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TrackingtheSourceofQuispisisaTypeObsidianfromHuancavelicatoAyacucho

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Chapter 12

Tracking the Source of Quispisisa Type

Obsidian from Huancavelica to Ayacucho

RICHARD L. BURGER AND MICHAEL D. GLASCOCK

INTRODUCTION

As in many parts of the world, the prehistoric peoples of the Central Andes sought out volcanic glass as a preferred material for lithic artifacts. Their taste for fine chipping material led obsidian to be exchanged over a vast area of the highlands and adjacent coast for over ten thousand years. Despite its rarity, artifacts made of obsidian have been recovered in many of the oldest known sites in both the coast and highlands of Peru (Burger and Asaro 1978; MacNeish et al. 1981; Sandweiss et al. 1998). In what is now central and northern Peru, a single chem­ical type of obsidian known as Quispisisa was the main type of obsidian utilized throughout the prehistoric sequence (Burger and Asaro 1977). The geologic source of Quispisisa type obsidian was located near Hatunrangra in 1999. This discovery was the culmination of a search which led from the San Genaro region of Huancavelica to the Huanca Sancos region of Ayacucho. This paper offers an account of the history of this find as well as offering a preliminary description of the source area and a discussion of the implications of its location.

341 W. H. Isbell et al. (ed.), Andean Archaeology I© Kluwer Academic / Plenum Publishers, New York 2002

342 Richard L. Burger and Michael D. Glascock

QUISPISISA AND THE HUANCAVELICA HYPOTHESIS

In 1974, Richard Burger initiated a collaborative study of Andean obsidian with Frank Asaro at the Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory (LBL). In this long-tenn study, both neutron activation (NAA) and X-ray fluorescence (XRF) were utilized to analyze the trace-element chemistry of obsidian artifacts from 94 archaeological sites in Peru and Bolivia. At the time of the project's inception, no sources of obsidian were known to the investigators and a survey of the geological literature from the Andes proved frustrating. Despite the fact that much of the Peruvian Andes is comprised of igneous fonnations and although obsidian tools and deb­itage were frequently mentioned in the archaeological literature, geologists had devoted little attention to obsidian because of its low economic value in the con­temporary world. The initial results of the LBL trace element study of obsidian artifacts from Peru and Bolivia utilizing NAA (N = 141) and XRF (N = 812) showed that at least eight geological sources were used to a significant degree in the past and the presence of rare chemical signatures suggested that additional geological sources may have also been exploited despite their scarcity in the sam­ple. Of the eight principal sources, three types accounted for the majority of the samples analyzed and one of these accounted for over 90% of the archaeological obsidian tested from sites in central and northern Peru (Burger and Asaro 1977).

Prior to the completion of the LBL study, a prominent Peruvian archaeolo­gist, Rogger Ravines, provided Burger with obsidian samples which he said had been collected from a quarry area at a geological source of volcanic glass near the town of San Genaro in the Province of Castrovirreyna, Department of Huancavelica; he referred to this source area as Quispisisa. Ravines originally reported this obsidian flow and quarry in Georg Petersen's 1970 monograph Mineria y Metalurgia en el Antigua Peru (Petersen 1970: 15) and he reiterated this identification in his presentation at the XXXIX Congreso Internacional de Americanistas in Lima. In the proceedings ofthis conference, Ravines (1971: 27) stated "en los cerros de Quespejahuana y Quespesiza de la zona de Choclococha, existen dos de las mas importantes canteras de obsidiana explotadas desde epocas muy tempranas." Ravines' observations were particularly significant because he had been carrying out pioneering research in Huancavelica, including the exca­vation of cave sites, and he possessed special expertise in lithics (Ravines 196911970, 1971, 1972).

The area from which the obsidian source samples were said to come is a lightly populated portion of the high grasslands of central Peru (Figure 12.1), whose economy focuses on mining and herding. San Genaro is located north of Laguna Orcococha, a glacial lake situated at 4850 m above sea level (asl) at the headwaters of the Pisco River. According to Ravines, the name of the obsidian source was Quispisisa. In Quechua, this tenn combines the word quispi, which means shiny or glassy stone with the word sisa, which refers to opening or

Tracking the Source of Quispisisa Type Obsidian

77' I

... Obsidian Sources

o 20 40 80 120 160 200 km , " , , , '

76' I

75' I

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343

12'-

13'-

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Figure 12,1. Map of Peru's southern highlands illustrating the location of the Quispisisa Source and the other obsidian sources and geographical elements mentioned in the text. Drawing by Rosemary Volpe,

shattering (Ramiro Matos, personal communication), Quispisisa can be loosely translated as shattered glassy stone; the term quispi can be applied to obsidian, but it should be noted that tuff or other rocks with reflective inclusions also can be referred to by the term quispi or quespe (Ramiro Matos, personal communi­cation), On detailed maps of this portion of Huancavelica (Figure 12,2), Quispisisa (sometimes shown as Quespesisa or Quespesiza) appears I km west of San Genaro at an elevation of 4880 m asl; it is situated 2,5 km to the north of Laguna Orcococha,

Ravines provided Burger with three obsidian samples which he said were collected from the source itself. When the trace element composition of these putative source samples were analyzed at LBL and compared to the artifact analy­ses, the results were identical to the composition of 45 samples analyzed by NAA and 321 samples analyzed by XRF. Based on this match, the raw material of all artifacts with this composition was assumed to come from the supposed source area in Huancavelica and this chemical type was subsequently referred to in the literature as the Quispisisa Source, According to Ravines, there was also a rock

344 Richard L. Burger and Michael D. Glascock

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484000 488000

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8536000

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Figure 12.2. Detail map of the San Genaro area within the Province of Castrovirreyna, Department of Huancavelica, Drawing by Rosemary Volpe.

shelter (Ha 3-21) near the quarry and four samples said to come from Ha3-21 likewise proved to have the same composition. Ravines observed that obsidian was abundant at archaeological sites in the Pisco Valley, and Pisco appeared as a likely route for the movement of obsidian from its source in the high puna grass­lands to the central and south coast of Peru. The above information was incorpo­rated into a synthesis on Central Andean obsidian sourcing and exchange published by Burger and Asaro in 1977 as a Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory Report; a Spanish version of the Burger and Asaro study was subsequently published in the Revista del Museo Nacional (Burger and Asaro 1979).

Many years after these publications, Burger was informed by Ramiro Matos and Peter Kaulicke that they had traveled to Huancavelica in June of 1975 in order to visit the Early Horizon site of Atalla. During this trip, they had been unable to locate the obsidian source near the hamlet of Quispisisa, referred to in Petersen's (1970) and Ravines' (1971) publications and noted by Burger in his public pre­sentations in Lima. Their visit to the San Genaro area was of short duration, so

Tracking the Source of Quispisisa Type Obsidian 345

they did not consider their conclusions to be definitive. Unfortunately, by the time Burger learned of their observations, the area had become embroiled in the con­flict between Sendero Luminoso and the Peruvian government. The entire Department of Huancavelica was placed under a state of emergency and San Genaro became a dangerous destination for archaeologists and other visitors. In order to clarify the matter of the Quispisisa source, Burger, and Matos, a native of Huancavelica, planned follow-up trips to the San Genaro area on three separate occasions in the early and mid-1990s. However, they were forced to cancel each of these journeys due to unanticipated events: first the massacre of a community near San Genaro; second, the destruction of a crucial access bridge; and third, the attack on a construction project working on the road into the zone.

Finally, in 1997, four years after the capture of Sendero's leader, Abimael Guzman, the area had become less dangerous and Burger accompanied Ramiro Matos, Jeffrey Parsons and Carmen Arrellano to the Huancavelica region to visit archaeological sites, including the now suspect obsidian source area near San Genaro. The zone was still under a state of emergency and government troops ringed the towns of Castrovirreyna and San Genaro. Local people were loathe to assist outsiders whatever the purpose of their visit. Prior to this trip, Burger had located a geological map of the area drawn in 1924 for the Peruvian army's cartographic service at a 1 : 25,000 scale by mining engineer Aurelio Mesias and published in 1929 (Plano Geologico, Region de Mineria, Provincia de Castrovirreyna, Distrito de Pilpichaca). This map is color coded and includes a special shade of green for obsidian deposits. Although the hamlet of Quispisisa appears on the map, no obsidian is shown there. Nonetheless, obsidian is indi­cated as existing 7 km to the east at Quespejahuar and 9 km to the northeast at Astohuaraca (Figure 12.2). Based on this remarkably detailed map, these two spots in the San Genaro area seemed to be promising candidates for the obsidian source and they were the main goals of the 1997 visit (Figure 12.3). The group reached both locations but, surprisingly, neither locale yielded evidence of obsid­ian and the inaccuracy of the 1924 map remains puzzling. Welded tuff rather than volcanic glass characterized the Quespejahuar and Astohuaraca outcrops. Burger and his colleagues were also dismayed when, following visits to these locations, military personnel informed them that a "shoot on sight" order had been issued for any unidentified outsiders seen in these unoccupied hills.

Returning to Lima, Burger made an effort to contact Ing. Humberto Salazar, the geologist responsible for the government geological survey of the Castrovirreyna region (Salazar and Landa 1993). Salazar's fieldwork had been carried out over three decades earlier in 1964 and 1965, but it was hoped that he might recall an obsidian deposit in the area despite the absence of any reference to such a formation in the resulting monograph. Now working for a private geo­logical firm in Lima, Salazar indicated that no obsidian deposits existed in the San Genaro area. Salazar mentioned that although he had rarely encountered

346 Richard L. Burger and Michael D. Glascock

Figure 12.3. Photograph of Quispejahuar, Huancavelica. Photograph by Richard L. Burger.

obsidian during his long career in the field, he did recall a thick (approximately 80 cm) layer of obsidian in the Laguna Orcococha area (Salazar, personal com­munication, 1997). However, Salazar located the obsidian outcrop to the south rather than to the north of the Laguna, and he pinpointed the area of Sorapata. This lead seemed particularly promising because of the geological expertise of Ing. Salazar, so another trip to the San Genaro was scheduled for July of 1998. Unfortunately, this trip proved difficult despite the continued improvement in the political situation. Driving up the dirt road bordering the Pisco River, it was noted that the route was no longer being maintained and, mid-way up the valley, the vehicle was damaged and unable to continue. The trip was aborted and resched­uled for later in the year. By this time, it had become clear that the best route to Laguna Orcococha was up the newly paved road to Ayacucho, turning north at Rumichaka onto the dirt road to Castrovirreyna.

Burger, accompanied by archaeologists Jose Pinilla and Bernadino Ojeda, successfully returned to the San Genaro area in December, 1998. From the south­ern edge of the Laguna Orcococha, they walked south until reaching the Laguna Azulcocha, where a herder told them in Quechua that stone like the obsidian they showed her could be found on the slopes to the west of Sorapata. After walking for several hours, an obsidian outcrop was located at Cerro Yanarangra (5049 m asl), roughly 8 km south of San Genaro. However, the obsidian at the outcrop was heavily brachiated (i.e., cracked) and in some places, it was not fully vitreous. There were mineral inclusions, mainly feldspar, within the samples (Jay Ague,

Tracking the Source of Quispisisa Type Obsidian 347

personal communication) and it was difficult to imagine that this low quality deposit could be the source of the high quality obsidian used in artifacts through­out Peruvian prehistory. Subsequent NAA analysis at MURR (Research Reactor of the University of Missouri) by Michael Glascock demonstrated that the chem­ical composition of the source samples collected at Yanarangra did not match that of the Quispisisa Type obsidian artifacts.

Adjacent to the Yanarangra obsidian deposit was a rockshelter with evidence of prehistoric occupation. Among the remains was an obsidian projectile point (Figure 12.4). In contrast to the degraded obsidian eroding from the nearby geo­logical formation, the volcanic glass used for the point lacked cracking and inclu­sions. Analysis of this biface at MURR showed that its composition was distinct from that of the obsidian in the adjacent deposit and that its trace element chemistry matched that of the chemical type dubbed as Quispisisa by Burger and Asaro (1977, 1979). Apparently. even the prehistoric hunters of the Laguna

I I I • 0 5 I I

em (Il) (b)

Figure 12.4 Il, b. Photograph and drawing of obsidian projectile point fragment found at Yanarangra. south of Laguna Orcococha. Huancavelica. Drawing by Sergio Chavez. Photograph by William Sacco.

348 Richard L. Burger and Michael D. Glascock

Choclococha area were obtaining raw material for their fine lithics from a non­local source. Based on these findings, Burger decided that the search for the obsidian source area should consider regions outside of the San Genaro area of Huancavelica.

THE AYACUCHO ALTERNATIVE

During the unsuccessful efforts to find the Quispisisa obsidian source in Huancavelica, colleagues sometimes offered alternative possibilities based on observations made while they were involved in other field projects. Victor Falcon, an archaeologist working for the Instituto Nacional de Cultura, recalled seeing deposits of eroded obsidian, possibly of geological origin, in the area of Huanca Sancos in central Ayacucho. When queried, William H. Isbell (SUNY­Binghamton), remembered similar deposits across the river from Huanca Sancos.

Based on this information, Burger and Jose Pinilla traveled to the city of Ayacucho in April of 1999, with the hope of collecting additional information on the source's location, after which they planned to travel south to the Huanca Sancos area. While in Ayacucho, Burger and Pinilla were introduced by archae­ologist Jose Ochatoma (Universidad Nacional San Cristobal de Huamanga) to mining engineer, BIas Cardenas, and topographer, Teodoro de la Cruz. Cardenas and de la Cruz independently confirmed that obsidian deposits did exist in the Huanca Sancos area, but offered different accounts about whether they were located closer to Huanca Sancos or to Sacsamarca, the neighboring village to the south (Figure 12.1). BIas Cardenas placed the source 8 km northwest of Huanca Sancos near Intihuatana, while de la Cruz located it 6 km southeast of Sacsamarca on the opposing bank of Rio Caracha (Figure 12.5). Their descrip­tions of large nodules of wine red obsidian, as well as black and streaked obsidian, reinforced confidence that the Quispisisa Source was located in this area. Unfortunately, the prolonged rains in April made travel from Ayacucho to Huanca Sancos impossible. The trip to the reputed source area was therefore postponed until July.

Finally, in early July of 1999, Burger, accompanied by Bernadino Ojeda and chemist Guillermo Garda, travelled into the Department of Ayacucho from the coast via Palpa and Nazca. This route runs through the Pampas Galeras nature preserve, where vicunas can be seen running across the puna. At the village of Pedregal, they turned north onto a poorly maintained dirt road which leads to Sacsamarca and Huanca Sancos. Due to darkness and cold, it was decided to spend the night at Putajcasa (also Putaccasa on some maps), a town to the south of Sacsamarca. By coincidence, Justo Palomino Bautista, the owner of the restau­rant in which the group stayed, was a native of Sacsamarca and he immediately recognized the obsidian samples shown to him. He indicated that a deposit of

Tracking the Source of Quispisisa Type Obsidian

564000 568000

o 2 3 4 5km @ Provincial Capllal

• District Capital

• Village

349

8452000

8440000

• Put.aJau

584000 588000

A Outcrop of QUISPISlsa Source ObsIdian

t::. Unconf,rmed ObsIdIan Deposit

Above 4000 m

Figure 12.S. Detailed map showing the location of the obsidian outcrop in the District of Sacscamarca, Province of Huanca Sancos, Department of Ayacucho referred to as the Quispisisa Source. Drawing by Rosemary Volpe.

350 Richard L. Burger and Michael D. Glascock

Figure 12.6. Large obsidian nodules collected at the Quispisisa Source near Cerro Hatunrangra and transported to Chuecopampa for export to the coast. Photograph by Richard L. Burger.

obsidian was located in an area where he herded his animals and he offered to take Burger and his colleagues to the obsidian deposit the next day. He indicated that the source area he was familiar with was located to the south rather than the north of Sacsamarca, and was only a short walk from the road (Figure 12.5).

On July 5, 1999, the group set out for the source. Following Palomino's instructions, the car was left at a nondescript point known as Chuecopampa (4050 m asl), near two large piles of obsidian nodules. The larger of these piles mea­sured 8 X 4 m and contained several tons of volcanic glass (Figure 12.6). According to Palomino, this obsidian had been brought by burro from the source to this staging area for eventual transport and sale in Lima. The pile had remained there for many years because of the disruption of commerce due to the political instability. During the ensuing 135-minute trek across 5 km of open pastureland and incised ravines, obsidian flakes and production debris were observed along the route, as though ancient travelers had occasionally dropped pieces on their

Tracking the Source of Quispisisa Type Obsidian 351

way back from the source or stopped to produce preforms in the open puna (Figure 12.7). As one approaches the source, a flat-topped volcanic hill, known as Cerro Jenchaj dominates the landscape (Figure 12.8).

Eventually, the group arrived at a bluff overlooking the Rio Urabamba, an affluent of Rio Caracha, located some 250 m below (Figure 12.9). The bluff consists of a thick layer of vesicular rhyolite which formed as a massive prong­like deposit; it has eroded in a sharp vertical manner (Figure 12.10). This spot appears on the Carta Geognifica as Cerro Hatunrangra; hatun was translated by Gonzalez Holguin (1989[1608]: 154) as "10 mayor 0 mejor 0 superior, mas prin­cipal 0 mas conocido," and rangra refers to an area of rocks and stone where nothing will grow (Ramiro Matos, personal communication). Palomino and other local residents refer to the zone of the outcrop as Queshqa rather than Hatunrangra; queshqa means glass or other reflective material in the Quechua of Ayacucho. Descending the steep eroded slope towards the river, the group soon reached a massive exposure of obsidian which underlays the vesicular rhyolite. The obsidian deposit eroded in a more gradual manner than the rhyolite and con­sequently the slope changes at its onset. Rapid inspection revealed that the obsid­ian deposit is at least 30 m thick (i.e., roughly from 3780-3750 m asl). It seems to cover the entire side of the mountain slope.

1111 1111, II I

Figure 12.7. Obsidian artifacts encountered in the puna grasslands near the Quispisisa Source. Photograph by William Sacco.

352 Richard L. Burger and Michael D. Glascock

Figure 12.8. Cerro Jenchaj dominates the puna environment adjacent to the Quispisisa Source. Photograph by Richard L. Burger.

Figure 12.9. The Rio Urabamba, a tributary of the Rio Caracha, is visible from the obsidian outcrop. Photograph by Richard L. Burger.

Tracking the Source of Quispisisa Type Obsidian 353

Figure 12.10. The two figures stand on the Quispisisa obsidian deposit; the overlying prong-like bluffs of vesicular rhyolite can be seen in the background. Photograph by Richard L. Burger.

According to Yale University geologist Jay Ague (personal communication), the deposit displays horizontal flow banding which is due to the alternation of long continuous layers of fine grained crystals of feldspar and quartz which formed within the more dominant layers of volcanic glass (Figure 12.11). The sil­ica glass consists of tiny to large nodules interspersed with residues of volcanic ash. The entire deposit seems to be the product of a broad lava flow, and there is some indication that there may actually be stacking of multiple lava flows which, if they were the product of the same magma chamber, probably would have had very similar trace element compositions. Some of the banded layers are more indurate (i.e., resistant to weathering) and they consequently stick out from the slope (Jay Ague, personal communication). In our reconnaissance of the source area, the group encountered large unworked obsidian nodules in situ, as well as smaller nodules; the larger ones measure up to 33 cm on a side. Apparently, the nodules transported to Chuecopampa had been selected from the more variably sized nodules found at the source area itself.

At the present time, the ground is carpeted with both worked and unworked obsidian. There are patches where preforms for points and scrapers are present, although workshop debris is not plentiful. There are also stone cobbles brought from the river below. These show evidence of battering as if they had been used as hammerstones, perhaps in the production of preforms.

Throughout the outcrop area, the quality of obsidian is excellent. Flaws like those found in the obsidian at Yanarangra near Laguna Orcococha are absent.

354 Richard L. Burger and Michael D. Glascock

Figure 12.11. In the foreground is the horizontally banded deposit containing obsidian nodules and fine grained crystals of feldspar and quartz. Photograph by Richard L. Burger.

The obsidian displayed a variety of visual characteristics including black, red, mottled and streaked. JUdging from its appearance, this exposure at Hatunrangra or Queshqa appeared to be the source of the Quispisisa Type obsidian. However, its location in the Sacsamarca area of central Ayacucho was 110 krn southeast of San Genaro in Huancavelica (Figure 12.1). Before leaving the obsidian source, Burger collected in situ samples of unworked obsidian from different layers of the deposit for analysis at MURR to see whether their trace element composition matched that of the obsidian artifacts analyzed from central and northern Peru.

The match was positive and unambiguous. The results of the specimens tested suggest no significant chemical variability at this outcrop regardless of the layer from which the sample was taken. A summary of the analytical technique utilized and the positive results is presented in the next section. To minimize con­fusion, the authors have decided to refer to this obsidian deposit as the Quispisisa Source, with the stipulation that it is located in central Ayacucho and that its orig­inal identification in Huancavelica was mistaken.

The Quispisisa Source can now be located within the Province of Huanca Sancos, Department of Ayacucho (Figure 12.5). The geographic coordinates of the sampled outcrop near Hatunrangra are 74°19'W, 14°3'47"S. The source is roughly midway between the modem urban centers of Ayacucho and Puquio. Situated within the puna production zone at 3780 m as!, it is bordered by the Rio Urabamba, a tributary of the Rio Caracha (or Qaracha) which, in

Tracking the Source of Quispisisa Type Obsidian 355

turn, drains into the Rio Pampas. The obsidian outcrop lies just to the north of where the Quebrada Tomayoccuaijo drains into the Urabamba. The closest settlements to it are Putajasa, which is 13 km to the southeast, Sacsamarca located at 15 km to the northeast, and Huanca Sancos, which is situated 19 km to the northeast.

One of the few discussions of the geology of the area in which the obsidian source is located occurs in the monograph Geologia de los Cuandrangulos Laramate y Santa Ana (Castillo et al. 1993). The obsidian outcrop is not explic­itly mentioned, but the tectonic history of the area is summarized. According to Castillo and his colleagues, the stratum containing obsidian is part of the Grupo Barroso (TQ-ba), which they believe was probably deposited during the end of the Upper Pliocene or the beginning of the Pleistocene (Castillo et al. 1993: 12). The Grupo Barroso was first defined by J. Wilson (1962), and it was subsequently subdivided into three sequential units by S. Mendivil (1965). Castillo et al. argue that the obsidian source area belongs to the middle of these units, known as the Volcanico Barroso. Eighty-five percent of the deposits are lava flows, while the remainder are brechias and volcanic agglomerates (Castillo et al. 1993: 50). These deposits covered a broad area of the high puna in this region, mostly above 4000 m asl. The dating of the formation was inferred from the observation that the Grupo Barroso has been found overlying both middle and upper Pliocene deposits (known as the Formaci6n Sencca and Formaci6n Matapuquio, respec­tively). Bracketing the deposit from above are Pleistocene moraines, one of which yielded a K-Ar measurement of 0.7±0.2 my a (Asociaci6n LAGESA C.F.G.S. 1996: 64); thus, the obsidian must have been formed before this time.

It is interesting that deposits of the Grupo Barroso have also been docu­mented in the areas surrounding Sacsamarca and Huanca Sancos (Asociaci6n LAGESA-C.F.G.S. 1996: Hoja 28-ii), so the possibility of additional outcrops of Quispisisa obsidian such as those referred to by BIas Cardenas and Teodoro de la Cruz are consistent with what is known of the local geological history. Moreover, the geological map of the area indicates lava flows running north into the Sacasamarca and Huanca Sancos area from Cerro Jenchaj and the adjacent obsid­ian source. In the satellite photographs of this area, a single volcanic flow appears to run northward from the Cerro Jenchaj area, thereby increasing the possibility that other outcrops of the same obsidian deposit may have occurred near Sacsamarca and Huanca Sancos. Archaeologist Lucia Medina de la Cruz has reported that the site of Saycala, located near the town of Huanca Sancos, was placed on top of an obsidian outcrop and that this prehispanic architectural com­plex is associated with abundant lithic debris, suggesting the presence of obsidian workshops (Lucia Medina de la Cruz, personal communication May 4, 2000). In reviewing the geological maps and satellite photograph of the area, geologist Jay Ague suggested that the source of the lava flows could be a massive caldera which may have existed immediately to the south of the obsidian source. The

356 Richard L. Burger and Michael D. Glascock

diameter of this caldera would have been roughly 30 kIn. Ague's interpretation would help to explain the circular configuration visible in the topography, the direction the rivers flow (e.g., the northward flow of the Urabamba), the patterning of the lava flows, and several other anomalous features. Although intriguing, this hypothesis has yet to be tested by field investigation.

NEUTRON ACTIVATION ANALYSIS OF OBSIDIAN SAMPLES AT MURR

Sample Preparation

The source specimens in this study were prepared for neutron activation analysis by first cleaning the surfaces of the stones using tap water and a stiff brush. The cleaned stones were then crushed between tool-steel plates in order to extract a large number of clean interior fragments or chips between 10-25 mg in size. The individual fragments were sorted under a magnifying glass to remove those with inclusions, crush fractures, or metallic streaks. Analytical samples were prepared for two the separate irradiations procedures employed at MURR by weighing them into the polyethylene vials and quartz vials used for short and long irradia­tions, respectively. For the short irradiations, a 100 mg aliquot of fragments was used, and for long irradiations, a 250 mg aliquot of fragments was used. In both instances, sample weights were recorded to the nearest 0.01 mg. Along with the source samples, reference standards were similarly prepared from SRM-278 Obsidian Rock and SRM-1633a Fly Ash.

Irradiation and Measurement

Neutron activation analysis of obsidian artifacts at MURR, involves one or two irradiations followed by one or three measurements, respectively, to measure between 6 and 27 elements. The first procedure employs a short irradiation in sequential fashion of the samples in polyethylene vials for five seconds in a neu­tron flux of 8 X 1013 n cm-2 s-1 followed by a 25-minute decay and 12-minute count with a high-purity germanium (HPGe) detector. By measuring the emitted radioactive gamma rays and comparison to the standards, the concentrations of up to six elements (i.e., Ba, CI, Dy, K, Mn and Na) can be determined. This short irradiation procedure at MURR is frequently called our abbreviated-NAA proce­dure and is often sufficient to determine sources for a large percentage of artifacts in some regions (see Glascock et al. 1994 for more information).

The second procedure involves a long irradiation of the quartz vials in batches of approximately 30 unknowns along with standard reference materials

Tracking the Source of Quispisisa Type Obsidian 357

for 70 hours in a neutron flux of 5 X 1013 n cm-2 s-1 which is followed by a pair of measurements. The first count after long irradiation occurs one week after the end of irradiation for 2000 seconds and the second count takes place about four weeks later for three hours on each sample and standard. The long irradiation procedure enables measurement of seven elements during a first count: Ba, La, Lu, Nd, Sm, U, and Yb; and fifteen additional elements during the second count: Ce, Co, Cs, Eu, Fe, Hf, Rb, Sb, Sc, Sr, Ta, Tb, Th, Zn and Zr.

Results

The NAA data on the fifteen source samples from the Cerro Hatunrangra near Sacsamarca are shown in Table 12.1. Table 12.2 compares the means and stan­dard deviations of the fifteen source samples with thirty obsidian artifacts previ­ously assigned to Quispisisa and confirm that the two groups are chemically identical. Bivariate plots of Mn vs Na and Cs vs Hf presented in Figures 12.12 and 12.13 show the Quispisisa Source relative to other obsidian sources in Peru, and from the lowgrade obsidian deposit at Yanarangra.

ctl Z

~~--~--~----~--~----~---r----~--~--~--~

10

N

"! N

Andahuaylas type B

@yanaranga v~

'IV

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•

~~--~--~----~--~----~--~--~~--~--~--~ ~ 300 350 400 450 500 550 600 650 700 750 800

Mn (ppm)

Figure 12.12. Bivariate plot of Mn versus Na for obsidian sources located in southern Peru with 95% confidence ellipses surrounding each source group.

358 Richard L. Burger and Michael D. Glascock

Jampatilla

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~ • E

a.. a.. - . ..... I Puzolana

~ , ,eh;"., • Alca

Yanaranga 10 ~

I () ..; Andahuaylas type A

QUiSPiSisa' N ..;

co N2 4 6 8 10 12 14

Cs (ppm)

Figure 12.13. Bivariate plot of Cs versus Hf for obsidian sources located in southern Peru with 95% confidence ellipses surrounding each source group.

Table 12.1. Artifacts from Quispisisa Previously Analyzed at MURR. Full NAA only. Type of Statistics: Arithmetic

Element Mean St. Dev. % St. Dev. No.Obs. Minimum Maximum

BA 735.120 23.275 3.166 30 699.900 806.700 LA 27.773 0.651 2.343 30 26.762 29.565 LV 0.250 0.052 20.672 30 0.151 0.304 ND 18.089 3.386 18.719 29 14.230 29.310 SM 3.375 0.107 3.177 30 3.167 3.550 V 11.643 0.970 8.327 30 9.779 13.146 YB 1.171 0.098 8.350 30 1.039 1.519 CE 50.533 1.206 2.386 30 48.518 53.701 CO 0.489 0.043 8.826 30 0.451 0.654 CS 11.025 0.198 1.793 30 10.659 11.408 EV 0.430 0.024 5.473 30 0.376 0.523 FE 5615.667 111.149 1.979 30 5454.000 5994.600 HF 3.265 0.068 2.075 30 3.171 3.388 RB 175.797 2.648 1.506 30 172.200 182.200 SB 1.410 0.059 4.161 30 1.312 1.526 SC 1.352 0.020 1.481 30 1.304 1.398 SR 158.431 23.472 14.815 30 130.000 222.700 TA 1.173 0.027 2.272 30 1.135 1.250

Tracking the Source of Quispisisa Type Obsidian 359

Table 12.1. Continued

Element Mean St. Dey. % St. Dey. No.Obs. Minimum Maximum

TB 0.280 0.021 7.465 30 0.250 0.358 TH 19.395 0.326 1.670 30 18.701 20.051 ZN 40.069 7.995 19.954 30 28.660 74.200 ZR 169.476 18.212 10.746 30 137.140 214.910 CL 411.863 102.842 24.970 30 302.200 757.700 DY 1.581 0.295 18.647 30 0.964 2.224 K 37037.193 2127.929 5.745 30 33434.400 42181.400 MN 363.011 16.226 4.470 30 329.100 402.400 NA 28434.733 123 1.559 4.331 30 26262.700 31303.800

ANIDs of specimens included: RLBOO7 RLBOO8 RLBOO9 RLBOIO RLBOll RLBOl2 RLB013 RLBOl4 RLB015 RLBOl6 RLBOl7 RLBOl8 RLBOl9 RLB022 RLB023 RLB025 RLB026 RLB027 RLB028 RLB029 RLB030 RLB031 RLB032 RLB033

RLB034 RLB035 RLB0.16 RLB0.17 RLB038 RLB077

Table 12.2. New Source Samples from Sacsamarca (Quispisisa). Full NAA only. Type of Statistics: Arithmetic

Element Mean St. Dey. % St. Dey. No.Obs. Minimum Maximum

BA LA 719.307 12.344 1.716 15 695.300 734.400 LV 25.992 0.205 0.789 15 25.574 26.311 ND 0.178 0.034 19.017 15 0.157 0.295 SM 16.771 1.301 7.759 15 15.084 19.172 V 3.287 0.022 0.684 15 3.244 3.317 YB 10.070 0.212 2.108 15 9.809 10.466 CE 1.107 0.041 3.729 15 1.050 1.172 CO 47.954 0.536 1.118 15 47.046 48.721 CS 0.467 0.009 1.990 15 0.449 0.480 EV 10.967 0.099 0.907 15 10.776 11.105 FE 0.418 0.009 2.213 15 0.400 0.435 HF 5626.033 57.837 1.028 15 5534.900 5722.800 RB 3.249 0.036 1.107 15 3.184 3.310 SB 174.691 1.623 0.929 15 172.250 177.490 SC 1.294 0.025 1.934 15 1.252 1.340 SR 1.362 0.014 1.028 15 1.343 1.381 TA 162.981 15.419 6.460 15 133.030 193.170 TB 1.173 0.013 1.148 15 1.154 1.196 TH 0.279 0.013 4.732 15 0.260 0.304 ZN 19.487 0.169 0.866 15 19.214 19.756 ZR 33.148 1.074 3.241 15 31.560 35.420 CL 153.057 8.540 5.580 15 140.920 175.210 DY 362.647 43.612 12.026 15 280.400 443.800 K 1.551 0.320 20.601 15 0.975 2.337

360 Richard L. Burger and Michael D. Glascock

Table 12.2. Continued

Element Mean St. Dev. % St. Dev. No.Obs. Minimum Maximum

MN 39475.387 1898.700 4.810 15 36146.300 42198.900 NA 365.607 3.380 0.925 15 359.700 369.950

28355.947 238.024 0.839 15 27934.300 28667.800

ANIOs of specimens included: QPIOOI QP1OO2 QP1OO3 QPI004 QPlOO5 QP2001 QP2002 QP2003

QP2004 QP2005 QP3001 QP3002 QP3003 QP3004 QP3005

DISCUSSION

The determination that the Quispisisa Source is located near Sacsamarca in cen­tral Ayacucho rather than near San Genaro in Huancavelica has some important implications, above and beyond rectifying a serious mistake in the archaeological literature. The position of the Quispisisa Source in the highland region above the Nazca drainage suggests that this watershed would have served as the most direct route to the coast. The location of the Quispisisa Source helps to explain why obsidian artifacts are common in the high grasslands above Nazca that make up the Pampas Galeras Reserve. Not surprisingly, artifacts collected from the surface of the Pampas Galeras Reserve (N = 5) and tested at LBL proved to be from the Quispisisa Source (Burger and Asaro 1978: 82, Table 12.3). The stimulus pro­vided by highland-coastal movement of obsidian probably had an impact on the developments in Nazca. On the other hand, the assumption that the Pisco Valley possessed a favored position as a trade route due to its easy access to the obsidian deposits in the San Genaro area is no longer justified. Moreover, the idea that the Huancavelica area had a unique concentration of rare and highly valued raw materials (i.e., both obsidian and cinnabar) must now be tempered on the basis of the new information.

Although the confusion concerning the source of Quispisisa Type obsidian renders obsolete some earlier interpretations of prehistoric obsidian distribution, many of the hypotheses concerning Central Andean obsidian procurement and exchange remain valid despite changes in specific details. For example, it had been suggested that part of the popularity of the Quispisisa Source in what is now central and northern Peru was due to its location to the north of other obsidian sources. Since the original LBL study, the other two major Central Andean sources have been identified in the Department of Arequipa; one is located at Aka near Cotahuasi (Burger et al. 1998a) and the other near Chivay in the Coka Valley (Burger et al 1998b). As predicted, these sources are situated far to the south of the newly located Quispisisa Source, 220 km and 350 km, respectively (Figure 12.1). Much more time would have been required to transport obsidian to

Tracking the Source of Quispisisa Type Obsidian 361

Table 12.3. Analysis of Obsidian from the Excavations of the Ayacucho Archaeological-Botanical Project

Elevation

Sites sampled (masl) Ecozone

Ac1O! (Pikimachay) 2850 Thorn forest scrub

Ac102 (Iyamachay) 3000 Thorn forest scrub

Acl58 (Puente Cave) 2582 Thorn forest riverine

Ac300 (Ruyu Rummi) 4032 Puna

Ac335 (Jaywamachay) 3350 Humid woodlands

Ac351 (Tukumachay) 4350 Puna

Ac500 (Chupas Cave) 3496 Humid woodlands

Obsidian source

Site Zone Phase Estimated dates Quispisisa Puzolana

AclOO f-2 Jaywa 6900 :+:300 BC

Ac102 VIII Puente 7250 :+:350 BC I VII Piki 5610:+: 150 BC 2

VI Chihua 3600 - 3000 BC 3

Acl58 XIII Jaywa 6950:+: 150 BC

XII Jaywa 6500 :+:200 BC

XI Jaywa 5900:+: 150 BC 2

IX Piki 5250 :+:200 BC

VIII Piki 521O:+: 125 BC

VII Piki 4900:+: 150 BC 2 VI Piki 4720:+: 120 BC

V Piki 4700:+:200 BC

1H Chihua 4000:+: 120 BC Ac300 C-north Chihua 3400-2700 BC 6

C-south Chihua 3400--2700 BC 4

Ac335 M-N Puente 9000-8400 BC I K Puente 9000-8400 BC 3 J-2 Puente 8300-7500 BC 3

Puente 7500-7100 BC 2 H Puente 7500-7100 BC 2

G Jaywa 7100-6300 BC 2 F Jaywa 7100-6300 BC 5 E Jaywa 7100-6300 BC I D Jaywa 7100--6300 BC 5

C Jaywa 7100-6300 BC 4

Ac351 C-2 Cachi 2450:+:250 BC 2

C-l Cachi 1950-1600BC 1

Ac500 F Piki Approx. 5400 BC 2

E Piki 4710-4610 BC 1 D-I Cachi Approx. 2950 BC 2

362 Richard L. Burger and Michael D. Glascock

the central highlands or coast if either the Aka Source or Chivay Source had been exploited rather than the Quispisisa Source. Moreover, trade routes utilizing the Pampas and Mantaro drainages in the highlands and the Nazca drainage to the coast were well suited to distribute the raw material. Thus, the sphere of obsidian exchange focused around the Quispisisa Source makes as much sense geograph­ically with the new Sacsamarca location as it did with the mistaken San Genaro placement.

Similarly, the original conclusion that Quispisisa Source obsidian was being transported long distances in prehistoric times remains valid although the precise routes and distances proposed in early publications were mistaken. The acquisi­tion of this obsidian by the early inhabitants of Pikimachay, Jaywamachay, Tukumachay and other sites in the Ayacucho Basin studied by MacNeish and his colleagues remains impressive even with the new location of the Quispisisa Source. While it was originally thought that this obsidian was brought to the Ayacucho Basin from near San Genaro, Huancave1ica 100 km to the west, it now has been shown that it was actually brought from the source area near Sacsamarca, Ayacucho 100 km to the south. Thus, although the direction of the transport is different than originally believed, the distance, time and effort involved is not sig­nificantly different. In the original LBL study, 66 Preceramic obsidian artifacts were analyzed. Since their publication (Burger and Asaro 1977, 1978), the phas­ing and estimated dates of many of the "zones" have been modified (MacNeish et al. 1981, 1983), and an updated chart of the sourcing results is provided in Table 12.3. Eighty-eight percent of the total obsidian analyzed of the artifacts were made from the Quispisisa Source obsidian. As shown in our original study (Burger and Asaro 1977, 1978), Quispisisa obsidian was already the dominant source utilized at during the Puente Phase (estimated by MacNeish as spanning 9000-7100 BC) at Jaywamachay and at Iyamachay (MacNeish et al. 1981: 219-220). In fact, 100% of the Puente Phase artifacts analyzed (N = 12) came from the Quispisisa Source area. This preeminence of Quispisisa Source obsidian at the Ayacucho sites apparently continued throughout the Precerarnic, constitut­ing 91 % of our Jaywa Phase sample (N = 22), 92% of our Piki Phase sample (N = 12), 79% of our Chihua Phase sample (N = 14), and 66% of our small Cachi Phase sample (N = 6). The long-distance movement of obsidian from the Quispisisa Source area during Preceramic times reached high altitude cave sites in Junin, such as Ushkumachay and, apparently, Telarmachay (Burger and Asaro 1998) and, by the mid-Preceramic, was even being acquired by the early inhabi­tants of Paloma, an early village site on Peru's central coast (Robert Benfer, per­sonal communication). While the distances involved in this transport were considerable, the quantity of obsidian involved was small.

One of the largest expansions in the procurement of Quispisisa obsidian occurred during the Chavin Horizon during which time the volcanic glass became the main lithic material at Chavin de Hucintar and its distribution reached as far

Tracking the Source of Quispisisa Type Obsidian 363

as the northern Early Horizon center of Pacopampa. Based on a study of a large sample of obsidian artifacts from the settlement of Chavfn de Hmintar, it was argued that by the Chakinani Phase, local raw materials had been replaced by vol­canic glass being brought from 470 air km to the south (Burger, Asaro and Michel 1984). Based on the new evidence, the obsidian was actually being imported from the source 580 km to the south. The distance is greater than realized, but the dif­ference is in degree rather than kind. If one utilizes the estimate by anthropolo­gist Jorge Flores Ochoa (1968) of 15 km per day as the distance covered by a llama caravan, then the journey from the obsidian source to Chavfn de Huantar would have taken about week longer than previously realized-38 days rather than 31 days. Alternatively, if the obsidian was being acquired by multiple "down the line" exchanges, it would have probably involved a larger number of interac­tions than originally imagined. In either case, the change in thinking required by the new location of the Quispisisa Source is not a radical one.

The new evidence for the location of the Quispisisa Source also has impli­cations for understanding the relation between the major and minor obsidian sources utilized in the Central Andes. In several cases, one of the three major sources (Quispisisa, Aka, and Chivay) was utilized more heavily at a given site than a more locally available obsidian source, thereby contradicting expectations that distribution is largely a function of proximity. A good example of this has been documented for the Carahuarazo Valley where the locally available Jampatilla Source obsidian was slightly less common than obsidian from the Quispisisa Source (Burger et al. 1998c: Table 12.3). Although the new source location for the Quispisisa Type is closer to the Carahuarazo Valley than previ­ously thought, the puzzle remains-why go 45 km through rugged highland topography to get obsidian from the Quispisisa Source near Sacsamarca when high quality obsidian is available at a distance of only 10 km or less at Jampatilla? It has been suggested that the reason could be related to the differing nature of obsidian deposits (Burger et al. 1998c: 229). At Jampatilla, Schreiber observed only small nodules, none larger than 10-12 cm and it was hypothesized that, like other major sources, the Quispisisa Source might feature large blocks or nodules of high quality obsidian. The recent discovery of the Quispisisa Source seems to confirm this hypothesis since nodules at the source often measured 30 cm on a side; the volume of these nodules was much larger than those from Jampatilla and would have been suitable for a wider range of production processes than those possible using the small nodules available nearby. Apparently as a consequence of this, the prehistoric peoples of the Carahuarazo Valley were willing to make an additional effort to obtain material from the more distant obsidian source.

A similar pattern existed in the Ayacucho Basin (Burger and Glascock 2000) during the Preceramic and later periods. Tile Quispisisa Source area was the predominant supplier of obsidian to Ayacucho despite a geological deposit in the Ayacucho Basin which includes obsidian nodules. These nodules, with their

364 Richard L. Burger and Michael D. Glascock

distinctive chemical signature, originally referred to as the Ayacucho Type, could be found much closer to MacNeish's early Ayacucho sites than the Quispisisa Source area; but they had the disadvantage of occurring only as small nodules, generally, less than 3-4 cm on a side. Moreover, they were relatively uncommon in the geological stratum, thus requiring more effort to collect. The inhabitants of the Basin rarely used this source and preferred instead to make the long trip to the Quispisisa Source. This pattern apparently continued throughout the Ayacucho sequence, and by the Middle Horizon, Quispisisa had completely displaced the local Puzolana Source as the preferred volcanic glass. In fact, no Puzolana was encountered in the sample analyzed from the Middle Horizon urban center of Huari (N = 52).

How the exploitation of the Quispisisa Source was organized during differ­ent periods of Andean prehistory and how these changing patterns of production helped to shape the trajectory of local societies remains to be determined. It should provide a productive basis for future projects by other investigators. An investigation of the entire Quispisisa Source area is urgently needed. As noted, the accounts of archaeologists and miners suggest that the outcrop visited at Cerro Hatunrangra is merely one of several exposures of the volcanic glass and that outcrops exist to the north along the Urabamba River and the Caracha River into which it drains, and that deposits have been observed near the towns of Sacsamarca and Huanca Sancos. If these outcrops are confirmed by future inves­tigation, the source area extends over an area of 30 sq km or more and involves multiple discrete quarry areas. Such a situation would not be unusual. A recent detailed study of obsidian exploitation at the Alca Obsidian Source in the Cotahuasi Valley of central Arequipa by Justin Jennings (n.d.) documented 16 discrete outcrops of obsidian across an area of 50 sq km; five quarries were iden­tified. All of this obsidian was from the same parent magma and showed little chemical variability. Similarly, large source areas with multiple quarries have been described for Mesomerica (Braswell and Glascock 1998; Darras 1999).

A knowledge of the physical patterning of quarry activities is crucial for interpreting obsidian exploitation and its organization. If the Quispisisa Source extends over a large area, as it now appears, it would have been difficult to con­trol access to it and, by extension, maintain a monopoly over its exploitation. For example, it would not have been practical for a coercive government authority to dominate the extraction of Quispisisa obsidian the way the Incas controlled the mining of gold deposits at the mouth of mining tunnels into particularly rich deposits (Sancho de la Hoz 1968[1534], ch. XVIII, p. 332). If overarching gov­ernmental authority were to be exercised over obsidian exploitation, it would be most feasible to do so through constraints on the distribution of this bulky raw material along natural routes of transportation, particularly at the finite number of low passes that connect the intermontane valleys of the Central Andes. Nevertheless, the possibility that the Huari or Inca state was directly involved in

Tracking the Source of Quispisisa Type Obsidian 365

the mining of the obsidian outcrops could be profitably investigated through a detailed study of the Quispisisa Source area.

Judging from research in Mesoamerica, patterns of exploitation probably changed over time as demand for volcanic glass fluctuated and the sociopolitical context in which it was utilized was modified. For example, a detailed study of obsidian production at the source area in the Zimiparo-Prieto region of Michoacan, Mexico, was able to demonstrate the transformation of a strategy of simple col­lection of raw material during the Preceramic and Preclassic to one of intensive exploitation including mining and specialized workshop production during the late Classic and early Postclassic; by the middle and late Postclassic, processing of the obsidian had ceased at the source area, although mining involving subter­ranean tunnels continued (Darras 1999: 61). While this complex history of obsid­ian procurement and production is a unique reflection of the socioeconomic and political changes in prehispanic Western Mexico, it is reasonable to assume that comparable shifts in the intensity and technology of exploitation will be eventu­ally be documented in the Quispisisa Source area.

As already noted, the chipping debris encountered in our explorations near Hatunrangra was limited in extent, and did not suggest extensive workshop activ­ities at the outcrop visited. The outcrop near Huanca Sancos being studied by Medina de la Cruz, however, appears to have substantially more evidence of chip­ping activity. This variability may reflect diachronic changes in Quispisisa exploitation. In a study of Marcaya, an Early Nasca (phases 2-4) village, it was demonstrated that obsidian was brought to the village from the Quispisisa Source as unprepared nodules and that obsidian artifacts were produced on the site (Vaughn and Glascock, n.d.). However, there are other cases, such as the Ocucaje 9 site of Pampa Media Luna in the Callango portion of the lea Valley, where there is no evidence for the local production of the abundant obsidian tools, presum­ably because they were manufactured elsewhere (Burger and Asaro 1979).

The patterning of source exploitation and the distribution of obsidian from the Quispisisa Source as raw material, preforms or finished tools, may have had profound implications for local cultural development in central Ayacucho. Until now, the prehistory of central Ayacucho has remained poorly known, and archae­ological work in the Department of Ayacucho has focused on the Ayacucho and Pampas areas rather than in the less heavily populated intermediate zone (Lumbreras 1974; MacNeish et a1. 1981; Schreiber 1992). The discovery reported here calls attention to the need for additional investigations in the Province of Huanca Sancos. It can be hypothesized that the presence of obsidian there would have stimulated long-distance contacts and set this portion of central Ayacucho apart from other puna zones for nine millennia.

Archaeological research in central Ayacucho has been limited in scope and primarily focused on the Caracha drainage between Huanca Sancos and the Pampas River (see Valdez and Vivanco 1994: 145-146 for a historical summary

366 Richard L. Burger and Michael D. Glascock

of research). This area is located immediately to the north of the source area. The results of these archaeological surveys do not suggest that the presence of this major obsidian source led to the development of a dense population or excep­tional wealth for those occupying this area of limited agricultural potential. During the investigations that were carried out, no villages or large settlements were located which dated prior to Middle Horizon (Valdez and Vivanco 1994: 146). Several caves and rock shelters at elevations above 3500 m asl showed occupations spanning the Preceramic and Formative (i.e., Initial PeriodlEarly Horizon). While some of these appear to have been base camps, most were used only on a seasonal or occasional basis (Vivanco 1998: 170-172). Not surpris­ingly, most tools were made of obsidian or basalt. Nonetheless, there was no indi­cation of specialized lithic production and the investigators of these sites were unaware of the proximity of the Quispisisa obsidian source. Interestingly, no evi­dence whatsoever of Early Intermediate Period occupation in this area has been registered thus far.

A proliferation of sites occurred during the Middle Horizon but they appear to be linked to maize production. None of the seven sites of this period has the char­acteristics of a Huari administrative center nor did they show evidence of special­ized lithic production (Valdez and Vivanco 1994: 146-148). The ensuing Late Intermediate Period saw the abandonment of old settlements and the establishment of 16 villages on high ridgetops along both sides of the Caracha River. Generally, these sites are fortified and their layout puts a premium on being able to defend against attack. The investigators of the sites in the Caracha, as elsewhere in the cen­tra! highlands (e.g. Gonzalez Carre 1992), have interpreted the Late Intermediate Period as a time of political instability and conflict (Valdez et al. 1990; Valdez and Vivanco 1994: 148-152; Vivanco 1998: 176-180). Inca presence in the Caracha drainage has yet to be detected, although Vilcashuaman, an important Inca admin­istrative center, is located to the northwest in the Pampas drainage.

What is most striking about the results of the archaeological research in the Caracha drainage thus far is how similar they are to those from nearby areas, such as the Chicha-Soras Valley (Meddens 1985). Indeed, these findings raise doubt about whether the presence of the Quispisisa obsidian source area in the Urabamba and upper Caracha drainage had a significant impact on its develop­mental trajectory or whether this hypothesis is incorrect. Only more intensive archaeological research to document and understand these processes will provide an answer to this question.

Acknowledgments

We are deeply grateful to those who have collaborated on the trips in search of obsidian, especially Bernadino Ojeda, Jose Pinilla, Jose Ochatoma, and Guillermo Garcia, as well as to friends and colleagues who provided unpublished

Tracking the Source of Quispisisa Type Obsidian 367

information that helped guide the project. We are also indebted to Jay Ague (Department of Geology and Geophysics, Yale University) for his insight into igneous deposits and to Ramiro Matos Mendieta (National Museum of the American Indian, Smithsonian Institution) for his encouragement and assistance. We thank Rosemary Volpe for her assistance with the maps, Bill Sacco for his photography support, Sergio Chavez for his drawing of the Yanarangra point and with the figures, and Sharon 1. M. Rodriguez for her help in preparing the manu­script. Finally, we acknowledge financial support for the fieldwork from Yale University's Provostial Research Fund and funding for the laboratory analysis from the National Science Foundation Archaeometry Program Grant (SBR-9802366) to MURR. This article is dedicated to the memory of Richard "Scotty" MacNeish.

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