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A capacitor (formerly known as condenser) is apassivetwo-terminalelectrical componentused to

storeenergyin anelectric field. The forms of practical capacitors vary widely, but all contain at least

twoelectrical conductorsseparated by adielectric(insulator). Capacitors are used as parts of

electrical systems, for example, consist of metal foils separated by a layer of insulating film.

When there is apotential difference(voltage) across the conductors, a staticelectric fielddevelops

across the dielectric, causing positive charge to collect on one plate and negative charge on the other

plate.Energyis stored in the electrostatic field. An ideal capacitor is characterized by a single

constant value,capacitance, measured infarads. This is the ratio of theelectric chargeon each

conductor to the potential difference between them.

The capacitance is greatest when there is a narrow separation between large areas of conductor,

hence capacitor conductors are often called "plates," referring to an early means of construction. In

practice, the dielectric between the plates passes a small amount ofleakage currentand also has an

electric field strength limit, resulting in abreakdown voltage, while the conductors andleadsintroduce

an undesiredinductanceandresistance.

Capacitors are widely used in electronic circuits for blockingdirect currentwhile allowingalternating

currentto pass, in filter networks, for smoothing the output ofpower supplies, in theresonant

circuitsthat tune radios to particularfrequenciesand for many other purposes.

Capacitors have many uses in electronic and electrical systems. They are so common that it is a rare

electrical product that does not include at least one for some purpose.

Energy storage

A capacitor can store electric energy when disconnected from its charging circuit, so it can be used

like a temporarybattery. Capacitors are commonly used in electronic devices to maintain power

supply while batteries are being changed. (This prevents loss of information in volatile memory.)

Conventional capacitors provide less than 360joulesper kilogram of energy density, while capacitors

using developing technologies could provide more than 2.52kilojoulesper kilogram.[23]

Incar audiosystems, large capacitors store energy for theamplifierto use on demand. Also for

aflash tubea capacitor is used to hold thehigh voltage.

[edit]Pulsed power and weapons

Groups of large, specially constructed, low-inductance high-voltage capacitors (capacitor banks) are

used to supply huge pulses of current for manypulsed powerapplications. These

includeelectromagnetic forming,Marx generators, pulsedlasers(especiallyTEA lasers),pulse

forming networks,radar,fusion research, andparticle accelerators.

Large capacitor banks (reservoir) are used as energy sources for theexploding-bridgewire

detonatorsorslapper detonatorsinnuclear weaponsand other specialty weapons. Experimental work

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is under way using banks of capacitors as power sources forelectromagneticarmourand

electromagneticrailgunsandcoilguns.

[edit]Power conditioning

A 10,000microfaradcapacitor in an amplifier power supply

Reservoir capacitorsare used inpower supplieswhere they smooth the output of a full or half

waverectifier. They can also be used incharge pumpcircuits as the energy storage element in the

generation of higher voltages than the input voltage.

Capacitors are connected in parallel with the power circuits of most electronic devices and larger

systems (such as factories) to shunt away and conceal current fluctuations from the primary power

source to provide a "clean" power supply for signal or control circuits. Audio equipment, for example,

uses several capacitors in this way, to shunt away power line hum before it gets into the signalcircuitry. The capacitors act as a local reserve for the DC power source, and bypass AC currents from

the power supply. This is used in car audio applications, when a stiffening capacitor compensates for

the inductance and resistance of the leads to thelead-acidcar battery.

[edit]Power factor correction

In electric power distribution, capacitors are used forpower factor correction. Such capacitors often

come as three capacitors connected as athree phaseload. Usually, the values of these capacitors

are given not in farads but rather as areactive powerin volt-amperes reactive (VAr). The purpose is to

counteract inductive loading from devices likeelectric motorsandtransmission linesto make the load

appear to be mostly resistive. Individual motor or lamp loads may have capacitors for power factor

correction, or larger sets of capacitors (usually with automatic switching devices) may be installed at a

load center within a building or in a large utilitysubstation.

Supression and coupling

[edit]Signal coupling

Main article:capacitive coupling

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Polyester film capacitors are frequently used as coupling capacitors.

Because capacitors pass AC but block DCsignals(when charged up to the applied dc voltage), they

are often used to separate the AC and DC components of a signal. This method is known as AC

couplingor "capacitive coupling". Here, a large value of capacitance, whose value need not be

accurately controlled, but whosereactanceis small at the signal frequency, is employed.

[edit]Decoupling

Main article:decoupling capacitor

A decoupling capacitor is a capacitor used to protect one part of a circuit from the effect of another,

for instance to suppress noise or transients. Noise caused by other circuit elements is shunted

through the capacitor, reducing the effect they have on the rest of the circuit. It is most commonly

used between the power supply and ground. An alternative name is bypass capacitoras it is used to

bypass the power supply or other high impedance component of a circuit.

A linear resistor is a linear,passivetwo-terminalelectrical componentthat implementselectrical

resistanceas a circuit element. Thecurrentthrough a resistor is indirect proportionto the voltage

across the resistor's terminals. Thus, the ratio of the voltage applied across a resistor's terminals to

the intensity of current through the circuit is called resistance. This relation is represented byOhm's

law:

Resistors are common elements ofelectrical networksandelectronic circuitsand are ubiquitous

in most electronic equipment. Practical resistors can be made of various compounds and films, as

well asresistance wire(wire made of a high-resistivity alloy, such as nickel-chrome). Resistors

are also implemented withinintegrated circuits, particularly analog devices, and can also be

integrated intohybridandprinted circuits.

The electrical functionality of a resistor is specified by its resistance: common commercial

resistors are manufactured over a range of more than nineorders of magnitude. When specifying

that resistance in an electronic design, the required precision of the resistance may require

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A transistor is asemiconductordeviceused toamplifyand switchelectronicsignals and power. It is

composed of a semiconductor material with at least three terminals for connection to an external

circuit. A voltage or current applied to one pair of the transistor's terminals changes the current flowing

through another pair of terminals. Because the controlled (output)powercan be much more than the

controlling (input) power, a transistor canamplifya signal. Today, some transistors are packaged

individually, but many more are found embedded inintegrated circuits.

The transistor is the fundamental building block of modernelectronic devices, and is ubiquitous in

modern electronic systems. Following its release in the early 1950s the transistor revolutionized the

field of electronics, and paved the way for smaller and cheaperradios,calculators, andcomputers,

among other things.

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