo2

FIGURE73 Surdol











Samba Batucada




46




















47






















48






















49





















bateria



50





pattern










FIGURE 76 Caixa

51





fl JJJJJJJJJJJJjJ

FIGURE77 Repenique












52

FIGURE79 Surdo2




FIGURE81 Chocalho










53

CHAPTER 6

DISCUSSION OF FIX

















54





sixteenth note time

l l i s

li raquo ^

laquo











55




















56

CHAPTER 7

CONCLUSION








in fix









57





















58

APENDIX

GLOSSARY OF TERMS

59





60

GLOSSARY OF TERMS






of clave












61





ternary form










additive rhythm

62

BIBLIOGRAPHY

63

BIBLIOGRAPHY













64















65










66





FIGURE70 Caixa










45

FIGURE72 Surdo2

FIGURE73 Surdol











Samba Batucada




46




















47






















48






















49





















bateria



50





pattern










FIGURE 76 Caixa

51





fl JJJJJJJJJJJJjJ

FIGURE77 Repenique












52

FIGURE79 Surdo2




FIGURE81 Chocalho










53

CHAPTER 6

DISCUSSION OF FIX

















54





sixteenth note time

l l i s

li raquo ^

laquo











55




















56

CHAPTER 7

CONCLUSION








in fix









57





















58

APENDIX

GLOSSARY OF TERMS

59





60

GLOSSARY OF TERMS






of clave












61





ternary form










additive rhythm

62

BIBLIOGRAPHY

63

BIBLIOGRAPHY













64















65










66

FIGURE72 Surdo2

FIGURE73 Surdol











Samba Batucada




46




















47






















48






















49





















bateria



50





pattern










FIGURE 76 Caixa

51





fl JJJJJJJJJJJJjJ

FIGURE77 Repenique












52

FIGURE79 Surdo2




FIGURE81 Chocalho










53

CHAPTER 6

DISCUSSION OF FIX

















54





sixteenth note time

l l i s

li raquo ^

laquo











55




















56

CHAPTER 7

CONCLUSION








in fix









57





















58

APENDIX

GLOSSARY OF TERMS

59





60

GLOSSARY OF TERMS






of clave












61





ternary form










additive rhythm

62

BIBLIOGRAPHY

63

BIBLIOGRAPHY













64















65










66




















47






















48






















49





















bateria



50





pattern










FIGURE 76 Caixa

51





fl JJJJJJJJJJJJjJ

FIGURE77 Repenique












52

FIGURE79 Surdo2




FIGURE81 Chocalho










53

CHAPTER 6

DISCUSSION OF FIX

















54





sixteenth note time

l l i s

li raquo ^

laquo











55




















56

CHAPTER 7

CONCLUSION








in fix









57





















58

APENDIX

GLOSSARY OF TERMS

59





60

GLOSSARY OF TERMS






of clave












61





ternary form










additive rhythm

62

BIBLIOGRAPHY

63

BIBLIOGRAPHY













64















65










66






















48






















49





















bateria



50





pattern










FIGURE 76 Caixa

51





fl JJJJJJJJJJJJjJ

FIGURE77 Repenique












52

FIGURE79 Surdo2




FIGURE81 Chocalho










53

CHAPTER 6

DISCUSSION OF FIX

















54





sixteenth note time

l l i s

li raquo ^

laquo











55




















56

CHAPTER 7

CONCLUSION








in fix









57





















58

APENDIX

GLOSSARY OF TERMS

59





60

GLOSSARY OF TERMS






of clave












61





ternary form










additive rhythm

62

BIBLIOGRAPHY

63

BIBLIOGRAPHY













64















65










66






















49





















bateria



50





pattern










FIGURE 76 Caixa

51





fl JJJJJJJJJJJJjJ

FIGURE77 Repenique












52

FIGURE79 Surdo2




FIGURE81 Chocalho










53

CHAPTER 6

DISCUSSION OF FIX

















54





sixteenth note time

l l i s

li raquo ^

laquo











55




















56

CHAPTER 7

CONCLUSION








in fix









57





















58

APENDIX

GLOSSARY OF TERMS

59





60

GLOSSARY OF TERMS






of clave












61





ternary form










additive rhythm

62

BIBLIOGRAPHY

63

BIBLIOGRAPHY













64















65










66





















bateria



50





pattern










FIGURE 76 Caixa

51





fl JJJJJJJJJJJJjJ

FIGURE77 Repenique












52

FIGURE79 Surdo2




FIGURE81 Chocalho










53

CHAPTER 6

DISCUSSION OF FIX

















54





sixteenth note time

l l i s

li raquo ^

laquo











55




















56

CHAPTER 7

CONCLUSION








in fix









57





















58

APENDIX

GLOSSARY OF TERMS

59





60

GLOSSARY OF TERMS






of clave












61





ternary form










additive rhythm

62

BIBLIOGRAPHY

63

BIBLIOGRAPHY













64















65










66





pattern










FIGURE 76 Caixa

51





fl JJJJJJJJJJJJjJ

FIGURE77 Repenique












52

FIGURE79 Surdo2




FIGURE81 Chocalho










53

CHAPTER 6

DISCUSSION OF FIX

















54





sixteenth note time

l l i s

li raquo ^

laquo











55




















56

CHAPTER 7

CONCLUSION








in fix









57





















58

APENDIX

GLOSSARY OF TERMS

59





60

GLOSSARY OF TERMS






of clave












61





ternary form










additive rhythm

62

BIBLIOGRAPHY

63

BIBLIOGRAPHY













64















65










66





fl JJJJJJJJJJJJjJ

FIGURE77 Repenique












52

FIGURE79 Surdo2




FIGURE81 Chocalho










53

CHAPTER 6

DISCUSSION OF FIX

















54





sixteenth note time

l l i s

li raquo ^

laquo











55




















56

CHAPTER 7

CONCLUSION








in fix









57





















58

APENDIX

GLOSSARY OF TERMS

59





60

GLOSSARY OF TERMS






of clave












61





ternary form










additive rhythm

62

BIBLIOGRAPHY

63

BIBLIOGRAPHY













64















65










66

FIGURE79 Surdo2




FIGURE81 Chocalho










53

CHAPTER 6

DISCUSSION OF FIX

















54





sixteenth note time

l l i s

li raquo ^

laquo











55




















56

CHAPTER 7

CONCLUSION








in fix









57





















58

APENDIX

GLOSSARY OF TERMS

59





60

GLOSSARY OF TERMS






of clave












61





ternary form










additive rhythm

62

BIBLIOGRAPHY

63

BIBLIOGRAPHY













64















65










66

CHAPTER 6

DISCUSSION OF FIX

















54





sixteenth note time

l l i s

li raquo ^

laquo











55




















56

CHAPTER 7

CONCLUSION








in fix









57





















58

APENDIX

GLOSSARY OF TERMS

59





60

GLOSSARY OF TERMS






of clave












61





ternary form










additive rhythm

62

BIBLIOGRAPHY

63

BIBLIOGRAPHY













64















65










66





sixteenth note time

l l i s

li raquo ^

laquo











55




















56

CHAPTER 7

CONCLUSION








in fix









57





















58

APENDIX

GLOSSARY OF TERMS

59





60

GLOSSARY OF TERMS






of clave












61





ternary form










additive rhythm

62

BIBLIOGRAPHY

63

BIBLIOGRAPHY













64















65










66




















56

CHAPTER 7

CONCLUSION








in fix









57





















58

APENDIX

GLOSSARY OF TERMS

59





60

GLOSSARY OF TERMS






of clave












61





ternary form










additive rhythm

62

BIBLIOGRAPHY

63

BIBLIOGRAPHY













64















65










66

CHAPTER 7

CONCLUSION








in fix









57





















58

APENDIX

GLOSSARY OF TERMS

59





60

GLOSSARY OF TERMS






of clave












61





ternary form










additive rhythm

62

BIBLIOGRAPHY

63

BIBLIOGRAPHY













64















65










66





















58

APENDIX

GLOSSARY OF TERMS

59





60

GLOSSARY OF TERMS






of clave












61





ternary form










additive rhythm

62

BIBLIOGRAPHY

63

BIBLIOGRAPHY













64















65










66

APENDIX

GLOSSARY OF TERMS

59





60

GLOSSARY OF TERMS






of clave












61





ternary form










additive rhythm

62

BIBLIOGRAPHY

63

BIBLIOGRAPHY













64















65










66





60

GLOSSARY OF TERMS






of clave












61





ternary form










additive rhythm

62

BIBLIOGRAPHY

63

BIBLIOGRAPHY













64















65










66

GLOSSARY OF TERMS






of clave












61





ternary form










additive rhythm

62

BIBLIOGRAPHY

63

BIBLIOGRAPHY













64















65










66





ternary form










additive rhythm

62

BIBLIOGRAPHY

63

BIBLIOGRAPHY













64















65










66

BIBLIOGRAPHY

63

BIBLIOGRAPHY













64















65










66

BIBLIOGRAPHY













64















65










66















65










66










66

Tresillo Thesis

Documents

Transcript of Tresillo Thesis