Transformational Mentoring: What Role Does Mentoring Play ...

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Journal of Business & Leadership: Research, Practice, and Journal of Business & Leadership: Research, Practice, and Teaching (2005-2012) Teaching (2005-2012) Volume 2 Number 1 Journal of Business & Leadership Article 8 1-1-2006 Transformational Mentoring: What Role Does Mentoring Play In Transformational Mentoring: What Role Does Mentoring Play In The Development of Transformational Leaders? The Development of Transformational Leaders? Lynda St. Clair Bryant University Ronald Deluga Bryant University Follow this and additional works at: https://scholars.fhsu.edu/jbl Part of the Business Commons, and the Education Commons Recommended Citation Recommended Citation St. Clair, Lynda and Deluga, Ronald (2006) "Transformational Mentoring: What Role Does Mentoring Play In The Development of Transformational Leaders?," Journal of Business & Leadership: Research, Practice, and Teaching (2005-2012): Vol. 2 : No. 1 , Article 8. Available at: https://scholars.fhsu.edu/jbl/vol2/iss1/8 This Article is brought to you for free and open access by the Peer-Reviewed Journals at FHSU Scholars Repository. It has been accepted for inclusion in Journal of Business & Leadership: Research, Practice, and Teaching (2005-2012) by an authorized editor of FHSU Scholars Repository.

Transcript of Transformational Mentoring: What Role Does Mentoring Play ...

Page 1: Transformational Mentoring: What Role Does Mentoring Play ...

Journal of Business & Leadership: Research, Practice, and Journal of Business & Leadership: Research, Practice, and

Teaching (2005-2012) Teaching (2005-2012)

Volume 2 Number 1 Journal of Business & Leadership Article 8

1-1-2006

Transformational Mentoring: What Role Does Mentoring Play In Transformational Mentoring: What Role Does Mentoring Play In

The Development of Transformational Leaders? The Development of Transformational Leaders?

Lynda St. Clair Bryant University

Ronald Deluga Bryant University

Follow this and additional works at: https://scholars.fhsu.edu/jbl

Part of the Business Commons, and the Education Commons

Recommended Citation Recommended Citation St. Clair, Lynda and Deluga, Ronald (2006) "Transformational Mentoring: What Role Does Mentoring Play In The Development of Transformational Leaders?," Journal of Business & Leadership: Research, Practice, and Teaching (2005-2012): Vol. 2 : No. 1 , Article 8. Available at: https://scholars.fhsu.edu/jbl/vol2/iss1/8

This Article is brought to you for free and open access by the Peer-Reviewed Journals at FHSU Scholars Repository. It has been accepted for inclusion in Journal of Business & Leadership: Research, Practice, and Teaching (2005-2012) by an authorized editor of FHSU Scholars Repository.

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Journal of Bus in ess and Leadership : Researc h, Prac tice , and Teac hing 2006, Vol. 2, No. I , 54-69

TRANSFORMATIONAL MENTORING: WHAT ROLE DOES MENTORING PLAY IN THE DEVELOPMENT OF TRANSFORMATIONAL LEADERS?

Lynda St. C lair, Bryant University Ronald Deluga, Bryant University

This paper introduces the concept of "transformational men to ring," an alternative to traditional mentoring, as a tool for developing transformational leaders. Transformational mentoring differs from traditionalmentoring in its emphasis on risk-taking rather than refuge-seeking and its encouragement of self-sacrifice rather than self-promotion. Our couceptualmodel identifies key mentor actions, anticipated mediators, and expected outcomes of the transformational mentoring process. J·Jie argue that current organizational leaders will need to address both cultural and structural barriers to transformational mentoring if they wish to support the development of future transformational leaders in their organizatious.

INTRODUCTION

In today's highl y competiti ve busin ess environment, long-tem1 organiza tional success depends on the development of a strea m of transfom1ationa l leaders (Bass, 1985, 1998) who can guide organizational adaptation to continually changing envi ronments (Charan, Drotter, Noel, 200 I; Cohen, St. Clai r, & Tichy, 1996; Fulmer, 1997; Kuhnert, 199-+; Maccoby, 2000; McCal!, 1998). Leaders are needed to motivate and inspire empl oyees who have seen trad iti ona l expectation s abou t job securi ty and adva ncement shatte red (Moni son & Robin son, 1997). Conseq uently, fostering the ca reer development of transformational leaders who possess the ability to create, communicate, ::md ga ther fo ll ower support for a compe ll ing vi sion is an ongoing conccm in organ ization s (Maccoby, 2000)

ln addition, recent research suggests that leaders who have charisma (a key characteristic frequen tl y assoc iated with transfom1atio nal leaders) may be better ab le to succeed in conditions of environ menta l uncertainty (Waldman , Ramirez, House, & Puranam, 200 I). Fo llowi ng Bass ( 1985), we view charisma or idea lized in fluence as a key descriptive a ttri bu te of transformational leadership. Th us, transforma ti onal leaders are charismatic but charismati c leaders are not necessarily transfom1atio nal. Thus, the deve lop ment of transformational leaders is even more important as the business environment continues to change at a rapid pace. Understandi ng more about how to deve lop transformational leaders who are wi lling to take ri sks and are abl e to obta in the support of the ir followers without

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explicit ex trinsic rewards (House, 1995) is therefore a critica l area that warrants additional research.

Different types of leaders evolve in different ways and may emerge aL different times as the result of various kinds of experiences (M umford et a!. , 2000b). Bass (1998) notes that transfon11ationa l leadership can be leamed , but exac tly how trans formational leadership develops has received minimal theoretical and empi rical attenti on and remain s littl e understood (Bass, Avolio, Jung, & Berson, 2003 ; Zac haratos, Barling, & Kelloway, 2000) . L1 fact, very littl e I S known about the deve lopmental prec ursors fosterin g transfon11ational leadership (Judge & Bono, 2000; Popper, Mayseless, & Caste lnovo, 2000) and it remains ambiguous why ce1iain indi viduals engage in transfon11ati onal leadership whil e others do not (Bommer, Rubin , & Baldwin , 2004). Our goal is to address thi s resea rch vo id. As a starting place for leamin g more about the deve lopment of transfom1ationa l leaders, thi s paper focu ses on mentoring and asks the questi on: What is the rol e of mentoring in the deve lopment of transfom1ational leaders?

We chose to focus on mentoring, rather than other var iab les that are li kely to influence the development of transformation a I leaders (e .g., persona li ty , background , past ex peri ence, executi ve train ing and development, orga ni za tional culture, contex t, etc.), for four main reasons. First, mentoring has long been seen as va luab le for leadership development in general (e.g. , Bass. 1985; Kotter, 1988; Kram, 1985; Yuki , 2002) and for indi vidual career success in parti cul ar (Co llin s & Scott, 1978; Roc he, 1979; Wi lbur, 1987). Yet, how mentoring actuall y fa cil itates leadership competencies in proteges

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has received little research attention (Yuki , 2002). Second, practitioner inte rest 111 mentoring 111 organizations has grown substanti a ll y in recen t years . For example, Ragins , Cotton, and Mille r (2000) note that fom1al mentoring programs are growing in popularity and suggest that as many as one third of the nation 's major companies have fonnal mentoring programs. Third, academic interest in mentoring has also increased in recent years , providing a fertile basis from whi ch to begin to develop connections to concepts such as transformational leadership that have not previous ly been linked directly to mentoring activities.

Un like the executive development and training li terature, little has been done to directly link mentoring and transfom1ational leadership. Finally, because mentoring is a variable that can be influenced direc tly (as opposed to personality or past experience), thi s foc us provides an opportunity for a proactive response to developing future tTansfom1ationa l leaders. Thus, estab li shing a more explicit link between mentoring and the development of transfonnational leaders is both a theoretically valuab le and practica ll y worthwhil e pursuit (Wofford, Goodwin , & Whittington, 1998).

We begin with a brief review of the concept of transformational leadership and di scuss why mentor ing may be an important variable to consider when exploring the process by which transfom1ationa l leaders deve lop. We propose the phrase " transformational mentoring" as a way of talking about mentoring foc used on developing transfonnationa l leaders . We then con sider tTaditiona l approaches to mentoring and di scuss how different types of mentoring activities may en hance or hinder the development of trans fonnational leaders. Four propositions re lated to the ro le that mentoring plays in the development of transformational leaders are presented. The paper concludes with di scuss ion , impli cations for prac ti ce, and ideas for future research .

Transformational Leaders: W ho They Are and What They Do

Grounded in moral foundation s (Bass & Steid lme ie r, 1999) , !Tansformational leadership augm ents the idea of an exchange or tran sacti ona l re lationship between a leader and her or hi s follo wers (Bass , 1985 ; Burns, 1978: House & Podsa koff , 1994 ; Tichy & Deva nn a, 1986) . As defined by Bums ( 1978: 4) , tTansformation::tl leadership results in ·'mutu a l stimul a tion and e levation that converts

fo ll owers into leaders and may convert leaders into moral age nts." Transformationa l leaders a li gn fo ll ower se lf-

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interest in deve lopment with the la rger interest of the group, organi zation , or society. Si mil arl y. transfom1ation al leaders engage 111 se lf-sacrifi cial be haviors for transcendenta l shifts in fo ll owers needs (Bass, 1985; Burns, 1978 ; Cho i & Mai-Dalto n, 1999). These leaders crea te a c lea r and compel! ing vision, thereby channeling the co llecti ve energies of foll owers toward a common goa l (Bass, 1985, 1998).

ln addition , trans forn1ational leaders demonstrate confidence in the followers' ab ility to ac hi eve goa ls and moti va te follo wers to work so the goa ls become rea li ty (Kuhnert & Lew is, 1987). For exampl e, follo wers are bo th inspired and empowered to take the ini tiat ive in compl eting their responsibil it ies (Yuki , 2002) . The e ffectiveness of tran sfom1ation a l leaders has been li nked to their ab ili ty to clea rl y articul ate des irab le goa ls for the ir followers. Transfonnational leaders then con vey images o f how those goa ls can be reached to the mutua l benefit of the foll owers, leader. and the wider organi zat iona l context (e.g., Bass, I 998) .

A cons iderabl e body of empirical fi e ld (e .g., Barling, W eber, & Kelloway, 1996; Howe ll & Avoli o, 1993) and laboratory (e .g ., Kirkpa trick & Locke, I 996; Sosik, Avo li o, & Kahai , 1997) research upports the e ffec ti veness of tran s fonnationa l leadership . Transf01111ation al leadership has been linked with subordinate sa ri faction (Hate r & Bass. 1988), trust in the leader (Podsa ko ff , M acK enzie, & Bommer. I 996), a ffective commitment (Ba r! ing e t a l. , 1996) , performance and organi za tional c iti zenship behav ior (Whittington, Goodw in , & Murray, 2004) as we ll as combat team performance in ma in contex ts (Beng-C'hong & Pl oy ha11 , 2004). S imi I •r ly, trans fom1ational leaders have been ra ted as more effecti ve communi ca to rs (Berson & Avo li o , 2004) and pos iti ve ly assoc ia ted with organi zationa l innovation (Jung, C how, & Wu , 2003). Fina ll y, Yuki ( l 999: 2 7) conc luded .. ... there is considerabl e evi dence that tTa nsfom1ationa l leade rship is

effec ti ve." Different re sea rchers have focu sed on vc: rious aspects

o f transformati onal leaders. For example. 13ass (I 985) defined tran s formationa l leadership in terms of the leader 's impact on fo ll owers. Furthermore, Bass and J\ vo lio ( 1994) identified indi vidu al consideration. idea li zed influence. in sp irat iona l mo tivation , and inte llec tual s ti mulation as the four primary c harac r e r i~tics of trans fom1a ti ona l leaders. By contrast. re search by Ti chy and Devanna (I 986) as \\'e ll as Be nni s and Nan us (I 985 ) offe r a dcsc ripti,·c approac h to transfo rm ati onal leadership . Base d on inte rv ic \\·s w ith organ iza tional

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leaders, T ichy and l)evanna ( 1986) described trans fo rmati onal lea ders as hav in g the abi lity to recogni ze the need to change, creating an ~1ppea lin g

:.litern ati ve vision, making the change, and In stituti onali z in g the new sta te o r aiTairs. Simi larly, Henn is and Na nus ( 1985 ) used unstructured intervi ews and observa tion or top-leve l corporate and public sec tor leaders. The common theme. emerging rrom their research include crea tin g a vision, developing commi tmen t and trust, and rac ilitatin g organ izati onal change.

The above overview or trans rormati ona l le adership is not intended to be ex hausti ve. Our goa l is to prov ide a thumbnai l sketch or these hi ghl y innuenti al and ciTcc ti ve

leade rs. We now tu rn ou r atten ti on to the deve lopment ol tran slormationa l leade rs.

Develo ping T ransfonnational Leaders

Orga ni ;,a tions ha ve hi sto rica ll y shown a considera bl e Interest Ill the dcve Jopment or trans rormati onaJ and ehar ismntic leaders (Kc ll oway & 13arl ing, 2000;

Kelloway, l3arl1ng, & l lc ll cur, 2000; Tejed a. Scand ura, & Plilai , 200 I) . Tran s rorm ~1t 1 ona l leadership Jp pcars in \'al-ying degrees ~1 t a ll orga ni zational leve ls and hJs been obscn ·ed in d iverse org:Jn il' ational se tt 111 gs (13a ss. 1985,

I 990) . Moreo \'e r. aspect-; or tr~ln s f(mllatiO il a l leadership can be learned Jccord111g to many (hu t not a ll ) leade rship re

se:1r chers (sec ( 'onger & Ka nun go, I <)88 fo r a

diS

CUSS IOn or the til fTcrcnt pcrspcC tl\ CS re lated to trai nin g ~~ ~ a \\<l Y to deve lop chan sma tic l e~l tkTsh qJ quJ I1ti cs). I)I

SCUSS IOil S in the lltCI' :lturc h:i\'C addressed ISSUCS SUCh

as 111d1' 1duJ I ddTcrences and cxpcncnccs through the life span (J\volio & Ci 1bhons, 1988). W1th respec t to proaCLI\'C mean s or dcve lop111g tran s f'o rma t1 o n ~li lea ders. more attention has been d1r ec ted to tra in1n g programs

(e .g .. Kello\\'ay & 13a rllng. 2000: Ke ll oway, 13a rlin g, & l lc lleur, 2000) th:111 mc nt on ng. :1 lthough J\, ·ol1 o & ( i 1 bbo ns ( I 988 : 2?\..J) do 1nc I udc men to 1·s in the1 r "mode l o r Ilk span event s th ~ll contn hutc to lc:lde rshq)."

I· \'ld cncc reported by lb ss ( I <J98) us 1n g b i od ~1t~1

-., tud1cs sug

•c sts til:l! lcarn1n g to be ~~ t ra n s f (mn ~lli o nal leader take'> pl:1cc over the Id e course. wi th c.\ p:.: ri cnccs

c:1rly

1n Id e and 111 school pl :1y1ng ~~ ro le. lk yond th ese l11'c

C.\ pcn enccs, some rc se:1rchers h :~ \'e suggested that

CCI'laln C

Oill ]) Cten ciC '- \\'h 1ch C~l l l he t:wg ht 111 fo rm :li tr:11n 1n

g :111d cdu ea t1on progr:um; ~ l o. o m :1y a llcc t the

de\ clo pm cnt or tr: ll ls f(mll:ll ion:l l lc: ldcrs. h> r ex ample, ( 'ongcr :1nd K:1nu ngo ( I ()t\8) sugges t live key cOI11JK'tcncles th:ll ca n be t:~u ght : ( I ) cnll ·:II na lu :1 t1o n

.J oum"l or ll u' "'c ss and I cadcrs hip : Resea rc h, Prac lice. and Teac hin g

and prob lem detec tion ; (2) envi>ioning; (3) skillful comm uni cati on or the vision; (4) impress ion management ; and (5) approp ri ate uses of empowerment. Research tudi es that have looked at workshop formats lor tTainin g trans lormntiona l leaders ''provide considerabl e evidence thnt indi viduals can lea rn how to become more tran lonnati onal in their behavior with pos iti ve c rrcc ts on their co ll eagues' and fo ll owers ' perrormancc" (Bass, 1998: I 08). In their review of five yea rs o r rc carch on training trans rormationa l leaders, Kell oway and Barling (2000) came to the same conclu sion.

T he e ffec ti veness o l work hop-style tTa ining that take place over the course of a few days suggests that s imil ar training by a mentor may also be an effec tive means lor developin g tTan sformational leader . The incrcn ed frequency o r interacti on poss ible with mentor­based trainin g may be espec ia ll y va luabl e when developing tra ns lonnationa l leaders. In addition, a mentor will lr ·e in s ights into the specific organi zationa l cont ex t that mi ght not be avai lab le in a more forma l trainin g program. Jndccd, Avolio and Gibbons ( 1988 : 303) suggest thnt ''Optimall y, tra ining ca n take place on the j ob, m::~king appropri ate change in context and culture to accommodate the dcvclopmentJ I aspirati ons of the leader. " 13cforc considering spec ifica ll y how mcntorin g may a rrcc t the development or tr~1n s rorma tionnl lend ers. we wi ll take a moment to hi ghli ght SOmC key eO II Ce ptS rrom the mentor in g li terature.

Mc ntoring

T he importance of mcntoring processes is rc ncctcd in the in creasin g leve ls of emp iri ca l a ttenti on and theoreti ca l deve lopment the area has rece ived in recent yea rs (e .g. , J\ryce, Lo, & Kang, 1999; Feldman , Fo lks, & Turnley, 1999; Pa yne & ll urfman , 2005 ; Rn gin s, 1997; Rag in s ct a l. , 2000: Ra gins & Scandura , 1997; Scandura , 199?\; Sca ndura & Schri cshcim, 1994) . In the words of Kirchmeyer (2005: 639) 'To ca ll mentoring ' lashi onable' may not be an ex aggerati on.' he note that resea rch on mentori ng has increased ex ponenti a ll y ove r the pJSt 20 yea rs and that surveys indi ca te that mJnagcrs beli eve stron gly in the bene fit s or mcntorin g.

Ment ors arc typi ca ll y defined as ex peri enced ind 1 1dual s with :1dvanced knowl edge who are comm itted to prov idin g ass istance and progress to their protege ' s c~1rcc r ( ll unl & Mi chael. 1983: Kram , 1985; Scandu ra & Schri esheim. 1994). Mentoring re lat ionships arc both

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complex and developmentally important (Levin son, Darrow, Klein , Levinson, & M cKee, 1978). [n some cases, direct supervisors may serve as mentors . In other cases, mentors may be peers (Bryant, 2005) or may be from totally different areas in the organi za tion (Rag ins et al. , 2000). Allen and Poteet ( 1999) recognized that the characteristics of the ideal mentor c lose ly rese mbl e those of good parents, i.e., li stening and communicat ion skil ls, patience, honesty, and trustworth iness .

The mentoring relation ship is a mutua l mentor­protege investment characterized by the bari ng of va lues, knowledge, and experi ence. In addition , mentoring ranges from the informa l, based on mentor­protege mutual identi ficat ion and the fulfillment of ca reer needs, to the formal , where the mentor is ass igned to work with the protege (Ragins & Cotton , 1999) . Next, mentoring may not just be the conseq uence of a s ingle mentor-protege rel a tionship , but also may in vo lve multiple mentors for a given protege (Hi ggens & Kram, 200 I). Mentoring is not inflexible phenomenon, but fall s along a continuum of e ffectiveness (Levinson et a l. , 1978; Ragins, et a l. , 2000) such that good mentorin g may yield positive outcomes and bad me ntoring may be destructive (Scandura, 1998).

Although mentor relationships can impact both the protege and the mentor (e.g. , Ragins & Scandura, 1999), we focus on the protege because of our interest in the development of trans fom1ationa l leaders. T he benefi ts proteges recei ve from being mentored focuses on two primary aspects of the mentoring process . F irst, mentors provide guidance and resources re lated to ca reer development. Washburn and C ri spo (2006) argue that research supports the cormec ti on behvee n mentoring and positive outcomes for the protege compared to e mployees who are not mento red, includin g more job sa ti s fa cti on, rapid promotions, and higher salaries. Kirchmeyer (2005) notes that the effect s izes in studies of the impact of mentoring career success have been sma ll. Less empirica l research has focused on the second aspect of mentoring, providing psychosoc ial support to help the protege cope with the stresses of organizationa l life, despit e the fact that the connection behveen stress and phys ical and menta l hea lth as well as cognitive abili ty, moti va tion , and perfom1ance are we ll establi shed (Quinn e t a l. , 200 7).

Career Development Benefits for the Prot ege

A vita l aspect of the mentor ing re lationship is gu iding protege career advancement . l.ndeed , resea rch has demon stTated that ca reer mentorin g is pos iti ve ly re la ted

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to promotion rates and tota l compensation (Whitely, Dougherty, & Dreher, 199 1 ). In focu sing on the ca reer enhanc ing aspec ts of mentorin g, Kram ( 1985) identified fi ve activit ies that promote ca reer development. Fi rst, sponsorship acti vities by the mentor are d irec t in terventions intended to provi de the protege with opportunities to ad vance within the organi za tion. In co ntrast to direct ly advocatin g for a protege, mentors frequently are in a pos ition to arTan ge opportuniti es fo r cha ll enging ass ign ments as we ll as exposure and vis ib ili ty. Orchestrating cha ll enging ass ignments and encouraging ca lcul ated ri sks give the protege criti ca l learning experi ences. Hi gh profile ass ignments facilitate the development of relation hips with other senior managers w ithin the organi zati on. Ln many, but not a ll cases, providing chall eng ing ass ignments and provi ding exposure and vis ibili ty may overl ap. Fourth , on a day-to­da y bas1s, coaching is a vita l part of every mentor' s ac ti vit ies. By offeri ng spec ifi c suggestions, advice , and feedback, the mento r assi sts the protege in building both technica l and po li ti ca l ski ll s needed to succeed in the corporation . Fi nall y, mentors may engage in protecting the protege when, for exampl e, a proj ect is unsuccessfu l or behind schedu le. The protection function is a criti ca l one fo r ma intaining tTust between the mentor and the pro tege. Mentors who protec t the ir prot eges are al so likely to serve as sources for other types of more personal support, as described be low.

Psyc hosocial Support for the Protege

In addit ion to directl y suppo rting ca reer adva nceme nt, mentors are a lso va luable sources of psychosoc ia l support he lpin g protege s mature as competent , effec tive, members of the organiza tio n. Psychosocia I support can be provided thro ugh ro le mode ling, givin g acceptance and confirmation, offering counse lin g. and contributing friendship (Kram, 1985). A lt hough :1 senior pe rson may consc iously a ttempt to se rve as a rol e mode l, it is just as like ly that thi s process is unconsc ious. Likew ise, the proteg e may not even rc:1li ze how c lose ly he or she is identify ing with the mentor :1 nd how much hi s or her behavior is in nuenced by the model porh·ayed by the mentor (Kram. 1985). fn contrast to role modelin g. the o ther psychosocia l support function s :l iT muc h more consc ious. Providin g acce ptance nnd confirmal!on , suppl y ing coun sel ing. and oflc ring fri endship all impl y consc io us intent on the part or the mentor.

T he ac1iviti es iden tified as psyc hosocial suppon culti vate protege se lf-percepti on s of competence 111 the ir

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profess iona l roles. They al so he lp a ll evi ate some of the pressure that results fro m an intense focus on career development ac tiviti es. Effective psychosocia l support depends upon the quali ty of the interpersona l rel at ionship between the mentor and the protege . As compared to ca reer development activiti es , mentors need not be in powerfu l positions or have access to many resou rces to provide psychosocial support. Conventiona l wi sdom suggests , however, that having a prominent organiza tional leader as a m entor can be very benefic ial.

Degrees and Quality of Mento ring

A noted above, mentoring is not an a ll-or-nothin g phenomenon (Lev in son e t a l, 1978 ; Ragins, e t a l. , 2000). The degree to which ca reer deve lopment and psychosocia l suppo 1i are prov ided may va ry across re lationships and over time in a given re lationship . Some mentors may provi de ca reer deve lopment but not psychosocia l support, or visa versa . O thers may provide both , but may emphasize one more than the other. Furthennore, mentori ng may not be publi c ly recogni zed or observab le and may not even be recognized by the participants until brought to their at tenti on (Ragin s. 1997). Just as important ly, not a ll mentor ing relationships result in pos iti ve o utco mes (Mc Manu s, Eby, & Russe ll , 2000; Ragins et a l. , 2000 ; Sca ndura, 1998). Tn reviewing ex isting mentoring programs. Washburn and C ri spo (2006) note that forma l mentor ing progTams may seem patem a li sti c, imply ing that the protege is not capable of seeking ou t ass ista nce when needed , an assumpti on that may underm ine the protege's se l [-con fidence. lnfonna l men lo ring progra ms, however, may resu lt in less mentor ing for women and peop le o f co lor. Formal mentori ng programs that a re des igned to ensure that no employees are left ou t of the mentoring process, however, may pair up indi vidual s w ith incompat ib le persona lities- leaving both the protege and the mentor di ssatisfied w it h the experience (Washburn and Cri spo. 2006) .

While the mentoring lite rature has expanded to address a va riety of issues re la ted to the degrees and qual ity o f mcntori ng, no ex tant research cons iders how mcn toring might diffe r if it was focu sed on deve loping trans lorm::Jtio nal leaders , ra ther than o n he lping proteges obt<1 in ca reer success . Ln the nex t sec ti on, we di scuss how lmks ca n be made between tradit ional mentorin g ::JCtl\ 1tics and acti viti es typ ica ll y :1 ssoc ia ted w ith trans fo rmat iona l leade rship . The ove rl ap be tween these t\\ o concepts suggests tha t research on mentorin g and

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trans follTiationa l leadership mi ght profitably be

integrated .

Mentoring as Method for Growing Transformational Leadership

Altho ugh intuition suggests that mentoring and transfom1ational leadership are close cousins, ex isting resea rch has done little to c larify their re lationship. This is surpri s ing, because mentoring frequently is identified as a centra l e lement in tTansfollTiational leadership . For example, Bass ( 1998) identified mentoring as a key aspect o f indi viduali zed consideration . Deluga ( 1992) likewi se noted that individual consideration was desc ripti ve of the transfonnationa l leader ' s mentoring ori entation . Next, Scandura and Schriesheim (1994) uggest tha t mentoring and tTans fom1ational leadership

are developmental in nature . That is, both enhance the growth and leaming of others through specifying and manifesting appropriate function as well as behaviors. Sim il arl y, Sosik, odsha lk, & Yammarino (2004) indicate that mentors and transfonnational leaders serve as ro le mode ls who endeavor to deve lop others ' self­confidence, personal identi ty and well-be ing. Sosik and Godsha lk (2004) reported that a mentor 's se lf-awareness o f the ir tra nsformati onal leadership impacted protege ' s career sa tis fac tion and manageri a l aspirations . Lastly, Popper and Mayseless (2003) contend that developmenta l processes are centra l to the relationship be tween tran formational leadership and fo llowers .

De pile these connection , there has been little integra ti on of the research on mentoring and trans formatio na l leadership . As di sc ussed above, the mentoring litera ture devotes itse lf to understanding how e mployees a re deve loped , but does not spec ifi ca ll y emphas ize the development of h·ansformationa l leadership. S imilarl y, the leadership literature has focused on w hat transformational leaders do to lead their organiza tions and , more recentl y, on how these leaders mentor o thers (e.g. , Godshalk & Sosik, 2000 ; So s ik & Godsha lk, 2000 ; So s ik & Godshalk, 2004). However, pri or work has paid less a ttention to the development of tran s formati ona l leaders (Avo lio & Bass, 1995), parti c ul arl y with respec t to the mentoring process. For exa mple, Con ger ( 1999) observed that there has been littl e di sc uss ion rega rding the effectiveness of trans formationa l leaders 111 deve loping successors. Con ger & K anungo ( 1998) noted that it is very rare to fi nd orga ni za ti o ns where a chari matic leader is not succeeded by a more manageria ll y-oriented indi vidual.

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Beyer ( 1999) a lso di scussed the prob lems assoc iated w ith succeeding highl y chari smatic leaders.

Why is it that mento ring has rece ived so li tt le attention in the development of tran s formationa I leaders? One possibl e expl anation fo r the li m ited emphas is of mentoring as a technique to deve lop trans fom1ationa l leaders may be re lated to the fa ct that mentori ng is a process that is di ffi cult to study. Thus, resea rchers have focused more attention on tra in ing p rograms, vvhere large numbers of people are subj ected to the sa me activit ies . This provides a more contro ll ed setting in w hi ch to test the effecti veness of these techni ques for deve loping transfonnationa l leaders .

The fact that tTans formationa l leaders are sti ll relati vely rare whil e both leadership tra ining progra ms and mentoring efi011s in organiza tions have grow11 substantiall y in recent years suggests that more resea rch on this topic is warranted. T he fa ct that not a ll organi zations can afford to send po tent ia l leaders to expensive tra inin g programs also sugges ts that more attention be pa id to ac tivities such as mentoring that can be accompli shed w ith m inim um additi ona l costs .

Are M entoring and Transformational Leadership Really the Same Thing'?

Conceptua ll y, tTan sfo m1ationa l leadership and mentoring have a great dea l in commo n. Thus, it is criti ca l it identi fy how these two concepts di ffer. First. trad iti ona l mentoring I S focused on supporting the pro teg e; thi s may or may not lead to the type of ··mut unl stimul ati on and e leva tion tha t con verts fo llo\\'ers into

leaders and may convert leade rs in to mora l age nts" as spec ifi ed by B ums ( 1978 : 4) in hi s defi ni tion o f n·a ns form ati onal leade rshi p. Si mi larl y. whil e lTans fo rmat iona l leaders must, by defin ition . se rve as mentors to the ir fo llowers. the motivat ion beh ind that mentorin g is not to bene fi t the pro tege, per se, but to ad va nce the larger in terests o f the o rgan izat ion . Wh ile these two moti vat ions someti mes ma y overlap, in some cases they ma y be contradi c to ry. For example. the best inte rest o f the organ ization ma y be better served if an e mpl oyee cha llenges the sta tus quo. In many cases , thi s type of behav ior w ill no t be rewa rded in terms of career s uccess . Beca use the pa th to tTansforma tiona l leadership is no t necessa rily the same path that leads to short-te1m ca ree r s uccess, we hypothes ize that these tTaditiona l mentorin g ac ti vi ti es, wh ile potent ia ll y va luable, a re not s u ffi c ient fo r deve lopin g transfo m1at ional leade rs. We argue that "'tr;:m sforrnationa l mentor ing" is necessary fo r the deve lop ment of trans fo rmat iona l leaders .

T ra nsformational Mentori ng

W e co ined the phrase "'trans fo rmat iona l men toring" to refer to a set o r mentoring behaviors that are des igned to promote the deve lopment o f trans fom1at iona l leaders .

A ll en & Potee t ( 1999) suggest tha t three va ri ab les are c r iti ca l to the s uccess of mentorin g re lationships : tru st. o pen communi catio n, and se t1ing standards and ex pec ta tions . E ffec ti, ·e tra nsformation a l men tori ng is a lso expected to depend on these three vanab les; the

d iiTe rence. ns desc r ibed be low, is in what s tnndards nnd ex pec tat io ns the me nto r sets .

Figure 1: Activities, Me diato rs, and O ut co mes o f the Tra l"o rma tio nal l\ Je ntoring P roce ss

T r a nsfo rm a ti o na l l\ l ent or in g Act ivit ies

C areer Developm ent: Sponso rs hip· . Exposure & Vt s tbtltty" . Protecting"" : (Convarin g bln111e ro prnise).Coaching and

C hallengi ng"": (Long -rern 1. ho lisric rhinking. Crirical evaluniion, Problem detec tion. En\·isioning, Co mmunicat ion of vis ion, Imp ression mnnngc mcnt. EmpO\\ 'en nenl of fo llowers) Psychosocial Suppor t: Co unsc ltn g·. Fn end sh1p·. Role Modehn g .. : (Chnris111n. l?i sA-raAi ng Selfs ncrificc) . Acceptance and Confirmati on · · (l? isk-rnking. Sc l(-s ncrificc)

Traditi o n31 men ta rin g acll vtt tcs tdenuli eu by Kr3 m ( 1985)

Mod ifi ed vers tOil > o ( Kr3 m's ( I 0~5) tr3 Utt ional men ron ng ac t1vi ues

Med ia to r s

t\ l c nto r : Na reiSSISill. Stereo types . lacn. Kno v.rle dge. Gencr: :li 111Jl\ 1du~ll f3dors Pro tege: C hild hood c' pcrlcnccs. Pn or leadcrsh qJ CC\ pen cnces. Commitment. \ 't> ton. Ch:.1r i:.-.m a. N~HCI:-:.:.-.tsm. Ci encr:1l 111dt\ Jdu::~l factors

Rela t io n>hip : Quahty of cl\·adtc rciJu onshtp O rga nizat ion: C ulture. ~tru cturc & J"L'\\3rd

sys tem~

O utco mes of th e Tran >fo rma ti o na l ' 1rnto rin o Proccs~

T r a ns fo nna t ion a l C o mp ete ncies of

Protege : l .o ng-tem1. holt>llc thmktng. Cnttcal C\aluauon"". Prob lem dctcC tlL)Il Ln' JSJonmg··· .

( 'ommunu.:auon of YJS Jon ··· . l m r re~~llln man ~gemcnt ··· I n1p0\\em1ent nf loiiO\\Cr, ...

Tra

n

,furma l io nal Chara ct~ri>t i c ' of 1•ro 1l·gl·: C'han~ma, Rl~k-L3l·.Jng, Se\!­':.llTlficmg

Cnre C\)tnpclencle~ 1.1f ch:Jn .... matJL le:JJcr ....

!Lkntl ll

cd h; ( 'ongcr :md Kanu ng_L1 ( 19X8)

Fi gure l provides an o ve rview o f the trans formJtio nJ I mentoring process and inc ludes medi a ting va ri:1bles that are li ke ly to impact the e ffec tive ness o f tTnns fo rmntionJI

mentonn g Jtt empt :;; to dc \'c lop trJ ns fo rm :ltionn l

co mpe tenc ies and charac te ris tics of proteges. For the p urpose of th is pnpc r. we focu s our att ention prima n ly on

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the tran s formati onal mentoring acti viti es identified in th e mode l. Thi s includes the traditional ca tegories of mcntori ng ac tiviti es identifi ed by Kram ( 1985) as well as omc new ac ti vities that help distingui h

trans formati onal mentoring from trad iti ona l mcntoring. With respec t to trad iti onal mentoring ac ti viti es, we sugges t that some of the spec ifi c acti ons of tran s fo rmati onal mento rs wil l differ somewhat, as described below.

C aree r Development Activiti es

From a transfo rmati onal mcntoring approach, ca reer deve lopment for the protege no longer means seekin g re fuge in a comfortab le and steady climb up th e orga ni za ti onal ladder. Rather, fo r the tra nsformationa l lcader-in -tTai ning, career deve lopment mea ns at a min imum lea rnin g to shake the ladder and, in all li kelihood, fi gurin g out ways to change ladders in mid ­asc nt. Two o f the five ca reer deve lopment behav iors idcnl i fi cd by Kram ( 1985) and di scussed 111 the mcntorin' literature arc direc tl y consistent with our concept of' trans form ati ona l mcntoring. Prov idin g sponsorship and visibility are j ust as important for deve lopin g tTan sformat iona l leaders as they arc for more tradit ional career success. Budding trans fo rm ati ona l leaders need to gain access and visibi li ty be fore they ca n begin to prac ti ce their ski ll s of trans form ati on. Th e rema ining three ca reer deve lopment behaviors ( i.e. , protect ing the pro tege, coaching, and pm vidi ng

challen gin g ass ignments), req ui re expa nsion becau se trad iti ona l models of men lor ing em phasize ca reer success in terms of mov in g up the organi zationa l ranks, rath c1· th:.~ n a ltering the ·talu s quo.

Protecting. With respec t to protcct 111 g the protege, r<lt

hcr than se rving as a " bl::tm e-takcr," trans forma tiona l

men tors will be most e ffec ti ve if they arc able to reconstruct potenti a ll y d:.~ mag ing s itu ::t ti on s fr om ones of h l~tmc to ones o r prai se. That is, the mentor work s to convin ce other lop-le ve l m:.~ n age rs that the ac tions or the protege arc pra ise-worthy rathe1· th an bl ame-worth y, thereby bu ilding the repu tati on or the protege and re info rc in g the va lue o r Llk in g risks. For cx::tmpl c, the men tor ca n remind top-le ve l manage ment or th e lllta ng ihl c, yet c rit i c~1 1 ro le or c h ~1 l lc n g in g job ass1gnn1c nl s (e.g., Vi cin o & Bass, 197/l ), l'a ilun .: (e .g., M c ( ' ~1 11 & l .ombard o, 1 9~ 3 ) , ~1n d ri sk-tak ing 111 lcadcrsh 1 p dc\·c lopm ent.

Proposition I : Mentors who re-i'r amc ~1pp ~1 rc n t f'a il urcs by pro teges as successes will be more

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likely to develop proteges who become tTansfo m1ational leaders.

Coaching and Challenging. He ifetz ( 1994) argues persuasive ly that effec tive leaders, rather than telling peop le what to do , help them discover their own way through prob lems without easily apparent solutions. Simi larl y, becomin g a transformat ional leader requires a perspec ti vc that goes beyond understanding how to master ex isting tasks fac ing the organ ization. The key to leader performance is the acqui sition , development, and appli ca tion of organi zati ona l problem-solving skills (M umford , Zaccaro, Harding, Jacobs, & Fleishman, 2000a) . Consequentl y, coachin g and challenging assignments must be refocused, go ing beyond the deve lopment of spec ifi c ski ll s and techniques (e.g., Mumford et a l. , 2000a, 2000b) . A greater emphas is on more long-range and holi sti c ways of thinkin g about diflercnt situati ons is needed. The men tor can coach the protege to consider the long-term, organi zationa l-wide imp lica ti ons of dec isions rather than foc using onl y on short-term costs and bene fits. ln parti cul ar, success ful transformat ion al mentorin g efforts are expected to emphasize ca reer deve lopment ac ti viti es that faci litate the deve lopment of the core competencies identifi ed by Co nge r and K::~nungo ( 1988): criti cal eva luation and probl em detection, envisionin g, communi cation of vis ion, impress ion management, and ernpowem1cnt of fol lowers. In contrast, mentoring for traditi onal career success is likely to focus far less on long-term , ho li stic thinking than on so lvi ng immediate prob lems and deve lopin g techni ca l competenc ies.

In many instances, the dillc rencc in mentoring ac ti viti es to deve lop trans fo rmational leaders is one of degree , rather than o r kind . /\ II e ffec tive mentors are likely to pro vide some coac hing on presenting the right 1mpress 1on. For mentors who des ire to develop the trans fo rma tional power of the ir proteges, the emphasis of the import ance o f mana gin g impress ions wi ll be magn ifi ed. For exa mp le, the transformationa l mentor will cmph asi;.c the cent ral role of image-bui lding techniques for transfor mat ional lea dership beca use de li berately fosterin g an image of competence ca n increase fo ll ower comp li ance and conficl cncc in the leader (e.g. , Bass, Ins ; C:a rdn cr & .Avo lio, 199R)

Propo);ition 2: Mcn lori ng ac ti vit ies assoc iated with coachi ng ~tnd prov id in g chall enging ass ignments that arc designed to promote long­term , ho li sti c thinkin g, criti cal eva luati on skill s,

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problem detection skill s, the ability to envision the future and communicate that v ision , and impression management skill s in proteges will increase the probability that the protege will develop into a transfom1ati ona l leader.

In addition to the competencies described above the transformational mentoring process should al so pr;vide psychosocial support for proteges. In particul ar, we expect that the psychosocial suppo1i behaviors will be most critical for developing the per sonal characteristics of charisma, ri sk-taking propensity, and willingness to be self-sacrificing. All three of these characteristics are embedded in the definition of what it means to be a transformational leader. Psychosocial Support Activities

Given the increased unce1iainty associated with new paradigms of career development, psychosocial support for employees in general has grown in importance. For potential transformational leaders, the importance of having a mentor who can provide psychosocia l support is amplified even more because of the higher risk associated with attempts to transform organi zations. T he psychosocial support behaviors of counseling and friendship identified by Kram ( 1985) are expected to be directly applicable to the tTansformati onal mentori ng model. However, as di scussed be low, the role modeling and accepting and confim1ing psychosoc ia l support behaviors (Kram, 1985) are expected to differ in transformational mentoring, especiall y if the mentor is a transformational leader.

Role Modeling. T he concept of role modeling would seem to imply that the mentor be a trans fo rmational leader for transfom1ationa l mentoring to occur . For example, role mode ling charisma ·would require the mentor be charismati c. However, because there are a variety of aspects of transfo nnational leadership , it may be that some indi viduals who are not themselves transformational leaders still may be ab le to provide some degree of tran sfom1at iona l mentoring. T hat sa id , it seems likely that the most e ffecti ve rol e modeling co uld be done by CUJT ent transformat ional leaders. T hi s suggests some importa nt differences in the ty pes of behaviors that the mentor vv ill di spl ay for the protege to observe and emul ate. As rol e mode ls, transformat iona l leaders would tend to ex hi bit behaviors that are li kely to be detrimental to traditi ona l measures of ca reer success in many (but certain ly not all ) instances. These kinds of leaders should be j ust the type to encourage ri sk-taking

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and se lf-sacrifices in their proteges (Godshalk & Sosik 2000; Sosik & Godshalk, 2000). '

Proposition 3: Rol e mode ling that shows chari sma, ri sk-taking, and se lf-sacrific ing wi ll mcrease the probabi li ty of the deve lopment of lTans formational leaders.

Accepting and Confirming. A lthough K ram (1985: 35) suggests that one mentor function , "acceptance-and­confirmat

ion" allows "a junior person to experiment with

new behav iors," it is not evident that tTaditional notions of acceptance-and-confirmati on extend to cover s ituations where the protege is proposing rad ica l change for the orga nizati on. In fac t, it seems much more likely that most trad itional mentors would strongly counsel against " rock ing the organizational boat." ln the traditiona l mentoring model, acceptance and confirmation often appear to be tac itl y assoc iated with ma in taini ng the sta tus quo , or at most making sma ll inc remental improvements. Typically, radical change is viewed as threatenin g because it impli ci tl y chall enges the wisdom and skill of the ex isting genera tion of organizati onal leaders. ln contrast, transformationa l mentors must demon stTate their acceptance of proteges ' efforts to change organi zati onal practi ces, rather than efforts to perve tua te ex ist ing pract ices . T his tension between foll ow ing one ' s own va lues and confom1ing to the norms of the organi zation must constantly be faced by tra nsfom1at ional leaders. Mentors seeking to develop thi s ta lent in others must encourage, rather than di scourage boat-rocking behav ior. Boat-rocking activity, however, runs contrary to most conventiona l mentor wisdom advio '1g how to succeed in many organ izations. (O f course, contex t must be taken into account. ln organiza ti ons that have a cu lture of innovation and risk­taking, fa ilure to rock the boat may be more detTimcntal to success than takin g risks.) Transformational mentoring is ex pected to necess itate encouraging calculated ri sk­taking over supporting the status quo . Similar to role mode ling behaviors, the mentor can inspire the protege by shar ing persona l experi ences and recoun ting the successes of hi sto ri ca ll y promi nent leaders. Ther~fore. the basic act ivity of accepting and confirming has not changed , but the types ol beha\·ior s encouraged by the mentor have changed in transfom1ational mentoring.

Propositio n 4 : Acceptance and con firmation by the mentor that emphasizes making chan ges to the sta tus quo \\"ill increase the probability of

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the development of tTansfom1ationall eaders.

Mediators in the Transformational Mentoring Process

The foregoing propositions notwithstanding, we do no t be lieve that trans format iona l mentoring attempts automatical ly result m the creation of a new transformationa l leader. T he conceptual mode l shOW11 in fi gure 1 includes four categories of antic ipated mediators - the characte risti cs of the mentor, the protege, the rela ti onship, and the organi zation . Due to space limitati ons, we have not provided propositions rel ated to the med iator variab les, but we refer to them below in our di scuss ion o f the impl ica tions for practice and directions fo r future research.

DISCUSSION

In our mode l of tTansfo m1ati onal mentming, o ur primary emphasis is on mentoring to e ncourage risk­taking and se lf-sacri fi c in g. We recogn ize that thi s approach seems co un terintui tive, g iven tradi tiona l ideas about mentorin g. A ren ' t mentors supposed to keep their proteges o ut o f tro uble? Don ' t mentors help their proteges seek refuge, rather than enco uraging them to seek o ut ri sk'/ Won ' t be ing se lf-sac rific ing undem1in e the protege's cred ibi li ty in a world w here competition is the na me of the game? Don ' t mentors he lp proteges hone the ir skill s in se lf-promoti on, rather than supportin g the pro tege ' s dec ision to pu t as ide the ir own needs for the good of the co llceti ve'/

W e recogni ze that engag in g in these ty pes of behaviors seems counteri ntu it ive , but tra ns ! ormat iona I leadershi p is, itse lf, co un terintui ti ve to everyday behavior in orga niza ti ons. Despite the emergence and grO\ vth of academi c researc h on transfom1ationa l leadership (Pi ccolo and Co lq uitt, 2006 ) and the popul ari ty o f books and a1ti c les abo ut leaders transfo rm ing organi zations in the business press, we are convinced that there is still a s igni fi cant ga p between what compani es say peopl e asp iring to leadership positions shou ld be do in g and what those compani e:, actua ll y reward in d ividua ls fo r doing. W hat is ri ght is no t a lways pop ul ar, and what i ~ popul ar is not a lwa ys w hat is pr3cticed .

In many ways, o rgani zations and their leaders arc at a c rossroads . G loba l co mpetiti o n co mbined with hi gh shareho lder ex pcctJ ti ons for performance can result in enom1o us press ure to take shortcuts and hide problems . At the same time, soc ia l norms and regul a tory constra in ts

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a re ca lling for more honesty, integrity, and openness in the corporate world . As Quinn e t al. (2007) note, leaders must find ways to transcend the apparent paradoxes that result in a world where compan ies need to compete at the same time they need to coll aborate and need to create new opportun ities at the same time that they need to contro l existing processes (Quinn e t a!. , 2007). Transcending those paradoxes requires a new way of thinking about leadership and a new way of developing leaders - transformational leaders who can inspire fo ll owers to put the good of the co llective above their persona l se lf-i nteres t.

Implications for Practice

O ver the last two decades a stream of research has convincingly demonstrated the extraordinary effects of transfotmatio na l leadership on fo llowers, organizations, and socia l systems (e.g ., Bass , 1985 ; Burns, 1978; Bass & Avolio, 1994; House & Howell , 1992; Yuki , 2002) . If transformatio nal leadership is recognized as a va luable resource, then it fv dow s that organizations would have an interest in acquiring more transfonnat ional leaders. Unfortunately for practice, researc h has little to say about ho w to identify transformationa l leaders a priori . If, however, transformational leadership can be developed, then understanding more about how exi sting members of an organiza tion can become trans formational leaders may be at least as important as learn ing how to identi fy indi vidual s who are like ly to become tTansfonnational leaders . The proposed conceptual model of transformationa l mentoring is a first step in thi s direction.

Recogni zing the ro le of mentoring in the development of transformationa l leaders is particularly impo11ant for two reasons. F irst, because of the ir emphasis on self­interested career deve lopment, tTaditional mentoring acti vit ies may actua ll y d iscourage the development of transformationa l leaders who are se lf-sacrifi c ing. Second, mentoring can be used to proactively develop more transformatio na l leaders a t a lower cost than ex isti ng exec utive tra inin g programs for transformationa l leaders. As a consequence, iden ti fy i ng those transf01mationa 1 mentoring activiti es that are most criti cal to the de velopment of tran sfonnat iona l leaders can have a signifi cant impac t on practice in organi zation s. The proposed tran sformationa l mentoring model impli es not onl y that current leaders need to leam new ways to mentor protege s, but a lso that changes to organ izationa l culture and s tructure may be required.

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Traditional beliefs about mentoring have a long history and are not likely to be abandoned lightl y. Encouraging current leaders to engage m transformational mentoring will reqUire s ignificant changes in mindset. For some, the issue may be whether to spend time on any type o f employee mentoring, as implied by the titl e o f a recent Wa ll Stree t Journal column: "Today 's Bosses Find Mentoring Isn ' t Worth the Time and Ri sks" (Hymowitz, 2006) . O ne CE O , fo r example, argues that today ' s fl atter organi zations have stretched bosses too thin for them to be spendi ng much time mentoring employees. H e contends that the manager ' s time could be better spent in o ther ways . To counter this position , Hymowitz (2006) quotes acade mic Jeffrey Pfeffer who argues tha t not mentoring employees is short sighted . As companies continue to try to do more with less, however, it seems likely that cho ices will be influenced more by the pressures of practice than by theoretical ideal s .

Of course many peopl e do consider mentorin g to be worthwhile, but even they may hesitate to adop t some of the proposed transformational mentoring acti v ities whi ch suggest that they encourage ri sk-taking and se lf-sacrifi ce rather than offering more traditiona l advice focused on safer ways to tra verse the politi ca l terra in . Pas t experience in the workplace is like ly to have re in forced the benefit of those traditiona l behaviors fo r helping proteges ad vance 111 the ir ca reers . Proposed transformational mentoring acti vities simp ly do not have that type o f tTack record . In fac t, past results for risk­taking are like ly to have been negati ve. Wl1a t conscientious mentor would wa nt to hu rt her protege' s chances by suggesting that the protege fo ll ow co urse o f action that has resulted in pena lties fo r ind ivid ua ls in the past?

In addition to convinc ing current leaders that transformational mentorin g acti vities will bene fi t the ir proteges , those leaders w ill a lso need to be convinced that thi s new approach to mentoring will not hann the ir own careers. Because protege s w ho fa il can make the ir mentors look bad, mentors have a persona l interest in the consequences o f the protege's actions. As a resul t, mo re than a new personal mindse t is needed. Funda menta l changes in organi za ti ona l c ulture and structure will be required.

Trad itiona l approaches to mentor ing did not dC\·e lop in a vacuum . They re nec t the rea li ti es of organi zati ona l culture and struc ture. For exa mp le, many reward sys tems clea rl y signal tha t ri sk-taking is not a valued bch3\'ior in organizations. T hus, it is li ttl e wonder that mentors have

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tTad itiona lly avoided encourag ing ri sk- taking. Even when there is evidence that ta king ri sks can be very bene fi c ia l to the organ ization as a who le, there o ften is little incenti ve for any one indi vid ual to be w ill ing to take ri sks. [f one of the protege characteristics that increases the li ke li hood of developing into a transformatio nal leader is a hi gh propens ity for tak ing risks, orga ni zat ions that fai l to encourage and reward ri sk- takin g may be at a do ub le di sad vantage. In add ition to not benefitin g from taki ng appropr ia te ri sks, these organ iza tions may find that the ir most pro mising employees are the most li ke ly to be pena lized fo r the ir actions. Thi s may result in those employees leav in g the organization, perhaps for a more open-m inded competitor.

As w ith ri sk- taking, there are li ke ly to be rewards for acts o f se lf-sacri fi ce w ithin an organ iza tiona l context. In some organiza tion cul tures, acts of se lf-sac ri fice may even be der ided or m isconstTued as attempts to curry favor. In these organi za tions, se l f- sacri fi ce by the pro tege may result no t on ly in the loss o f some current benefi t, but may a lso have a negati ve impact on the reputa ti on o f the protege in the long tern1.

Directions for Future R esearch

The concern s ra ised in the pre vio us section about imp lementin g n·a nsfo rmational mentoring processes , on top o f ex isti ng c riti c ism of traditi onal mcnto ri ng approaches. suggest that much more resea rch is needed to ensure tha t futur e a ttempts at n·a nsfom1ati ona l mentoring have pos itive outcomes for both mentors and proteges . Fortuna te ly, the depth and breadth o f ex isting resea rch on trans fo rmati o na l leadership and on mentoring provide ample opr rtun ity fo r va luab le futu re research on thi s issue. Be low we identi fy a fe w o f the areas that seem espec ia ll y pro m is ing .

Effec ti ve transfo m1a ti onal leaders luc id ly arti c ul ate goals fo r the ir to ll owers , convey images o f how those goa ls can be reached , demo nstrate confid ence in the ir ab ility to achi eve those goa ls, and mo ti va te to llowers to work to m:1 ke those goa ls a rea lity (Kuhnert & Lewis , 1987) . T hese ski li s seem se lf-e vident whe n reviewing the histori es of successfu l trans Conn3 tiona l leaders. T he acqui s iti on of these skill s. howeve r, h::J S been subj ec t to less sc rut iny beca use it is diffi cu lt to identi fy, :1 pri ori . who wi ll beco me a tr3ns lo ml a tion::JI l e:1 der. S imp ly pu t. we cl o not kno\\' whom \\'e should be \\'::Jtc hing. Co

nsequ entl y, future researc h is needed to systema ti c:1ll y

tr3c k and C\'::Jiua te the de ve lopment of po tenti ::J I tr::Jns fo ml ::J tion3 l le3ders . Speci ficall y. lon g itud ina l

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qua litative rnvcsti ga tions c ·aminin g formal as wel l as informal mentor-protege relationships (e .g., Ragin s &

otton, 1999) are needed for adva ncing resea rch on trad itrona l, as we ll as tran sfo r·mati onal mentoring. Experimenta l programs des igned spec ifi call y to implement the element s o r transformational mentoring wou ld be especia ll y va luab le. In addition , hi storiometri c tudics a sse sing the ro le or innu ntia l mentors idcnti li ed

in the biographi es of trans format iona l leader wou ld im il ar ly clarify these mentor-p rotege relationship

Measurement issue wi ll a lways be a chall enge when studyin g the development of leaders and transfo rmat ion al , or even tradi ti ona l, mentorin g proce c~. In addi ti on to d iffi culti es associated with the length of time these processes take , man y 0 r the ac ti vi ti cs assoc iated with these processes occur out of s ight. Most mcntonng stud ies re ly on protege sati s fac ti on with the mcntonng process or reca lled exa mp les and stori es. Problems with retrospec ti ve research, however, have been we ll documented. A more effec tive approach mi ght be to experiment wi th us ing time diarie · to ha ve more contemporaneous documentation that will help resea rchers understand the trans fo rmationa l mcn tor in g process. or course, th is pract ice would also serve to make more sal ient the fa ct that the pr tege is being mcnto r·cd , so the dat<J co ll ec tion it selr wou ld then become one var i<tble that mi ght<tflect the eventual outcomes.

13eca use the trans formational mentorin g process outl mcd here inc ludes so m:111 y dill erent va riab les, rnrtr ~rll y 11 ma

y be bene ficia l to I()Cus on one or two

ac tr viti e:. Pr cco lo and Co lqurtt 's (200(J) recent rese<J rch conn ect1n g researc h on tran s l(mmlliona l leadership and

JOb charac teri sti cs sugges ts that managin g meaning is a key va n ab le in terms or tran s latrn g tr~m s lormat i o n a l

leadership rnl o better task perfo rmance and in creased orga ni ;.at i o n ~l l

Citi zenship bc h ~1 v i or . Thu s, fo cus in g on

tran sformatronal mentoring ac ti vrti es that address Cn\ IS lOll in g and CO mlllUili cat ron or vis ion might be :1

good place to bcg1n . One po:-.s rbilrty \\Ou ld be to des rgn :1n ex perim ental

~tud y w

1t hrn and organi1.:1tion thJt h ~r s a l(lrma l mcn tonn g pm gram ,,·he reby some mcnt or·s we1·e

encoura ged to l (lc u ~ on talkin g with proteges about the 1mpmt~1n cc ol' mana grn g meanrn g wh rlc a contro l gro up of

mento rs \\ :1-; not gr\ ·en that rns tr ·uction . l 'r etests oi'

L':rch protege\. :-. uhordrnat es cou ld he u sed to esL1h lish a h ~1 se lrn c !'or ll :lck m ~ln

and Oldham's ( 19SO) Jo h

c h ar~Jc ten s tiC !-> a

'> \\'e ll a ~ i' or rntnn src mOII \'~II I Oil (l'l co ll o & ( 'olqu rtt . 200(J) . ·1 hrough oh:-.e rvat1on .., o ve r t1me, rt \I OUid he pos:-. rhlc to ob -.,e r\C 11' those proteges in the

Jnurn31 of l3us1nc ss and l.ca dcrsh ip : R~scarc h , Practice, and Teachin g

experimen tal group tended to spend more time trying to manage meaning fo r their subordinates . After some period , subordinates co uld be surveyed again to see if their levels of task signi fica nee and iden ti ty had increased and measures of their task performance and orga ni zational c iti zenship behavior cou ld be obta ined.

Also of interest would be work that addressed whether or not transformationa l leaders are more likely to have a ingle mentor or a network of different mentors (sec !Iigg in s & Kram, 200 1 for a di scussion of the developmental network perspec tive of mentoring). Becau e supervisor-subordinate demographic diss imil ari ty innuenccs the nature of their relationship (e.g., Tsui & O ' Reill y, 1989), issues such as age, race, and gender differen ces between the transformational leader and protege require attention . The effects of protege career stage seem worthy of investi gation as we ll.

f- ina

ll y, g iven the criti ca lity of ro le modeling in the mcntoring process, fo ll ow-up work is needed to address an im portant uest.ion : Ca n individua ls who are not tran sform ationa l leaders foster transformational leader hip in proteges? T he Multif:1ctor Leadership Questionnaire (M LQ) mi ght be one measure that could be used to assess different aspec ts o f leadership relative to different types o f mentoring ac ti viti es (see Lowe, Kroeck , ' iva subraman iam, 1996 for a meta-a nalys is o f studi es that used the MLQ) . Prior literature docs not imp ly that on ly trans forma ti onal leaders can be e ffecti ve men tors. Indeed, it seem apparent that eff'ec ti vc leaders

ca n and do eng:1gc in ca reer deve lopm ent ac ti viti es and provide psyc hosoc ial support to proteges, whether or not those leaders arc transform ati onal leaders. The ex tent to whi ch leaders ca n deve lop leaders more transformationa l than th cmscl vcs, however, is open to ques ti on.

CONCLUSION

The i clc~1 s proposed here sugges t that tradit ion a I mentori ng mode ls may not he :1dequatc for developing tran s l(l rm ~J tional lc<tders. The limited di scuss ion t:l rgc tin g

transro rm ati ona l leaders as developers of other tran s li.m11 ati ona l leaders (Conger, 1999) as we ll as the res tri cted litera ture linki ng leadership and mcntorin g arc ripe areas for addition:1 l rescc n ch. Leadership has hi stori cal ly attrac ted mu ch attenti on (Yuki , 2002). Work rllu m in ~llrn g men toring is begi nning to ex p:1 ncl :1s we ll. Now it seems appropriate to co mbine these two fruit ful :-. treclm

S o f resea rch to advance our under:-;tandin g of I WO

ve ry crrt ica l issues lo r organi zation s as they mo ve into

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the future. The nature of transfom1ational leadership is consistent with the behaviors needed for e ffec ti ve mentoring (Scandura & Schri esheim, 1994) . ln th is respect, prior work has cons idered the mentoring activities of transformational leaders (e.g. , Godsha lk & Sosik, 2000; Sosik & Godshalk, 2000; Sosik & Godshalk, 2004). However, the research literature has not yet addressed the question o f whether ex isting mode ls of mentoring are sufficient for the ac tua l development o f transformational leaders.

To address thi s gap in the literature, we introduced the concept of " b-ans formation a l mentoring" that merges existing theories of mentoring and tTansformational leadership. Building on these two litera tures, our mode l suggests a relationship be tween tTansfo rmati ona l mentoring activities and protege outcomes. M oreover, we reformulated severa l mentoring acti vities and argued tha t these are uniquely required to nurture transformational leadership. Because lTans formational mentoring does not take place in a vacuum, potential media tor re lated to the characteri sti cs of the mentor, protege, re la ti onship, and organization were proposed a potenti a ll y medi ating the impact of transfom1ational mentoring on the outcomes of transformational leadership competenc ies and characteristics in the protege.

We believe tha t the overlap be tween mentoring and the activities identi fl ed with transfom1ationa l leadership provides fertile ground for future resea rch on an issue of critical practical concern to organizations: how to generate a stream o f transfom1ationa l leaders to move the ir organizations successfull y into the futu re.

Our primary contributi on li es in o ur emphas is on mentoring for ri sk-taking and se lf-sacrifi c ing . We recogni ze tha t these a re coun terintuiti ve ac ti viti es for traditional mentors to be foc us ing on, but the very nature of transformational leadership is counterintuiti ve to CUITent practice in most organi zations. Current practi ce, in tum, leaves much to be des ired, as evidenced by the growing number of scandals reported in the bus iness press. Transfom1ati ona l mento ring that encourages ri sk­taking and se lf-sacrifi c ing may be a use ful tool fo r developing the type of leaders w ho can trans form bus iness prac tices so they are more ethi ca l as we ll as more e ffecti ve in the future.

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Lynda St. Clair is an assoc iate professor o[ management at Bryan t U ni vers ity. She received her Ph.D . in organizationa l behavior and human resource management fro m Uni ve rs ity of Michigan. It er c un ·ent resea rch interes ts focus on leadership skill s, compe ting va lues in o rgani zation s. corpora te socia l respons ibility, and ca reers. She ha publi shed in Jo uma l of M anagement Educat ion , Academy of Managemen t Journa l, Organi za tional Dyna m ics, and Joumal for the Theory of Soc ia l Be haviour . S he has co-authored . "'Becoming a Ma ster ManJger: A Competin g Values

Approach", and co-edited 2 o the r books .

Ronald Deluga is professor o f psyc ho logy Jt Bryant Un ivers ity . He received hi s Ed . D. in counse lor education from Uni vers ity of C inc innati . f-li s resea rch interests inc lude leade rship , subordinate-supervisor re lation hips, and outcomes. H e has publi shed in Le::tde rs hi p Q uarte rl y, and .J o urna l o[ Res "' trch in Personal ity .

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