Trends Related to Fecundity ~

An Anthropological Perspective

Physical and Environmental FactorsSocio-Culture Factors

Voluntary/Involuntary Childlessness - InfertilityOvercoming Infertility Techniques

Key Terms:

Fertility—actual reproduction

Fecundity ---denotes the ability to reproduce

How do cultural norms affect fertility rates?Overt (open)

Covert (implied)

China – Walking marriages – freedom is important – couples do not want to live together (crowded)To obtain an apartment, must be marriedMany women not wanting childrenDisassociation from traditional culture

Hong Kong – Tradition – wanting to give birth in year of the dragon – divinity and good fortune – children will be bright, smart and sensitive

Otherwise, Hong Kong has lowest fertility rate in the world

Israel – marriages can be dissolved after 10 years of childlessness (seen as tragic) – government subsidizes fertility treatments – more fertility clinics per capita

FERTILITY AND FECUNDITY

2 factors that contribute to change in fecundity rates:

1) physical and environmental factors 2) socio-culture factors

Physical and Environmental Factors

Couple is considered infertile when it has been trying to conceive for over one year without success

Factors:

1) Rapid spread of sexually transmitted diseases (STD/I’s)

2) Decline in male sperm count –can be linked to developed countries where water/food make contain high levels of estrogen

High levels of estrogen are believed to be due to small amounts of women’s oral contraceptives finding their way into the water system

By products of the chemicals also found in some food packaging and plastics

3) Changes in the Institution of Marriage and Family

4) Delayed Marriage Women delaying motherhood to pursue careers

(trend in society)

http://www.cbc.ca/documentaries/doczone/2011/modernmarriage/

Fertility and Cultural Norms

Demographers John Bongaarts and Robert Potter studied the proximate determinants of fertility

Biological, and behavioural factors through which social, economic and environmental variables affect fertility

Bongaarts and Potter: “Fertility, Biology, and Behaviour: An Analysis of Proximate Determinates”

Cultural norms are affected by:Age of first menstruation, age at marriage, frequency of intercourse, length of breast-feeding, use and effectiveness of contraception, and onset of permanent sterility

This suggest the following trends:Developed Countries…

Use contraception to delay births and surgery to prevent them

Developing Countries…

Mothers breast feed children longer

Once child is weaned (removed from breast milk) the mother is capable of becoming pregnant

Fertility and Cultural Normshttp://www.youtube.com/watch?v=KskX6LZYqv8n Hutterites:High fertility rate

Live in small communities

Follow strict social and religious conduct and control

Women bear average of 9 children (strict ban on contraceptives)

Marriage occurs in mid 20s

Shorter period of breast-feeding results in intervals of about 2 years

Why do fewer women breastfeed in developed societies than in developing societies? What impact does this have on fecundity?Notion that individuals are expected to be autonomous

(independent)

Babies expected to sleep in own cribs, play alone, and breast fed for only a few months

Links between breast-feeding and Fecundity

In many countries mothers and their babies from the moment they are born are expected to be autonomous (sleep in their own crib, play alone, beast fed for only a few months)

Mothers only get 6-8 weeks maternity leave at most places (others get up to a year)—when they return to work they can no longer upkeep breast feeding Maternity leave is short in US (6-8 weeks)

Infants benefit greatly from breast milk – meets their nutritional needs, immunizes against disease, improves digestion and body systems, reduces risk of allergies, economical

Breast-feeding has a contraceptive effect on the woman

Release of prolactin (pituitary hormone that regulates production of progesterone) and inhibits ovulation

Age of Menarche and Marriage

Menarche—age at which a woman experiences her first menstrual period

2 other factors that affect fecundity: age of menarche and age upon marriage

Developed countries: women eat diets high in fat, protein and calories, little physical activity, little exposure to elements =lower menarche age

Developing/pre-industrial societies: low calorie diet (plants/roots), fish, little or no dairy products or processed grains, lots of physical activity = higher menarche age

Voluntary/Involuntary Childlessness

Involuntary and Voluntary Childlessness

In many societies a marriage is seen as incomplete without children

Many cultures—woman is seen as “defected” if she does not want children

Many countries—not being able to have children is considered reasonable grounds for divorce (Ghana, marriage without children is considered

incomplete and divorce is sought out, Israel a marriage that remains childless for 10 years is seen as grounds for divorce)

Voluntary Childlessness

Voluntary Childlessness – couples or individuals who freely choose to remain childless

Many couples who choose not to have children have to deal with unwanted sympathy or attacked for being “selfish” - DINKs

Voluntary Childlessness – Stereotypes/Reasons for women who choose childlessness:

Hedonists – choose childlessness to preserve their standard of living

Emotional – do not have the emotional draw to have children

Idealistic – do not want to bring a child into the world because they feel it is unsuitable

Practical – have a practical reason such as not wanting to pass on a genetic illness

Psychological Impact of Involuntary Childlessness

Involuntary Childlessness – occurs when a couple or individual

wants children and cannot. This is either caused by infertility or by

not having a mate.

1. Emotional Devastation

Guilt, sadness, loss of control, anger (especially towards doctors), isolation, grieving process similar to grieving a death

News is almost always unexpected (go through life assuming when you want to have children that you will be able to)

Many times family and friends underestimate the emotional impact which can make it that much harder

2. Burden of Reproductive Technologies:

Reproductive Technologies – technologies designed to help improve the couple’s chances of conceiving and carrying a child to term through medical manipulation (expensive and not covered by health plans in most countries)

Side effects from some treatments/fertility drugs can include blurred vision, irritability, increased risks of certain types of cancers

Excessive time commitment (organize life around dates and times). Lose element of spontaneity

Emotional relationship between parents is tested, possible feelings of blame and guilt, stress, anxiety, depression

Overcoming Infertility

AdoptionEstimated over 20,000 children in need of homes

Only 1,200 adopted yearly

Approximately 2000 adopted internationally

Very expensive and long process

Tedious application process

http://www.canadaadopts.com/canada/domestic_public.shtml

http://www.canadaadopts.com/canada/overseas.shtml

Reproductive TechnologiesMedical reproduction of the

woman’s reproductive cycle or male sperm count to assist couple in having children

Usually not covered by Healthcare system

Expensive and lengthy process

May not be successful

Stressful on the relationship

SurrogacyMeans replacement

Surrogate mother lends her uterus to another couple so they can have a baby

Raises ethical and legal questions

Baby M case P196

http://www.kylewood.com/familylaw/babym.htm

Canadian Law re: Reproduction, Surrogacy, Sperm Donation

http://www.parl.gc.ca/Content/LOP/researchpublications/prb0035-e.htm