Trans Culture Leadership Termpaper

8/8/2019 Trans Culture Leadership Termpaper

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MANAGEMENT PRACTICES &ORGANIZATIONAL BEHAVIOUR

TOPIC:-TRANS CULTURE LEADERSHIP

SUBMITTED TO:- SUBMITTED BY:-

Miss Nancy sahani Abhishek sharma

Department of management S330 Roll no-B39

Reg:-10804312


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Introduction

Culture is a many splendoured thing with many definitions. (1) In the West, culture is oftenassociated with the fine arts (painting and sculpture) and the performing arts (opera, ballet,symphony, music, theatre). In other parts of the world it includes many other aspects. In

Ancient China, for instance, "calligraphy, poetry and painting" were considered the threeperfections.(2) In modern China culture one definition of culture is "mass media, education, artand sports."(3) In the Arab net (4), culture is defined primarily in terms of "people, language,food, media and religion." Other categories of culture on Arab net include: arts, beekeeping,calendar, ceramics, clothing, embroidery, frankincense, the Hajj, jewellery, tents of the Arabiandesert and the role of women.(5)

Cultural heritage is certainly much more than paintings in galleries and objects in museums. AsUNESCO has made us aware cultural heritage includes archaeological sites, historical citiesand remarkable natural sites (e.g. Plitvice Waterfalls in Croatia).(6) At a deeper level culturalheritage is a key to understanding how each culture has its own principles of knowledgeorganization, interpretation and expression. Culture relates to how we see the world differentlyand is thus closely linked with philosophy, our principles of truth, our theory and practice ofsociety. Culture relates to how we learn and how we transmit what we know in different ways.Culture and education are thus intimately linked.

The Internet is global and all over the world there are efforts to digitize essential aspects ofdifferent cultures. In connection with the G7 exhibition on the Information Society (Brussels,February 1995), for instance, eleven pilot projects were initiated, including Multimedia Accessto World Cultural Heritage. At the European level, this was complemented by a Memorandumof Understanding for Multimedia Access to Europe's Cultural Heritage, which has led (October1998) to the MEDICI Framework.(7) Meanwhile, UNESCO has a collection of World Heritage(8) sites and a Memory of the World Project.(9) In October 1999, the government of Italy inconjunction with UNESCO and the World Bank will sponsor a conference on culture andbusiness.

There are at least four fundamental problems facing such endeavours. First, there is a problemof money. As Philippe Quau at UNESCO has pointed out the annual budget of UNESCO isequal to seven minutes of the annual budget of the U.S. military. Perhaps if persons becomemore aware of the inestimable value of culture, even in its purely economic implicationsthrough tourism, there will be more support for the approaches here outlined. Ultimately cultureis about understanding others. If this existed there would be no need for senseless wars suchas Kosovo, and we could use our scarce resources much more sensibly.

Second, there are obvious questions of standards to ensure interoperability of the pipelines, ofdifferent hardware and software.(10) Third, there are problems of interoperability of content


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which need to be solved if text, images and multimedia produced in one part of the world are tobe accessible in other parts of the world.(11) Fourth, and this is the focus of the present paper,there is a problem of developing new frameworks to study and to understand the enormousamounts of materials which are becoming available.

For instance, one of the traditional fields for the study of culture is art history. Most treatmentsof this field are on a national basis: hence there are studies of Italian, French, German,Chinese, Japanese, Malaysian, Australian, Canadian and American art.

Some treatments are in terms of the world's great religions: e.g. Buddhist, Christian, Hindu,Islamic, and Jewish art. Although standard university textbooks such as Janson's History of Artmake token efforts to acknowledge major cultures such as India, China Japan and Islam, theyremain essentially Eurocentric in their vision. Indeed, on closer inspection we find that thesetextbooks are frequently written by scholars in or with access to major centres such as Vienna,Paris, London, Berlin, or New York. The experts cited what was familiar to them. Hence, thepaintings of those centres have typically defined our canons of art and culture. We need new

canons, which reflect more universal values.This paper begins by exploring dimensions of culture beyond the fine arts, with particularreference to those in non-European cultures. Two goals of art in non-literate societies areidentified. This leads to a re-examination of fundamental goals of culture in a European contextwith a view to using these for a more international view of art and culture. Section fouraddresses briefly some global threats to culture. Section five outlines the need for a world mapof cultural values, which leads to consideration of some of the problems concerning meta-datawhich are implicit in such a quest.

Many of the specific examples will remain those of Western art. No attempt will be made to be

comprehensive in our treatment of all cultural objects and expressions. Our concern, rather, isto explore a framework which will allow a balanced study of all cultures in order that we canapproach seriously the challenges posed by seeking Multimedia Access to World Cultural .

Threats to Culture

An extensive study of the threats to culture would lead to an independent monograph. Hereour purpose is merely to signal a few pressing issues, namely, unstable politics, some recenttrends in global business, notions of evolution involving memes and simplistic trends on theInternet.


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example: IBM, in addition to its moneymaking ventures, had a strong programme to supportcultural dimensions, which included exhibitions on Leonardo da Vinci and special exhibitionson art around the world.

When sending their employees to work in a very different culture such as Japan, major

corporations such as Bosch also introduced serious training programmes to help theiremployees understand different customs and different ways of doing things. All this islaudable.(13) One of the most impressive developments in this context has been a trendtowards a systemic family of Quality Management Systems on behalf of the InternationalStandards Organisation (ISO). This entails four basic elements: 1) fundamentals andvocabulary to ensure the communication of content management for critical communication(ISO 9000:2000); 2) interested party confidence of product customer satisfaction (ISO 9001);3) organisational efficiency and effectiveness in overall performance (ISO 9004:2000); 4)quality and environmental management systems auditory (ISO 19011:2001). This family ofstandards, which builds on the work of ISO Technical Committee 37, will thus ensureinternational standards for quality re: management, performance, health, safety, environment

and human diversity. The vision is to create an ethic- conomical framework, which produceslong-term gain through short-term activity. Closely connected with this vision is an approachwhich respects human diversity.(14)

At the same time, the past decade has seen the rise of a very different trend within thebusiness world, namely, through new management strategies. Under the rhetoric of creating aculture of change,(15) a rhetoric which also imbues the world of education,(16) there areattempts to identify creative content without history, memory, religion, or belief. From this hasgrown the notion of corporate culture.(17) This has the enormous advantage that change canbe instigated without recourse to precedent, rights or anything. It has the disadvantagebecause it means that the connection between culture and cult is removed. There is no real

memory, no collecting, no accumulation, no increasing value, indeed there is nothing linkedwith the traditional aspects of culture.(18)

Traditional culture as we have noted is about sharing experiences and is cumulative. It bringsidentity, without diminishing respect for other cultures. It becomes more valuable with time notonly because there is more of it, but because the sources to which it can allude, thereferences, inferences and implications it can connote and denote are much richer. The newcorporate "culture" is the antithesis of this approach.(19) The new corporate culture is merelyabout finding logos and slogans which set one group out from another. As such it does nothingto deepen one's long term identity, or to help increase respect for others. It is not cumulativequavalues: it is only concerned with accumulating more monetary wealth for the corporation.Wealth has of course always been a concern of business. But when it is the only concern tothe extent of ignoring personal, regional, and national values, it becomes a serious threat toculture.

Some would link this new trend in management with recent developments within the WorldTrade Organization (WTO),(20) as a result of which decisions by WTO can theoreticallyoverride the decisions of individual countries. Extreme interpretations of this trend claim thatthe sovereignty of the nation state is thereby rendered obsolete. In our view there is a deeper


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reason for concern. As noted below culture exists and needs political attention at seven levelsranging from local urban settings to the international sphere. Very much needed are politicalstructures, which create greater co-ordination between those levels. If international power andwealth shifts to global corporations with no commitment to culture at any of these levels, thenculture will be endangered in new ways.

Evolution

In the nineteenth century the ideas of Darwin in the life sciences were soon applied to thesocial sciences (and the humanities) in the form of what came to be known as socialDarwinism. Archaeologists such as General Sir Pitt Rivers attempted to apply this approach toculture also. There are fundamental problems with an evolutionary approach to culture. First,major cultural artifacts such as the Venus de Milo are unique expressions and cannot be"better" simply by adding limbs, making them larger or other "improvements." As Croce put it:

Art is intuition and intuition is individualityand individuality does not repeat itself. To conceiveof the history of the artistic production of the human race as developedalonga single line of

progress and regress would therefore be altogether erroneous.(21)

Second, an evolutionary approach can readily lead to a one-tracked teleological vision, whichassumes that art has but one goal. As we have shown in the previous section art and culture

have a number of goals. Thirdly, if there were cultural evolution in a simple sense, then earlierworks would necessarily be outmoded and less valuable now than they were at the time oftheir creation. The Mona Lisais not less valuable than a painting by Jackson Pollock becauseit is older. On the contrary, older cultural objects are typically much more valuable than newones.

In the past decades, such basic truths have frequently been forgotten by those wishing to re-kindle notions of progress in art. This is also true of the latest attempt by Daniel C. Dennett, aleading proponent of the computational theory of the mind, who is seen by some as "reformingthe role of the philosopher," and is particularly supported by thinkers such as Marvin Minsky inthe field of artificial intelligence.(22)

Dennett sets out to explain the evolution of culture from the premise that "the humanisticcomprehension of narratives and the scientific explanation of life processes, for all theirdifferences of style and emphasis, have the same logical backbone."(23) He would have usapproach the question of the why of culture (cui bono) partly in terms of cost benefit analysis,adding:


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The perspective Iam talkingabout is Richard Dawkins'meme's-eye point of view, whichrecognizes--and takes seriously--the possibility that culturalentities may evolve according toselectional regimes thatmake sense only when the answer to the Cui bonoquestion is that itis the cultural items themselves that benefit from the adaptations they exhibit.(24)

Dennett cites Dawkins to note that we can think of cultural memes as parasites, that "they arelike viruses." "And in the domain of memes, the ultimate beneficiary, the beneficiary in terms ofwhich the final cost-benefit calculations must apply is: the meme itself, not its carriers." Hegoes on to classify three kinds of hitchhikers: parasites (whose presence lowers the fitness ofthe host; commensuals (whose presence is neutral) and mutualists (whose presenceenhances the fitness of both host and guide). He goes on to take exception to Wilson (25) tosuggest that "cultural possibility is less constrained than genetic possibility." By way ofillustration he cites examples of drumming, humming and Bach in music.

While Dennett is at pains to insist that his explanation is complementary with traditionalexplanations of culture in terms of "willful creativity," as with other proponents of memes such

as Susan Blackmore,(26) there is curious way in which this approach undermines the role ofindividual expression which Croce, cited earlier, saw as paramount. While it is true thatDennett's approach gives an unexpectedly new meaning to the phrase "art for art's sake," it isdifficult to see what is to be gained by these so-called viral insights. What do we gain (cuibono) by abandoning the role of the artist's intent, or notions of culture as the invisible bonds ofsociety through shared experiences?

Also lacking in the meme approach is any notion of multiple goals of culture and hence anyframework which allows us to understand the complexities of both local and nationaldifferences, why the characteristics for excellence in China or India are quite different fromthose in Europe. It offers us a one-dimensional answer to a multi-dimensional and multi-

cultural tradition. It is a dangerous simplification.Dennett's approach is linked with another trend in American thought towards a so-called thirdculture. In 1959, the late Lord C.P. Snow published his book The Two Cultures in which helamented a growing tendency whereby humanists and scientists no longer shared the sameuniverse of discourse. Recently American thinkers such as John Brockman, claim that they areheading a third-culture, by which they mean scientists with a commitment to publiccommunication:

The third culture consists of those scientists and other thinkers in the empiricalworld who,through their workand expository writing,are taking the place of the traditional intellectual inrendering visible the deepermeanings of ourlives, redefining who and what we are.....what traditionally has been called "science" has today become "public culture."Stewart Brand writes that "Science is the only news. When you scan through a newspaper ormagazine,all the human interest stuff is the same old he-said-she-said, the politics andeconomics the same sorry cyclic dramas, the fashions a pathetic illusion of newness,and eventhe technology is predictable if youknow the science. Human nature doesn't change much;science does,and the change accrues,altering the world irreversibly." We nowlive in a worldin which the rate of change is the biggest change. Science has thus become a big story.(27)


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Striking in the above passage is the same emphasis on change and on the new as is soevident in business, education and other fields. It may well be true that these are becoming theleitmotifs of public culture. It is very important to recognize, however, that the values of sharedexperience, shared memory, continuity and accumulative worth reflected by the larger view ofculture espoused in this essay lead us to very different insights. Science is clearly

important.(28) The use of science in understanding cultural heritage is obviously valuable. Butwhen persons in the name of science, which is concerned with general, immutable laws,pretend to have the answer to all our individual expressions, then we must be very wary. Sucha rhetoric concerning science can readily pose serious threats to culture.(29)

Historians will be aware that these dangers are not new. In 1874, the Russian philosopher,Vladimir Solovjev, a friend of Dostoyevsky, published his Crisis of Western Philosphie againstthe Positivists. As Noemi Smolik has recently noted in an illuminating article,(30) this workinspired several generations of commentary within Russia which led via Andrej Beljj, VelimirChlebnikov, Roman Jacobson, Vassily Kandinsky and Kazimis Malevich. These thinkersfocused on the Russian word, stroenie, which as Smolik notes can be translated both by the

word construction and the word structure .As she points, out this group led to both theconstructivist and the structuralist (31) movements as well as to postmodernism.(32) Hencewhat began as an attempt to remedy tensions between the aims of art (creativity) versus thoseof science and technology (control and production in addition to the age old quest forunderstanding), inspired precisely those movements which would have us believe that there isnothing to be learned from the cumulative experience of historical knowledge. Without knowingit the proponents of the third culture would appear to be headed in a parallel if not identicaldirection.

Internet in Simplistic Versions

The Internet is a magnificent resource for culture at many different levels.(33) For instance, theWWW Virtual Library with respect to Museums compiled by Jonathan Bowen offers awonderful overview of the rich resources which are becoming available.(34) By contrast thereare some sites which appear authoritative and yet are extremely reductive in their treatment ofcultural complexity. For instance, a site called about.com,(35) divides the world's cultures into

four areas: 1) Africa/Mideast; 2) Americas; 3) Asia/Pacific; 4) Europe.

The Americas (36) are reduced to African-American Culture, Arctic/Northern Culture, Asian-American, Caribbean, French-Canadian, (but not Canadian) Culture, Latino, Mexican andSouth American. Europe(37) is reduced to Eastern Europe, and the cultures of England,France, Germany, Greece, Ireland, Italy, Russia, Scotland, Spain, Switzerland and the UnitedKingdom (typically under the headings of language, culture and visitors). Asia/Pacific (38) isreduced to Australia, China, India, Japan and South Asia.


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Africa is divided into five regions (central, eastern, northern, southern, western) and 9museums and galleries are listed.(39) By contrast, Jonathan Bowen's (40) excellent site lists22 museums for Africa and a further 19 for the Middle East. (i.e. Lebanon 4, Israel 8, Kuwait 1,Turkey 4, UAE 2). The about.com also limits the themes of beliefs and folklore tocontemporary topics (41) and has equally trendy categories for groups/subcultures,(42) senior

living, religion/spirituality and sexuality.

Such simplistic interpretations of reality are nothing new. In the past, however, they werefrequently not accepted by serious publishers and thus tended to remain as single manuscriptsor in small quantities produced by a private publication. The Internet now allows individuals topublish their views internationally. Censorship is ultimately not a very interesting solution forthis problem. Methods such as the Resource Description Format (RDF) being developed byW3 Consortium, offer a way to rate the relative value and the veracity of such sites. At the levelof governments and public bodies there is also a new challenge. They must ensure that theyconvey a sufficiently rich picture of their own cultures. Else others who are less qualified maywell ( mis -) represent in ways that undermine the universality that potentially underlies the

vision of the Internet.On this front, the good news is that countries all over the world are beginning to makeavailable cultural and other materials. Canada has had a Canadian Heritage InformationNetwork (CHIN) for 27 years. Germany created the second such network through the Marburg

Archive. Australia has an excellent network. The United States has recently established aNational Initiative for Networked Cultural Heritage (NINCH). The efforts of the MEDICIFramework in Europe have been mentioned earlier.

The bad news is that most persons are still unaware of the magnitude of the phenomenon ofthe Internet. Even awareness of basic statistics is frequently lacking. There is a mistaken

impression that the Internet is mainly an American phenomenon and almost exclusively in theEnglish language. A survey at Georgia Tech (43), for instance, claims that 92.2 % of sitesworldwide are in English and that 98.3 % of sites in the U.S. are in English. Even the augustClub of Rome, in a recent report, cited the Internet Society to claim that English accounted for82 % of all web sites.(44) One serious source notes a quite different range: English, 59.3%;Non-English 40.7%; European Languages (non-English), 26.2%.(45) Meanwhile, the latestnews on this front by Jeffrey Harrow paints a rather different picture again:

The World Map Of The Web Is Changing -- If you recently drewamap of cyberspace it wouldseem to be North American-centric. But if that's the type ofmap you want, itmayalready betoo late to get one. Because according to the July 12 e Marketer,(46) while 56% of Internetusers were in North Americaat the end of 1998, they expect that by the end of this year thescales willtip in favor of the rest of the world. More than 50% of Internet citizens willresideelsewhere.

By 2002, North American Internetusers, while continuing to grow, willhave shrunk to one-thirdof the world's Internet population due to increases in places such as in Europe! Europe willhave 84million Internetusers, or 30% of Internetusers worldwide. (47) Asia willhave 60


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million users, or 22%,and Latin America willhave 27million users, or 9% of worldwide Internetusers.(48)

We all need to become more aware of the magnitude and diversity of the Internetphenomenon, and to ensure that information concerning our cultures adequately reflects the

complexities thereof.

Importance of Diversity

Diversity was selected as a best practice area since changing demographics make it moreimportant to select, retain and manage a diverse workforce. According to the IPMA/NASPEBenchmarking Committee, diversity efforts in the workplace facilitate the exchange of newperspectives, improve problem solving by inviting different ideas, and create a respectful,accepting work environment, all of which make good business sense. In the book Beyond

Race and Gender, R. Roosevelt Thomas defined managing diversity as a comprehensivemanagerial process for developing an environment that works for all employees. The key foremployers is to make diversity an asset within the organization. Diversity is different fromaffirmative action since affirmative action is the framework for a diversity managementprogram. Diversity management has been described as looking at: 1) the mind set of anorganization; 2) the climate of an organization; and 3) the different perspectives people bring toan organization due to race, workplace styles, disabilities, and other differences.

Diversity best practice organizations

The States of Oklahoma, Washington, Wisconsin and the City of St. Petersburg, Florida wereselected as best practice organizations in the area of diversity. Best practice organizationsvalue people and cultivate an environment where cultural awareness, sensitivity, fairness andintegrity prosper. All employees believe that they can progress if they are qualified, motivatedand work hard. The Benchmarking Committee found that these organizations shared somecommon practices that made them best practice organizations. These practices included:

= The development of a formal process that is contained in laws, rules or procedures. Bothhuman and financial time and resources are devoted to the program. In best practiceorganizations, diversity is a process that is an integrated, ongoing and measurable strategy.

= Diversity efforts are primarily decentralized with a central governing body outlining therequirements of the plans with individual agencies and departments developing their own plans


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that are tailored to their specific needs. This reinforces a sense of ownership and ensures thatmanaging diversity has both top level support and is a reality throughout the organization.

= In best practice organizations diversity training is provided to the workforce. The trainingisnot limited to managers, but is extended throughout the workforce. Successful

organizations incorporate diversity into mentoring efforts, leadership training andmanagement-by-results programs.

= Best practice organizations utilize workforce data and demographics to compare statisticsreported for the civilian labor force. Occupations with under-utilization are identified and goalsare established to reduce the under-utilization. All of the best practice organizations useaffirmative action models, but each adds creative innovations that get results and set theirprograms apart.

= Best practice agencies have found that requiring affirmative action efforts through law,executive order, or other mandates compels agencies to establish serious goals and to make

earnest efforts toward meeting those goals.= Best practice organizations have established a review committee that is responsible forestablishing policies, providing technical assistance, reviewing/approving plans, andmonitoring progress toward the achievement of goals.

= Effective diversity programs also link recruitment, development and retention strategiestoorganizational performance. They integrate employee development processes and map careerpaths to see what critical skills are necessary to advance; then communicate these skills toemployees and provide training.

= Accountability for the results of diversity programs is another attribute of best practiceorganizations. Accountability is determined through the use of metrics, surveys, focus groups,customer surveys, management and employee evaluations, and training and educationevaluations. Diversity competencies may be incorporated into management systems. In thisway organizations can determine how employees deal with people of different cultures andstyles, support workplace diversity, include diverse people in work teams, and understand theimpact of diversity on business relationships. While valuingand integrating diversity are loftygoals, to be effective, organizations must use more measurable criteria to evaluate success inmanaging diversity.

State of OklahomaThe State of Oklahoma was selected as a best practice organization since it has an effectivelaw, a commitment to diversity from top management, and a strong oversight role for the StateOffice of Personnel Management (OPM). The State has a civil service system with no laborunions. The State has about 37,500 employees.The State has a law that assigns key roles to the legislative leadership and mandates agencyaction, thus putting the States philosophy regarding diversity and affirmative action at the


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forefront. The law also provides OPM with strong authority to hold agencies accountable forimplementing meaningful affirmative action efforts. The law specifically provides that efforts toeliminate or reduce imbalances in the workforce for women and minorities are notdiscriminatory practices. An agency that fails to make significant progress toward its goalsmust take corrective remedies including participating in special recruiting programs; developing

training on equal employment, affirmative action and managing work place diversity; orsubmitting all hiring and promotion decision for mandatory review and approval. The law givesthe OPM Administrator the authority to remove the personnel function from those agencies thatdemonstrate a pattern of non-compliance. Each agency appoints a civil rights administratorwho must meet qualification criteria and training requirements, both of which are establishedby OPM.

State efforts are decentralized with each agency developing its own goals. However, there iscentral oversight by OPM. Each agency compares its workforce demographic information tocivilian labor force data. Under-utilization is identified and action plans to address this aredeveloped by each agency. Oklahoma has a statutory Affirmative Action Review Council

whose role is to evaluate agency plans, recommend approval/disapproval of plans, reviewagencies progress toward achieving goals, and recommend sanctions for non-compliance.The diversity program in Oklahoma places emphasis on comprehensively reviewingcompliance with equal employment opportunity and affirmative action standards. The programcontinues to have excellent results. During fiscal year 2000, there were 109 affirmative actionappointments in all employment categories and all protected classes. In comparison to thecivilian labor force,the representation of minorities in the State workforce exceeds all jobcategories except for Service Maintenance. Overall the State workforce is composed of 19.2%minorities, which exceeds the 16.7% minority representation in the civilian labor force.

State of Washington

The State of Washington was selected as a best practice organization in recognition of itsefforts, which have resulted during the past 14 years in the increase of diversity among theStates workforce by more than 40%. The primary factors contributing to the success are:

= Executive leadership The Governor establishes a personal contract with each memberof his cabinet regarding diversity programs and goals.

= Inclusiveness More than 70 percent of the states employees belong to at least one ofthe affected groups that are included in the States affirmative action program. The Statemonitors and assists persons who are vulnerable to employment discrimination,

especially racial and ethic minorities, persons with disabilities, and persons over 40 yearsof age (the age at which individuals become covered by the Age Discrimination inEmployment Act). This broad based approach results in far-reaching support andcounters common perceptions that affirmative action is only a program for minorities.

= Centralized guidance/decentralized execution Each state agency and institution ofhigher education develops its own goals and implementation strategies. Guidelines areestablished centrally. The State has developed a program that automates the complex,


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multi-factor analysis process.

= Promotion of diversity Agencies and institutions of higher education have manyprograms to promote and sustain the valuing of difference. For example, hundreds ofstate employees participated in a Day-On Rather than a Day-Off, a statewide effort in

which the employees volunteered their time for public service during the birthdayobservance of Martin Luther King, Jr.

The State of Washington has a civil service system with more than 50% of the work forcebeingunionized. The State employs about 45,500 people. The diversity program in the State isimplemented through a partnership between the Governors Affirmative Action Committee, theDepartment of Personnel and government agencies. The Committee, which was established in1984 by an Executive Order, provides policy guidance, recommends the approval ordisapproval of affirmative action plans, oversees progress and accomplishments on anagency-by-agency basis, and regularly shares successful practices and resources with allagencies. Each Committee member serves as a personal resource to six or seven agencies.

The Department of Personnel includes a Workforce Diversity Unit that provides a variety ofservices to agencies including: outreach to organizations serving groups who are under-represented in state government; orientations that provide information about the Statesrecruitment procedures in general and the Workforce Diversity Program in particular; specialtesting for individuals with language barriers and reasonable accommodation for persons withdisabilities; job counseling; assistance to state agencies in the development of affirmativeaction plans and policy guidance; financial loans to agencies through the Disability

Accommodation Revolving Fund to provide accommodation for persons with disabilities; andinformation regarding local recruiting by certain state agencies. The Personnel Departmentpublishes a monthly newsletter on diversity activities that is distributed to the states humanresources community.

The efforts of the Committee and the Department of Personnel provide accountability,consistency, consultation, direction, and tools to assist state agencies in their efforts. Agenciesare given the flexibility to create innovative programs to meet their own needs.

State of Wisconsin

The State of Wisconsin was selected as a best practice organization due to its strongcommitmentto diversity. The State has committed substantial resources to this effort and has established aDivision of Affirmative Action within the central human resources department. The State hascreated a Council on Affirmative Action. The Council is appointed by the Governor and


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legislative leaders and advises the Secretary of the Department of Employment Relations ontheStates affirmative action efforts. The Council evaluates the progress of affirmative actionprograms throughout the civil service system, seeks compliance with regulations andrecommends improvements in affirmative action efforts. The Council meets bimonthly and its

meetings are open to the public.

In the State of Wisconsin, affirmative action efforts are decentralized, with each agencyresponsible for developing and implementing a plan within standards established by a centralagency. The Division of Affirmative Action supports the States efforts by developing policies,recommending new or revised legislation, establishing standards and approving the plans ofagencies, and monitoring progress toward meeting plan goals. The Division also analyzesworkforce data, identifies under-utilized job groups, and provides technical assistance toagencies in developing innovative personnel programs to increase diversity in Stategovernment.

The Division assists agencies in evaluating the effectiveness of their equal employmentopportunity/affirmative action efforts by performing both in-office desk compliance reviews andon-site monitoring of their personnel records and programs. In-office monitoring is conductedat least twice each year for every state agency. The monitoring reviews concentrate on threekeyareas: workforce analysis review, impact ratio analysis, and missed opportunities. TheDivisions focus is on improving overall EEO/AA performance by providing recommendationsto strengthen the effectiveness of programs and increase efficiency in utilizing state resources.The State also has a full-time equal employment recruiter who helps to keep diversity in theforefront of staffing concerns and maintains a consistent, focused plan of action.

The State fills about 2,500 classified positions annually. Applicants apply for a position andmust pass a civil service examination to be placed on a register. The top five to ten candidatesare certified from the register and are interviewed for a vacancy. Under-utilization occurs whenthe percentage of racial and ethnic minorities or women in a job group is below the availabilityof those groups in the relevant labor pool. Where there is under-utilization, an agency willreceive expanded certification allowing up to three additional names of qualified women orracial/ethnic minorities to be included in the certified list of applicants that is sent to an agencyfor employment consideration. The State also has a handicapped expanded certification that isused to ensure that qualified persons with disabilities are among the applicants considered forstate civil service positions.

State agencies appoint affirmative action officers who have the responsibility to advise andassist the agency in developing and implementing its plan. Most State positions, includingupper and senior level vacancies are announced with open competition to maximize thediversity of applicant lists. The Division of Affirmative Action provides EEO/AA training for newsupervisors, affirmative action officers, affirmative action committee members, and personnelmanagers and specialists. The training programs are offered on a regular basis.The efforts undertaken by the State have resulted in minorities being hired at nearly twice theirstatewide availability. In 1998, minorities represented 7.4% of the State labor force, but


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accounted for 14.9% of the States hires. The percentage of women employees also exceedsthe labor force. In addition, the number of under-utilized job groups has been reduced.

City ofSt. Petersburg, Florida

The City of St. Petersburg, Florida has decentralized its affirmative action efforts, with eachagency responsible for developing and implementing a plan within standards established by acentral agency. Affirmative action/diversity goals are set city-wide and in individual agencies.Under-utilization analysis is conducted on a quarterly basis, using statistical data reported inthe Civilian Labor Force and the citys workforce. The analysis is done both city-wide and bydepartment. This results in the establishment of goals based on the analysis. The analysis alsohighlights those areas needing special attention. When under-utilization is documented, andthe city is below its goal in a particular job category, the affirmative action plans requiresenforcement of the citys 1-for-1 policy. The policy requires that at least one member of theprotected class must be hired or promoted for every hiring or promotion of a non-protected

class member.

All of the top managers in the city are required to attend an eight week seminar on diversity. Inaddition, a diversity training and awareness program is being implemented throughout the city.Diversity training is part of the citys regular training curriculum, although training is conductedin targeted departments when it is identified as necessary.

In its most recent Affirmative Action Annual Report, it was noted that the overall percentage ofminority group members employed by the city has increased from 26.4% in 1990 to 28.6% in2000. Over this period, the percentage of minority males decreased slightly from 20.8% in1990 to 20.3% in 2000, while the percentage of minority female employees increased from

5.6% to 8.3% and the percentage of white female employees increased from 18.1% to 19.5%.The city believes that the reduction in the minority male representation rate can be attributed inpart to the reduction in the job category of skilled crafts, where minority male representation ishigh relative to other categories. Minority male representation in this category remainsconsiderably above the goal. Minority male representation has increased in several jobcategories including officials and administrators, protective services, and service andmaintenance workers.


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Literature review

The Leadership Student and the Leadership Teacher: ATrans-Role/Transatlantic Dialogue

William Howe

University of Richmond

Cristy Lipscomb

Hajnal lstvan Socialis Kozpont

Leadership education, conceived as consonant with post-industrialthinking, is a dialogicalrelationship between student and teacherwherein traditional student/teacher roles arecontinually putin question and may even reverse themselves. Like the "follower" and leader inthe realm of leadership practice, student andteacher in leadership education engage in aprocess of mutualdiscovery and critique. The student-teacher dialogue offeredhere attemptsto use both form (dialogue) and content (the importanceof a dialogical relationship) to shedlight on student-teacherroles and on both "following"/leading and learning/teachingin twodifferent cultural contexts--the United States and Hungary.It seeks, then, to explore leadershipeducation through trans-roleand transatlantic perspectives.

A Cross-Cultural Study of Personality and Leadership

Izzettin Kenis

Previous studies have indicated differences in managerialcharacteristicsbetween supervisorsfrom different nationalities and cultures.A compar ison of the personalities of Turkish and

American first-linesupervisors and theirattitudes toward participative, considerate,anddirective lead ership,anda comparison of the perceivedleadership behavior of their superiorsshowed that the Turkswere more authoritarian than the Americans and that the Americanshada slightly higher need for inde pendence than the Turks.The American managers (superiors),as per ceived by their subordinates,appeared to exercise more participative and considerateleadershipthan did the Turkish managers. The American supervisors demonstratedhighersatisfaction with participative, consid erate,and directivesuperiors than did the Turks. Thedifference between the twogroups with respect to satisfaction with participative and consid

erate superiors can be explained partially bya difference inauthoritar ianismand other culturalvalues.


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Systematic review on embracing cultural diversity for developing andsustaining a healthy work environment in healthcare

Alan Pearson RN, PhD, FRCNA, FRCN, 1,3 Rani Srivastava RN, MScN, 2 Dianna Craig RN, BA, MEd, 2 Donna Tucker RN,MScN, 2 Doris Grinspun RN, MSN, 2 Irmajean Bajnok RN, MScN, PhD, 2 Pat Griffin RN, PhD, 2 Leslye Long RN, PhD,MRCNA, 1,3 Kylie Porritt RN, MNSc, 1,3 Thuzar Han MBBS, MMedSc, MSc, PhD 1 and Aye A Gi MBBS, MMedSc, PhD 1,31

The Joanna Briggs Institute, Royal Adelaide Hospital, Adelaide, South Australia, Australia;2

Registered Nurses Associationof Ontario, Toronto, Ontario, Canada; and 3 The University of Adelaide, South Australia, AustraliaCorrespondence to Professor Alan Pearson, The Joanna Briggs Institute, Level 4, Margaret Graham Building, Royal AdelaideHospital, North Terrace, Adelaide, SA 5000, Australia. Email: [email protected]

Objectives The objective of this review was to evaluate evidence on the structures andprocesses that support development of effective culturally competent practices and a healthywork environment. Culturally competent practices are a congruent set of workforce behaviours,management practices and institutional policies within a practice setting resulting in anorganisational environment that is inclusive of cultural and other forms of diversity.

Inclusion criteria This review included quantitative and qualitative evidence, with a particularemphasis on identifying systematic reviews and randomised controlled trials. For quantitativeevidence, other controlled, and descriptive designs were also included. For qualitativeevidence, all methodologies were considered. Participants were staff, patients, and systems orpolicies that were involved or affected by concepts of cultural competence in the nursingworkforce in a healthcare environment. Types of interventions included any strategy that had acultural competence component, which influenced the work environment, and/or patient andnursing staff in the environment. The types of outcomes of interest to this review includednursing staff outcomes, patient outcomes, organisational outcomes and systems leveloutcomes.

Search strategy The search sought both published and unpublished literature written in theEnglish language. A comprehensive three-step search strategy was used, first to identifyappropriate key words, second to combine all optimal key words into a comprehensive searchstrategy for each database and finally to review the reference lists of all included reviews andresearch reports. The databases searched were CINAHL, Medline, Current Contents, theDatabase of Abstracts of Reviews of Effectiveness, The Cochrane Library, PsycINFO,Embase, Sociological Abstracts, Econ lit, ABI/Inform, ERIC and PubMed. The search forunpublished literature used Dissertation Abstracts International.

Methodological quality Methodological quality was independently established by tworeviewers, using standardised techniques from the Joanna Briggs Institute (JBI) System for the

Unified Management, Assessment and Review of Information (SUMARI) package. Discussionwith a third reviewer was initiated where a low level of agreement was identified for a particularpaper. Following inclusion, data extraction was conducted using standardised data extractiontools from the JBI SUMARI suite for quantitative and qualitative research. Data synthesis wasperformed using the JBI Qualitative Assessment and Review Instrument and JBI Narrative,Opinion and Text Assessment and Review Instrument software to aggregate findings byidentifying commonalities across texts. Quantitative data were presented in narrative summary,as statistical pooling was not appropriate with the included studies.


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Results Of the 659 identified papers, 45 were selected for full paper retrieval, and 19 wereconsidered to meet the inclusion criteria for this review. The results identified a number ofprocesses that would contribute to the development of a culturally competent workforce.

Appropriate and competent linguistic services, and intercultural staff training and education,were identified as key findings in this review.

Conclusions The review recommends that health provider agencies establish links withorganisations that can address needs of culturally diverse groups of patients, include culturalcompetence in decision support systems and staff education as well as embed them in patientbrochures and educational materials. The review also concluded that staff in-service programsconsider the skills needed to foster a culturally competent workforce, and recruitmentstrategies that also explicitly address this need.

Education for Transformative Leadership in SouthernAfrica

Julia Preece

University of Botswana

This article argues that education for transformative leadershipin a southern African contextneeds to nurture an understandingof the relationship between spiritualityand charisma. This

argument is based on a review of some literature pertainingto transformative learning,transformative leadership,and Africanvalue systems. The article explores the relationship

betweentransformative leadership and transformative learningand educationtheories,andrelates them to a specific southern African context.It proposes three arguments. First,transformative educationmay facilitate the transformative leadership development process.

Second, transformative education and transformative leadership,although offering featuresthatare sympathetic to African indigenousvalues,mustalso take account of particular Africancontexts.The article does not claim to be reporting from empirical researchon this issue but, tosupport its position, draws on recentliterature froman ongoing southern Africaleadershipdevelopmentprojectand some early empiricaldata froma small, relatedstudy in one southern

African country. Third, the article suggeststhatakey difference between transformativelearningand transformativeleadership perspectives is the transformative leadership focusoncharismaticqualities that inspire motivation to change.However,a defining conceptual thread

of spirituality runs through

the transformative learningandleadership literature that resonates

with southern African core value systems. It is this threadthat provides the overallconceptuallinkbetween the differentstrands of thought


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Paternalistic Leadership: A Review and Agenda for FutureResearch

Ekin K. Pellegrini

University of Missouri-St. Louis, College of Business Administration, Department ofManagement, St. Louis, MO 63121, [email protected]

Terri A. Scandura

University of Miami, School of Business Administration, Department of Management, CoralGables, FL 33124

The growing interest in paternalisticleadership research hasled to a recent proliferation ofdiverse definitions and perspectives,as wellas alimited number of empiricalstudies.

Consequently,

the diversity of perspectives has resulted in conceptualambiguities,

as wellascontradictory empirical findings. In this article,the authors review research on paternalisticleadership in aneffort to assess the current state of the literature. They investigatetheconstruct of paternalisticleadership and review the findingsrelated to its outcomes andantecedents as wellas the variousmeasurement scales used in paternalisticleadershipresearch.On the basis of this review, the article concludes with an agendafor future theoreticaland empiricalresearch on this emergingand intriguing newarea forleadership research.

INSEAD Honours Carlos Ghosn with Second Annual

Transcultural Leadership Award

Business Wire, April 28, 2008

Award underscores INSEAD's mission to develop leaders with the experience and

understanding to operate across cultures

FONTAINEBLEAU, France and SINGAPORE -- INSEAD, the leading international business

school, today announced it will present its second annual Award for Transcultural Leadership

to Carlos Ghosn, President and Chief Executive Officer, Nissan Motor Co. Ltd., and President

and Chief Executive Officer, Renault S.A. INSEAD established the award to honour those

individuals who believe in the importance and necessity of working across borders. Mr. Ghosn

was selected as the recipient of this year's award for spearheading the Japanese-French

alliance of Nissan-Renault, driving the organisation into emerging markets, and perhaps most

notably, for his emphasis on diversity.


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'Increased globalisation is changing the landscape of the business climate and creating a

demand for business leaders who can operate in and across different cultures,' said J. Frank

Brown, Dean of INSEAD. 'Carlos Ghosn personifies the essence of a transcultural leader by

recognising that cultural diversity is an integral component to his organisation's future success.'

Mr. Ghosn added: 'I think one of the basics of transcultural leadership is empathy and respect.

It is essential for leaders to develop a deeper understanding of the country and the culture in

which they operate and try to learn about its strengths.'

Mr. Ghosn has consistently embraced the dynamics of cross-cultural management and led one

of the most renowned turnarounds in the automotive industry. At the helm of one of the world's

largest auto groups, Mr. Ghosn has demonstrated that transcultural leadership is essential for

long-term success. He has leveraged the Japanese-French partnership as an engine of growth

in emerging markets and developed a culture that respects regional differences. In addition,

Mr. Ghosn has developed an initiative that focuses on increasing the percentage of women

working in Nissan's management which has seen a marked improvement since he called for

this change.

Mr. Ghosn is the third global business leader acknowledged by INSEAD with the Transcultural

Leadership Award. In April 2007, John Thain and Jean-Francois Theodore of NYSE Euronext,

were the first recipients recognised as transcultural leaders for the merger of the NYSE and

Euronext which created the first truly global exchange group.

The notion of transcultural leadership underscores INSEAD's objectives to inspire and develop

the next generation of leaders. As a leading international business school, INSEAD has more

than 70 nationalities represented in its MBA programme. To further enhance participants'

cultural learning environment, INSEAD provides students with the opportunity to learn from

renowned faculty in Singapore and Fontainebleau, France. Additionally, INSEAD's U.S.

partnership with The Wharton School creates an opportunity for students to study across three

continents. Each year, a new class emerges from their studies with a unique, global

perspective that combines the most sophisticated business knowledge with cultural sensitivityand awareness.

INSEAD recently presented the Transcultural Leadership Award at its Leadership Summit in

Fontainebleau, France on 11 April and will formally honour Carlos Ghosn at a gala dinner on


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28 April in New York City. The evening will be hosted by INSEAD and moderated by Rick

Smith, Chairman and Editor-in-Chief of Newsweek. The main sponsors of the Award include:

--- Power Corporation of Canada--- PricewaterhouseCoopers--- Clayton Dubilier & Rice, First

Atlantic Capital--- GE Commercial Finance--- Louis Vuitton North America--- Manpower Inc.

NYSE Euronext--- Pfizer--- Nissan-Renault--- Sanofi-Aventis--- Goldman, Sachs & Company--

- Bloomberg LLP--- Zephyr Management--- Kohlberg Kravis Roberts & Co.

Alley Corp.--- Blue Harbor Group--- BRC International--- Corporate Perspectives--- Industrial

Mineral Holdings--- Interaudi Bank-- Luxottica Group--- Morgan Stanley--- Rothschild North

America--- The Boston Consulting Group--- The Timken Company--- Ernst & Young LLP

About INSEAD, The Business School for the World

As one of the world's leading and largest graduate business schools, INSEAD brings together

people, cultures and ideas from around the world to change lives and transform organisations.

This worldly perspective and cultural diversity are reflected in all aspects of our research and

teaching.

With two campuses in Asia (Singapore) and Europe (France), two centres in Israel and Abu

Dhabi, and an office in New York, INSEAD extends the reach of its business education and

research across three continents. Our 138 renowned faculty members from 32 countriesinspire more than 1,000 degree participants in our MBA, Executive MBA and PhD

programmes. In addition, more than 9,500 executives participate in INSEAD's executive

education programmes. With the INSEAD-Wharton Alliance, we deliver MBA and co-branded

executive education programmes on Wharton's U.S. campuses in Philadelphia and San

Francisco, as well as on our campuses in Asia and Europe. And our award-winning website

INSEAD Knowledge (http://knowledge.insead.edu/home.cfm) features articles and podcasts

(audio and video) showcasing the school's leading-edge research.


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Article

This survey-based study examines differences in leadership styles and work-related valuesamong managers, engineers, and production employees of one company's U.S. and Germantelecommunication employees. Using Bass and Avolio's Full-Range Leadership theory andHofstede's theory of culture, the results reveal lower levels of transformational leadershipstyles among German employees, but no differences in leadership styles among different job

categories in either country. There were country-level differences in culture that explained aportion of the variance in leadership scores. Job category also had a main effect on culturalvalues. The study points to patterns of work-related values different from those predicted inearlier research, and to the need for further refinement of research in leadership theory andour understanding of culture.

Developing a Leadership-Rich Culture: The Missing Link to Creating aMarket-Focused Organization

Much has been written about the need for organizations to be more market-focused.Authors have addressed a myriad of constructs which promote the realization of themarketing concept. This article examines leadership and its development in the context ofcreating a market-focused organization. It links the areas of leadership development,leadership skills, and internal customer culture to the strategy development process. Theemphasis in a leadership-rich culture is on the relationships between leaders, followers,

and customers. This idea parallels existing thought in the relationship marketing literature

touting the benefits of relationships in buyer-seller partnerships and network structures.In addition, this article offers a leadership deployment process to create a market-focusedorganization from top to bottom.

Leadership and culture: Work-related values and leadership styles among onecompany's U.S. and German telecommunication employees

K. Peter Kuchinke

Human resource education at the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign


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Our Man in Vienna: Friedrich Torbergs Journal Forum andthe Popularization of American Letters in Austria

Felix W. Tweraser (Utah State University)

Email: [email protected]

As editor ofForum: sterreichische Bltter fr kulturelle Freiheit between 1954 and 1965,Friedrich Torberg was encouraged by his American patrons to publish original work about U.S.politics and culture. Forum was one of many journals supported world-wide by the Congressfor Cultural Freedom, a Cold-War era foundation set up to support media efforts on behalf ofthe West, and funded clandestinely by the CIA.(1) The Congress facilitated and strictlyoversaw the content of its journals; Torberg made use of such original work pertaining to theU.S.some of which he translated himselfthat was submitted in a pool system to the editorsof all Congress journals. The journal editors were to function as ambassadors for Americanculture, to acquaint a new generation of readers with a wide variety of American writing. To thedegree that this occurred at all in Forum, it did so with a large dose of Torbergian ambivalenceregarding such a trans-cultural project. More often than not, Torberg filled the cultural pages ofForum with work and criticism from the leading lights of turn-of-the-century Viennesecreativity.(2)

As a citizen of the Austro-Hungarian empire, Torberg was socialized in a political environmentthat, as a survival strategy, was transnational and multi-ethnic. His early career as a writer and

journalist in Vienna and Prague during the interwar years can be seen as somewhat typical forcitizens of the successor states who looked with some longing at the best aspects of themonarchy, particularly those that had been lost to nationalist movements. Unable to return tohis home in Vienna in 1938 because he was Jewish, Torberg experienced the years of thesecond world war in exile in Prague, Zrich, and Paris, where he joined the expatriate Czecharmy, before landing in Hollywood, where he worked as a screenwriter under contract toWarner Brothers, and finally New York, where he worked for Time magazine. Upon returningto Vienna in 1951, he became one of the most influential arbiters of literary taste and politicalculture in post-war Austria, working first for the daily Kurierand the radio station Sender Rot-Wei-Rot, which were principally supported by the American occupation forces (he maintainedhis American citizenship after his return), before becoming the editor ofForum. It was as editorof Forum that Torberg developed his unique anti-Communist strategy: advocacy of politicalreform modeled on the institutions of American democracy, combined with cultural practicethat emphasized lines of continuity to the artistic innovation that characterized turn-of-the-century Vienna. In the following, I will describe Torbergs encounter with American popularculture and politics during his exile in California, with a particular eye on how this experienceinformed his editorship ofForum, that is, what aspects of American politics and culture were


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commented upon by Torberg or other contributors to Forum, which American authors werepublished, and which artists and musicians work was analyzed.

Torbergs work at Forumhas became inextricably linked to the Congress for Cultural Freedom,an organization founded by prominent Western intellectuals in Berlin in 1950, and whose

mission was to influence cultural and intellectual life around the world and to promote Westerninterests in the Cold War context. More concretely, the Congress established journals, fundedacademic conferences and organizations, and promoted its presence through mass media, allwith the idea of influencing intellectuals and opinion leaders on both sides of the Iron Curtain.In 1952, Torberg began negotiating with representatives of the Congress in Paris, primarily itsExecutive Secretary Michael Josselson, to establish a Congress journal in Vienna; whatresulted was Forum, whose first issue appeared in January 1954, and which, under Torbergseditorship until 1965, became the leading publication of its kind in Austria. (Other prominentCongress journals in Europe included Encounter, edited by Stephen Spender, Der Monat,edited by Melvin Lasky, and Preuves, edited by Francois Bondy.) Torberg, in fact, used the

journal to aggressively promote an idealized version of American democracy, which in

practice, at least, meant a lively mix of opinion that was against totalitarianism (and morespecifically, its apologists in the West) in all its historical forms and contexts. Torbergspolemical style made many enemies, and his unforgiving approach to those he perceived asCommunist sympathizers drew many reprimands from his bosses in the Congress.(3) Fewcontemporaries and historians have taken more than a cursory look at Torbergs importanceas a transitional figure in the formation of Austrian democracy in the Second Republic, and hebecame a convenient lightning-rod for criticism from the left, particularly among the generationof the 1968 student protests.(4)

Torbergs entry into the U.S. was made possible by the American Film Fund and U.S. PEN-Club, which designated him one of the top 10 anti-Fascist writers, and which, as with Heinrich

Mann, Alfred Doeblin, et al. provided $100/wk. screenwriting contracts with Warner Brothersand MGMTorberg was at Warner Brothers. He was by most measures an outsider inHollywood (1940-1944), but became much more of a political insider in New York (1944-1951),where he was recruited to work on the rollout of a German edition ofTime magazine. Torbergwas like most migrs an ardent FDR supporter, responded to his evocation of an America notunlike the later Habsburg empire in its tolerance and support of ethnic and religious minorities.Some interesting contradictions from Torbergs Hollywood years help to clarify his editorialdecisions at Forum.

If Torberg was drawn to anything characteristically American during his stay in the U.S., it waspopular culture: the diners, carshe drove a 35 Fordboxing, Damon Runyan (Guys andDolls), and B movies were favorites. The Runyanesque text of a fake business card Torbergcomposed on a diner napkin shows linguistically sophisticated reference to the language of TinPan Alley and gives voice to his own marginal existence in Hollywood.

During his year at Warner Brothers, Torberg was creatively blocked, but after he was fired, andin a period of two years, he produced arguably his best creative work: the novella Mein ist dieRache (1943, Pacific Press), a formally and thematically interesting meditation on anti-Semitism, life in the camps, and the guilt felt by a survivor, and whose frame is set on the


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docks of Hoboken, New Jersey; some interesting, if conventional poetry, for instanceSehnsucht nach Alt-Aussee, Kaddisch 1943, and Seder 1944; the screenplay forVoice inthe Wind(Arthur Ripley, 1944); and the bulk of the work on the novel Hier bin ich,mein Vater(Fischer, 1948), set in the Jewish underground in post-Anschluss Vienna. In addition, Torbergwas shopping the manuscript for his novel Auch das war Wien, written principally during his

exile in Zrich and Paris, which described with great immediacy Vienna in the year before theAnschluss, and which was published posthumously in 1984 before being filmed by WolfgangGlck as 38(1985).

On a personal level, Torberg was at the fringes of polite exile society; he was close to Franzand Alma Mahler-Werfel, serving as Werfels driver for a time, Marlene Dietrich, and GiselaWerbezirk (a stage actress from Vienna, credited with glossing Hollywood as Purkersdorf withpalm treesPurkersdorf is a leafy suburb of Vienna with one of Austrias largest privatemental hospitals), but was only very occasionally at Salka Viertels salon. Here he liked toprovoke Brechtindeed, some fairly compelling evidence points to Torberg being on the FBIspayroll as a casual observer of other migrs at this time.(6) Torberg was a generation

younger than most of the other Hollywood migrs, which contributed to his feeling of isolation,also with respect to a specific reading public: Die Generation, der ich angehre und ber dieich geschrieben habe, hat keine Kontinuitt, und hat sptestens 1938 die letzten Reste ihresgemeinsamen Nenners eingebt. Sie hat auch keinen bergang und keine Nachfolge. Dennvon der deutsch sprechenden und deutsch lesenden jungen Generation nach diesem Krieghabe ich keine Vorstellung. Ich wei gar nicht, was das ist.(7)

Torbergs editorial activity at Forum, and, indeed, much of his creative work after the war suchas the Tante Jolesch books and the novel Ssskind von Trimberg, function metaphorically asbridges, establishing continuity with a communal history that in many ways came to an endbetween 1938 and 1945. Seen in this light, then, it is not surprising that Torberg filled Forums

pages less with the latest and greatest work from the United Statessomething the Congressrepeatedly encouraged him to dothan with things that would awaken a historicalconsciousness about the unique ferment of late Habsburg culture and its continued reflectionin Austrias First Republic. Such an editorial policy necessarily neglected new artistic impulsesand creativity coming from within Austria, as well.

From its first issue of January 1954 Forum bore Torbergs unmistakable stamp. In hisintroductory editorial, Torberg stressed the journals commitment to diversity and craft: Forumwill nicht nur den Nachweis erbringen, da man auf sehr vielfltige Weise fr die Demokratiesein kann sondern es ist auch altmodisch genug, auf handwerkliche und stilistische Sorgfalteinigen Wert zu legen. While such an approach was certainly consistent with the other

journals supported by the Congress, over the coming years Torberg more and more frequentlyclashed with his financial and philosophical backers about the best way to promote democracyin Austria. During the eleven years in which Torberg edited Forum, a lively dialogue took place,in which Torberg insisted on tailoring his journal to what he perceived to be the proclivities ofhis Viennese readershiphere he fashioned much of the tone and content in the tradition ofKarl Krauss Die Fackelwhile representatives of the Paris headquarters repeatedly tried tobring him back to the more internationalist, forward-looking, and trans-cultural course preferredby the CCF.


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Forum had been conceived among the Congresss leadership in Paris, initially, to be one moreamong the many journals of diverse opinion it supported, and which, while carrying theCongresss name on the masthead, would appeal to educated readers throughout theGerman-speaking world. Torberg, on the other hand, wanted a publication with more of a localfocus. Michael Josselson, the general secretary of the Congress, repeatedly admonished

Torberg for trying to imitate Karl Krauss Die Fackel. While Torberg leaned towards just such ajournal of opinion based primarily in and on Viennese cultural and political life, and in practiceapproximated the manic one-man style of Kraus, Josselson, and the others connected to theCongress offices in Paris, tried to steer Torberg on a more practical course that would dovetailwith the original, less polemic, version of its mission, as here in a typical exchange:

You are editing your magazine for the already converted. We, on the other hand, and this isthe very purpose for which the Congress was founded, are trying by all means at our disposalto present our case in a way which we hope will make a dent in the thinking of our enemies.You are pleased when a follower of Adenauer slaps you on the back and says, good job, oldboy; we are pleased when someone says that argument has made me think. Our task would

be a much easier one if we were to adopt the same attitude as you and just vilify all ourenemies. But it is not for this purpose that the Congress was founded and this is not why itsactivities have met with an ever-increasing echo and with ever-increasing praise from the rightpeople every year.(9)

As the easternmost Congress journal, Forum was also supposed to function as a bridgebetween dissident intellectuals behind the Iron Curtain and operatives in the West, and thus inits political pages was supposed to focus on movements and events in the East Bloc over andabove the Austrian scene. It served this purpose quite well during the Hungarian revolution of1956, for instance, in which Forum Kulturhilfe established a broad network to assist Hungariandissidents to relocate in the West. In spite of these differences with its benefactors, Torberg

built Forum

into a major media force in Austria, with the widest circulation of any journal of itstype, and used his position as editor to wage a polemical war against Communists and fellowtravelers in the Austrian cultural and political spheres. His polemics against Brecht, forinstance, contributed to the decision by state-run theatres not to produce the playwright'sworks during the 1950s and early 60s.(10)

In two letters to officials at the U.S. embassy in Vienna, Torberg described his journalscontents and target audience in detail:

the first half [of each issue] will be devoted mainly to political topics and the second half mainlyto cultural ones, that is to theater, literature, music, film, etc. This is something not only theViennese intellectuals, but the Viennese public in general is always interested in, particularly ifwell established names go with it. We hope to lure our readers via the cultural part into thepolitical one. Brutally spoken, we want to sell the politics under the pretext of culture.(11)

Torberg was also quick to stress Forums intellectual parentage and the market niche it filled inAustria:


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Its aim, in accordance with the program of the sponsoring organization, particularly with theBerlin Manifesto of 1950, is to fight the totalitarian manner, communist or otherwise, not only inthe political field but even more so the influence and infiltration of totalitarian ideologies in thecultural field. We will guarantee the broadest possible basis [of opinion] that has beenheretofore achieved by any other Austrian publication. The other purpose of our magazine is to

act partly as a source of international information within Austria, partly as a source ofinformation about Austria abroad. This, too, has so far not been undertaken by any of theexisting Austrian periodicals, and we believe that FORUM will have to fill a painful gap in thisrespect as well.(12)

Thus, Torbergs conception of the journal did not deviate in the main from the Congressspriorities, yet in practice Forum was to become in its cultural pages an increasinglyconservative and locally oriented endeavor, which was against the wishes of the Congress, ifnot its reading public.

Forum, in its cultural pages, did little to promote particularly innovative artistic movements in

Austria, including the authors of what would become Forum Stadtpark, the avant-gardeperformance artists of the Wiener Aktionisten, and the concrete poetry of authors of the WienerGruppe such as Ernst Jandl. The artists of the Austrian avant-garde shared an inclination toquestion and make more transparent the supposedly natural social hierarchies in Austria, andironically this was of a piece with the Congress and CIA efforts to promote free-rhyming poetry,serial music, jazz, or the actionist painting of the Abstract Expressionists, evidence, to them, ofU.S. vitality and creativity in the face of Old Europe. Torberg was not predisposed to supportsuch a cultural policy, choosing instead to try to resurrect a culture that, in his view, had beencut off too soon. However quixotic Torbergs position might seem in retrospect, it dovetailednicely with the emerging Sozialpartnerschaft, which institutionalized harmony over debate,and, as Robert Menasse has argued, promoted cultural practices that did not threaten existing

hierarchies.(14)While representatives of Congress headquarters tried to bring him into line with its generalworldview, Torberg continued to pursue his Vienna-centered agenda at Forum. His editorialpolicies deviated consistently from two fundamental aspects of Congress policy: hepolemicized against fellow travelers when gentle persuasion was desired, and he developed ablind spot with respect to a vibrant artistic avant-garde, using the cultural part of the journalinstead to nostalgically conjure the past glories of artistic ferment in the Empire to be those ofthe true Austria. To be sure, such a policy of ignoring the avant-garde did not distinguishForumfrom most other Austrian publications that reported on cultural events.

The Congress allowed each editor a high degree of autonomy, and each journal developedaccording to the proclivities of its editorStephen Spender at Encounter, Francois Bondy atPreuves, and Melvin Lasky at Der Monatyielding a quite diverse group of publications.

According to Bondy, I dont think Encounterwas supposed to be like Preuves, which itselfchanged over the years. All the magazines sponsored by the Congress were quite dissimilar, -according to the personality of the editors, and even politically not uniform at all. TempoPresente was distinctly left-wing, Forum in Vienna rather rightwing. Still, the most pronouncedphilosophical differences between the Congresss brain trust in ParisMichael Josselson, the


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Congresss executive secretary, Manes Sperber, Nikolas Nabakov, the director the culturalprogram, and Bondyand any editor in the field manifested themselves in reaction to Forum.

After one of many reprimands from Paris for the tone and priorities ofForum, Torberg arguedto Bondy, for instance, that local conditions in Austria demanded a less nuanced and moreKrausian approach:

Ich habe mich oft gefragt, worin eigentlich die Ursache dieses offenbar mangelndenVertrauens von Eurer Seite gelegen ist, und ich glaube sie entdeckt zu haben. Sie liegt nicht ineinem grundstzlichen Unterschied unsrer Meinungen oder Konzeptionen. Der wirkliche undfundamentale Unterschied besteht vielmehr zwischen der Struktur des Forum und der Strukturaller brigen Kongresszeitschriften. Nicht nur ist das Forum sterreichischer als die Preuvesfranzsisch oder Encounter englisch, es hat auch den grsseren Aktualitts-Ehrgeiz.

Abermals: Ich sage nicht, dass das ein Vorzug ist. Es ist aber ein Charakteristikum, und alssolches bereits unentbehrlich.(16)

While the bulk of Forums reportingparticularly in its cultural pagesfocused on

developments in Austria, Torberg was still quite selective in what he chose to print: minimalreference to subversive or Marxist tendencies in Austrian cultural life, but maximum exposureof what had thrived before 1938.

It is surprising, then, to find that Torberg actually published very little that specifically pertainedto the United States, its politics, or its culture, and that the majority of the materials he didpublish were written by Austrian migrs in the United States. The following is a sampling ofU.S.-themed articles and glosses that Torberg published in Forum during the second half ofthe 1950s, the period in which the Congress for Cultural Freedoms leadership took the mostinterest in its contents. (The CCF dropped its support in 1961, after which it was published bythe Hans Deutsch Verlag in Vienna.) Torberg published his own review of Arthur Millers play

The Crucible, which was staged in 1954 at Viennas Burgtheater, but used much of the reviewas a pretext to make general statements about Cold-War politics.Though occasionally adifferentiated look at American political culture and philosophy appeared, the vast majority ofthe political pages dealt with Austria. Torberg translated the work of the American art criticClement Greenberg, who had become a champion of the Abstract Expressionists and who wasinstrumental in promoting the newly founded Museum of Modern Art in New Yorks efforts toreach a European public. For a comparison of Austrian and American approaches to theater,Torberg turned to two writers most familiar to the Viennese audience, Ernst Lothar andHeinrich Schnitzler, who contributed essays about the difficulties of staging Austrian plays inthe original language (Lothar) and about theatrical training at American universities and incommunity theaters (Schnitzler), things quite foreign to the Austrian experience. Forumsmusical correspondent for things American was the composer Ernst Krenek, another Austrianmigr who settled in Southern California, who reported on the summer festivals and trends inclassical music.(21)

The promotion of artistic innovation became a dominant thread in Congress policy throughoutEurope. Vienna, as perhaps more of a geographical than spiritual front in the Cold War,existed almost literally in the rubble and shadow of its former Imperial glory, and those migrslike Torberg who had internalized the trans-cultural aspects of the Empire were naturally


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inclined, upon their return, to fill the intellectual vacuum that existed in Vienna with referencesto this past, and, in the absence of anyone else doing so, stress lines of continuity to thespecifically Jewish contributions to late Imperial culture. Nevertheless, the Vienna of the 1950sand 60s was soon to produce its own avant-garde in arts and letters, one that challenged,innovated, and questioned existing practices and hierarchies in a fashion similar to what had

occurred at the turn of the century, yet Friedrich Torberg, in a unique position to promote suchinnovations, cast a blind eye towards this local avant-gardes representatives and works,preferring instead to recall a bygone age. Torbergs cultural conservatismhere one finds themost trenchant irony in his project, perhapsalso went against the repeatedly expressedwishes of his benefactors in the Congress for Cultural Freedom and the CIA, who indeedwanted just such a vigorous promotion of a creative avant-garde in the West, one that mightnaturally flow from a description of artistic and cultural life originating in the U.S., evenarticulating this as a particular goal of U.S. foreign policy. Torberg would have none of it, usingForum instead to conjure the spirit-world that haunts Europe to this day.

Executive Development, Organizational Effectiveness and

Trancultural Leadership

>> The Challenge

Morales Associates enabled us to professionally and respectfully understand our Latino members, our

Spanish speaking staff and community leaders. Their work has enabled us to develop and commenceimplementation on a clearly defined plan..


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Organizational Effectiveness

Now more than ever, higher productivity and profits still depend on a team's ability to worktogether to deliver successful outcomes. Morales Associates has extensive experience inbreaking down barriers between groups and building collaboration, cooperation and "benchstrength" in alignment with strategic goals. Our results include:

1) Guiding technical specialists and advertising sales representatives toward trust andcooperation in telecommunication companies.

2) Facilitating cross-functional team development among multicultural R&D professionals ininternational technology companies.

3) Clarifying communications between field offices and corporate headquarters in nationalmedia company, with increased productivity, customer satisfaction, and cost-effectiveness.

4) Aligning diverse professionals from the creative, finance and production functions of a globalmotion picture studio toward common strategic objectives.


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Trans cultural Leadership

In a global economy marked by change and complexity, companies rely on diverse work forceswhere executive development and organizational effectiveness transcend cultural and nationalboundaries. Decision makers in these environments often face unique challenges shaped byvalues, beliefs, customs and attitudes. Morales Associates helps clients utilize best practicesto address the emerging demands of a transcultural environment. Our results include:

1) Leading the senior management team of a Europe-based retail company toward a diversitystrategy for addressing multicultural realities in a North American marketplace.

2) Guiding the leadership team of a Latin-American based agribusiness in clarifying theirstrategic focus; identifying actions and measures for effective implementation.

3) Delivering customized leadership development programs for Latinos from companies in theglobal aerospace and electronics industries.

4) Facilitating executive development programs for corporate and community leaders inMexico and Puerto Rico.

Our Goal: $6 million

Trans cultural leadership required

Leaders who surround themselves with executives who look, act and think like they do won'tcut it in today's global market, according to J. Frank Brown, dean of INSEAD and author of"The Global Business Leader: Practical Advice for Success in a Transcultural Marketplace."He says, "Diversity is an absolute necessity for a team, and when I say diversity, I mean it inevery sense of the word: gender, race, religion, nationality, sexual orientation, culture,personality type (and) area of expertise. INSEAD(02/26)

Trans-cultural diffusionCultural diffusion, as first conceptualized by the famous Alfred L. Kroeber in his influential1940 paperStimulus Diffusion, ortrans-cultural diffusion in later reformulations, is used incultural anthropology and cultural geography to describe the spread of cultural items suchas idea, style, religion, technologies ,languages etc. between individuals, whether within asingle culture or from one culture to another. It is distinct from the diffusion of innovation withina single culture.


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Diffusion across cultures is a well-attested and uncontroversial phenomenon. For example, thepractice of agriculture is widely believed to have diffused from somewhere in the Middle Eastto all of Eurasia less than 10,000 years ago, having been adopted by many pre-existingcultures. Other established examples of diffusion include the spread of the war chariot and ironsmelting in ancient times, and the use of cars and Western business unit in the 20th century

Types of cultural diffusion

y Expansion diffusion: an innovation or idea that develops in a source area and remainsstrong there, while also spreading outward to other areas.

y Relocation diffusion: an idea or innovation that migrates into new areas, leaving behindits origin or source of the cultural trait.

y Hierarchical diffusion: an idea or innovation that spreads by moving from larger tosmaller places, often with little regard to the distance between places, and ofteninfluenced by social elites.

y Contagious diffusion: an idea or innovation based on person-to-person contact within a

given population.y Stimulus diffusion: an idea or innovation sparked by an idea that diffused in from

another culture. The specific trait may be rejected, but the underlying concept isaccepted.[1]

Mechanisms for inter-cultural diffusion

Inter-cultural diffusion can happen in many ways. Migrating populations will carry their culturewith them. Ideas can be carried by trans-cultural visitors, such as merchants, explorers,soldiers, diplomats, slaves, and hired artisans. Technology diffusion has often occurred by one

society luring skilled scientists or workers by payments or other inducement. Trans-culturalmarriages between two neighboring or interspersed cultures have also contributed. Amongliterate societies, diffusion can happen through letters or books (and, in modern times, throughother media as well).

There are three categories of diffusion mechanisms:

y Direct diffusion is when two cultures are very close to each other, resulting inintermarriage, trade, and even warfare. An example of direct diffusion is between theUnited States and Canada, where the people living on the border of these two countriesengage in hockey, which started in Canada, and baseball, which is big in American

culturey Forced diffusion occurs when one culture subjugates (conquers or enslaves) another

culture and forces its own customs on the conquered people. An example would be theconquistador that took over the indigenous population and made them practiceChristianity.

y Indirect diffusion happens when traits are passed from one culture through amiddleman to another culture, without the first and final cultures ever being in direct


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contact. An example could be the presence of Mexican food in Canada, since they havea huge country in between them.

Direct diffusion is very common in ancient times, when small groups, or bands, of humanslived in adjoining settlements. Indirect diffusion is very common in today's world, because of

the mass media and the invention of the Internet.

Diffusion theories

The many models that have been proposed for inter-cultural diffusion are

y Heliocentric diffusionism -- the theory that all cultures originated from one culture.)y Culture circles diffusionism (Kulturkreise) -- the theory that cultures originated from a

small number of cultures.y Evolutionary diffusionism -- the theory that societies are influenced by others and that all

humans share psychological traits that make them equally likely to innovate, resulting indevelopment of similar innovations in isolation.

y Mallory's "Kulturkugel" (a German expression meaning "culture ball", on the model ofBilliardball"billiard ball"), a term suggested by JP Mallory to model the scale ofinvasion vs. gradual migration vs. diffusion. According to this model, local continuity ofmaterial culture and social organization is stronger than linguistic continuity, so thatcultural contact or limited migration regularly leads to linguistic changes withoutaffecting material culture or social organization.[3]

A concept that has often been mentioned in this re

Trans Culture Leadership Termpaper

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