Transgenic technologyTransgenic technology

Transgenic technologyTransgenic technology

Breeding methodBreeding method Crop ImprovementCrop Improvement

Problems in Agriculture

1. Quantity

2. Quality

3. Stress Environment

4. Public acceptance

Important TraitsImportant Traits

High crop yieldHigh crop yield High nutritional qualityHigh nutritional quality Abiotic stress toleranceAbiotic stress tolerance

Pest resistancePest resistance Adaptation to inter-croppingAdaptation to inter-cropping

Nitrogen FixationNitrogen FixationInsensitivity to photo-periodInsensitivity to photo-period

Elimination of toxic compoundsElimination of toxic compounds

Biotech goes globalBiotech goes global

Wide range of cropsWide range of crops

57 fruits, vegetables, field crops and other plants – ranging from lab trials to commercial production

14 VegetablesBroccoliCabbage

CarrotCauliflowerCucumberEggplantLettuceOnion

Pea/BeanPepperPotato

SpinachSquashTomato

16 FruitsApple

BananaCantaloupe

CherryCitrus

CoconutGrapeKiwi

MangoMelon

PapayaPineapple

PlumRaspberryStrawberry

Watermelon

16 Field CropsAlfalfaBarleyCanola

CassavaCloverCottonFlax

MaizeRice

SafflowerSorghumSoybean

Sugar BeetSugar CaneSunflower

Wheat

11 other cropsChicoryCocoaCoffeeGarlicLupins

MustardOil Palm

Oilseed PoppyOlive

PeanutTobacco

Field Crops by CountryField Crops by Country

FIELD CROPS by COUNTRY S

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Canada P A P P A A A F F F F F FUnited States P P P P A A A F F F F FAustralia a P a a a F F F FWest Europe (15/15) a F P a F F F F F FArgentina P P P F F L L F FMexico A P F F F F FChina F P F L L F L L LJapan a a a a a F LSouth Africa P P P F FBrazil P F F F F LSouth Korea a aIndonesia F a F L L LUruguay P PEgypt A F A F F LEast Europe (7/12) P A FIndia P F LColombia P LPhilippines P LParaguay PChile p pHonduras ABelize F F FCuba L L FThailand F F LVenezuela L L FZimbabwe F FBolivia F FCosta Rica L FNew Zealand FMalaysia L

Pakistan L L commercial Production PMorocco L regulatory Approval ABangladesh L Field study FKenya L Lab / greenhouse L

Herbicide ResistanceHerbicide Resistance Insect ResistanceInsect Resistance Virus ResistanceVirus Resistance

Delayed Fruit Ripening Delayed Fruit Ripening

The big five successful traitsThe big five successful traits

Hot Issue

1. Genetically Modified Food

2. Golden Rice

3. Molecular Farming

Roundup Ready™ Soybeans

A problem in agriculture is the reduced growth of crops imposed by the presence of unwanted weeds. Herbicides such as RoundupTM and Liberty LinkTM are able to kill a wide range of weeds and have the advantage of

breaking down easily. Development of herbicide resistant crops allows the elimination of surrounding weeds without harm to the crops.

a)a) Glyphosate ResistanceGlyphosate Resistance i.i. Glyphosate = “Roundup”, “Tumbleweed” = Systemic herbicideGlyphosate = “Roundup”, “Tumbleweed” = Systemic herbicideii.ii. Marketed under the name Roundup, glyphosate inhibits the enzyme EPSPS Marketed under the name Roundup, glyphosate inhibits the enzyme EPSPS (S-(S-

enolenolppyruvlyruvlsshikimate-3 hikimate-3 pphosphate – involved in chloroplast amino acid hosphate – involved in chloroplast amino acid synthesis)synthesis), makes aromatic amino acids., makes aromatic amino acids.

iii.iii. The gene encoding EPSPS has been transferred from glyphosate-resistant E. The gene encoding EPSPS has been transferred from glyphosate-resistant E. coli into plants, allowing plants to be resistant. coli into plants, allowing plants to be resistant.

Glufosinate Resistance Glufosinate Resistance i.i. Glufosinate (the active ingredient being phosphinothricin) mimics the structure Glufosinate (the active ingredient being phosphinothricin) mimics the structure

of the amino acid glutamine, which blocks the enzyme glutamate synthase.of the amino acid glutamine, which blocks the enzyme glutamate synthase.ii.ii. Plants receive a gene from the bacterium Streptomyces that produce a protein Plants receive a gene from the bacterium Streptomyces that produce a protein

that inactivates the herbicidethat inactivates the herbicide. .

Herbicide ResistanceHerbicide Resistance

c) c) Bromoxynil ResistanceBromoxynil Resistance i.i. A gene encoding the enzyme bromoxynil nitrilase (BXN) is A gene encoding the enzyme bromoxynil nitrilase (BXN) is

transferred from transferred from Klebsiella pneumoniaeKlebsiella pneumoniae bacteria to plants. bacteria to plants. ii.ii. Nitrilase inactivates the Bromoxynil before it kills the plant. Nitrilase inactivates the Bromoxynil before it kills the plant.

d) Sulfonyluread) Sulfonylurea.. i.i. Kills plants by blocking an enzyme needed for synthesis of the Kills plants by blocking an enzyme needed for synthesis of the

amino acids valine, leucine, and isoleucine. amino acids valine, leucine, and isoleucine. ii.ii. Resistance generated by mutating a gene in tobacco plants, Resistance generated by mutating a gene in tobacco plants,

and transferring the mutated gene into crop plants. and transferring the mutated gene into crop plants.

Herbicide ResistanceHerbicide Resistance

Insect Resistance

Corn hybrid with a Bt gene Corn hybrid susceptible to European corn borer

Various insect resistant crops have been produced. Most of these make use of the Cry gene in the bacteria Bacillus

thuringiensis (Bt); this gene directs the production of a protein that causes paralysis and death to many insects.

Insect resistanceInsect resistance Anti-Insect Strategy - InsecticidesAnti-Insect Strategy - Insecticides

a) Toxic crystal protein from a) Toxic crystal protein from Bacillus thuringensisBacillus thuringensis Toxic crystals found during sporulationToxic crystals found during sporulation Alkaline protein degrades gut wall of lepidopteran larvae Alkaline protein degrades gut wall of lepidopteran larvae

• Corn borer catepillarsCorn borer catepillars• Cotton bollworm catepillarsCotton bollworm catepillars• Tobacco hornworm catepillarsTobacco hornworm catepillars• Gypsy moth larvaeGypsy moth larvae

Sprayed onto plants – but will wash offSprayed onto plants – but will wash off

The Bt toxin isolated from The Bt toxin isolated from Bacillus thuringiensisBacillus thuringiensis has has been used in plants. The gene has been placed in been used in plants. The gene has been placed in corn, cotton, and potato, and has been marketed.corn, cotton, and potato, and has been marketed.

b) Plant protease inhibitors have been explored since the b) Plant protease inhibitors have been explored since the 1990s: 1990s:

i.i. Naturally produced by plants, are produced in response Naturally produced by plants, are produced in response to wounding. to wounding.

ii.ii. They inhibit insect digestive enzymes after insects ingest They inhibit insect digestive enzymes after insects ingest them, causing starvation. them, causing starvation.

iii.iii. Tobacco, potato, and peas have been engineered to Tobacco, potato, and peas have been engineered to resist insects such as weevils that damage crops while resist insects such as weevils that damage crops while they are in storage they are in storage

iv.iv. Results have not been as promising as with Bt toxin, Results have not been as promising as with Bt toxin, because it is believed that insects evolved resistance to because it is believed that insects evolved resistance to protease inhibitors. protease inhibitors.

Insect resistanceInsect resistance

Papaya infected with the papaya ringspot virus

Virus resistance gene introduced

Virus Resistant Crops

The Freedom II squash has a modified coat protein that confer

resistance to zucchini yellows mosaic virus and watermelon

mosaic virus II.Scientists are now trying to develop

crops with as many as five virus resistance genes

a)a) Chemicals are used to control the insect vectors of viruses, but Chemicals are used to control the insect vectors of viruses, but controlling the disease itself is difficult because the disease spreads controlling the disease itself is difficult because the disease spreads quickly. quickly.

b)b) Plants may be engineered with genes for resistance to viruses, Plants may be engineered with genes for resistance to viruses, bacteria, and fungi. bacteria, and fungi.

c)c) Virus-resistant plants have a viral protein coat gene that is Virus-resistant plants have a viral protein coat gene that is overproduced, preventing the virus from reproducing in the host overproduced, preventing the virus from reproducing in the host cell, because the plant shuts off the virus’ protein coat gene in cell, because the plant shuts off the virus’ protein coat gene in response to the overproduction. response to the overproduction.

d)d) Coat protein genes are involved in resistance to diseases such as Coat protein genes are involved in resistance to diseases such as cucumber mosaic virus, tobacco rattle virus, and potato virus X. cucumber mosaic virus, tobacco rattle virus, and potato virus X.

Virus resistanceVirus resistance

e)e) Resistance genes for diseases such as fungal rust disease and Resistance genes for diseases such as fungal rust disease and tobacco mosaic virus have been isolated from plants and may be tobacco mosaic virus have been isolated from plants and may be transferred to crop plants.transferred to crop plants.

f)f) Yellow Squash and ZucchiniYellow Squash and Zucchini Seeds are available that are resistant to watermelon mottle virus, Seeds are available that are resistant to watermelon mottle virus, zucchini yellow mosaic virus, and cucumber mosaic virus. zucchini yellow mosaic virus, and cucumber mosaic virus.

g) Potatog) Potato.. a)a) Monsanto developed potatoes resistant to potato leaf roll virus and potato virus X, which Monsanto developed potatoes resistant to potato leaf roll virus and potato virus X, which

also contained a Bt toxin gene as a pesticide. also contained a Bt toxin gene as a pesticide. b)b) hain restaurants do not use genetically engineered potatoes due to public pressures. hain restaurants do not use genetically engineered potatoes due to public pressures.

h) Papayah) Papaya Varieties resistant to papaya ring spot virus have been developed. Varieties resistant to papaya ring spot virus have been developed.

Virus resistanceVirus resistance

First biotech plant product – Flav’r Sav’r tomato

First biotech plant product – Flav’r Sav’r tomato

““Rot-Resistant Tomato”Rot-Resistant Tomato” Anti-sense gene Anti-sense gene complementary to polygalacturonase (PG) complementary to polygalacturonase (PG)

PG = pectinase PG = pectinase accelerates plant decay/rotting accelerates plant decay/rotting

a)a) Allow for crops, such as tomatoes, to have a higher shelf life. Allow for crops, such as tomatoes, to have a higher shelf life. b)b) Tomatoes generally ripen and become soft during shipment to a Tomatoes generally ripen and become soft during shipment to a

store. store. c)c) Tomatoes are usually picked and sprayed with the plant hormone Tomatoes are usually picked and sprayed with the plant hormone

ethylene to induce ripening, although this does not improve tasteethylene to induce ripening, although this does not improve tasted)d) Tomatoes have been engineered to produce less Tomatoes have been engineered to produce less

ethylene so they can develop more taste before ethylene so they can develop more taste before ripening, and shipment to markets. ripening, and shipment to markets.

Delayed Fruit RipeningDelayed Fruit Ripening

Plant Biotechnology Revolution:Plant Biotechnology Revolution: Genetically Engineered FoodsGenetically Engineered Foods..

Foods that contain an added gene sequenceFoods that contain an added gene sequence Foods that have a deleted gene sequenceFoods that have a deleted gene sequence Animal products from animals fed GM feedAnimal products from animals fed GM feed

Products produced by GM organismsProducts produced by GM organisms

1.1. More than 60% of processed foods in the United States contain More than 60% of processed foods in the United States contain ingredients from genetically engineered organisms. ingredients from genetically engineered organisms.

2.2. 12 different genetically engineered plants have been approved in the 12 different genetically engineered plants have been approved in the United States, with many variations of each plant, some approved and United States, with many variations of each plant, some approved and some not. some not.

3.3. Soybeans.Soybeans.a)a) Soybean has been modified to be resistant to broad-spectrum Soybean has been modified to be resistant to broad-spectrum

herbicides. herbicides. b)b) Scientists in 2003 removed an antigen from soybean called P34 that Scientists in 2003 removed an antigen from soybean called P34 that

can cause a severe allergic response. can cause a severe allergic response. 4.4. Corn Corn

a)a) Bt insect resistance is the most common use of engineered corn, Bt insect resistance is the most common use of engineered corn, but herbicide resistance is also a desired trait. but herbicide resistance is also a desired trait.

Plant Biotechnology Revolution:Plant Biotechnology Revolution: Genetically Engineered FoodsGenetically Engineered Foods..

4. 4. Corn Corn a)a) Bt insect resistance is the most common use of engineered corn, but herbicide resistance Bt insect resistance is the most common use of engineered corn, but herbicide resistance

is also a desired trait. is also a desired trait. b)b) Products include corn oil, corn syrup, corn flour, baking powder, and alcohol.Products include corn oil, corn syrup, corn flour, baking powder, and alcohol. c)c) By 2002 about 32% of field corn in the United States was engineered. By 2002 about 32% of field corn in the United States was engineered.

5.5. Canola. Canola. a)a) More than 60% of the crop in 2002 was genetically engineered; it is found in many More than 60% of the crop in 2002 was genetically engineered; it is found in many

processed foods, and is also a common cooking oil.processed foods, and is also a common cooking oil.

6.6. Cotton. Cotton. a)a) More than 71% of the cotton crop in 2002 was engineered. More than 71% of the cotton crop in 2002 was engineered. b)b) Engineered cottonseed oil is found in pastries, snack foods, fried foods, and peanut Engineered cottonseed oil is found in pastries, snack foods, fried foods, and peanut

butter. butter. 7.7. Other CropsOther Crops

Other engineered plants include papaya, rice, tomato, sugar beet, and red heart Other engineered plants include papaya, rice, tomato, sugar beet, and red heart chicory. chicory.

Plant Biotechnology Revolution:Plant Biotechnology Revolution: Genetically Engineered FoodsGenetically Engineered Foods

Normal rice

“Golden” rice

Golden Rice

Transgenic technology produced a type of rice that accumulates beta-carotene in rice grains. Once inside the body, beta-carotene is

converted to vitamin A.

“Normal” rice

Golden RiceGolden Rice1.1. More than one third of the world’s population relies on rice as a food More than one third of the world’s population relies on rice as a food

staple, so rice is an attractive target for enhancement. staple, so rice is an attractive target for enhancement. 2.2. Golden Rice was genetically engineered to produce high levels of beta-Golden Rice was genetically engineered to produce high levels of beta-

carotene, which is a precursor to vitamin A. Vitamin A is needed for carotene, which is a precursor to vitamin A. Vitamin A is needed for proper eyesight. proper eyesight.

3.3. Biotechnology company Syngenta, who owns the rights to Golden Biotechnology company Syngenta, who owns the rights to Golden Rice, is exploring commercial opportunities in the United States and Rice, is exploring commercial opportunities in the United States and Japan. Monsanto will provide licenses to Golden Rice technology Japan. Monsanto will provide licenses to Golden Rice technology royalty-free. royalty-free.

4.4. Other enhanced crops include iron-enriched rice and tomatoes with Other enhanced crops include iron-enriched rice and tomatoes with three times the normal amount of beta-carotene three times the normal amount of beta-carotene

Plant Biotechnology Revolution:Plant Biotechnology Revolution:Nutritionally Enhanced PlantsNutritionally Enhanced Plants

Pharmaceutical Production in PlantsGenetically modified plants have been used as “bioreactors” to produce therapeutic proteins for more than a decade. A recent contribution by transgenic plants is the generation of edible vaccines.

Edible vaccines are vaccines produced in plants that can be administered directly through the ingestion of plant materials containing the vaccine. Eating the plant would then confer immunity against diseases.

Edible vaccines produced by transgenic plants are attractive for many reasons. The cost associated with the production of the vaccine is low, especially since the vaccine can be ingested directly, and vaccine production can be rapidly up scaled should the need arises. Edible vaccine is likely to reach more individuals in developing countries. The first human clinical trial took place in 1997. Vaccine against the toxin from the bacteria E.coli was produced in potato. Ingestion of this transgenic potato resulted in satisfactory vaccinations and no adverse effects.

1.1. A new field where plants and animals are genetically A new field where plants and animals are genetically engineered to produce important pharmaceuticals, vaccines, engineered to produce important pharmaceuticals, vaccines, and other valuable compounds.and other valuable compounds.

2.2. Plants may possibly be used as bioreactors to mass-produce Plants may possibly be used as bioreactors to mass-produce chemicals that can accumulate within the cells until they are chemicals that can accumulate within the cells until they are harvested. harvested.

3.3. Soybeans have been used to produce monoclonal antibodies Soybeans have been used to produce monoclonal antibodies with therapeutic value for the treatment of colon cancer. Drugs with therapeutic value for the treatment of colon cancer. Drugs can also be produced in rice, corn, and tobacco plantscan also be produced in rice, corn, and tobacco plants

4.4. Plants have been engineered to produce human antibodies Plants have been engineered to produce human antibodies against HIV and Epicyte Pharmaceuticals has begun clinical against HIV and Epicyte Pharmaceuticals has begun clinical trials with herpes antibodies produced in plants.trials with herpes antibodies produced in plants.

Plant Biotechnology Revolution:Plant Biotechnology Revolution:Molecular FarmingMolecular Farming

5. Edible Vaccines5. Edible Vaccines a)a) People in developing countries have limited access to many People in developing countries have limited access to many

vaccines. vaccines. b)b) Making plants that produce vaccines may be useful for Making plants that produce vaccines may be useful for

places where refrigeration is limited. places where refrigeration is limited. c)c) Potatoes have been studied using a portion of the Potatoes have been studied using a portion of the E. coliE. coli

enterotoxin in mice and humans. enterotoxin in mice and humans. d)d) Other candidates for edible vaccines include banana and Other candidates for edible vaccines include banana and

tomato, and alfalfa, corn, and wheat are possible candidates tomato, and alfalfa, corn, and wheat are possible candidates for use in livestock. for use in livestock.

e)e) Edible vaccines may lead to the eradication of diseases Edible vaccines may lead to the eradication of diseases such as hepatitis B and polio.such as hepatitis B and polio.

Plant Biotechnology Revolution:Plant Biotechnology Revolution:Molecular FarmingMolecular Farming

One focus of current vaccine effort is on hepatitis B, a virus responsible for causing chromic liver disease. Transgenic tobacco and potatoes were engineered to express hepatitis B virus vaccine. During the past two years, vaccines against a E.coli toxin, the respiratory syncytial virus, measles virus, and the Norwalk virus have been successfully expressed in plants and delivered orally. These studies have supported the potential of edible vaccines as preventive agents of many diseases.

Edible Vaccines

There is hope to produce edible vaccines in bananas, which are grown extensively throughout the developing world.

a)a) Plant seeds may be a potential source for plastics that could be Plant seeds may be a potential source for plastics that could be produced and easily extracted. produced and easily extracted.

b)b) A type of PHA (polyhydroxylalkanoate) polymer called “poly-beta-A type of PHA (polyhydroxylalkanoate) polymer called “poly-beta-hydroxybutyrate”, or PHB, is produced in Arabidopsis, or mustard hydroxybutyrate”, or PHB, is produced in Arabidopsis, or mustard plant. plant.

c)c) PHB can be made in canola seeds by the transfer of three PHB can be made in canola seeds by the transfer of three genes from the bacterium Alicaligenes eutrophus, which codes genes from the bacterium Alicaligenes eutrophus, which codes for enzymes in the PHB synthesis pathway.for enzymes in the PHB synthesis pathway.

d)d) Monsanto produces a polymer called PHBV through Alicaligenes Monsanto produces a polymer called PHBV through Alicaligenes fermentation, which is sold under the name Biopol. fermentation, which is sold under the name Biopol.

Plant Biotechnology Revolution:Plant Biotechnology Revolution:Biopolymers and PlantsBiopolymers and Plants

Areas of ongoing debateAreas of ongoing debate

EnvironmentEnvironment Human HealthHuman Health Food securityFood security

Socio-economic concernsSocio-economic concerns

EnvironmentEnvironment

Loss of biodiversityLoss of biodiversity Cross-pollinationCross-pollination Emergence of superweeds Emergence of superweeds

and superbugsand superbugs Potential increase in use of Potential increase in use of

herbicidesherbicides

Need to increase yields to Need to increase yields to feed growing populationfeed growing population

Possibility of reducing Possibility of reducing need for pesticides, need for pesticides, fertilizersfertilizers

Grow more food on same Grow more food on same amount of landamount of land

Anti-GM Pro-GM

*Opinions are generalized, and not all opponents or proponents may hold all of these views.

Human HealthHuman Health

Fear of unknown allergensFear of unknown allergens Spread of anti-biotic Spread of anti-biotic

resistanceresistance Inadequate regulation of Inadequate regulation of

new productsnew products

Greater regulations than Greater regulations than other foodsother foods

Potential benefits to Potential benefits to nutritionnutrition• golden ricegolden rice• enhanced protein content in enhanced protein content in

corncorn• soybean oil with less soybean oil with less

saturated fatsaturated fat

Anti-GM Pro-GM

Food SecurityFood Security

Need redistribution, not Need redistribution, not just morejust more

Farmers will not be able to Farmers will not be able to afford expensive seedafford expensive seed

Developing countries Developing countries should not have to eat the should not have to eat the food others rejectfood others reject

Modified seeds will allow Modified seeds will allow farmers to grow more to farmers to grow more to feed their family and to feed their family and to sell, reducing the need for sell, reducing the need for food aidfood aid

Public-private cooperation Public-private cooperation can transfer technologycan transfer technology

Pro-GMAnti-GM

Socio-economic concernsSocio-economic concerns

Corporations benefit, not Corporations benefit, not those in needthose in need

Products needed in Products needed in developing countries are developing countries are not being developed not being developed because the market is not because the market is not profitableprofitable

It is wrong to patent lifeIt is wrong to patent life

Patents needed because Patents needed because new strains are intellectual new strains are intellectual propertyproperty

Publicly funded research Publicly funded research can benefit the public goodcan benefit the public good